89418 The World Bank Asia Sustainable and Alternative Energy Program Mongolia Development Impacts of Solar-Powered Electricity Services January 2014 Copyright © 2014 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank Group 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 USA All rights reserved. First printing: February 2014 Manufactured in the United States of America. The World Bank Asia Sustainable and Alternative Energy Program Mongolia Development Impacts of Solar-Powered Electricity Services January 2014 Mongolia: Development Impacts of Solar-Powered Electricity Services Publication of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank Supported by the Asia Sustainable and Alternative Energy Program (ASTAE) Copyright © 2014 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433, USA Telephone: (202)473-1000 Fax: (202) 522-2422 Internet: www.worldbank.org Email: feedback@worldbank.org All rights reserved This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/the International Development Association/The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this report are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank Group, the members of its Board of Execu- tive Directors or the governments they represent. Neither do they necessarily represent the views of the Asia Sustain- able and Alternative Energy Program (ASTAE) or the Government of Mongolia. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this volume do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank Group concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permis- sion may be a violation of applicable law. 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Questions regarding the content of the report should be addressed to the Task Team Leader: Peter Johansen, East Asia and Pacific Region, East Asia Water and Energy Management Unit (EASWE), The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; e-mail: pjohansen@worldbank.org. Contents Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................v Acronyms and Abbreviations....................................................................................................vii Executive Summary....................................................................................................................ix 1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................1 Country and Sector Background............................................................................................................................1 Project Background.................................................................................................................................................2 Survey and Impact Study Background..................................................................................................................3 2. The Beneficiary Surveys........................................................................................................5 Survey 1: Sample Survey ......................................................................................................................................5 Survey 2: In-depth Interviews.................................................................................................................................6 3. Survey Findings......................................................................................................................9 Use and Sustainability of SHSs..............................................................................................................................9 SHS Ownership and Capacity............................................................................................................................9 Maintenance and Servicing of SHSs................................................................................................................10 Overall Consumer Satisfaction and SHS Sustainability.................................................................................... 11 Immediate Impacts of Changing Energy Patterns..............................................................................................13 Lighting............................................................................................................................................................13 Access to Information......................................................................................................................................13 Communications..............................................................................................................................................15 Time Allocation after Dark................................................................................................................................15 Impacts on Quality of Life and Development......................................................................................................16 Productivity and Income...................................................................................................................................17 Household Expenses and Spending Patterns..................................................................................................17 Communication and Social Interaction ............................................................................................................18 Healthcare and Emergency Care......................................................................................................................18 Health Education and Preventive Care.............................................................................................................20 Vulnerability and Sense of Security .................................................................................................................20 Gender Impact of Solar Home Systems...........................................................................................................20 Changes in Attitude and Cultural Preservation.................................................................................................21 Annexes A. Salient Demographic Features of the Sample Survey Population.............................................................23 B. Gender Aspects in Mongolia.........................................................................................................................27 References...................................................................................................................................29 iii iv Contents Maps 1.1 Mongolia...........................................................................................................................................................1 2.1 Sample Survey—Aimags and Soums Visited................................................................................................6 2.2 In-depth Interviews—Soums Visited...............................................................................................................7 3.1 Network of REAP Sales and Service Centers............................................................................................... 11 3.2 Projected Mobile Phone Coverage Area.......................................................................................................16 Figures 1.1 Implementation of the National 100,000 Solar Ger Electrification Program...............................................3 3.1 Number of SHSs Owned per Household.....................................................................................................10 3.2 Overall Consumer Satisfaction.....................................................................................................................12 3.3 Attitude Towards Solar Home Systems........................................................................................................12 3.4 Information Access Practices........................................................................................................................14 3.5 Health Care Information Source...................................................................................................................15 A.1 Age Distribution of Interviewees..................................................................................................................23 A.2 Education of Heads of Household and Their Spouses................................................................................24 A.3 Income Distribution of Herder Households in the Sample Survey............................................................25 B.1 Trend in Gender Inequality Index (GII).........................................................................................................27 B.2 Gender Development Index (GDI)—Regional Comparison........................................................................28 Tables 3.1 Severe Weather Pattern in Mongolia............................................................................................................14 3.2 Aimag Clinics and Average Distance from Gers..........................................................................................19 3.3 Typical Educational Television Programs.....................................................................................................21 A.1 Age Distribution of Members of the Surveyed Households.......................................................................23 A.2 Age Distribution of Heads of Household......................................................................................................24 Acknowledgments The objective of the report is to shed light on the development impacts of solar-powered electricity services in Mongolia. The target audience includes development professionals and government officials that are engaged with rural electrification programs based on solar home systems. It is hoped that the results of the analysis pre- sented in this report will be a source of inspiration for and help make informed decisions on rural electrification. This publication is an impact evaluation report on a World and candid feedback. It would also like to give special Bank operation titled “Mongolia: Renewable Energy and recognition to the staff of the former Project Imple- Rural Electrification Access Project (REAP). ” Completed mentation Unit of REAP , in particular its Director Dorj on June 30, 2012, the operation was jointly funded by Purevsuren, for his continued support, local insight and grants from the International Development Association guidance throughout the process. (IDA P099321), the Global Environmental Facility (GEF P084766), and the Government of the Netherlands. The report builds on the “Implementation Completion and Results Report of REAP” (Report Number ICR00002151, Upon completion of REAP , two surveys were conducted dated December 17 , 2012) and an associated paper titled with the aim to assess the impact of the distribution of “Capturing the Sun in the Land of the Blue Sky, Providing solar home systems (SHS) on the nomadic herders in Portable Solar Power to Nomadic Herders in Mongolia” Mongolia. The first, conducted by a local consulting firm, published during project implementation. It drew from was a sample survey of about 800 herder households. the two publications and benefitted greatly from infor- The second, conducted by a World Bank team, involved mation collected by the various task teams during the in-depth interviews with twelve herder households. course of project preparation, appraisal, implementation, supervision and completion review. The contribution of This report is a summary of the findings and conclusions the teams under the leadership of Salvador Rivera and of the above surveys. It was prepared by a task team that Migara Jayawardena is also acknowledged. included Peter Johansen (Task Team Leader and Senior Energy Specialist), Ivy Cheng (consultant) and Roberto The World Bank would like to gratefully acknowledge La Rocca (consultant). The World Bank team would like to the contributions of the Asia Sustainable and Alternative thank the Mongolian Ministry of Mineral Resources and Energy Program (ASTAE) for its financial support towards Energy and the Energy Authority for their collaboration the surveys and the preparation of this publication. v Acronyms and Abbreviations Aimag Equivalent to province MDG Millennium Development Goals ASTAE Asia Sustainable and Alternative Energy MMR Maternal Mortality Rate Program MMRE Ministry of Mineral Resources and Energy EA Energy Authority MNT Mongolian tugrik CFL Compact Fluorescent Light REAP Renewable Energy and Rural Electricity GDI Gender Development Index Access Project GDP Gross Domestic Product PV Photovoltaic GII Gender Inequality Index Soum Subdivisions of Aimag, equivalent to counties or districts GOM Government of Mongolia SC Soum Center HDI Human Development Index SSC Sale and Service Center HIV Human immune Deficiency Virus SHS Solar Home System IEC International Electrotechnical Commission STIs Sexually Transmitted Infections ICR Implementation Completion and Results Report UNPFA United Nations Population Fund IDA International Development Association Wp Watt peak kW Kilowatt Currency Unit Exchange Rate Effective as of January 23, 2014 Mongolian Tugrik (MNT) MNT 1,694 = US$1.00 vii Executive Summary Mongolia is a vast landlocked country with a relatively 90 percent are still in use and some households have small population. Other than those living in the capital even acquired additional units. The surveys show that city and a few urban centers, the rest of its citizens the impact on the herders has been very significant— (about 35 percent or one million people) are geographi- switching from candles to florescent lamps; from radio cally disbursed throughout the rural countryside. Among to television; and from cumbersome and rare in-person them about three quarters are nomadic herders living communication to cell phones with coverage throughout in portable tents (gers). Given the immense logistical most of the wide expanse of the Mongolian steppe. and climatic challenges, rural electrification was largely undeveloped until the Government launched the National Increased productivity and income are the most often 100,000 Solar Ger Electrification Program in 1999. cited advantages of the electrification in the survey. The availability of on-demand and higher intensity light- The World Bank-assisted Renewable Energy and Rural ing makes it easier for adults to continue to work at Electricity Access Project (REAP) was conceived in 2006 normal pace, relax, read and take care of their families to help revitalize the Government’s ambitious initiative after dark. It also gives their children more time to read, which had been showing signs of stagnation after deliv- study and have fun after the evening meal. Television ering over 30,000 portable photovoltaic solar home sys- and mobile phones enable timely information gathering tems (SHS). At its conclusion in 2012, over 67 ,000 SHS and exchange, e.g. access to reliable and current mar- had been delivered to herder households country-wide ket information on livestock and food prices informing and the goal of electrifying 100,000 gers under the Gov- the herders’ business transactions. Access to the latest ernment’s Program was successfully met. This trans- weather reports and warnings also helps herders avoid lates to an overall coverage of about half a million people danger and minimize property losses. which corresponds to about two thirds of the nomad population and one sixth of Mongolia’s total population. The electrification has enabled the near-universal adop- The Program was very successful in increasing national tion of the mobile phone, which by itself has brought energy access, which is now over 90 percent compared about a sea change in the way the herders communicate to a pre-program level of 67 percent1 mainly due to the within their families, among themselves, and with the Ger Electrification Program. This remarkable achievement outside world. The phone has, to a large extent, replaced came at a moderate total cost—the smart subsidies and the need to embark on often long and arduous journeys Program support provided by REAP amounted to around just to deliver or pick up a message. It is frequently used US$12 million2 over the 5-year implementation period. to facilitate business dealings, consult with acquain- tances and professionals, and arrange for appointments. Upon completion of the Project, beneficiary surveys It also makes it effortless for couples to stay in contact were conducted to assess the developmental impacts with each other when separated by the migratory life- of the delivery of solar-powered electricity services on style; for parents to stay in touch their children who cus- the herder households. The first was a structured sample tomarily attend boarding school; and for relatives, friends survey of 789 households and the second involved in- and neighbors to chat and organize social functions. depth interviews with a dozen households. The surveys show a high level of customer satisfaction among own- According to the surveys television not only brings news, ers (over 93 percent) and that herders consider their units weather reports, business information and entertain- to be reliable and the capacity adequate to cover their ment to the ger dwellers, it is also a popular and effective appliances—typically lamps, a television set cum satel- means of delivering health education. Such information lite desk, and a charger for mobile phones. More than six usually comes in the form of healthcare guidelines, dis- years after these systems were purchased, more than cussions on common diseases, and tips on preventive care. Another very popular innovation brought about by 1. World Bank—DataBank (2013). access to electricity is televised cooking shows that 2. Roughly 50 percent funded by the Government of Mongolia, 40 discuss the nutritional values of different foods; demon- percent funded by a grant from the Government of the Netherlands, and the remainder funded from a grant from the Global Environment strate various cooking methods; and introduce healthy Facility and a credit from the International Development Association. ingredients and recipes. Parents commented that these ix x Mongolia: Development Impacts of Solar-Powered Electricity Services rich history and culture, is able to maintain its long-estab- lished way of life without being left behind. The popularization of SHSs also brings about other impacts and opportunities beyond the household level. With almost two thirds of the herders having access to electricity, the demand for consumer electronics and electrical appliances and equipment has increased sig- nificantly. The fast growing demand for SHS-compatible appliances represents business and employment oppor- tunities and introduces a new commercial market. In turn, the existence of this market and the awareness that elec- tricity can improve quality of life promotes the growth of the ger renewable energy market, for instance resulting programs help them make more informed menu choices in multiple and larger solar installations powering appli- and their children develop good habits and practices. ances with higher electricity needs such as refrigerators. This leads to a virtuous cycle where the increased cover- The wide adoption of SHSs and the subsequent improve- age creates a critical mass of users that can sustain retail ments in access to electricity services have positively and maintenance business meaning that the SHSs stand impacted intra-household dynamics, partially address- a better chance of being well maintained and reaching ing gender inequality-related issues. The majority of their design life of twenty years. the women interviewed indicate that the newly-gained access to stable electricity has translated into significant In fact under REAP the SHSs were inspected and cer- time-savings, which in turn, allow for increased time tified to meet stringent quality standards to minimize spent on personal care, parenting, learning and work potential breakdowns and reputational risks in a novel diversification. Following the installation of SHSs, wom- market. The establishment and functioning of a network en’s household-related decision making enjoys a higher of Sales and Service Centers (SSCs) and the introduction degree of freedom and male herders put higher value on of a manufacturers’ warranty practice were key elements a woman’s work contributions towards the overall level of in the creation of a sustainable market for SHSs. It is rec- household income. ommended, however, that the Government extends and strengthens the maintenance and repair service network The lifestyle of the Mongolian herders is to respect and and continues to monitor the performance of the SSCs blend in with nature. However, for a greater part of the and the extent to which they continue to provide support year herders live with the risk of inclement weather to the rural population. making it very tough and sometimes dangerous to cope when isolated. Electrical lamps and mobile phones make The positive feedback from the herder households dem- herders feel safer for themselves and their animals, onstrates that some early misconceptions about solar particularly after nightfall. Knowing that support is only home systems such as safety and reliability concerns a phone call away in case of emergencies also gives have now been fully dispelled. The successful completion herders a sense of security that they never experienced of the Ger Electrification Program is widely recognized before. Considering the country’s current economic as an important achievement and a major development boom the importance of this comprehensive rural elec- milestone for Mongolia. It provided a solid foundation for trification and the positive impact felt by the beneficiaries the government and its partners to turn their attention to cannot be underestimated. The Ger Electrification Pro- GOM’s next target, namely, universal rural electrification gram has greatly contributed to ensuring that the nomad by 2020 under the Government’s National Renewable community, with strong connections to the Mongolia’s Energy Program. 1 Introduction Country and Sector Background about a quarter of them live in small settlements known as “soums” (subdivisions of Aimag equivalent to coun- As shown in Map 1.1 below, Mongolia is a geographi- ties or districts), and the other three quarters (700,000– cally vast and landlocked country, which covers a terri- 800,000 people, or about one quarter of the country’s tory of over 600,000 square miles, but has a relatively total population) are nomadic herders living in portable small population of about 2.9 million. Of the total, about traditional tents known as “gers” , generally set up at least 1.2 million people live in the capital city of Ulaanbaatar 5–15 km from each other. and another estimated 600,000 live in small urban cen- ters. The rural population of Mongolia is comprised of While Mongolia’s economy remains underdeveloped, the remaining one million or so people who are geo- it is experiencing a major mining boom in recent years graphically dispersed throughout the countryside in due to increased international interest in the country’s sparsely populated areas. Among the rural residents, vast mineral wealth. Activities associated with this boom MAP 1.1 MONGOLIA Source: World Bank. 1 2 Mongolia: Development Impacts of Solar-Powered Electricity Services have propelled economic growth to unprecedented is consisted primarily of adopting renewable energy tech- double digit levels (17 percent for 2011). By the end of nologies such as renewable-diesel hybrid systems (wind 2011, Mongolia’s GDP had swelled to over US$8.5 billion or solar power complemented by diesel) for the soum from a low base of US$1.1 billion at the turn of the mil- centers and portable photovoltaic solar home systems lennium. Despite the rapid growth that is transforming (SHS) for the nomadic herders. Ulaanbaatar and its vicinities in a dramatic fashion, it has hardly touched, much less benefited the country’s rural population. In fact, with high inflation (around 15 percent Project Background since 2010) and increasingly wider income disparity, they are being left further behind. In accordance with its new rural electrification strategy, the Government of Mongolia launched the National One obvious indicator of urban rural disparity is in the 100,000 Solar Ger Electrification Program (100k Program) access to electricity. The power sector of Mongolia is in 1999. It was an ambitious initiative aimed to improve essentially made up of three markets: the largest cov- the lives of about half a million herders by providing ers all grid-connected regions and cities; the second cov- them with SHSs that were adaptable to their nomadic ers soums served by stand-alone systems (mini-grids) lifestyle and complementary to their traditional way of operated by local administrations; and the third covers life. The program gained substantial internal and external the widely scattered nomadic herders. At the end of the attention and support, initially establishing three targets twentieth century, most herders and the hubs serving for SHS dissemination: 5,000 units by 2005, 45,000 for them, known as soum centers (SC), had little access to 2001–2005, and 50,000 for 2006–2010. Through grants steady power supply. Consequently, while the million or from several donor countries, the Government managed so rural residents represented over 35 percent of the to provide over 30,000 herder households with SHSs by country’s population, their share of power consump- 2005. Unfortunately, when external funding dwindled the tion amounted to less than four percent of the total. The 100k Program began to stagnate. herders’ share is particularly dismal—a mere one percent even though they accounted for about one quarter of the The World Bank-assisted Renewable Energy and Rural country’s total population. Electricity Access Project (REAP) was conceived to help the Government revitalize the 100k Program and remove The Government of Mongolia (GOM) was keenly aware other barriers to rural electrification. The ultimate objec- of its rural residents’ predicament and was committed tive of the project was to increase electricity access and to bring about development in the rural electrification improve the reliability of services in off-grid soum cen- sector while preserving the herders’ traditional lifestyle. ters and amongst the herder population. The project was However, the task to improve their lives and welfare is designed as an integrated program of physical invest- especially daunting given the immense logistical and cli- ments and technical assistance. It was funded with con- matic challenges (with temperature often dipping below tributions from four partners, namely: the Government 30 Celsius during the long frigid winters). That said, of Mongolia, the International Development Association Mongolia is also richly endowed with renewable wind (IDA), the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), and the and solar energy resources that could be captured and Government of the Netherlands. Bringing together the utilized. Hence, the current rural electrification strategy public and private sector in a vast geographical area, the Project also benefitted from the support funding of the Asia Sustainable and Alternative Energy Program (ASTAE) in the early phases of implementation. REAP was launched in 2007 and implementation was completed in 2012. The project was comprised of three components: (1) the Herders’ Electricity Access Com- ponent (about US$12 million) which included, inter alia, smart subsides to facilitate the acquisition of 50,000 SHSs by herder households and help the government achieve the 100k Program target; (2) the Soum Center Electricity Service Component (about US$10 million) to support the rehabilitation and installation of renewable energy technology systems in SC mini-grids; and (3) the Institutional Capacity Building Component (about US$1 Introduction 3 FIGURE 1.1 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NATIONAL 100,000 SOLAR GER ELECTRIFICATION PROGRAM 110,000 REAP 100,000 100,146 begins 90,000 80,000 78,330 # SHS Delivered 70,000 67,873 60,000 50,000 40,000 32,922 30,000 20,000 10,000 1,132 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year Source: Ministry of Mineral Resources and Energy, Mongolia. million) to strengthen national renewable energy policy of SHS utilization, user satisfaction and socio-economic development and to support project management. impacts attributable to the installation and use of SHSs. The successful completion of the Herders Electricity After the conclusion of project implementation, the Bank Access Component under REAP was considered a great was able to disseminate information on the preliminary achievement by the GOM. The result was a significant results of the Project and lessons learned with fund- scale-up in the number of SHSs sold and delivered to the ing provided by ASTAE. Titled “Capturing the Sun in the herder households, as illustrated in the following Figure Land of the Blue Sky—Providing Portable Solar Power to 1.1. Specifically, the Government’s target of electrifying Nomadic Herders in Mongolia” , the product includes an 100,000 gers was fully met and surpassed. In all, over information poster, a documentary video, a paper, a web 67 ,000 SHSs provided under the 100k Program (or about article and a PowerPoint presentation. These materials, two thirds of the total) were attributable to this project along with the Implementation Completion and Results component. In terms of distribution, delivery reached Report of the project (World Bank Report Number nomadic herders in 342 soums spread across every one ICR00002151) should be referenced for a more compre- of the 21 provinces (known as “aimags”) in Mongolia. As hensive understanding of the background of the Project envisioned, the total number of beneficiaries of the 100k and this impact study. Program was estimated to be about half a million people. This represented coverage of more than two thirds of the The main portion of this report is divided into two country’s herder population. chapters (Chapters 2–3). Chapter 2 is a brief descrip- tion of the two beneficiary surveys carried out after REAP was completed. It includes the methodologies Survey and Impact Study Background used, the survey processes, and the surveys’ areas of focus. Chapter 3 presents the main results and findings Upon completion of REAP , with financial support from of the surveys based on qualitative and quantitative the Asia Sustainable and Alternative Energy Program information and data collected. They include three main (ASTAE), two beneficiary surveys were conducted to aspects: use and sustainability of REAP portable photo- assess the impact of the distribution of SHSs. They are: voltaic solar home systems; immediate impacts of the (1) a sample survey of about 800 herder households in resulting changes in energy use patterns; and where the ten soums; and (2) in-depth interviews of twelve herder availability and use of electricity have the most impact households in four soums. The data collection and analy- on the nomadic herder community’s quality of life and ses entailed both qualitative and quantitative assessment development. 2 The Beneficiary Surveys As noted in the project background section, the World A draft version of the survey questionnaire was pretested Bank assisted Renewable Energy and Rural Electrifica- among ten herder households and revised to its final form tion Project (REAP) has provided over 67 ,000 portable based on the experience and feedback received. The final photovoltaic solar home systems (SHS) to the herder survey questionnaire used for the interviews included 13 community in Mongolia. The objective of the surveys sections focusing on the household and its members. was to gain some measure of the project’s impact on They are, in the order of the questions asked: (1) basic the beneficiaries through face-to-face interviews with household information—composition, roles of members, selected adult household members. The first survey and their ages and education levels; (2) main sources of (Sample Survey) involved close to eight hundred house- income; (3) incomes and expenditures; (4) information holds (defined as family or extended family members on the acquisition, use and maintenance of SHS unit(s); living in the same ger). The second survey (In-depth (5) REAP SHS consumer satisfaction; (6) use of energy Interviews) covered twelve households. An extensive for lighting and other electrical appliances; (7) alternative questionnaire was used in both cases. Due to the design sources of energy used before and after the installation of the surveys, most results are qualitative in nature. The of the SHS unit(s); (8) time allocation during daylight; (9) households selected for both surveys were all registered time allocation after dark; (10) communication methods; REAP SHS purchasers. (11) information access; (12) healthcare; and (13) attitude towards the use of electricity. Survey 1: Sample Survey The sample survey was conducted in 2012 in the Khentii and Bayankhongor aimags (there are a total of 21 aimags in Mongolia). Within each aimag, the soums were strati- fied according to their total number of herder house- holds owning SHSs. Five soums were then randomly selected from each aimag. Thereafter a sample of 800 herder households was randomly selected from a pool of 1,490 households that were registered as SHS pur- chasers under REAP . Actual face-to-face interviews were conducted with 789 households. Salient demographic features of the survey population are summarized in Annex A. A map of the selected aimags and soums is presented in Map 2.1. 5 6 Mongolia: Development Impacts of Solar-Powered Electricity Services MAP 2.1 SAMPLE SURVEY—AIMAGS AND SOUMS VISITED Source: World Bank. Data collection was carried out by seven field teams aimags covered in the sample survey. Four soums within which were provided with a survey manual and a full-day Khentii aimag were selected as the sites for the inter- training prior to conducting the interviews. Data entry, views, they were: Undurkhaan, Bayankhutag, Murun verification and quality control were performed at various and Umnudelger. Specific locations were chosen after stages; by the interviewers themselves, their supervi- consultation with stakeholders in the REAP Project sors, and the data editing group in the home office and Implementation Unit. A selection of aimag and soums is during data processing. The software program used for presented in Map 2.2. data entry, verification and database development was CSPro-5.0. The final product was a report on the survey At each of the sites the team interviewed individual results, accompanies by a copy of the final dataset. heads of household, their spouses and, occasionally, their neighbors and friends. Interviews were semi-struc- tured, following an outline of questions similar to the Survey 2: In-depth Interviews sample survey, and adjusted from interview to interview depending on circumstances and relevance to the inter- A total of twelve in-depth interviews were conducted in viewee. The follow-up questions asked during these in- the Khentii aimag by a World Bank team over the course depth interviews were more open ended as compared to of four days in June 2013. Khentii was chosen because the strictly structured sample survey. The purpose was to it was covered in the October 2012 market survey con- encourage the interviewees to elaborate their views and ducted under REAP and it also overlaps with one of the tell their stories. The Beneficiary Surveys 7 From the in-depth interviews, the team sought MAP 2.2 IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS—SOUMS VISITED to gather a combination of qualitative and quan- titative data. Due to the small sample size and the nature of the in-depth interviews, quantita- tive data can only be considered as indicative in nature. However, the findings do serve as a useful means to validate and elaborate on the findings of the larger sample survey. Source: World Bank. 3 Survey Findings Use and Sustainability of SHSs Before SHS became available, only 69 percent of the sur- veyed households had access to some form of electric- ity. The main sources of alternative energy were candles, kerosene lamp or dry cell battery powered flashlights for lighting; and dry cell battery powered radios for news, information and entertainment. The concern herders had regarding the use of candles was the fire hazards they created. The majority also believed the burning of kerosene and oil in closed quarters was harmful to their health. One common source of portable electricity was from herders often set up their gers in areas that shelter them motorcycle or car batteries, which allowed the herders from strong gusts, rendering their wind-powered genera- to power small tools and appliances. However, they were tors useless. not renewable resources, and safe disposal of used bat- teries had often been problematic. SHS Ownership and Capacity Only the lucky few who owned diesel or wind pow- ered generators were able to use electrical appliances All households included in the surveys were registered routinely, which often include a light bulb and, in some SHS purchasers. In terms of ownership, the majority of cases, a black and white television set and cell phones. the herders own one SHS. Far less are the households However, the diesel generators became very costly to with two or more system units. Similar to most other operate once the long-standing fuel subsidies were major purchases, the acquisition of a SHS is generally removed. It was also seen as unreliable as fuel supply a family decision. A summary of the number of SHSs and delivery were often interrupted. The wind-powered owned among the sample households is presented in generators, while not expensive to operate, were also Figure 3.1. considered an unstable source of supply as production was subject to seasonal fluctuations. During the summer Under REAP , virtually all households purchased a 50-watt and autumn, there tends to be little wind, whereas during peak load system, and paid a subsidized price of a little the spring and winter the equipment often broke down under US$200 for it. The prevailing full price was about under the strong Mongolian wind and created mainte- $330 per unit based on bulk purchase and before trans- nance issues for their owners. Also during those seasons portation and storage. By comparison, the market retail 9 10 Mongolia: Development Impacts of Solar-Powered Electricity Services to upgrade so they can add on other appliances. The FIGURE 3.1 NUMBER OF SHSs OWNED PER HOUSEHOLD most popular item on the herder households’ wish list 1% is a freezer for preserving meat. Usually, after a slaugh- ter herders would try to consume the meat as quickly as possible to avoid spoilage. They believe a freezer 11% would allow them to spread out meat consumption more evenly, and that in turn would enable them to eat a more balanced diet over time. Many feel that adding variety to their meals would make them more nutritious as well as more enjoyable. The second most popular item on most respondent’s list is a washing machine. 88% While many herders seem to be interested in SHS upgrades and the purchase of several major appliances, it is observed that only a few actually have plans to do so in the near future. Fewer still actually have a clear One System Two Systems Three Systems idea as to where to make such purchases and how they would impact their household budget. The sometimes Source: ASTAE/World Bank—REAP Beneficiary Survey. conflicting signals the survey reveals suggest that mov- ing forward it would be necessary to better understand the evolution of the herders’ electricity needs, and their price for a similar unit is about US$400 in 2013. Appli- willingness to pay and affordability if the demand of the ances powered through a 50 watt SHS typically include Mongolian nomadic community is to be adequately met. a 14 to 17 inch color or black and white television set; a satellite dish and receiver; a 7–11 watt compact fluo- Maintenance and Servicing of SHSs rescent light (CFL) lamp; and a charger for one or more mobile phones. The design of REAP included several innovative features. First, the SHSs supplied were of high quality and con- The respondents express satisfaction with the capacity formed with International Electrotechnical Commission of the SHSs they own. About 89 percent report that the (IEC) standards. They were easy to install and disman- electricity generated is generally adequate to power their tle, and the battery life was expected to be longer than appliances. However, many also feel it is not sufficient those available prior to the project. Indeed, the majority to power all the appliances simultaneously and continu- of herders interviewed note that they have experienced ously throughout the day, particularly during the winter few maintenance issues. More than six years after their months when there are fewer hours of sunlight. That initial installation, about 90 percent report that the SHS said, according to the vast majority of those interviewed they purchased under REAP are still in use. (95 percent), the solar PV systems are still considered a reliable source of electricity. The herders’ coping mechanisms during power shortages include using the SHS without the base so they can turn the unit to catch the sun in early mornings and late afternoons; operating the television set for fewer hours or switching to a black and white set during the winter. Some more affluent herders opted to install additional SHSs to enhance reliability and also to accommo- date larger television sets and other major electri- cal appliances such as a freezer. The survey reveals that even when the interview- ees agree that the output from their systems is sufficient to power the basic appliances they own, roughly half also expressed plans or desire Survey Findings 11 The main components of a SHS include CFL bulbs, a project also introduced best practices such as after-sale charge controller, a battery and a power box including service. A network of trained and certified sale and ser- plugs. According to the survey data, inverters and charge vice centers (SSC) was established to buy, distribute, sell controllers were less likely than light bulbs and batteries and service SHSs and meet the scattered herder popula- to be replaced. Specifically, while the majority of people tion’s electrification needs. Map 3.1 shows the network are still using the original inverters and charge controllers, of SSCs established under REAP . about 75 percent report that they have already replaced their light bulb(s) at least once, and 35 percent of the sur- That said, however, what happens on the ground appears vey population has their SHS batteries replaced. to fall short of expectation for a few of the herders inter- viewed. The survey reveals that maintenance and repair One common complaint herders have is the fact that services are potentially problematic because the net- when the original CFL bulbs go out they are not able to work of service centers is only established at the aimag replace them with bulbs of the same high quality. Based level (at the time of this report, there were between one on anecdotal evidence, herders tend to buy cheaper to four centers in each aimag). This implies that many replacement bulbs that are commonly available in local herders would still need to travel long distances if and convenience shops for 2,000 Mongolian Tugrik a bulb when they need to have their broken SHS repaired. In (or less than two dollars). Good quality replacement CFL fact, about five percent of those interviewed reports that bulbs are about five times more expensive as compared they stopped using the units because they were broken to these lower-priced alternatives, and are only avail- (albeit it is not clear from the survey answers whether able in specialized stores. The use of lower quality bulbs the herders chose to replace or abandon those SHSs might negatively impact the perceived quality of the because they have better alternatives, or they simply service provided by SHSs. However, it does not seem were not able to have the units repaired). to affect the overall customer satisfaction, which is high among herders. Overall Consumer Satisfaction and SHS Sustainability In 2006, a study on SHSs showed general user dissatis- faction with the one-year warrantees that were offered The survey results indicate that the overall consumer sat- with the systems sold. In response to the needs voiced isfaction with the solar home systems the households by the SHS users, the units sold under REAP were acquired under REAP is high. Among the interviewees, offered with a two-year manufacturer’s warranty. The 41.7 percent are reported to be “extremely satisfied” MAP 3.1 NETWORK OF REAP SALES AND SERVICE CENTERS Source: Ministry of Mineral Resources and Energy, Mongolia. 12 Mongolia: Development Impacts of Solar-Powered Electricity Services FIGURE 3.2 OVERALL CONSUMER SATISFACTION 50 40 30 Percent 20 10 0 Extremely Very Satisfied Somewhat Unsatisfied Very Satisfied Satisfied Unsatisfied Satisfaction Level Source: ASTAE/World Bank—REAP Beneficiary Survey. and 51.7 percent are “very satisfied” with their systems. In terms of the reasons why herders find the installation The interviewees indicate that the systems they own are of SHSs helpful, out of the 777 persons who responded, very useful in their lives as well as in the lives of the other 70.5 percent cite “increased productivity for work” as household members. They are particularly appreciative of the key benefit, followed by a distant second “more time the fact that the SHSs reach them well below market for leisure activities” (15.2 percent), and a third “more price (after a subsidy of about 50 percent). The level of time for household chores” (9.5 percent). These top three consumer satisfaction is captured in Figure 3.2. answers account for over 95 percent of the responses. Figure 3.3 captures the herder households’ general posi- tive response to four groups of survey questions. FIGURE 3.3 ATTITUDE TOWARDS SOLAR HOME SYSTEMS Electricity helps with domestic tasks and care of the children Survey Question SHS is a reliable source of electricity SHS provides enough electricity to use the appliances currently owned by the family Today, the quality of life of my household is better than it was before SHS 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percent Strongly disagree Disagree No opinion Agree Strongly agree Source: ASTAE/World Bank—REAP Beneficiary Survey. Survey Findings 13 Out of the 789 household interviewed, eleven house- Of those interviewed, 95 percent are satisfied with holds express some dissatisfaction with the SHSs they their current lighting system (37 percent agreed and 58 own, which are mainly related to the decreasing efficiency percent strongly agreed). They feel electric lighting is of the SHS batteries over time as the systems age. superior to the kerosene or oil alternatives as almost 80 percent believe oil burning is harmful to their health; they As the surveys were carried out several years after also consider candle burning a fire hazard. the distribution of the majority of the SHS units, the high customer satisfaction reported could be seen as Access to Information an indication of the herders’ preference and a positive sign regarding the sustainability of the devices. The Mongolia has extremely harsh climatic conditions that survey further shows that the vast majority of herders significantly affect the lives of the population. Natural are either likely (52 percent) or very likely (44 percent) disasters in Mongolia are frequent and are caused inter- to use SHSs in the future and 99.6 percent of them alia by: (i) severe snow falls, resulting in deep burying of would recommend them to others. This also suggests forage, with consequent livestock death from starvation, a strong buy-in to this form of renewable energy supply (ii) severe rain storms, resulting in flooding which can and ownership. wipe out “ger district” dwellings on hills in urban area; and (iii) sand and dust storms, resulting in sand from the Gobi Desert and dust from the grasslands blowing Immediate Impacts of Changing across settlements in both urban and rural areas, with consequent eye diseases and respiratory diseases. Table Energy Patterns 3.1 gives an indication of the severe weather pattern that exists in the various aimags in Mongolia. The portable solar home system sold under REAP were equipped with a compact florescent lamp. For those Consistent with the lifestyle of the nomads and the cli- households that did not own a television set and a mate of Mongolia, news and weather reports and alerts mobile phone prior to the SHSs, these electronic devices are considered the most important type of information became the most sought after gaining access to stable the households seek (about 84 percent). electricity. The impact of having a lamp, a television set, and a mobile phone (or phones) on the herders’ daily lives Prior to the installation of SHSs, herders largely relied was immediate and obvious. The following summarizes on trips to the soum centers, listening to radio broad- such impacts in the areas of lighting, access to informa- casts and talking to neighbors to gather the information tion, communications, and time allocation after dark. they need. With improved electricity access, television quickly overtook them as the most popular and widely Lighting used source of news and information. About 87 percent report such a switch, and about 96 percent find it easier Prior to the installation of SHSs, more than 90 percent to gather information the new way. The shift of practice of the nomadic herders interviewed relied upon candles was captured in five groups of survey responses on com- for lighting. The costs amounted to about 9,000 Mongo- modity prices, weather report, and school information as lian Tugrik (or about US$5.50 equivalent) a month for one depicted in Figure 3.4. candle a day, which lasts for about two and a half hours. After SHSs were popularized, the percentage of people Herders also greatly value information on healthcare. still using candles dropped to six. Accordingly, the aver- Over 93 percent of respondents either agree (61 percent) age number of candles used by the households also fell or strongly agree (32 percent) that access to healthcare sharply. Most only resort to their use in emergency situa- information has become easier after they installed SHSs. tions when power is interrupted or insufficient. Prior to REAP , about 72 percent of the households sur- veyed relied on visits to the soum centers as the main The capacity of SHSs makes it possible for households means of collecting of healthcare information (followed to increase the use of more advanced lighting devices by listening to the radio 13 percent, talking to neighbors such as 2x8 compact fluorescent light bulbs which can 6 percent and reading the newspaper 4 percent). Figure be used both inside and outside the ger. In comparison 3.5 shows how having a television set (with channels with candles, they provide significantly higher intensity that air various healthcare programs) enables herders to (lumens) and quantity (hours) of lighting as measured in access more comprehensive information without having lumen hours. to leave home. 14 Mongolia: Development Impacts of Solar-Powered Electricity Services TABLE 3.1 SEVERE WEATHER PATTERN IN MONGOLIA Average number of Average number of Average number Aimag heavy snow storms heavy rain storms of sand storms Arkhangai 30 50 24 Bayan-Ölgii 106 65 43 Bayankhongor 8 30 25 Bulgan 4.3 65 18.3 Darkhan-Uul 5.5 65 15.5 Dornod 7.8 50 19.7 Dornogovi 5.8 30 30.4 Dundgovi 6 30 20 Govi-Altai 11 30 18 Govisümber 5.8 30 30.4 Khentii 4.3 50 20.1 Khovd 10 30 15 Khövsgöl 14 70 25 Ömnögovi 5 30 99 Orkhon 5.3 65 19.3 Övörkhangai 6.1 30 10.3 Selenge 7 65 15 Sükhbaatar 3.5 30 35 Töv 4.5 50 30 Uvs 0.7 65 4.6 Zavkhan 6.5 65 20 Ulan Bator 4.5 50 30 Source: Authors. FIGURE 3.4 INFORMATION ACCESS PRACTICES Weather Livestock After SHS After SHS Before SHS Before SHS 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percent Percent Hay/Fodder Price Food After SHS After SHS Before SHS Before SHS 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percent Percent School After SHS Radio Soum Center Before SHS TV Other 0 20 40 60 80 100 Percent Source: ASTAE/World Bank—REAP Beneficiary Survey. Survey Findings 15 FIGURE 3.5 HEALTH CARE INFORMATION SOURCE TV Information Source Soum Center After SHS Radio Before SHS 0 20 40 60 Percent Source: ASTAE/World Bank—REAP Beneficiary Survey. Communications among them. Map 3.2 shows a projected cell phone coverage area based on the above assumptions. Despite The widespread use of mobile phone in recent years has an extensive coverage, however, due to the remoteness greatly facilitated communication in Mongolia. Accord- of some dwellings, reception quality is uneven and for ing to the survey, more than 97 percent of the herders distances beyond 20–30 km from the nearest soum or use mobile phones as their main means of communica- aimag center the reception could be poor. To cope, some tion (compared to a pre-REAP level of near zero). The herders acquired antenna to amplify the signal; in some growth is mainly attributable to improvements in electric- instances herders would traveled up a hill in order to ity access and cell phone technology and services. For improve the reception. example, a couple of telecom companies offer unlimited in-network calls for a monthly fee of 10,000 to 15,000 Mongolian Tugrik (about US$6 to US$9 equivalent). These Time Allocation after Dark plans are very popular among herders and are consid- ered affordable by most households. Compared with pre-SHS days, the herders interviewed find themselves staying up between one to two hours According to the majority of the herders interviewed, cell later (from 10 to 11 in the evening to around midnight) phone coverage is generally good. The four main service and spending more time working and relaxing in the providers claim to have established base stations (each evenings. The interviewees report that brighter and on covering a radius between 30 km to 60 km) in almost demand lighting, particularly during winter when the sun every town and rural center throughout the country set early (before 5:00pm in December), makes it possible for men to finish their day’s work and women to finish cooking and cleaning without rushing, postponement or trying to make do in semi-darkness. They also find more time to relax with their family after the evening meal. Besides watching television together for news, educa- tional programs and entertainment, some common activ- ities include playing games, reading, or simply chatting with each other. Responses such as these are common among the inter- viewees: “We can stay up after dark and do more work or watch TV if we are done working for the day. We spend more time together.” In terms of television watch- ing habits, children seem to spend more time in front of 16 Mongolia: Development Impacts of Solar-Powered Electricity Services MAP 3.2 PROJECTED MOBILE PHONE COVERAGE AREA Source: World Bank. the sets than women, and women more than men. This openness. The Mongolian people have developed new is consistent with their lifestyle as most men work out- attitudes towards work, education, health, marriage, and side of the gers and children generally have more free time parenting. For the Mongolian herders, this change process than adults. According to parents, watching educational has been further exacerbated by the advent of SHSs and programs available on the various television channels is a improved access to reliable electricity services, which great way for children to learn. Examples of their responses brought about modern forms of doing business, educa- are: “Education programs help prepare young children for tion, health care management, and social interactions. kindergarten”; “Children learn to sing and dance from the entertainment programs”; and “Health related programs More than 90 percent of those interviewed indicate that SHSs have improved the quality of their lives. It should be boost our children’s knowledge and help them develop noted that while television and the use of mobile phones good habits such as, the practice of hand washing).” existed within the herder communities long before REAP , the availability of affordable SHSs enabled the rapid buildup of a critical mass. The result is that in just a Impacts on Quality of Life and few years the tipping point was reached in terms of their Development community-wide adoption. The following is a summary of what the surveys reveals in terms of impact in areas Socio-cultural issues are critical factors in the Mongolian such as productivity and income; household expenses society. New social values and beliefs have emerged and spending patterns; communication and social inter- during the transition from the socialist economy to the action; health care and emergency care; vulnerability and new system based on democracy and socio-economic sense of security; and attitude and cultural preservation. Survey Findings 17 Productivity and Income transparency gives them the sense that they are mak- ing transactions at “fair” price levels. Being up-to-date As previously discussed, on-demand, continuous and on weather conditions and alerts also helps the nomads more intense lighting available after dark has enabled prepare themselves against natural disasters and mini- the ger dwellers to extend their evening activities by at mize hardship and property losses resulting from them. least one to two hours a day. This likely contributed to the increase in productivity and efficiency among the herder Even though it is hard to quantify income and productiv- households. In fact, over 70 percent of those interviewed ity changes, the general feeling amongst the households cite “increased productivity” as the key benefit linked to surveyed is that it has increased since they have gained the installation of SHSs. Both men and women appreci- access to CFL lighting, cell phones and televisions. ate the convenience and quality of CFL lamps. Men feel The following response to an income-related question that good lighting allow them to complete the tasks on touches upon many themes and seems quite typical: hand and also get a head start on preparing their tools for “We would not be able to quantify the increase, but now the following day. Women mostly like the fact that they we save on candles; we can finish our daily tasks with- can take their time to prepare the evening meal and then out having to postpone them; and we sell our meat at a clean their cookware and dishes properly afterwards. higher price because we have better access to informa- They also appreciate the opportunity to perform some tion thanks to our TV and phone. If somebody shows up detail-oriented tasks such as sewing after dinner. at the ger, we can check the market price now. Before SHS, we used to accept whatever figure the other per- The following is a typical response to the survey ques- son would suggest. ” tions on lighting: “Yes, I spend more time herding at night, my wife also spends more time taking care of the house, cooking and sewing. Before SHS, it was not pos- Household Expenses and Spending Patterns ” Another sible do it properly. We used to go to bed early. example of response goes like this: “Perhaps we Based on the survey results, it is estimated that the total spend more time working at night, but the real impact costs of the new lighting scenario is marginally higher is that we now carry out our work in a relaxed manner. than the previous candle dependent scenario (increas- We don’t have to rush to get things done before it is ing from about US$80 to about US$90 a month). The dark any more. This is true for my work outside the increase in cost, however, is likely to be more than offset ger, but also for my wife’s working inside the ger like by the increase in productivity. preparing meals. ” While the use of candles has diminished significantly Many heads of household indicate that easier and timely since the use of CFL lamps became commonplace, inter- access to reliable market information on livestock and estingly the use of dry cell batteries has remained a con- food prices gives them an edge in marketing and pric- stant in the herders’ lives. However, battery consumption ing their products, and in making purchases. The added patterns have seen a notable shift since the en-masse switch from radio to television (with remote controls) and the decreased use of flashlights. One possible side effect of this was the quadrupling in the price of the smaller “AA” and “AAA” batteries while those for larger “C” and “D” batteries have remained largely unchanged. How this phenomenon impacts the household budget is not known, but it is not expected to be significant. Having access to electricity has boosted the herder households’ demand for consumer goods such as televi- sion sets, satellite dishes, cell phones and other electrical appliances, tools and equipment. Following are examples of prevailing retail prices of “typical” products generally available on the market: small portable color television set about US$150, satellite receiver about US$140, and freezer about US$400. As for SHSs, the price for 50W, 80W and 100W peak capacity units are about US$400, US$640 and US$800 respectively. 18 Mongolia: Development Impacts of Solar-Powered Electricity Services Communication and Social Interaction the men are herding away from home. Parents are now in frequent contact with their children who are in school Since the popularization of the SHSs, one of the more and living away from the gers during the school year. In significant social changes in the nomad community is in the past, inviting friends and relatives over was a rare the way the herders communicate within the families, occasion as it made little sense to visit somebody and between herder households, and with the outside world. then invite them to walk back home for a get together. Herders used to have to go to the soum or aimag center’s Planning gatherings ahead of time has become a new post office to make calls, and this was often described as feature of herders’ social life, and it appears both men a very tedious process. In addition to time spent on travel, a and women take part in extending the invitations. herder had to wait in line for the use of a public telephone. If the person he/she was trying to reach did not have a private phone, the caller’s post office would have to try to contact Healthcare and Emergency Care the post office of the other party and then get him to go there to take the call or return the phone call. The whole According to the survey data, about 85 percent of the process could take up to two or more days. surveyed households have at least one member who has been admitted to a hospital or treated at a clinic at least In the case a herder wanted to talk with his/her “next door once in their lifetime. Soum/aimag center clinics or hos- neighbor” (often a few kilometers away) simply to inquire pitals, however, could be hours away and travelling could about the whereabouts of their animals; to discuss prices be time consuming and expensive for many herders. This of their slaughters; or to socialize and exchange greet- is particularly so for those who are more vulnerable and ings, the process used to be time consuming as well. At do not have their own means of transportation (usually by times it could even be challenging, especially when the way of road vehicle, motorcycle or horse). Unfortunately, weather condition was bad or when it was after dark. The in the days of limited information and communication, near universal adoption of mobile phones has revamped rushing the patient to the clinic or hospital was deemed the mode of communication amongst herders com- the only sensible option available. pletely. Many tasks that once required travel can now be accomplished by a simple phone call. Despite fewer Following are some common responses when the inter- visits in person, herders feel they actually communicate viewees were asked to comment on how access to with each other more often now because cell phone use health services had changed: “No need to walk to the is low cost and very convenient. soum center anymore, which is great. It saves us time and energy, especially when we are not feeling well. In emer- While most herders cite the greatest benefit of having gency situation it’s even more important for us to being cell phones is in the way they facilitate their business able to call somebody. If we think that something is wrong, dealings (mostly by way of timely exchange of informa- we can call a doctor and get an immediate feedback.” tion, and more convenient means to seek information), many also note how communication has improved Table 3.2 shows the number of public and private clin- among family members and friends. Many households ics at the aimag level and how the average distance own multiple mobile phones. Couples can now keep between a ger and the closest aimag level facilities is each other informed and that is particularly useful when often over 100 km. With more open access to health care information, it appears that herders are learning to take better care of themselves and their families, thus reducing the inci- dence and severity of certain medical conditions. Direct consultation with doctors and nurses over the phone when problem arises also helps to decrease the number of visits to clinics and hospitals. In cases of true medical emergencies herders note that they can now call for ambulance and at the same time get immediate advice over the phone while they wait for help to arrive. This significantly cuts down the time spent on seek- ing help and waiting for help to be arranged. Prompt medi- cal attention reduces suffering and presumably saves lives in the instances of serious injuries and illnesses. Survey Findings 19 TABLE 3.2 AIMAG CLINICS AND AVERAGE DISTANCE FROM GERS Average Herder Household Aimag Number of Public Clinics Number of Private Clinics Distance from Aimag clinic (km) Arkhangai 1 8 152 Bayan-Ölgii 1 1 114.4 Bayankhongor 1 6 183 Bulgan 1 4 141.9 Darkhan-Uul 1 9 40 Dornod 1a 8 171 Dornogovi 1 15 160.7 Dundgovi 1 2 120.6 Govi-Altai 1 4 176.6 Govisümber 1 1 35 Khentii 1 2 155.2 Khovd 1b 12 169.9 Khövsgöl 1 7 159.7 Ömnögovi 1c 10 171.6 Orkhon 1 d 46 30 Övörkhangai 1e 4 128.3 Selenge 1 8 146.1 Sükhbaatar 1 2 146.1 Töv 1 2 157 Uvs 1 4 160.5 Zavkhan 1 7 193.9 Source: Authors. a. Including Centralized Laboratory for Eastern Region. b. Including Centralized Laboratory for Western Region. c. Including Centralized Laboratory for Southern Region. d. Including Centralized Laboratory for Northern Region. e. Including Centralized Laboratory for Central Region. In terms of maternal and child care, women reflect that Mothers also find it easier to coordinate with soum or access to information and services has improved a lot aimag nurses for their children’s checkup and immuniza- since consultation with doctors and nurses can now be tion, which have long been a mainstay of the country’s conducted over phone and information could be gath- children healthcare program. A less cumbersome pro- ered from the various public programs. Customarily, cess is usually conducive to better compliance with good a pregnant nomad woman is escorted to the nearest healthcare practices. clinic by an ambulance two weeks prior to her expected delivery date. The home pickup service can now be Similarly, herders reported that the use of the cell phone arranged over the phone, and this is considered very has helped them to take better care of their animals. convenient and often cuts down on the time a woman They can now call veterinarians to ask questions, sched- has to spend away from home for childbirth. Not unlike ule the next round of vaccinations, and seek help in case emergency care, the phone reduces waiting time and of emergencies. Knowing when to expect the veterinar- knowing that help is only a phone call away provides ians in advance is also appreciated by the herders as they much peace of mind. could better pinpoint the time to round up their animals and keep them close by in order to for them to receive the services and treatments. 20 Mongolia: Development Impacts of Solar-Powered Electricity Services Health Education and Preventive Care According to the interviews, it appears that the most popular and effective means of health education is often delivered via regularly scheduled television programs (some also available on the radio). They usually come in the form of tips on preventive care. For example, a bi-weekly program called “Healing YoYo” prompted its viewers to say: “We learned that it’s better not to use too much salt, fat and sugar” and “we watch the show all the time.” Another example is a program that discusses certain common diseases (such as flu) that herders could contract, their symptoms, ways to prevent them, and the drugs that are used to treat them. An example of a rather common response goes as follows: “Now that we have a TV, we can learn about health-related issues from some With a CFL lamp and a mobile phone, herders over- programs and discuss with the doctor our symptoms. whelmingly agree that they feel safer, particularly at From the prevention perspective, TV is very helpful. ” night because they can see who is approaching their gers, their animals are calmer when it is not pitch dark, Also very popular are the various television shows on and the threat of fire hazards are reduced because the cooking. They discuss nutritional values of different types need for candles or oil lamps has largely been elimi- of foods, demonstrate various methods of cooking, and nated. Improved access to health education, medical introduce healthy ingredients and recipes. As a result of services, as well as emergency care further enhance the newly gained knowledge, herders appear to be more the herder households’ sense of wellbeing as they feel aware of food choices and consequences. They also feel more prepared to deal with illnesses and injuries as well more confident and empowered; some even observed as pregnancies and childbirth. Moving towards a more that now they could “talk to doctors as equals. ” Table 3.3 balanced diet not only impacts the herders’ health, but shows a typical educational television program that was also makes their meals more enjoyable. Closer ties with available around the time of the surveys. family and friends also contribute to a general sense of contentment. Vulnerability and Sense of Security The Mongolian herder population is vulnerable to many Gender Impact of Solar Home Systems elements because they live in remote areas and often Literature review finds access to energy to be gendered: in isolation. While their lifestyle is to live simply and to it is determined by intra-household decision-making, respect and blend in with nature, inclement weather for social position and the value attached to labor.1 As stated a greater part of the year often makes it very tough and in a 2011 World Bank report, while both poor women dangerous to cope on their own. During the winter when and poor men suffer from energy poverty, women are the hours of natural daylight are short and the air is very disproportionately affected, as their access to energy cold productivity is also curtailed. resources and benefits is further curtailed by unequal power relations.2 Being able to maintain a constant link with the outside world where support resources could be sought miti- Moreover, there is evidence from all over the develop- gates a lot of the nomads’ vulnerability and enhances ing world that women’s needs, views, and participation their sense of security. With easier access to timely have persistently been excluded from energy policy and and reliable news, market information and weather practice. When women experience energy poverty and reports and alerts; coupled with brighter lights for their energy needs are not met, the consequences are longer hours each day, the generally low-income herd- severe. As a result of time-consuming and physically ers believe are able to earn a fairer living, sustain fewer draining tasks, women’s health conditions are poor, their losses, and increase their productivity and efficiency. options to earn additional income are minimal, the oppor- Knowing that support is only a phone call away and there tunities to improve their labor productivity are low, and is good lighting to complete the day’s chores seems to provide the herders peace of mind and thus reduced their stress level. 1. Danielsen (2012). 2. Köhlin, G. et al. (2011). Survey Findings 21 TABLE 3.3 TYPICAL EDUCATIONAL TELEVISION PROGRAMS Weekly number Duration Name Description of times aired (Minutes) Healing Yo-Yo, MN25 TV Medicine and drug application, what can do 2 30 for illness and sickness Health training, Education TV Distance learning 3 30 English language, Education TV Distance learning 5 50 Korean language distance learning, Distance learning 5 115 Education TV Women hour, Mongol TV Famous Women participate and share their 5 30 experiences and lessons learned How to make it? Education TV Distance learning 5 55 Modern healing and TV doctor Distance learning 1 20 programs, NTV Health program, MNB-2 Training program on health and women 7 60 Cooking’s cool, Education TV Chef Tengis teaches how to cook 1 55 EAT-Tengis’s hour, C1 TV Chef Tengis teaches how to cook 1 60 “Bon Appetit” Cook Show, MN25 TV Chef T. Bat-Orgil teaches how to cook 1 70 Your Health, TM Medicine usage, health warning, healthy food 1 20 Source: Authors. the options for social and political interaction outside the male herders seem to put higher value on a woman’s household are restrained.3 work contributions towards the overall level of house- hold income. All in all, improved energy access at the Within this context, the wide adoption of SHSs and the herder household level is contributing, albeit indirectly, subsequent improvements in access to electricity ser- to gender equality, which has been experiencing a nega- vices have positively impacted intra-household dynam- tive trend over the past two decades. In the future, there ics, partially addressing some of the above-mentioned is merit in reviewing the impact of reduced energy pov- concerns. With improved electricity access, rural women erty on the overall theme of gender inequality. Additional seem to have become experts at multitasking and information on the subject matter is available in Annex 2. very efficient at managing their time. The majority of the women interviewed indicate that the newly-gained access to stable electricity has translated into significant Changes in Attitude and Cultural Preservation time-savings, which in turn, allow for increased time Under the Government’s 100k Program, herders initially spent on personal care, parenting, learning and work received their solar home systems for free as most were diversification. One of the responses collected from a financed from grants provided by the international donor herder woman is as follows: “We are freer than ever community. For those who did not obtain free systems before to help our children, assist our husbands and take the majority was reluctant to spend their own resources better care of ourselves.” Along the same lines, a herder to buy them even though the SHS were publicized as man reports: “Women do more and do it better, both for affordable, cost effective and the users could derive a lot themselves and the household as a whole.” of benefits from having a reliable source of electricity. With widespread awareness of the benefits and gen- The information collected indicates that, following the eral acceptance of a substantial copayment (about 50 installation of SHSs, women’s household-related deci- percent cost sharing under REAP) it appears the former sion making enjoys a higher degree of freedom. Similarly, misconception and market failure has been addressed. Positive feedbacks based on on-the-ground experience will likely promote the growth of the household renew- 3. Cecelski, E. (2004); Clancy J. S., Skutsch M. M. and Batchelor S. (2003); Cecelski, Elizabeth and CRGGE (2006); and Balmer, M. (2007). able energy market. 22 Mongolia: Development Impacts of Solar-Powered Electricity Services Many herders interviewed express their general sense of satisfaction with the introduction of solar home systems and the improvements and development it brings about. Some even hold the opinion that their SHS power supply was more reliable than that provided by the main power grid because cities still experience outages periodically. They also consider their SHSs superior to the wind power generators, which often break down when the wind is strong or underperform because of the lack of wind. Oth- ers also see their units as more affordable and environ- mentally friendly than the historic diesel alternative. The in-depth interviews revealed that two of the fami- lies are former soum center residents. They decided to That said, while there exists a small percentage of become herders after they observed the improvements households that have augmented their electricity sup- in herders’ living conditions brought about by SHSs and plies by installing additional SHS units to accommodate saw potential for higher income. As herders begin to enjoy other major appliances (such as freezers and washing better quality of life, stories like these provide anecdotal machines), whether the majority of households would evidence that the trend of migration into peri-urban areas be prepared to pay full retail price for them remains to be at the soum level might be slowing or even reversing. seen. In fact many of them express mixed feelings about purchasing without subsidies even though they realize As noted in the survey result section, about ten per- that higher SHS capacity is a prerequisite for acquiring cent of the heads of household and their spouses have appliances they consider highly useful and desirable. had some level of tertiary education. It is observed that despite their potential to find jobs and integrate into For centuries, the availability of water and pasture land urban society, these adults choose to live and bring up had been the two main factors herders took into account their families the traditional way. With the country expe- when they considered a move. It is interesting to note riencing its current economic boom, rural electrification that with the sea change in the way herders commu- and the positive impact felt by the beneficiaries would nicate nowadays, mobile phone coverage and signal help ensure that the nomad community, with strongest strength have become a third common criterion that connection to the country’s rich history and culture, herder households take into account when they deter- would be able to maintain its long-established way of life mine their relocation needs. without being left further behind. ANNEX A Salient Demographic Features of the Sample Survey Population Household Composition and Age of male and female interviewees. The resulting male to Distribution female ratio was around 56:44. The total number of residents in the 789 households cov- The majority of interviewees (63 percent) were between ered in the sample survey was 3,014 persons. The size the ages of 20 and 45 years, and the average age was of households in the sample ranged from one to nine about 42 years. The age profile of the interviewees is members, with an average of about four persons living summarized in Figure A.1. in each ger. In terms of distribution of family size, about 84 percent of the households surveyed were comprised FIGURE A.1 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF INTERVIEWEES of two to five members (at 14 percent, 21 percent, 29 percent and 19 percent respectively). Under 20 Over 60 years old years old 1% A typical family is comprised of a married or cohabiting 10% couple (83 percent), i.e. a head of household, a spouse, and their children; and occasionally an extended family member. A little more than a third of the population is in the age range between 23–45 years. The age distribution of the surveyed households is presented in Table A.1. 45 to 60 years old 26% The Survey Interviewees 20 to 45 years old 63% The survey included interviews with heads of house- hold (60 percent, between the ages of 18 and 82), their spouses (33 percent, between the ages of 20 and 80) and other members of the family (7 percent). In order to adequately capture the perspectives of both genders, Source: ASTAE/World Bank—REAP Beneficiary Survey. the interviewers were mindful in balancing the number TABLE A.1 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERS OF THE SURVEYED HOUSEHOLDS 61 and 0–5 6–12 13–18 19–22 23–45 46–60 Total Above Number 397 340 430 255 1055 441 127 3,045 % of Total 13% 11% 14% 8% 35% 14% 4% 100% Source: ASTAE/World Bank—REAP Beneficiary Survey 23 24 Mongolia: Development Impacts of Solar-Powered Electricity Services TABLE A.2 AGE DISTRIBUTION OF HEADS OF HOUSEHOLD Under 20 21–30 31–40 41–50 51–60 61 and Above Total Number 7 147 261 175 122 77 789 % of Total 1% 19% 33% 22% 15% 10% 100% Source: ASTAE/World Bank—REAP Beneficiary Survey. Heads of Households (53 percent and 33 percent respectively). Consistently with the country’s trend on higher education1, more In line with the Mongolian tradition, the survey confirmed spouses (about 98 percent were women in this sample) that the vast majority of herder households was headed than their husbands had earned a college or university by men. In this particular sample, about 90 percent were degree (71 women as opposed to 49 men). A distribution male (of which 83 percent were married or cohabiting of the education attainment of the heads of household with a woman). The age distribution of the heads of and their spouses is provided in Figure A.2. household is provided in Table A.2. Household Income Education of Adult Household Members About 90 percent of the interviewees indicated that their The majority of adult household members were made up main source of income was livestock based including of the heads of household and their spouses. In terms products such as meat, wool and cashmere; and their of their education attainment, the survey revealed that most of them only completed primary or middle school 1. http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/mongolia_statistics.html. FIGURE A.2 EDUCATION OF HEADS OF HOUSEHOLD AND THEIR SPOUSES University Education College Education High School Education Level Middle School Primary School (4–7) Primary School (1–3) No Formal Education Spouse Household Head 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Percent Source: ASTAE/World Bank—REAP Beneficiary Survey. Annex A. Salient Demographic Features of the Sample Survey Population 25 livelihood was mostly associated with herding sheep and goats. About 75 percent of the respondents regarded men FIGURE A.3 INCOME DISTRIBUTION OF HERDER as in charge of the household’s business related affairs. HOUSEHOLDS IN THE SAMPLE SURVEY Income of herders was low as compared to the national average of about US$3,000 per capita in 2012. In the sam- ple households (with an average size of four persons), Over about a third made less than US$2,500 in 2012, and only US$5,000 (25%) Under about a quarter managed to earn more than US$5,000 US$2,500 for the year. The average annual income of households (34%) in the sample survey was about US$3,900. The group’s income distribution is presented in Figure A.3. US$2,500 to US$5,000 (41%) Source: ASTAE/World Bank—REAP Beneficiary Survey. ANNEX B Gender Aspects in Mongolia Trends of Gender Inequality B.1, the country’s Gender Inequality Index (GII) has been rising from 0.315 in 1995 to 0.411 in 2011. The topic of gender inequality has received much atten- tion in literature over the years. One of the most com- While GII-level data are not available for region-specific mon measures to assess gender inequality is the Gender analyses, a similar index called Gender Development Inequality Index (GII), which is a composite measure that Index (GDI), which is defined as a “distribution-sensitive reflects the loss of human development resulting from measure that accounts for the human development gender inequality. The GII combines indicators of repro- impact of existing gender gaps in the three components ductive health, political empowerment and labor market of the Human Development Index (HDI)” , provides an participation. The lower the GII, the less gender inequal- approximation of the fact that rural Mongolia has a higher ity impacts on development. level of gender inequality than the capital. As it can be concluded by looking at Figure B.2, the higher the GDI In Mongolia, data on gender inequality indicate that it has score, the lower the gender inequality. increased over the past two decades. As shown in Figure FIGURE B.1 TREND IN GENDER INEQUALITY INDEX (GII) 0.5 0.4 Index 0.3 0.2 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Year Source: UNDP. 27 28 Mongolia: Development Impacts of Solar-Powered Electricity Services FIGURE B.2 GENDER DEVELOPMENT INDEX (GDI)—REGIONAL COMPARISON 0.800 Gender Development Index 0.750 0.700 0.650 l n lia rn i ra ar ga er te go nt at an st es Ce ba on Ea Kh W an M la U Region Source: National Statistical Office. As it can be gathered from the figure above, improving Despite the good progress made in the past twenty Mongolia’s gender indicators chiefly implies reducing years, there is ample room for improving Mongolia’s inequality at the rural level, with particular attention to population’s reproductive health. Sexually Transmitted the country’s Eastern and Westerns aimags. Infections (STIs) are about 35 percent of the total infec- tious disease burden in the country. The presence of STIs augments the risk of Human immunodeficiency virus Corrective Actions (HIV) transmission. The number of confirmed HIV cases increased dramatically between 2005 and 2010. Youth According to the United Nations Population Fund aged 15-24 are five times more likely to be infected with (UNPFA), actions for reducing gender inequality should HIV than adults in general. be focused on: (i) improving reproductive health, includ- ing improving knowledge of how to prevent sexually The country also lags behind many of its neighboring transmitted infections; (ii) reducing maternal mortality countries in terms of MMRs, which are high by regional rates (MMRs), which have declined by 65 percent since standards. 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