65018 JAKARTA Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor The World Bank Jakarta Stock Exchange Building, Tower II, 12th Floor JAKARTA Jl, Jenderal Sudirman Kav, 52-53 Jakarta 12190 Indonesia Tel: +62-21 5299 3000 Fax: +62-21 5299 3111 www.worldbank.org/id Disclaimer: The document summarizes some, not all of the initiatives relating to climate change by the government of DKI Jakarta and other actors and stakehold- Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor ers. The analyses and data were collected by consultants and academics in consultation of the World Bank and government of DKI Jakarta agencies. The views and statements expressed do not necessarily reflect the official positions of the government of DKI Jakarta. The material presented here is to stimulate discussion and increase awareness about the many impacts of climate change on the city of Jakarta and steps to develop resilience. Photo Credits: Olivia Stinson (2011), Paavo Perttula (2010) and Kabar Media (2010) for the World Bank; Photos of Kamal Muara: Institute for Essential Services Reform, 2010. Acknowledgements Foreword The Jakarta: Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate case study was Jakarta today is a vibrant political, economic and social metropolis includes investment and analytical activities within the thematic areas conducted under the Mayors’ Task Force on Climate Change, that embodies both the benefits and challenges of globalization and of infrastructure, environmental sustainability, poverty alleviation and Disaster Risk and the Urban Poor and developed by the World Bank urbanization. Jakarta’s unprecedented growth presents significant disaster mitigation. The case study is part of the work program of in partnership with the government of DKI Jakarta. Pak Tauchid opportunities for sustainable urban development, poverty reduction the Mayors’ Task Force on Climate Change, Disaster Risk, and the Tjakra Amidjaja, Assistant to the Secretary for Development and and resilience. Still, the city faces a range of challenges across sectors Urban Poor, an important initiative that emerged from the Mayors Environment, Ibu Sarwo Handayani of BAPPEDA and her staff, and such as transportation, housing, water supply and sanitation, and solid Summit at the UNFCCC COP-15 in Copenhagen in December, Ibu Peni Susanti and the staff of BPLHD provided invaluable guidance waste management. Climate change poses additional threats, and the 2009. It brings Jakarta together with three other cities from across and information. Ibu Sjaane Ellen Kasono Nasution and Pak Marzon city is increasingly vulnerable to disasters such as flooding and other the global South – Dar es Salaam, Mexico City and Sao Paulo – to Hermansyah of BPN, and the staff of the Kotamadya land use offices extreme weather events. increase understanding of the links among climate change, disasters of Jakarta helped with data collection for the maps. and urban poverty. With a work program supported by the World DKI Jakarta is developing important policies and plans focused on Bank, the Task Force provides the opportunity for shared learning Preparation of this publication involved a team comprised of staff climate change, and is actively engaged with international urban and knowledge exchange among cities, with a particular focus on the from the World Bank office in Jakarta and the Urban and Local networks in East Asia and the Pacific, and beyond. Within the perspectives and vulnerabilities of the poor and long term planning Government Unit of the World Bank in Washington, DC. Olivia framework of Jakarta’s ongoing sustainable development, as laid for climate change resilience in the world’s mega-cities. Stinson and Marcus Lee acted as the core writing team with World out in plans such as the RTRW 2030, increased investments and Bank colleagues Iwan Gunawan, Arlan Rahman, and Micah Fisher. improved service delivery are essential for addressing obstacles to This case study examines how all the communities of Jakarta Organizational and administrative support was provided by Suriani Jakarta’s continued growth and success. In support of this agenda, are affected by climate change and natural hazards – and why. Burhan, Ummi Kaltsum and Vivian Cherian. Technical material used the World Bank, along with partners in national and other regional Jakarta: Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate provides a basis for in this study was prepared by Rudy Tambunan and Syarifah Syaukat governments and other bilateral and multilateral organizations is strengthening DKI Jakarta’s engagement on climate change and of Universitas Indonesia, and Yani Witjaksono of Bronzeoak. Useful fostering an evolving partnership with DKI Jakarta to support the disaster issues. Supporting a global understanding of these issues comments were received from peer reviewers Sri Probo Sudarmo, objective of strengthening institutions in Indonesia. This support ensures a sustainable future for all Jakarta’s citizens. Maria Catalina Ochoa, and Arish Dastur. Thanks also go to Franz Drees-Gross, Abha Joshi-Ghani, Judy Baker, and Peter Ellis for guidance and leadership. Finally, thank you to the citizens of Jakarta for sharing your lives, stories and struggles. The Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) Fauzi Bowo Stefan G. Koeberle provided the financial support that enabled this work to be Governor Country Director, Indonesia undertaken for Jakarta. Government of DKI Jakarta The World Bank ii JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate Sunset over the Jakarta skyline. iii Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor Table of Contents Acknowledgements ii Tables Foreword iii Table 1: Population Growth in DKI Jakarta 6 Executive Summary 1 Table 2: World Cities Populations 6 Introduction to the Mayors’ Task Force and this Case Study 3 Table 3: City, Regional and National Population Densities 7 Background on Jakarta, a Global Megacity 5 Table 4: Jakarta’s Vehicles 10 Climate Change Hazards and Vulnerability 11 Table 5: Area of Jakarta Affected by Flooding 12 Climate Change and the Urban Poor 19 Table 6: Rainfall during Last Two Major Flood Events 16 Actions to Address Climate and Disaster Risks 28 Table 7: Flooded Areas in 2007 by Municipality 21 Steps Towards Resilience 40 Table 8: Roles and functions of key DKI government agencies related to climate change and disaster risk management. 28 Resources 44 Table 9: Mitigation Activities in Jakarta 31 Table 10: Adaptation Programs and Projects by DKI Jakarta 33 Figures Table 11: Adaptation Actions by Communities 33 Figure 1: DKI Jakarta’s Administrative boundaries 5 Table 12: Climate Change Projects by International Organizations 34 Figure 2: Land Use Change in Jakarta: 1970 - 2000 8 Table 13: Poverty Alleviation Programs by DKI in 2010 35 Figure 3: Land Elevations in Jakarta 11 Table 14: Policies and Articles for Climate Change in the Mid- and Long-Term Spatial Plans 37 Figure 4: Jakarta Land Use and Flood in 2007 13 Figure 5: Land Subsidence and Sea Level Rise 15 Figure 6: Global Sea Level Rise 17 Boxes Figure 7: Effects of Sea Level Rise on North Jakarta in year 2050 17 Box 1. Kampung Melayu 26 Figure 8: Mean Surface Temperature Jakarta 18 Box 2. Kamal Muara 27 Figure 9: Dengue Cases in Jakarta 18 Figure 10: Slum Areas and Slum Area with Flood Map overlay 20 Figure 11: Percentage of Unregistered Parcels by kelurahan 22 Figure 12: Spatial Land Patterns Plan map in the RTRW 2030 plan for DKI Jakarta. 36 iv JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate v Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor Executive Summary Strong and sustained growth in Jakarta’s population and economy have resulted in a vast increase in the urbanized area, and concomitant land use change. Between 1980 and 2002, almost one-quarter of the land area of DKI Jakarta was converted from non-urban uses (e.g. agriculture, wetlands) to urban uses for industry, commerce and housing. Undeveloped space in greater Jakarta fell by 60% between 1992 and 2005. Urban sprawl into surrounding provinces has been accompanied by increased density in the urban core, characterized by high-rise buildings and mixed use developments. Growth in the metropolitan area has also raised issues of jurisdictional coordination with surrounding provinces. Jakarta’s rapid growth and urbanization have given rise to large-scaleinfrastructureproblemsthatare acknowledged and analyzed by the DKI government, and experienced regularly and directly by public. These include urban sprawl, massive traffic congestion, informal settlements, widespread flooding, lack of clean water and solid waste management services, and land subsidence. Land subsidence, caused by high rates of groundwater extraction, reflects the pressure that the growing population is putting on limited resources and infrastructure. Jakarta is now highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The greatest climate and disaster-related risk facing Jakarta is flooding, which imposes very high human and economic costs on the city. Forty percent of the city’s area, mostly in the north, already lies below sea level, and is thus vulnerable to tidal flooding, storm surges, and future rises in sea The Jakarta skyline from Monas. 1 levels. Both total rainfall and the intensity of rainfall events have increased, while rising global temperatures and the urban heat island Along waterways, the encroachment of physical structures and the disposal of solid waste reduces drainage capacity and contributes Introduction to the Mayors’ Task Force and this Case effect have increased average temperatures. The size of the flood- to flooding. Any sustainable solution to flooding in Jakarta will vulnerable area has grown over time, to more than one-quarter of need to address these issues with the active cooperation of local communities. Study the city. Major flood events like those in 2007 are estimated to cost the city more than USD 400 million1 from stalled traffic, property damage and lost productivity. The government of DKI Jakarta has started taking action on climate change, but much remains to be done to mainstream climate change across all sectors for the long- Jakarta’s poor are productive and integral members of the term. Most actions so far have been related to mitigation, focusing city’seconomy,andarethemostvulnerabletoflood-related The impacts of climate change and natural disasters pose risks to on transportation, solid waste management and energy efficiency risks. They are also highly resourceful and adaptive, with many cities due to the high concentration of people and economic assets, in buildings, with the Governor’s stated commitment to reduce actions taking place at the individual or community level. Jakarta has emissions by 30% by 2030. Major infrastructure investments to particularly in the hazard-prone locations of coastal and deltaic a vast informal economy that provides the unskilled labor on which reduce vulnerability include large flood canals and sea walls along the areas. Within cities, the impacts of climate change and disasters are the city’s formal economy depends. Official statistics indicate that coast. There is a great deal more to be done in terms of planning distributed unevenly among different populations – there are often 3.48 percent of Jakarta’s residents – over 312,180 people – fall below for the future and preparing for climate-related disasters within high concentrations of poor households living in locations that are the poverty line, but the total number of people living in informal communities and improving and updating government policies. more exposed to hazards such as landslides, floods and tidal surges. settlements is unknown as census of those communities has not The adaptive capacity of households and communities, in the face of been completed. Living on the coast and along waterways, they are A few basic principles can guide the way forward for disasters and changes in climate, is also uneven. Low-income urban physically vulnerable to injury and property loss, and economically addressing climate change, disaster risk and urban poverty residents have less information and fewer safety nets, limiting their vulnerable as their livelihoods and employment are mostly based in in Jakarta. First, climate change adaptation should be not so much an awareness and choices for responding to extreme weather events, these same areas. Although the homes and livelihoods of the poor additional challenge to be layered onto existing policies and planning and making them reluctant or unable to leave their homes and may be relatively fragile, well-established social networks and cultural priorities, but rather an opportunity for the DKI government and key assets even when advised to do so. Yet, poor populations have also identities of place in Jakarta run extremely deep, and are an important partners to gather their focus and priorities for the future. Given developed mechanisms and strategies to reduce their vulnerability in element of adaptive capacity. limited resources, the initial focus should be on addressing existing high-risk urban areas like Jakarta. shortfalls in infrastructure investment and basic services, particularly in drainage, piped water supply, housing, and transportation. Policies The urban poor have important roles to play in addressing At the Mayors’ Summit in Copenhagen in December 2009, World and investments should be based on improved information, including Jakarta’svulnerabilitytoclimatechangeanddisasters.With Bank President Robert Zoellick and a number of mayors welcomed quantitative data and an understanding of community-level actions relatively low incomes, the Jakarta’s poor are not large consumers of the formation of a Mayors’ Task Force on Urban Poverty and Climate and adaptive capacities. Finally, enhanced collaboration – with the energy, and contribute little to the city’s greenhouse gas emissions. administrations of neighboring provinces, as well as with the local Change. Subsequently, at the Global Dialogue for Mayors in January However, urbanization pressures have led the poor to settle informally communities as active participants and partners – is crucial to the 2010, mayors from Dar es Salaam, Jakarta, Mexico City and São Paulo, in dense, but tenuously constructed housing. success of long-term action. together with global city networks, decided on the main elements of the Task Force’s work program. As part of this work program, case 2 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate Rooftops in Kampung Melayu. 3 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor Introduction to the Mayors’ studies in the four participating cities were undertaken to better understand the links among urban poverty, climate change and Background on Jakarta, a Global Megacity disaster risk management and to share good practices in advancing climate-resilient programs to support the urban poor. The World Bank, in close consultation with the Provincial Government of the Special Capital District (DKI) of Jakarta, and other stakeholders and partners, has prepared this case study of Jakarta. Jakarta is one of the biggest cities in Southeast Asia, and also the Figure 1: DKI Jakarta’s Administrative boundaries Key DKI government agencies, such as the departments responsible capital of one of its newest democracies. The city has been an active for development planning (BAPPEDA), environment (BPLHD), and harbor area since the fourth century, and became a port city formally spatial planning (Biro Tata Ruang) discussed existing city strategies planned by the Dutch beginning in the 17th century. The province of and policies related to climate change. DKI Jakarta also hosted a DKI Jakarta is administered by a governor, and is comprised of five stakeholder consultation workshop in December 2010, to review and strengthen the findings of this case study through conversations municipalities – North, South, East, West and Central Jakarta, each with different city officials and NGOs. with their own mayor. DKI Jakarta also includes the regency of the Thousand Islands (Kepulauan Seribu), a collection of 105 small islands The approach used in this case study is based on the Urban Risk in the Java Sea (see Figure 1 for a map of Jakarta’s administrative Assessment framework developed by the World Bank2. Accordingly, it boundaries). includes an assessment of the hazards, socioeconomic vulnerabilities and institutional aspects related to climate change and disasters Jakarta proper grew at a fairly steady rate through the middle of the in Jakarta. With a focus on the urban poor, this study considers 20th century and national independence in 1945. However, beginning how poor communities are affected by climate change and natural in the early 1960s, intense growth and urbanization began and has hazards, examines approaches that have been taken to address these continued to the present, resulting in the sprawling capital that is challenges, and identifies priorities and options for further action in Jakarta today. Table 1 shows the strong increases in population that Jakarta. This study draws on a number of other existing reports and Jakarta has experienced over the past 50 years, growing at an average resources on disasters and climate change issues in Jakarta, as well as of 2.4% per year. In 1961, Jakarta’s population was 2.9 million, on interviews and discussions with government officials, local NGOs, and by 2010 there were almost 9.6 million inhabitants. During the and community leaders. workweek, the population swells to over 12 million people due to people commuting into the city each day. In terms of world cities, Case studies were undertaken to better understand Jakarta ranks 10th by population size (see Table 2). the links among urban poverty, climate change and disaster risk management and to share good practices in Jabodetabekjur has a population of more than 27 million advancing climate-resilient programs. people according to the 2010 census, making it the second largest total metropolitan area in the world. Source: DKI Jakarta. Bajaj are transportation fixtures in Jakarta, but 4 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate they are considered outmoded, loud and polluting. 5 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor They are gradually being phased out. Background on Jakarta, a Global Megacity Background on Jakarta, a Global Megacity Table 1: Population Growth in DKI Jakarta As a metropolitan region, the urban agglomeration is commonly Table 3: City, Regional and National Population Densities Year Population Increaseoverpreviousdecade referred to as Jabodetabekjur (derived from the names of the city Metropolitan Republic of DKIJakarta 1961 2,906,500 28% and surrounding provinces – Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, Area Indonesia 1971 4,546,500 56% Bekasi and Cianjur), and has a population of more than 27 million Land area (km²) 662 7,297 1,919,440 people according to the 2010 census, making it the second largest Population 9,588,200 27,067,133 238,000,000 1980 6,503,400 43% total metropolitan area in the world.3 DKI Jakarta itself is extremely Population 14,483 3,462 134 1990 8,259,300 27% densely populated relative to Jabodetabekjur and the rest of Indonesia Density/km² 2000 8,385,600 2% (see Table 3). From a regional planning standpoint, the water Source: Badan Pusat Statistik Provinsi DKI Jakarta, 2009. 2010 9,588,200 14% management, solid waste, transportation and other policies of the Source: Badan Pusat Statistik Provinsi DKI Jakarta, 2009. neighboring provinces profoundly affect Jakarta. Beyond the size of its population, Jakarta has singular importance as the economic hub of Indonesia, the world’s fourth most populous country and largest Muslim nation. Jakarta’s economic output in third quarter of 2010 was IDR 220.5 trillion4 (USD 24.4 billion), indicating Table 2: World Cities Populations that annual economic output is now in the range of USD 100 billion, Rank City Country Population Definition Area (km²) Populationdensity(/km²) based on current nominal exchange rates.The city therefore accounts 1 Shanghai China 13,831,900 Core districts + inner suburbs 1,928 7,174 for close to one-fifth of Indonesia’s GDP, and its current per capita 2 Mumbai India 13,830,884 Municipal Corporation 603 22,937 income of USD 10,582 is more than four times greater than the 2009 3 Karachi Pakistan 12,991,000 City District 3,527 3,683 national average of USD 2,329.5 4 Delhi India 12,565,900 Municipal Corporation 431 29,149 5 Istanbul Turkey 12,517,664 Metropolitan Municipality 1,831 6,211 The strong and sustained growth in Jakarta’s population and economy 6 São Paulo Brazil 11,244,369 Municipality 1,523 7,383 has resulted in a vast increase in the urbanized area and concomitant 7 Moscow Russia 10,508,971 City proper (incl. Zelenograd) 1,081 9,722 land use change. Urbanization in Jakarta is characterized in terms of 8 Seoul South Korea 10,464,051 Special City 605 17,288 both densely organized sprawl as well as vertical growth of hundreds 9 Beijing China 10,123,000 Core districts + inner suburbs 1,368 7,400 of towers and mixed-use developments. During a period of just 10 Jakarta Indonesia 9,588,200 Special capital district 662 14,483 over two decades from 1980 to 2002, almost one-quarter of all land 11 Tokyo Japan 8,887,608 23 Special Wards 617 14,400 in DKI Jakarta was converted from non-urban uses for agriculture or wetlands and water, to urban uses for industry, commerce and 12 Mexico City Mexico 8,873,017 Federal District 1,485 5,973 housing.The high economic value of land under urban use, as reflected 13 Kinshasa D.R. Congo 8,754,000 City-Province 2,016 4,342 in ever-increasing market prices and rents for land and property, 14 New York City United States 8,363,710 City proper 789 10,452 continues to put pressure on remaining green space, which is crucial 15 Lagos Nigeria 7,937,932 Statistical Area 1,000 7,938 for absorbing run-off from rainfall and for replenishing the water Source:Various municipal data agencies and reports, (see end note 3). table. Figure 2 illustrates this land use change from 1970 to 2000. 6 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate Much of Jakarta is low-lying 7 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor and extremely dense. Background on Jakarta, a Global Megacity Background on Jakarta, a Global Megacity Figure 2: Land Use Change in Jakarta: 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000 In the greater Jakarta area, undeveloped areas, which also include vast urban cemeteries, decreased from 17,956 hectares in 1992 to 7,166 hectares in 2005, Legend : a reduction of 60% in only 13 years.6 Source: DKI Jakarta. Rivers Wetland U Open Space and Farmland 0 5 10 Developed Area Kilometer 8 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate 9 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor Background on Jakarta, a Global Megacity Table 4: Jakarta’s Vehicles 2007 2008 2009 2010 Growth 2007 -2010 Climate Change Hazards Figure 3: Land Elevations in Jakarta Automobiles Trucks 1,916,469 518,991 2,034,943 538,731 2,116,282 550,924 2,285,802 564,776 19% 9% and Vulnerability Buses 318,332 308,528 309,385 322,440 1% Motorcycles 5,974,173 6,765,723 7,518,098 8,484,384 42% All vehicles 8,727,965 9,647,925 10,494,689 11,657,402 34% Source: Statistik Daerah Provinsi DKI Jakarta 2010, BPS. Even before the onset of pressures from urbanization and climate change, Jakarta had a number of existing characteristics that predisposed it to flooding and other natural hazards. Jakarta’s Jakarta faces a range of serious physical challenges - largely related to Jakarta also has institutional concerns that are critical for addressing geographical location is along the coast in one of the most seismically infrastructure and planning - that both result from, and define, its urban infrastructure development and service delivery. The DKI government and volcanically active areas in the world. This makes it vulnerable character. These challenges are complex, interrelated, and mostly grapples with financial and technical capacity constraints in delivering to natural geological disasters as well as hydrological phenomena already well understood by the DKI government and the community services and responding to the wide range of needs. Administration such as tidal flooding, a natural occurrence gravely exacerbated by at large. Infrastructure investments and basic service delivery like costs are a large part of local government expenditure, while spending sea level rise. The city lies on the coastal lowland north of hilly sewers, water, road construction and solid waste management have on basic services and infrastructure is lagging.7 Although many issues regions that naturally drain into the plains, and is characterized by not kept pace with demand. This has resulted in problems such require integrated regional approaches and solutions for the entire relatively flat topography. Within its perimeter are beaches, swamp as massive traffic congestion, illness, informal settlements which greater Jakarta area, implementation and coordination are hampered areas, mangrove forests and deltaic land. Thirteen naturally occurring are concentrated pockets of poverty, widespread flooding, and by jurisdictional boundaries between DKI and surrounding provinces. rivers drain from south to north, running through the city, as do land subsidence. The city has a reputation for having some of the Quantitative information on Jakarta’s poor population, the rate of in- now hundreds of man-made drainage canals and tertiary drainage LAND ELEVATION Legend : worst traffic jams in Southeast Asia, and for its densely populated migration, and the city’s large and important informal economy, are systems. As illustrated in Figure 3, it is estimated that 40% of Jakarta DKI JAKARTA PROVINCE Elevation (m) : <0 River kampungs (low-lying neighborhoods that are often characterized by also inadequate. The impacts of climate change on the city have been lies below sea level, as is the case with many deltaic cities built up 0- 5 Coastline Provincial Boundary a mix of formal and informal settlements). It is estimated that there difficult for the provincial government to quantify, and integrating over time on marshland, and a large proportion of this low-lying land 5 - 10 10 - 15 Municipality Boundary are currently almost 12 million vehicles clogging Jakarta’s streets, of climate change considerations into spatial planning and disaster is found in the north of the city near the sea.8 Because of its tropical 15 - 20 Subdistrict Boundary Urban Village Boundary 20 - 25 which almost 73% are motorcycles (see Table 4). prevention is largely new for the city government. location, Jakarta experiences heavy monsoon rains for half the year. Km 25 - 30 02 1,25 ,5 57 ,5 10 30 - 35 35 - 40 > 40 Integrating climate change considerations into spatial planning and disaster prevention is largely new Low-lying land (areas below sea level) is said to constitute approximately 40% of for the Jakarta city government. Jakarta’s land area, for the most part in the north of the city. This map illustrates Jakarta’s current land elevations in 2010. Source: Department of Land and Mapping, DKI Jakarta Province, 2000. 10 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate 11 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor Climate Change Hazards and Vulnerability Climate Change Hazards and Vulnerability Table 5: Area of Jakarta Affected by Flooding Figure 4: Jakarta Land Use and Flood in 2007 Area (Ha) 1980 1996 2002 2007 770 2,259 16,778 23,832 Source: Pengolahan Data Peta Wilayah Banjir, DPP DKI Jakarta, Currently, the greatest disaster vulnerability for Jakarta is flooding due to water inundation from the sea and increased rainfall. Jakarta’s floods are notorious, and the resulting stalling of traffic, lost productivity and property damage is said to cost the city more than USD 400 million per year.9 Table 5 and the land use maps (Figure 4) illustrate the increase in land area in Jakarta affected by floods – by 2002, more than a quarter of Jakarta’s area was affected. The most disastrous flood to date, in February 2007, cost 57 lives, displaced more than 422,300 people, and destroyed 1,500 homes, damaging countless others. Total losses to property and infrastructure were estimated at USD 695 million.10 However, flooding of that magnitude is relatively infrequent and is not necessarily the principal issue for Jakarta – flooding occurs regularly throughout the year, stalling traffic, damaging houses and gravely attenuating the flow of business at all levels of society. Even with just a moderate amount of rain, vehicular mobility in the city is critically impaired, often for hours. LAND USE Legend : LAND USE & FLOOD AREA Flood, 2007 Developed Area River The greatest disaster vulnerability for Jakarta is DKI JAKARTA PROVINCE Rice Field Coastline Forest (Mangrove) flooding due to water inundation from the sea and Provincial Boundary Industrial Area Fields increased rainfall. Municipality Boundary Green Space/Grassland Undeveloped Land Subdistrict Boundary Lake/Reservoir Urban Village Boundary Km 02 1,25 ,55 7,51 0 Jakarta’s land uses as of 2010.The map overlay on the right illustrates the areas of Jakarta that would be affected with a flood of the magnitude experienced in 2007. Currently extreme flooding is thought to occur approximately every five years, with the next anticipated event in 2012. Source: RBI Map, Bakosurtanal, 2003/2004 Up date from ALOS Image, 2010. 12 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate A mix of formal and internal settlements on the 13 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor banks of Kali Angke. Climate Change Hazards and Vulnerability Climate Change Hazards and Vulnerability Flood impacts are aggravated by human action (or inaction) Figure 5: Land Subsidence and Sea Level Rise in organizing and maintaining the built urban environment and Nov 1989 Nov 2007 Nov 2025 infrastructure. Jakarta’s location in a major delta has required the development of an intricate and vast drainage network more than Pasar ikan cm 14,000 km long. Yet, the entire system may be inadequate even if the pumps and canals were functioning at their optimum levels. These 240 cm canals and drains are often clogged with garbage and debris that Nov 26, 2007 225 220 Climate change prevents their proper operation. Informal settlements along the canal 215 Sea level Nov 26 Sea level rise banks also contribute to causing these blockages. Sediment build-up 190 cm Critical level 2007 Oct 29, 2007 within the drainage system is ongoing, due lack of maintenance plans and weak regulation of solid waste disposal and service provision. 18.6 year cycle subsidence Land Subsidence 140 cm 2025: 40- 60 cm 80- 100 cm Land subsidence, although not a result of climate change, is one subsidence increase of the main factors contributing to Jakarta’s vulnerability.11 In the municipality of North Jakarta for instance, more than 60% of land 40- 50 cm is below sea level already, and some areas are sinking at a rate of 4-6 centimeters per year. The north has larger concentrations of This illustration dramatizes the combined effects of Jakarta’s land subsidence (measured in the area of Pasar Ikan on the coast) and trending sea level rise until 2025. poverty and less piped water provision. Other parts of the city are Source: Land Subsidence and Urban Development in Jakarta Brinkman, JanJaap and Hartman, Marco, 2010. also affected by land subsidence, albeit at slower rates. Major land loss by the end of the 21st century can be anticipated in Jakarta, when the significant levels of land subsidence already measured in Jakarta Land subsidence is a result of rapid and unchecked urbanization to drilling deep wells to access water. The most prominent issue are compounded by sea level rise, no matter how incremental the that has driven unregulated and under-monitored extraction of here has been the inability by the public and private sectors, due rising water level is as compared to sinking land, dramatized in Figure groundwater. Groundwater extraction causes loss of hydraulic to both budgetary and other resource limitations, to meet rapidly 5. pressure in the water table, leading to subsidence that is accelerated growing demands for piped water supply. Only about 60% of the total by the weight of the many new high-rise buildings that have come population gets its water from the city system.12 Land subsidence, although not a result of to characterize the Jakarta skyline. A wide spectrum of Jakarta’s climate change, is one of the main factors The most immediate solution to halting land subsidence is to increase residents, ranging from small informal communities to large multi-use contributing to Jakarta’s vulnerability. the provision of piped water supply, beginning with the areas that developments such as mall and apartment complexes, are resorting Land subsidence in Muara Angke in North Jakarta causes water 14 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate to pool and stagnate since it can no longer drain, increasing the 15 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor prevalence of mosquitoes and the diseases they spread. Climate Change Hazards and Vulnerability Climate Change Hazards and Vulnerability are experiencing the greatest subsidence. Increasing the coverage of Table 6: Rainfall during Last Two Major Flood Events Sea Level Rise Figure 7: Effects of Sea Level Rise on North Jakarta in year clean water supply also has the important benefit of improving the 2001- 2006- 2050 health and well being of many communities. Currently many of the 2002 2007 Rising sea levels are a long-term climate change challenge for Jakarta. Blue=inundation due to sea level rise at 1 cm/yr poor in Jakarta rely on well water that is consistently non-potable, Total rainfall for five stations (mm) 7,100.0 7,483.9 Figure 6 illustrates the anticipated rise in global sea level until the and so are also forced to purchase and carry expensive drinking and Maximum rainfall upstream (mm/day) 168.1 247.0 year 2100 due to thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of cooking water. Many of their other activities such as washing, bathing and toilet activities take place in the rivers and canals, contributing to Maximum rainfall downstream (mm/day) 172.0 234.7 polar ice caps and glaciers. In addition to rising sea levels, climate pollution and spreading disease. The search for water and the high Average rainfall intensity (mm/day) 21.1 25.8 change is also expected to increase the frequency and severity of percentage of time and money spent finding and transporting it are Average rainfall intensity upstream (mm/day) 20.6 24.8 extreme events such as storm surges and violent tides, a burgeoning a tremendous physical and economic burden for the poor. Women Average rainfall intensity downstream (mm/day) 21.9 27.3 trend in the region as a whole.15 are particularly burdened, as the responsibility for finding water Percentage of days with rainfall 69.9 67.0 usually falls to them. In the longer-term, a broader and more holistic Duration of event (days) 121.0 88.0 Figure 6: Global Sea Level Rise approach to urban planning and development can help to address Water level at Manggarai (cm) 1,050.0 1,061.0 1.0 land subsidence in an integrated manner. Flood level at Bukit Duri (m) 2.3 3.4 Source: Badan Meterologi dan Geofisika, Ciliwung Cisadane Project and Tempo 0.8 0.06 Additional contributions This illustration depicts the level of inundation Jakarta will experience in its coastal Increased Rainfall (2007). Adapted from Pauline Texier, (2008) “Floods in Jakarta: when the extreme 0.04 from potential ice-sheet areas by the year 2050 if no interventions are carried out. An assumption of a sea Sea level (m) dynamic processes reveals daily structural constraints and mismanagement�, Disaster Prevention and level rise of 1cm/year is assumed in this model. While it is not pinpointed on the 0.02 There have been a number of studies on rainfall and weather Management,Vol. 17 Iss: 3. Model map, Jakarta’s historic ports, main industrial areas and airport will be underwater Sea level (m) 0.6 0.00 projections under this scenario. anomalies for Indonesia, so data is available for the country as a whole. Source: Bandung Institute of Technology, 2007. 1990 1995 2000 2005 In terms of the region, Jakarta and the area of West Java have seen an The increase in the intensity and frequency of rainfall is also Year 0.4 increase in rainfall.13 Besides the increase in total rainfall, the intensity of rainfall events has also increased, in terms of both maximum daily exacerbating the existing drainage problems and flooding across the city. Urbanization and changes in land use have diminished the amount Rising Temperature rainfall and average daily rainfall. Table 6 shows the increase in total of permeable surface area that allows for the natural absorption of 0.2 rainfall, and the increase in intensity, during Jakarta’s two most recent Jakarta is also vulnerable to a combination of rising global rainwater into the ground. Heavy rainfall on impermeable surfaces temperatures and the urban heat island effect. Figure 8 graphs the periods of flooding in 2001-2002 and 2006-2007. Although mean generates increased run-off into the rivers and canals, which are 0.0 annual precipitation in Jakarta is projected to increase by only 2% 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100 records of average surface temperature in Jakarta from 1881-1991, already stressed to capacity, increasing flooding in streets and Year showing a steady increase of more than 1.5 degrees Celcius over in the period 2030-2049 over 1980-199914, the intensity of rainfall neighborhoods. this hundred-year period. The effect of global warming is expected events, and overall variability, can be expected to increase further. Source: World Climate Research Programme; Credit: J. Church et al. 2007.16 to increase average temperatures in Jakarta by 1 degree Celsius by Urbanization and changes in land use have diminished the amount of permeable surface area that allows for the North Jakarta, which borders the Java Sea and is home to a wide 2030, and by as much as 3 degrees by 2100.17 Compounding global natural absorption of rainwater into the ground. range of income levels, and business, industry and port activities, is warming across the globe is the more localized phenomenon of the especially susceptible. Figure 7 depicts the effect of sea level rise on urban heat island effect, resulting from the amount of heat created Jakarta until 2050. and absorbed in a highly dense urban environment. 16 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate 17 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor Climate Change Hazards and Vulnerability Temperatures are generally higher in cities because concrete, asphalt and other dark, non-reflective surfaces absorb radiant heat, while seen in Jakarta in terms of the health impacts of dengue fever, which is transmitted by the Aedes aegypti mosquito. While often non-fatal Climate Change and the Urban Poor energy expenditure, air-conditioning and traffic generate heat. Lack when adequately treated, dengue has a disproportionate impact on of green space also contributes to the heat island effect. This has the poor, who have lower levels of access to medical care. Figure also resulted in increased consumption of energy for air-conditioning 9shows that there has been a significant increase in the number of to cool buildings, which in turn contributes to higher ambient recorded cases of dengue from 2002 to 2006. temperatures in the city. Rainfall, humidity, and temperature have been shown to be factors Figure 8: Mean Surface Temperature Jakarta influencing the incidence of dengue in Jakarta. The correlation The poor in Jakarta are extremely vulnerable to the hazards described Jakarta/Obser (6.2 S,106.8E) between monthly rainfall and dengue cases was the strongest, where in the previous sections - in particular to flood-related disasters - one study has estimated that every 9.73 mm increase in monthly but are also highly resourceful and adaptive in responding to and 29.0 50.967450000 : KM surviving them. In general, communities self-organize to cope with rainfall resulted in an additional 67 cases of dengue. The correlations 28.5 with increased temperatures and humidity were positive, although flooding and extreme weather events.Through some of their actions, Annual Mean Temperatures (˚C) less strong.19 Increase in cases of dengue fever is only one indicator the urban poor also contribute to the overall susceptibility of Jakarta 28.0 to the effects of climate change, and thus have an important role to of how global meteorological changes are affecting the spread of 27.5 disease in large cities like Jakarta. play in the success of any actions to address city-wide vulnerabilities. Conversely, as is the case elsewhere in the world, climate change 27.0 mitigation by the poor in Jakarta is not significant, since their Figure 9: Dengue Cases in Jakarta 26.5 contribution to greenhouse gas emissions is minimal. Given their 30000 income levels and modest lifestyles, they are not large per capita 24932 26.0 25000 consumers of energy. 25.5 23466 20000 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 20640 Many of the poorest communities in Jakarta are informally organized Graph of mean surface temperature in Jakarta, years 1880 to 1990, with 2000 and 15000 14071 and those populations are largely undocumented, so quantitatively 2010 as projections. 10000 the actual slum population of Jakarta is unknown. Meanwhile, the Source: Goddard Institute for Space Studies, NASA. 7437 8729 5750 official statistics from the DKI government in 2010 report a poverty 5000 rate of 3.5 percent, or about 312,180 people, based on a poverty Health Impacts 0 line of per capita monthly income of IDR 331,169 (approximately 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 USD 1.23 per day at current nominal exchange rates).20 While this Changes in rainfall patterns and increasing temperatures are a Year percentage is lower than is seen in many rural areas of Indonesia significant health hazard for the population of Jakarta, particularly in Source: Sumantri, Arif, 2008, Environmentally Prevention Model towards Dengue or in smaller cities, it represents a significant number of people and the area of water- and mosquito-borne diseases. This is most clearly Epidemic in DKI.18 households in the city. Trash pickers sort types of plastic for resale and recycling where garbage 18 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate gets caught at the Manggarai Flood Gate in South Jakarta. The gate was 19 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor built in the 1920s to control water volumes along the Ciliwung River. Table 7: Flooded Areas in 2007 by Municipality Municipality Population Total Populationininformal % population in Area (km2) Area affected by 2007 % total area Figure 10: Slum Areas and Slum Area with Flood Map overlay settlements informal settlements floods (km2) affected by floods North 1,452,285 167,920 11.56% 139.88 71.22 50.92% West 2,130,696 20,409 0.96% 125.32 50.02 39.91% Central 891,788 3,912 0.44% 48.66 24.76 50.88% East 2,413,875 20,292 0.84% 186.32 20.1 10.79% South 2,053,684 17,114 0.83% 145.32 16.73 11.51% TOTAL JAKARTA 8,942,328 229,647 2.57% 645.5 182.83 28.32% While the population numbers vary slightly from 2010 data, this analysis is included to demonstrate the correlation between a high percentage of informal settlements and amount of flooded area in Jakarta, with North Jakarta being the most affected, followed by West Jakarta. Source: Mercy Corps Indonesia. Data from 2004. For the purposes of describing communities that are considered Pressures from migration into the city, the lack of provision of healthy the urban poor in Jakarta, this case study uses the Indonesian and legal housing options, and the weak or illegal management of government’s definition of the poverty line. “Poverty is measured by squatters on vacant land have caused the establishment and growth the poverty line, which is the amount of money required to meet of these large informal communities. the minimum needs of food and non food necesssities for survival. In The poorest communities in Jakarta live in self-constructed 2010, the amount was IDR 331,169 (about USD $39 in mid 2011 settlements, usually on land without formal legal title, and working conversion rates) per capita per month.�21 However, many informal in informal jobs. In some instances, illegal and undocumented land communities may be subsisting on far less. Unmonitored immigration leasing and landlord-tenant contracting is practiced. These systems into the city also accounts for the growth of this population, at a rate are nuanced and sophisticated, but again remain barely quantified that is not fully measured or understood. and largely anecdotal. Jakarta has a long history of large informal settlements, such as those in Kampung Melayu and Kamal Muara (see The map in Figure 10 shows the areas of Jakarta that are considered text boxes later) and many others. In many of these areas, some to be slum areas. The grade of slum is based upon a ranking system individuals and families have lived in what could be considered as by the Bureau of Statistics measuring the number of houses unfit ‘slums’, for decades. So while the urban poor may have homes and Legend : River for habitation, the quality of water and sewer services, population livelihoods that are relatively fragile and largely hard to quantify, well- Flood, 2007 SLUM AREAS Coastline density, the use of streams as toilets and water sources, and how established social networks and cultural identities of place in Jakarta SLUM AREAS & FLOOD Heavy Slum Provincial Boundary marginal of a location it is found in. Table 7 shows the numbers of run extremely deep. These informal social and economic networks Slum DKI JAKARTA PROVINCE Municipality Boundary urban poor broken down by municipality (kotamadya). The greatest are also one of the adaptive strengths of Jakarta’s urban poor – but Light Slum Subdistrict Boundary Km 02 1,25 ,5 57 ,5 10 concentrations by far are in North Jakarta. For example, the massive fully appreciating, harnessing, and formalizing these networks is one Non Slum Urban Village Boundary informal settlement at Waduk Pluit in North Jakarta is said to be of DKI’s Jakarta’s biggest challenges. Figure 11 shows the percentages Jakarta’s slum areas with overlay of 2007 flood. Data for slums was only available from 2000, as the 2010 data collection has not been tabulated and made available. Slum comprised of more than 70,000 people.22 of land tenure across Jakarta’s kelurahans. In a large percentage of the level is determined through weights and rankings established by BPS using the Delphi method. city more than 50% of the land parcels are unregistered with the Source: Department of Land and Mapping, DKI Jakarta Province, 2000 government and do not have title. 20 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate 21 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor Figure 11: Percentage of Unregistered Parcels by kelurahan A full-scale study on the vulnerability and adaptive capacity of the vacant, weak enforcement by the public sector and informal subletting urban poor in Jakarta – and for Jakarta as a whole – has yet to be by the private sector have allowed these settlements to grow over carried out.This case study is therefore an initial step towards such a the years. comprehensive understanding, based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s definition of vulnerability: “The degree to which In Jakarta, the vulnerability of the urban poor in relation to climate a system is susceptible to, and unable to cope with, adverse effects of change is two-fold. They are physically vulnerable to injury and loss climate change, including climate variability and extremes.�23 Climate of property because of where they live. They are socio-economically change vulnerability mapping has been undertaken for Southeast vulnerable as their livelihoods are also often tied to those areas Asia, based on assessments of exposure to hazards, the location of that are at risk, such as for fishermen or at the port and industrial populations, and adaptive capacity. Indices for these factors have been centers located near the coast. In many cases, their adaptive capacity developed based on quantitative measures of vulnerability. Analyses is limited, due to the low level of access to basic services like fresh of this type have been carried out for a number of smaller cities in water, health care, and education. North Jakarta experiences the Indonesia, to understand the adaptive capacity of poor communities. highest rates of poverty concentration, industry and flooded area. These approaches are available and would be useful for DKI Jakarta In some communities like Kampung Melayu and Bukit Duri there since they are based on standardized measurements and help to are regular evacuations of neighborhoods. On the coast, communal identify areas of extreme vulnerability – and strong adaptive capacity. wells are affected by saline intrusion, while further inland, garbage and sewage dumped further upstream results in the spread of illness Jakarta’s poor face the greatest flood- because of water pollution. related risks The urban poor also contribute to The urban poor in Jakarta are extremely vulnerable to disasters Jakarta’s overall vulnerability. Legend : Flood, 2007 and climate change impacts, because they tend to settle near bodies UNREGISTERED LAND River In Jakarta, the people and their behaviors have direct and lasting UNREGISTERED LAND & FLOOD AREA Percentage of Unregistered Land : Coastline of water like rivers, canals and reservoirs, and along the coast DKI JAKARTA PROVINCE 0 - 10 % Provincial Boundary where the land is mostly low-lying. This results in a high degree influence on the overall vulnerability of the city to climate-related Municipality Boundary 10 - 20 % Subdistrict Boundary of exposure to flooding and related hazards due to rains and tidal impacts. Weak government regulation of where people are allowed to 20 - 30 % Note : Urban Village Boundary floods (locally referred to as rob), described in the previous sections. actually live is compounded by the lack of provision of basic services 30 - 40 % 40 - 50 % The combination of these hazards and the economic and physical such as adequate housing, clean water and garbage collection. The 50 - 60 % fragility of the poor puts them at high risk for loss of property, illness, development of physical structures that encroach into the waterways 60 - 70 % 0 1,25 2,5 5 7,5 Km 10 70 - 80 % economic disenfranchisement, social disruption and displacement. and block the drainage capacity of the canals and rivers has caused 80 - 90 % Although many of these high-risk areas are legally meant to remain major issues for the already taxed system. Communities also tend Land tenure (registered versus unregistered parcels of land) is one of the main challenges to housing development in Jakarta. For graphic simplicity and clarity, percentages of unregistered land were mapped at the kelurahan level for the purposes of this study. Although many of these high-risk areas are legally meant to remain vacant, weak enforcement Source: BPN Departments of North, South, East, West and Central Jakarta Municipalities by the public sector and informal subletting by the private sector have allowed these settlements to grow over the years. 22 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate 23 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor to use the rivers for the disposal of their solid waste, notably plastic The urban poor are productive and integral The urban poor are highly adaptive, but bags and other refuse. As in the case of limited coverage of the piped water system in Jakarta, solid waste disposal options are also members of the city economy. remain vulnerable. inadequate or non-existent. The urban poor thus have a crucial role to play in addressing issues of vulnerability in Jakarta, and in particular The residents of Jakarta’s informal settlements contribute to the vast Adaptations plan in poor communities is coordinated by Bappeda, with respect to the government’s ability to implement city-wide informal economy of the city, and also support the functioning of the while its implementation is coordinated by Asisten Pembangunan dan spatial planning initiatives and flood alleviation interventions. formal economy.While the actual numbers remain hard to accurately Lingkungan Hidup Sekda Provinsi DKI Jakarta for Infrastructure measure, up to 38% of Jakarta’s economy is considered informal. 25 In projects and Asisten Kesejahteraan Masyarakat for Community Addressing the linkages among climate change, disaster risk and the most areas of Jakarta, the residents of informal settlements work as Empowerment projects, particularly Program Pemberdayaan urban poor in Jakarta is thus one of the most complex socioeconomic, maids, janitors, satpams (security guards), parking attendants and also Masyarakat Kelurahan (PPMK). This program takes place at the human rights and logistical issues faced by the DKI government, and run small local businesses such as food stalls and small tokos (retail individual or community level. See Table 13 for poverty alleviation also one of the city’s most urgent problems. Many housing, land use kiosks). In coastal settlements, the fishermen are key to providing programs carried out by DKI Jakarta in 2010. Yet, the urban poor and zoning laws exist, but they remain largely unenforced which allows larger companies with supplies of fish to sell across the city. are often extremely resourceful and organized in making their for the proliferation of informal settlements. For example, many of situation work for them, and learning to survive. In some cases, these the waterways are owned and controlled by either the city or the As a large urban agglomeration, Jakarta offers the economic communities manage to stay where they are and live with conditions central government. Although these laws require vacant easements opportunities that attract many new residents from elsewhere. as they change. They are constantly adapting - by raising their homes, of about ten to 15 meters along waterways, these are precisely the As an example, annual migration into Jakarta has been estimated or in some instances changing the manner in which they live, even areas where informal settlements tend to establish themselves. One at between 200,000 and 250,000 during the period 2002-2004.26 abandoning the bottom level of two-storey houses due to frequency way of managing informal settlements has been through an eviction This in-migration, and natural population growth of the city needs of floods. In other cases people change livelihoods or locations. policy and the demolition of structures after three public warnings to to be planned for and managed adequately, in order for Jakarta to move. There has been outcry from NGOs, community organizations realize the full potential of growth, agglomeration economies and Community spirit and organization are very often strong, and people and other civil rights groups over the eviction methods currently competitiveness, as demonstrated in the World Development Report help one another through community savings programs, early warning practiced by the government. Communities are generally moved into 2009. 27 The alternative would be for informal settlements to continue systems, informal professional unions for women artisans and small- apartment blocks in the relative vicinity of their informal settlements to grow, exacerbating the risks and vulnerabilities discussed above – scale environmental clean-ups like clearing smaller drains. Gotong- for a very low cost, but many do not remain for long – within a both in terms of climate change and pressure on infrastructure in all royong is a traditional community practice of communal action where matter of years, informal housing reappears on the under-regulated sectors, from transportation to housing to water provision and solid the entire community contributes resources and participates in a easements along the waterways, populated by new immigrants or waste management. project or activity that benefits the community at large or specific returning residents.24 members. For example, groups that are ethnically tied together due to shared livelihoods like fishermen (see text box on Kamal Muara) have a kind of social security through powerful social and This high level of communication and cooperation through organic existing social networks may be the familial networks that are of tremendous benefit. This high level of most useful and powerful means for climate change adaptation that a city can have. communication and cooperation through organic existing social networks may be the most useful and powerful means for climate change adaptation that a city can have. Clean water (air bersih) is sold near a port in North Jakarta. 24 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate Land subsidence and tidal floods have contributed to the 25 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor salination of ground water from the sea. Box I. Kampung Melayu Box II. Kamal Muara Kampung Melayu is one of the largest and oldest Kamal Muara is a fishing village in the northwest part kampungs (villages) in Jakarta. It is situated along of Jakarta. It is a neighborhood within the kelurahan the banks of the Ciliwung River, which has been of Penjaringan and has an area of about 10.53 square flooding more and more intensely over the past kilometers, housing 1,614 families with a total population ten years or so, according to its residents. There of about 5,992 people. Many people in the community here is a mix of formal and informal settlements in are fishermen who migrated from Sulawesi, who live and the neighborhood, but it is also an established dock their boats close to where their homes are on the community in East Jakarta. While some areas of Jakarta coast. While the tidal flooding and the washing Kampung Melayu – notably those further from up of garbage along the coast have gotten worse, they are the riverbanks – are comprised of legally, formally dedicated to adapting to where they live because their developed houses, the areas closer to the water livelihoods and their way of life are inextricably tied to the are characterized by more tenuous housing sea. Most of the adaptations in this neighborhood revolve construction. Due to the increasing severity of the around the increased flooding and sporadic changes in tidal flooding, sometimes up to four meters of water, patterns. The RT of the neighborhood revealed that many ‘Bugis’ style houses are lifted off the ground as often as ten times per month, people have of the residents were voluntarily and independently raising on stilts to protect them from tidal surges. Formal and informal houses on the banks of the Ciliwung. adapted by moving to the second floor of their their houses to accommodate the daily swells from the sea, homes, leaving the bottom levels empty and using often in the ‘Bugis’ style of South Sulawesi, where they raise the space for cottage industries and cooking only their homes on stilts. He said the most notable change over the past few years was the amount of garbage that had been washing when it is dry. A flood early warning system has out to sea from upstream, then getting deposited in the neighborhood as the tide recedes. Because of the close-knit nature of the been established in the community: the Rukun Warga and Rukun Tetangga (neighborhood and village heads) receive mobile community, people are able to help one another if violent tidal flooding damages boats or nets. Fishermen in the neighborhood phone SMS messages from flood gate areas upriver in Depok when the water level is getting high. They can then spread the organize themselves to make small repairs to the government-constructed sea wall. Being from fishing villages elsewhere in news in the kampung, usually by broadcasting from the minaret of the local mosque, so residents can prepare for the coming Indonesia, this community is both highly attuned to the changes in tides, and economically dependent on understanding them and inundation. This is a powerful, locally organized example of how residents in communities are connecting through their own adapting accordingly. means to more sophisticated and established water management technology at the regional level. While the urban poor may have homes and livelihoods that are relatively fragile and largely hard to In Jakarta, the people and their behaviors have direct and lasting influence on the overall vulnerability quantify, well-established social networks and cultural identities of place in Jakarta run extremely deep. of the city to climate-related impacts. 26 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate 27 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor Actions to Address Climate and Disaster Risks Actions to Address Climate BAPPEDA is the development planning agency for Jakarta, managing the budget allocation for development. This includes Climate change considerations are integrated to a very general extent in the medium and long term city spatial plans as will be discussed and Disaster Risks large infrastructure projects such as the sea wall construction in later, but lack exact and specific policies. The official language in the North Jakarta, the building of floodgates along rivers, and the East plans acknowledges the need for climate-change related strategies and West Flood Canals. BAPPEDA is coordinating all development as well as disaster mitigation and response plans, but does not go plans including those related to infrastructure, the environment, into detail (see Table 14). Specific adaptation actions to cope with social welfare, economy, and governance extreme weather events and sea level rise are piecemeal within the plans and in the operations of the city agencies, although there seems BPLHD is responsible for technical and social aspects of Institutional Aspects in DKI Jakarta environmental programs, including key governmental efforts to be widespread understanding that climate change is an immediate issue and poses very direct threats. on climate change. It is involved in a number of greenhouse gas The key government agencies in DKI Jakarta responsible for abatement programs in Jakarta, and is managing the development coordinated efforts on climate change adaptation and disaster The current comprehensive disaster risk management program needs of a greenhouse gas emissions baseline, to be completed in 2011. risk management are the province’s environmental agency, Badan to be improved. There are a number of large-scale infrastructure BPLHD also manages a number of community-level adaptation Pengelolaan Lingkungan Hidup Daerah (BPLHD); the development projects in conceptual stages, such as the Jakarta Coastal Sea Defense initiatives and studies in partnership with NGOs and donor planning agency,Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah (BAPPEDA); organizations like those enumerated in Table 12. Strategy which would protect coastal neighborhoods from tidal the disaster management agency, Badan Penanggulangan Bencana surges. The plans and policies of BPBD are not yet known, although BPBD was established as the city-wide agency for disaster risk a city-wide strategy for disaster prevention and response will most Daerah (BPBD); and the Assistant to the Secretary for Development management only at the end of 2010. Previously, disaster response likely be developed by this agency. Until recently, a national ad- and Environment (Assisten Pembangunan dan Lingkungan Hidup). was handled by SATKORLAK, a national ad-hoc committee based Their roles and functions are summarized in Table 8 below. hoc agency, Satuan Tugas Koordinasi dan Pelaksana (SATKORLAK), largely in the fire department. The formal empowerment and role anchored in the fire department and the department of immigration of BPBD has yet to be fully developed, integrated and made widely was responsible for disaster response, but was doing very little Table8:Rolesandfunctionsof keyDKIgovernmentagencies known among the public. related to climate change and disaster risk management. anticipatory planning. Prior to establishment of BPBD in late 2010, Department of Public Works (Pekerjaan Umum) is the the function was run by Satpol PP. Assisten Pembangunan dan Lingkungan Hidup is the office national public works agency responsible for the development of for the department of spatial planning and the bureau of city major large infrastructure projects in Jakarta such as the East and Formalization, publication and awareness-raising in the areas of infrastructure. Its function is to coordinate the implementation of West Flood Canals, and will be involved with large-scale adaptation climate change and disaster risk management for Jakarta are still all physical, infrastructural and environmental projects. Consistent interventions in the future. Much of Jakarta’s infrastructure is wanting inside many government agencies. There is also a lack of with these plans are specific laws and regulations addressing climate financed in part through the national government. The agency is coordination among the agencies described above, and very little change adaptation and mitigation actions as well as disaster risk also responsible for infrastructure maintenance. enforcement of well-meaning laws to create a safer and more secure management.This body also handles coordination of development projects between BAPPEDA and other departments such as solid built environment. waste management, transportation, etc. 28 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate Taman Ayodya in South Jakarta is one of 29 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor Jakarta’s new small parks Actions to Address Climate and Disaster Risks Actions to Address Climate and Disaster Risks NGOs and other donor organizations also play important roles Climate Change Mitigation and the Jakarta, although highly industrialized, is only responsible for a currently in supporting communities and local community-level fraction of Indonesia’s total national emissions, but the city has government actors to educate and prepare individual citizens, Environment already undertaken a number of actions to understand and to reduce families and community leaders for damaging events such as floods them. A greenhouse gas emissions inventory for DKI Jakarta is being from extreme rainfall or tidal flooding. However, these actions are prepared. The DKI government has been ramping up its mitigation At the national level, the government of Indonesia has launched policies and programs, mostly with foundation partners. Governor piecemeal across the city and are not mainstreamed. These actions a climate change program through the Ministry of Environment, Fauzi Bowo has made public announcements that the province will are also narrowly targeted at extremely poor communities, so do the agency responsible for formulating a National Action Plan28 to reduce its emissions by 30% by the year 2030, although the baseline not necessarily take into account vulnerable communities at other address climate change. Due to the high rate of deforestation and year from which to benchmark this reduction is in the process of income levels. land use change across the archipelago, Indonesia comes in as the being defined. The sectors most directly engaged in efforts to reduce country with third-highest emissions of greenhouse gases globally.29 greenhouse gas emissions thus far are infrastructure, solid waste Indonesia is thus under considerable pressure to curb deforestation management and transportation. Table 9 lists the current initiatives by the international community and local environmentalists. by the government to reducet emissions through transportation and energy efficiency initiatives. Table 9: Mitigation Activities in Jakarta Action Sector Description GHG Emission Baseline Count Transportation / Solid Waste Collaboration between DKI government and local NGOs to measure and document a GHG emissions baseline starting in 2005. Jakarta,althoughhighlyindustrialized,isonlyresponsible TransJakarta Busway Transportation Ongoing development of massive public transportation system of grade-level dedicated a fraction of Indonesia’s total national emissions, but buslanes the city has already undertaken a number of actions to Private Vehicle Emissions Transportation Required regulation and checking of emissions of private vehicles. understand and to reduce them. Counts Car Free Day Transportation Twice a month restriction of cars on major Jakarta thoroughfares to provide space for bicycling, walking and jogging. Kerosene to LPG Conversion Energy/Economy Conversion of all kerosene gas canisters to liquified petroleum gas. Blue Bajaj Transportation/Economy Creation of blue bajaj which run on compressed natural gas rather than diesel. Energy Effciency Building Energy/Economy Retrofits and upgrading for government buildings in Jakarta to increase energy Retrofit efficiency, including low wattage bulbs and urgraded HVAC systems. Green Building Inventory Construction and real estate Study about the feasibility of building methods and construction retrofits for private development/management real estate development in Jakarta. Carbon Finance Capacity Energy/Economic Traning and education within government for the development and management of Building Development carbon finance in Jakarta. 30 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate A snack vendor walks between the 31 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor uncompleted pilings for a halted MRT project on Jl. Rasuna Said. Actions to Address Climate and Disaster Risks Actions to Address Climate and Disaster Risks Table 10: Adaptation Programs and Projects by DKI Jakarta Climate Change Adaptation at All Levels Action Sector CC area Description Sea Wall Construction Infrastructure Sea level rise, tidal Construction of several sea walls in North Jakarta where the increase in floods volume and frequency of tidal flooding is increasing At the community level, NGOs and other institutions are working Mangrove Planting Environment/ Sea level rise, tidal DKI government and other local community groups planting mangrove trees in with the government and in neighborhoods on adaptation strategies Community/Private floods North Jakarta and education on how climate change is affecting residents and Informal Settlements Housing/Land Use Canal and river Demolition of informal settlements along river banks whose presence is actions that can be taken in response to climate-related impacts (see flooding/ tidal floods interfering with drainage. Also, these communities are extremely susceptible to also section above). Table 12 outlines some of the most recent floods. activities by NGOs and bilateral and multilateral organizations and Waste Management Solid Waste/ Canal and river Effort by the provincial government to develop waste management programs their existing projects relating to climate change adaptation and the Sanitation flooding/mitigation throughout the city. urban poor in Jakarta. What becomes clear, however, is the lack of of GHG emissions programmatic investment in understanding how communities are Online Warning System Meteorological/ Canal and river Website and measurement system for upstream water heights that drain adapting and how the government can support them at the local level. for water height at Bogor flooding through Jakarta. Based on the experiences and coping capacity of poor communities East and West Flood Infrastructure/ Canal and river Construction of two new major drainage canals for Jakarta. Canal Construction Water and flooding in Jakarta, there is a vast mismatch between the ongoing sustainability Sanitation of the adaptation measures taken, and the magnitude of potential Green Space Protection Environment/land Runoff absorption Protection and maintenance of existing green space, clearance of illegal future disasters. and Development use and carbon sinks settlements to return to green-space. Working groups on Advocacy, Adaptation/Poverty Working groups, policy advocacy, education Tables 10 and 11 list some of the community and government- adaptation and mitigation Education and alleviation/Education/ led adaptation actions, both in terms of large structural initiatives as at national level Governance Mitigation well as incremental, responsive community-organized actions. Most of these efforts address larger water and infrastructural problems. Table 11: Adaptation Actions by Communities The Jakarta provincial government has undertaken two major Action Entity Sector CC area Description infrastructure developments, the East Flood Canal, which began in Elevated house Local communities/individuals Community/ Sea level rise, Local communities are building their houses up higher and on 2003 and is now finished, and West Flood Canal, completed in 2008 construction private tidal floods stilts to accommodate regular flood inundations. Kampung but is still undergoing improvements.30 With the completion of the Melayu, Kamal Muara, Bukit Duri. East Flood Canal, flooding has been reduced approximately 30 percent SMS early Community organizations and Community/ Canal and river Communities at the RT and RW levels are organizing in East and North Jakarta. Approximately two million people have warning system RT/RW private flooding from themselves by getting alerts from Bogor when flood is rain imminent benefited from this major infrastructure investment. Construction Community Community organizations and Infrastructure/ Canal and river Some RW have taken matters into their own hands and of the development of the East Flood Canal alone has cost USD 515 Dredging in RT/RW Community/Solid flooding solicited community funds to pay for the dredging of local million, and while it has reduced the severity of flooding for many East Jakarta Waste canals. communities, it has not been an answer to increasing frequency of Move to second Community behavioral Community/ Canal and river Families in flood-prone kampungs are moving to second floor flooding in other areas of the city. floor of house adaptation private flooding/rain/ of homes to live as floods occur more than 10 times per sea level rise month. 32 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate 33 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor The sea wall and jetty near Muara Angke. Actions to Address Climate and Disaster Risks Actions to Address Climate and Disaster Risks Table 12: Climate Change Projects by International Organizations Program Org/Partnership Type Area of Focus Year Table 13: Poverty Alleviation Programs by DKI in 2010 Kelurahan Empowerment Initiative World Bank and Pilot Projects Education and evaluation of climate change resilience working closely with 2011 Sector Program Benefit Mercy Corps and Community the lurah of three kelurahan in North Jakarta. Four-month study relates to Education Free tuition for high 7,041 students Development community preparedness and budgetary allocation at the kelurahan level. school students SCALE Resilience Project USAID and Mercy Pilot Projects Two year program and education with very poor, flood-vulnerable 2011 Corps and Community communities in West Jakarta. Focus on climate change resilience and Health Health care centers, 2.5 million cases Development capacity building at the local level. Disaster victim support Urban Climate Change:Vulnerability Institute for Participatory Community based program for poor community in Kamal Muara in North 2010 and recovery, Dengue Assessment of Jakarta and Java Island Essential Service Program and Report Jakarta. Based on a participatory planning model, education was carried patient treatment Reform out on climate change adaptations and the health impacts of flooding and Housing and Kampung Improvement Programs in 401 RW climate change impacts. Services Adaptation Working Group: Ongoing National Council Advocacy and Staffed by multi-disciplinary expersts, the organization works around 2010 Community Revolving Fund for Disbursement of studies on Jakarta’s vulnerability to climate on Climate education Indonesia on mitigation and adaptation activies in both urban and rural Empowerment Cooperative Financial $16,298,579 change impacts and urbanization issues Change areas. Services Urban Resilience Assessment World Bank and Study and report Demonstrate a scalable methodology to increase the resilience of urban 2011 AusAID infrastructure that can be mainstreamed into city-level investment decisions Community Social Activities Disbursement of relating to spatial planning and investment. Empowerment $5,155,260 Greenhouse gas emissions of Jakarta Swisscontact and Study and report Greenhouse gas emissions measurement and baseline development for 2009- Community Small scale infrastructure Disbursement of National Council Jakarta, coordinated by Swisscontact and DNPI in close partnership with 2011 Empowerment improvements $5,155,260 on Climate Environmental Agency of Jakarta. Source: Dinas Kesehatan DKI Jakarta Change Jakarta Climate Change Adaptation Tools The Delta Alliance/ Advocacy and Sponsorship of two Indonesian PhD students to work closely with the 2011 Royal Haskoning education Jakarta city government on how to integrate spatial planning adaptation actions Climate Risks and Adaption in Asian Japan International Study and report A Jakarata-specific study based on the recent WorldBank/JICA/ADB 2011 Coastal Megacities: Jakarta Study Cooperation publication “Climate Risks and Adaptation in Asian Coastal Megacities� Agency released in 2010. Mayor’s Task Force: Climate Change The World Bank Study and report Jakarta-specific survey of climate change adaptations, analysis and 2011 Adaptation, Disaster Risk Management and recommendations. Based on the experiences and coping capacity of poor the Urban Poor communities in Jakarta, there is a mismatch between Jakarta Urban Flood Mitigation Project The World Bank Infrastructure Large-scale dredging of canals, drins and rivers across Jakarta to improve 2009 - Maintenance Project drainage and improve functioning of flood management system. ongoing the sustainability of adaptation measures taken, and the Giant Seawall and Polder The Government Infrastructure Design and development of major sea-wall to block tidal surges into North 2010 - magnitude of potential future disasters. of Rotterdam Construction Jakarta Carbon Finance Capacity Building World Bank Capacity Building and Preparation of DKI government officials to develop and carry out Carbon 2009 - Institute Training Finance project using CDM in Jakarta 2011 34 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate Kelurahan office staff pot plants for sale in North Jakarta. 35 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor Actions to Address Climate and Disaster Risks Actions to Address Climate and Disaster Risks Jakarta Spatial Plans Figure 12: Spatial Land Patterns Plan map in the RTRW Table 14: Policies and Articles for Climate Change in the Mid- and Long-Term Spatial Plans 2030 plan for DKI Jakarta. Policies Relating to Climate Change in the RTRW Spatial Plan 2030 Article 1 The Capital Region of Jakarta as other major cities in the world facing global challenges, particularly global warming and climate changes, which All provinces of Indonesia are required by national law to develop a require action on climate change. Both adaptation and mitigation need to be included in spatial planning; new spatial plan every 20 years. Jakarta’s new plan (RTRW 2030) had Article 5 5) To realize the integration and control of space utilization as referred to in Article 4, letter e, set the policy as follows: yet to be ratified by the Provincial City Council as at the beginning a. implement nature conservation reserves, nature conservation areas, land protection, water resources, and development of green space for of 2011. It is a most ambitious and inclusive plan, due in large part urban ecological balance in Jakarta; to the advocacy of Governor Fauzi Bowo. The Governor created a b. improve the quantity and quality of green space in an effort to improve the quality of Jakarta city life; City Planning Gallery where residents can visit, for free, a large 1:750 c. reduce greenhouse gas emissions in an effort to anticipate global warming and and climate change; and d. establish and maintain areas that have strategic value or strong influence on environmental aspects. scale model of Jakarta.31 Various aspects of the plan are explained Article 5 8) In order to achieve disaster risk reduction as referred to in Article 4 letter h, set the policy as follows: on panels around the gallery; these include sound urban planning a. develop infrastructure and facilities for natural disaster risk reduction; principles such as transit-oriented development and the preservation b. develop infrastructure for man-made disaster risk reduction; and and management of green space. Highly detailed satellite maps and c. promote adaptation and mitigation to prepare for the threats of global warming and climate change and the increased risk of disaster. planning maps can be found on a dedicated website, where the entire Article 10 3) Strategies to implement the policy referred to in Article 5 paragraph (5) c, include: a. implement the carrying capacity of natural resources and environmental capacity for sustainable development; plan is also available for review online. The DKI government was b. apply the concept of environmentally friendly building and the concept of sustainable urban design; required by law to hold a number of public input sessions to include c. improve the quality and quantity of green space; reflections and priorities from the public at large. The incorporation d. increase alternative energy-based waste management technology; of the feedback, as well as the efficacy of these sessions have been e. improve wastewater treatment; met with mixed response, but it has been a positive concerted effort f. reduce the use of ozone depleting substances; g. restore the function of mangrove forest; at planning inclusion so far. Jakarta is positioned, because of 21st h. improve public facilities, mass transit, and century realities and the development of a new plan, to act quickly i. improve the control of both mobile and stationary sources of emissions. and effectively to mitigate its most immediate challenges. Figure 12 Article 13 1) Strategies to implement the policy referred to in Article 5 paragraph (8) letter a, including: shows planned land use patterns to be developed by 2030. a. develop infrastructure and facilities for flood control; b. improve and enhance the drainage system; Source: Biro Tata Ruang, DKI Jakarta c. develop routes, regions, and spaces for disaster evacuation ; and d. build a sea dike in order to anticipate rising sea water. The notion of grouping special and programmatic activities under the Public Green Space Arterial Road Article 13 3) Strategies to implement the policy referred to in Article 5 paragraph (8) c, include: guise of climate change is new for the DKI government, but there Cultivated Green Space Interior Arterial Road a. direct utilization of disaster areas for cultivation activities that have a high adaptability; Exterior Arterial Road are a number of specific areas where they address handing climate- Residential Regional Arterial Road Mass Transit Lines b. reduce disaster risk through redesign through the application of technology and engineering in disaster areas; Housing and Retail change related activities and policies. The areas of the medium and Business District Rail Sea Wall c. Develop North Coast region (northern) as an effort to anticipate changes in climate; long-term plans are enumerated in Table 14. For the most part in Government Buildings Breakwater Pintu / Gate d. improve the provision of open space for the anticipated blue intensity rainfall; Industrial/Warehousing e. create life side by side with water; and the medium-term plan ‘climate change’ is mentioned fairly generally Undeveloped Land Airport f. Laws that restrict building to areas without threat of environmental hazards. as an objective to prioritize in the next few years. In the RTRW 2030 plan, the priority for climate change adaptation and mitigation measures are described at the outset. 36 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate 37 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor Actions to Address Climate and Disaster Risks Actions to Address Climate and Disaster Risks Article 57 (1) The development of energy systems and networks referred to in Article 45 letter d is intended to ensure supply reliability and continuity of What will be key for Jakarta going forward is to link its climate supply of energy for household needs, services, trade, industrial, and transportation with respect to conservation and energy diversification change adaptation actions to the existing and new spatial plans it has factor. already developed and articulated in policies. Senior officials from (2) energy conservation factors referred to in paragraph (1) attention to aspects of mitigation of climate change and global warming. (3) Development of energy systems and networks referred to in paragraph (1), include: a. electrical systems; b. infrastructure systems of fuel gas the DKI government have continued public engagement with the and c. infrastructure systems of fuel oil. international community on addressing the effects of climate change in Jakarta in terms of both mitigation and climate change adaptation. Policies Relating to Climate Change in the RPJMD 2007-2012 Framing these actions in terms of a larger climate change strategy BAB VII; 7.1 1. Flood Control and action plan, while keeping them integrated and streamlined with Program In an effort to control flooding, defined the program as follows: existing policy, will be the most effective way for the government to Dedicated a. Development Program of East Flood Canal (BKT) BKT Development is a long-term solution of flood control. implement these actions. b. Normalization of rivers and channels is a medium-term solution to flood control and aims to increase the capacity of rivers and channels. In the next five years is expected to revitalize, dredging, flood plains times and channel arrangement is completed. c. Structuring and development programs and reservoirs Lakes and reservoirs serve as temporary water reservoirs for flood control, especially in low areas. Performance indicators to be achieved include the completion of the revitalization, dredging, structuring and reservoirs. d. Improvement program of flood control master plan Performance indicators to be achieved, among others, the completion of the review of the masterplan flooding that already anticipate the impact of climate change. BAB VII; 8 9. Anticipation of Climate Change Program To anticipate the impact of climate change on the management of environmental resources, some programs will be implemented include: a. Dedicated Implementation of National Action Plan on Climate Change. a. Energy Sector Mitigation. What will be key for Jakarta going forward is to link b. Regional Development Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change. its climate change adaptation actions to the existing c. Research on Impacts of Climate Change in Jakarta. and new spatial plans it has already developed and articulated in policies. 38 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate 39 A small but lively street in Kampung Melayu. Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor Steps Towards Resilience The empowerment of the urban poor to protect the assets they have and eventually lift themselves out of poverty is essential for a healthy Strategy: Nominate a Chairperson for theTask Force and nominate/ assign dedicated government officials from pertinent agencies to act and economically strong future for all of Jakarta’s residents. The as representatives and communicators for climate change in Jakarta urban poor are integral to the wider economy of Jakarta, but they (both mitigation and adaptation). Form a working level task force to This case study of Jakarta has outlined the various policies and actions are also active participants in the city’s adaptive capacity, in terms report to the Chairperson and keep track of activities and climate of the DKI government and other stakeholders and community of both their ability to adapt and vulnerabilities caused by informal change initiatives. This will ease coordination between agencies and members to address and adapt to the effects of disasters and climate settlements. Focusing on the challenges and coping mechanisms of with stakeholders and other constituents, and the task force will be change in Jakarta. The principal hazard faced by Jakarta is the increased the mouthpiece and centralizing body for all climate change related the urban poor, and ensuring that communities are active partners in frequency of flooding due to rising sea levels and rob (tidal floods), policy for Jakarta. addressing climate change, are essential for enduring resilience. and an increase in the volume of water needing to be managed by QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENT the city from increased and erratic rainfall. Both impose extreme What follows below are some recommendations and options for Gain a quantitative understanding of vulnerability in the urban pressures on Jakarta’s already taxed, and under-maintained water actions to support and improve climate change adaptation in Jakarta. context. Better geospatial mapping, analysis of community economies management system. Land subsidence - a result of urbanization and These are based on an acknowledged sense of urgency, and that the and adaptation actions, data collection and measurement for relevant the extraction of groundwater rather than climate change - remains intersection of climate change impacts, urbanization, spatial planning indicators in all parts of the city – in particular the areas that are least a most urgent issue for Jakarta, and is a source of major structural and political management are all crucial for the future development understood and accounted for like informal settlements and slums threats for existing buildings. Subsidence also increases the city’s of Jakarta and the well being of its residents. – will allow for the city to prioritize key areas of intervention both vulnerability to the effects of climate change, including increased in the long-term and the short-term. The development, maintenance susceptibility to tidal flooding and potential damage to infrastructure CLIMATE ACTION PLAN and dissemination of such data is a high priority, especially in urban as the land becomes unstable. Develop an integrated Climate Action Plan for Jakarta that will be poor communities whose circumstances and assets are not well consistent and harmonized with the RTRW 2030 spatial plan, and understood at a citywide scale. The overall purpose of climate change adaptation is to recognize that other programs and policies in DKI, including health and education it is not a marginal, external challenge to be layered onto existing Strategy: Work with lurah, RT/RW to take stock of existing datasets, programs. To write and implement this plan, establish a dedicated planning and policy priorities; it is simply a way for a city government maps and studies pertinent to climate change in their neighborhoods. Climate Change Task Force of representatives from different and its partners and key institutions to gather their focus, and Develop a logical, systematic plan to begin gathering population government agencies. This Task Force will be the principal stewards and household information from the RW offices. Identify which priorities, for future climate scenarios. This report has helped outline of climate change adaptation and mitigation projects and policies for agencies are suffering from lack of investment and upgrading in their existing climate change impacts on Jakarta and particularly on the the city. Identify feasible projects that can address both mitigation computer systems and necessary database systems. Evaluate which urban poor. Now, it is key to make some decisions about where to and adaptation activities (i.e. those offering significant co-benefits), are the resources digitized and backed up electronically and where focus limited resources. In principle, what may be identified as good and start with those that are manageable and viable. Look to other the gaps are. Develop a plan to make the data available online at the adaptation actions include simple, integrated planning mechanisms cities in Indonesia and the world for successful examples and apply lurah level. The agencies that would benefit from this immediately are and infrastructure upgrading and maintenance. Understanding how those processes to Jakarta’s sectors. There are many resources and those related to the land use, housing, solid waste and transportation climate change will affect Jakarta, and taking action to address existing precedents, both locally and internationally that the government of sectors. All this data will aid in shaping priorities for DKI government infrastructure and planning challenges is of utmost urgency. Jakarta can rely on and apply. decisions. 40 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate Jalan Sudirman is one of Jakarta’s main arteries with key businesses, the 41 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor TransJakarta Busway and plenty of new construction. ACTION AT THE LOCAL LEVEL USING EXISTING PLANS STRONG SOCIAL NETWORKS Understand the actions that have been taken by the urban poor and Prioritize spatial planning interventions that improve existing Identify and support non-structural communication measures to community groups to adapt to climate change. There is a wealth infrastructure and decrease vulnerability to climate change at the reduce risk and injury to people and property. Communities have of knowledge, and many strong existing social networks, within the same time. Dredging projects, sea wall construction, and ground water already organized early warning systems, are adjusting their living vulnerable communities of Jakarta. Many local and international extraction regulation, among other major structural and planning arrangements and in some cases have made changes to their NGOs are working with communities to understand how they initiatives, are all generally incorporated into Jakarta’s medium and livelihoods. Dissemination of information to communities and are adapting and to convey this knowledge to policy-makers and long-term spatial plans. Examining physically where the areas of the strengthening and scaling-up of these activities is key, and can other community organizations. The resources of the NGOs and greatest vulnerability lie can help to prioritize the required actions have immediate benefits for Jakarta’s overall resilience and disaster universities carrying out this work can be used to understand the for making Jakarta climate-resilient. Given the proximity to the sea preparedness. Identify which agencies - such as health, education, strengths and weaknesses of the different kelurahan of DKI Jakarta. and the rate of subsidence in North Jakarta, major infrastructural poverty reduction, small businesses and community empowerment – Empower community-level administrators like the lurah, RT and RW interventions and construction regulation should probably take place are not yet talking about and understanding incorporating responses to manage waste locally and spend kelurahan budgets on small-scale in that area first. to the impacts of climate change. system upgrades for dredging and water management activities. Strategy: From the myriad of structural interventions, investments Strategy: Build awareness about taking care of the environment Strategy: Survey RT/RW on what their vulnerabilities are, how and maintenance programs which are needed to make Jakarta and civic responsibility and relating to climate change through the they organize their community-level activities, how successful they climate resilient, conduct a simple ranking of possible projects (some schools for far reaching networks. Understand how major city have been and what they need in order to continue. Some RW/ of which are already articulated in the spatial plans), with an analysis economies like fishing and fish markets need support adapting to the RT are stronger than others, and their activities can be replicated of costs and benefits within a climate change framework. Develop realities of sea level rise and extreme weather events on the coast in institutionally weaker ones. Start with a single kelurahan and two lists: projects for investment as part of a larger investment plan, since they feel them directly and immediately. Document how small use standardized interview questions which can be quantified and and existing infrastructure that may require maintenance or needs coastal businesses are adapting to impacts, and help them with cost recorded about the perception and nature of environmental and upgrading. Use the broad range of technical reports, analysis and analysis and adaptation measures. Climate change is having a dra- infrastructural threats. Make note of how people are responding to data that has already been created to prioritize which measures matic and immediate effect on the built environment, but educating these on their own, if at all. Many NGO and donor partners have are necessary in the short, medium and long terms to address the and empowering important, established social service mechanisms expertise and resources for capacity building at this level. Use these understood impacts of climate change on Jakarta’s built environment. around adaptation is necessary for a holistic plan. partnerships to be thorough and organize complete information. Climate change is having a dramatic and immediate effect on the built environment, but empowering important, established social service mechanisms around adaptation is necessary for a holistic plan. 42 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate 43 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor Students in Muara Angke. Resources Land Subsidence and Urban Development in Jakarta (Indonesia). Hasanuddin Z. Abidin, Heri Andreas, Irwan Gumilar and Mohammad Gamal, Indonesia,Yoichi Fukuda and T. Deguchi, Japan. 2009. Understanding Urban Risk: An Approach For Assessing Disaster and Climate Risk in Cities. The World Bank, 2010. In addressing climate change for a city, the most important approach a government and its partners can take is anticipating changes in impacts, rather than reacting to them. DKI has a great deal of experts and resources available to help understand what the urbanization and climate change trends are going to look like over at least the next 50 years. Below is a list of the major technical research publications (in English) 1 http://www.dredgingtoday.com/2010/07/23/indonesia-problems-with-flooding-in-jakarta-continues/ 2 The Urban Risk Assessment Framework is in its final stages of completion by the World Bank, and will be available online shortly. on the topics of flood mitigation, land subsidence mitigation and other reports that include technical information and methodologies for 3 Primary sources adapted from www.citymayors.com and www.wikipedia.com. evaluating both risk and paths towards climate change resilience. 4 Berita Resmi Statistik Provinsi DKI Jakarta No. 39/11/31/Th. XII, 5 November 2010 5 World Bank, World Development Indicators. 6 IPB, 2007, Jabodetabek Metropolitan Study Climate Risks and Adaptation in Asian Coastal Megacities:A Synthesis Report. 2010. The World Bank,Asian Development Bank and Japan International 7 Public Expenditure Review, World Bank, 2007 8 Why Are There Floods In Jakarta? Flood Control by the Government of the Province of Jakarta, PT Mirah Sakethi, 2010 Cooperation Agency. 9 http://www.dredgingtoday.com/2010/07/23/indonesia-problems-with-flooding-in-jakarta-continues/ 10 Why Are There Floods In Jakarta? Flood Control by the Government of the Province of Jakarta, PT Mirah Sakethi, 2010 Investing in a More Sustainable Indonesia: Country Environmental Analysis. The World Bank. 2009. 11 Climate Risks and Adaptation in Asian Coastal Megacities: A Synthesis Report. The World Bank, Asian Development Bank and Japan International Cooperation Agency; September 2010 12 Koran Tempo, Jul 20, 2010; see http://www.jakartawater.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=284:operator-air-cuma-layani-44-persen-penduduk&catid=59:berita&Itemid=1 Climate Resilient Cities: A Primer on Reducing Vulnerabilities to Disasters. The World Bank, 2009. &lang=en 13 Indonesia and Climate Change: Current Status and Policies. The World Bank, DFID, PEACE. 2007. 14 World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal, based on IPCC GCMs. http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/ ADB Climate Change Programs: Facilitating Integrated Solutions in Asia and the Pacific. Asian Development Bank, 2010. 15 Climate Change Vulnerability Mapping for Southeast Asia by Arief Anshory Yusuf and Herminia Francisco; Economy and Environment Program for Southeast Asia, January 2009. 16 Jakarta City Report: Information Relating to Climate Change in Jakarta City. Indra M. Surbakti, Izhar C. Idroes, Hendricus A. Simarmata and Tommy Firman. 2010. Cities At Risk: Asia’s Coastal Cities in An Age of Climate Change. Roland J. Fuchs, East-West Center, University of Hawaii. 2010. 17 World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal, based on IPCC GCMs and Japanese High Resolution GCM. http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/ 18 Sumantri, Arif, 2008, Environmentally Prevention Model towards Dengue Epidemic in DKI Jakarta (in Bahasa Indonesia), doctoral dissertation submitted to Institute of Agriculture Bogor. Climate Change Vulnerability Mapping for Southeast Asia by Arief Anshory Yusuf and Herminia Francisco; Economy and Environment Program 19 Ibid 20 Berita Resmi Statistik Provinsi DKI Jakarta No. 21/07/31/Th. XII, 1 Juli 2010 for Southeast Asia, January 2009. 21 Urban Poverty: A Global View. Judy L. Baker, The World Bank. 22 “Project Sites, Urgent Maintenance Dredging� presentation by Hongjoo Hahm, World Bank Office Jakarta, 2010. Jakarta City Report: Information Relating to Climate Change in Jakarta City. Indra M. Surbakti, Izhar C. Idroes, Hendricus A. Simarmata and Tommy Firman. 23 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change www.ipcc.ch. 24 Housing Finance Mechanisms in Indonesia, UN-HABITAT from the Human Settlements Finance System series, Nairobi, 2008. 2010. 25 Sakernas 2010. 26 Registrasi Penduduk DKI Jakarta, 2004, cited in: Haning Romdiati and Mita Noveria (2004). “Mobilitas Penduduk Antar Daerah Dalam Rangka Tertib Pengendalian Migrasi Masuk ke DKI The Other Half of Climate Change: Why Indonesia Must Adapt to Protect its Poorest People. United Nations Development Programme Indonesia. Jakarta.� Paper presented at workshop on urbanization in Jakarta, August 5, 2004, PPK-LIPI. Available at: www.ppk.lipi.go.id/file/publikasi/Sem-DKI,04.rtf (accessed March 9, 2011). 2007. 27 World Bank, 2009. Reshaping Economic Geography. World Development Report 2009. Washington, DC: World Bank. 28 Dewan Nasional Perubahan Iklim – National Council on Climate Change www.dnpi.go.id 29 Investing in a More Sustainable Indonesia: Country Environmental Report, 2009. The World Bank. Eco2 Cities: Ecological Cities as Economic Cities. The World Bank. 2009. 30 Why Are There Floods in Jakarta? Flood Control by the Government of the Province of DKI Jakarta. PT Mirah Sakethi, 2010. 31 The gallery is located on Jl. Abdul Muis No. 66, 3rd floor, Jakarta Pusat. RTRW 2030 Plan website is www.tatakota-jakartaku.net. Jakarta Flood Hazard Mapping Framework Brinkman, JanJaap (Deltares) and Hartman, Marco (HKV consultants) for The World Bank Office Jakarta. 2009. 44 JAKARTA | Urban Challenges in a Changing Climate 45 Mayors’ Task Force On Climate Change, Disaster Risk & The Urban Poor A Jakarta sunset over the Jalan Sudirman skyline.