No. 8 KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE Series December 2006 39905 Indoor Air Pollution in Cold Climates: The Cases of Mongolia and China by Enis Baris, Salvador Rivera, Zuzana Boehmova, and Samantha Constant This note provides a snapshot of indoor air pollution (IAP) interventions in two cold climate environments. It illustrates the different methodologies used for each of the cases and presents a comparative analysis of results and lessons learned. There are to date more than 3.5 billion people, mostly in developing countries, who still rely on coal and biomass-- such as wood, dung, and crop residues--as their main source of energy for both cooking and heating. Traditional sources of energy burned in simple stoves with no proper ventilation can be extremely polluting and New stove designs to improve fuel efficiency and help mitigate cause serious environmental health problems (Smith, emissions in Mongolia--one of the highest per capita emission 2006). Women and children are at greater risk because rates in the world--have been installed in the past years. In of household responsibilities and increased exposure January 2004, a field study followed up on a 1997 project indoors (Dasgupta et al., 2004).1 where improved stoves were distributed to 40 families, Despite documented health risks (Ezzati et al., 2002),2 reportedly saving families 34% coal and 15% fuel wood. Over indoor air pollution continues to be a global challenge. the years, the number of stove installations has increased Cold climate countries face additional burdens due to considerably to 2,740 improved stoves by the end of 2003. prolonged periods of burning fuels for heating purposes. The pilot study highlighted in this brief is a collaborative effort Poor combustion can incur additional fuel expenses and by the World Bank and the Environmental Health Sciences cause an increase in refueling periods, a process that Division of University of California, Berkeley. The study measures emits a high amount of emissions. Additionally, bed IAP levels in ger households that use one of three different stoves ­ traditionally known as kangs in China ­ used in types of popular stoves to create an understanding of how households in cold environments can add to the level and to what degree improved stoves affect indoor air quality of emissions indoors if poorly insulated. and fuel efficiency in gers. The study specifically focuses on In earlier studies, interventions looked at indoor air carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM). pollution (IAP) by measuring pollutants and stove Methodology efficiency. More recent work has shown the importance Baseline data show that the 24-hour average CO and PM of approaching it from a combined multi-sectoral angle. concentrations in all homes exceeded Mongolian national This note illustrates interventions in two cold climate standards. In the case of CO, the national standard is 2.6 parts environments, Mongolia and China, and draws an per million (ppm) and the average in households is 9.5 ppm. analysis based on the two projects. For 24-hour average total suspended particles (TSP), the MONGOLIA national standard is 150-200 µg/m3 (micrograms per cubic meter of air)3 and the average 24-hour observed PM Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, is the coldest capital in the concentration is 700 µg/m3 over all households.4 The United world. Most of the families live in gers, traditional States Environmental Protection Agency maximum national Mongolian dwellings consisting of wooden frames ambient air quality standard for PM2.5is 35 µg/m3.5 beneath several layers of wool felt and with no partition separating kitchen from living/sleeping areas. Heating Independent household and environmental factors and cooking is typically conducted by metal stoves with considered included ger volume, average indoor chimneys and for many homes bed stoves are also temperature, average ambient temperature, age of stove, popular sources of heat. The most widely used fuel in the distance between the stove and the monitors, and the number ger district is coal, although wood is also used for some of cigarettes smoked in the household during the monitoring tasks (ESMAP, 2005). period. Coal and wood were provided to residents at no cost, and quantity for each household was measured and 1 Indoor air pollution, caused from incomplete combustion, produces a complex of distributed equitably. Households were requested not to small and large particulates. Studies show that acute and chronic exposure to high levels of particulate matter, especially fine particulates (PM10), is associated with modify their behavior for the study. respiratory illness and death. 2 In the year 2000, nearly 3% of the total global burden of disease measured as Disability Adjusted Life Year (DALY) was attributable to IAP from solid fuel use. ESMAP promotes the role of energy in poverty reduction and economic 3 A microgram is a millionth of a gram. Microgram per cubic meter of air measures growth with redistribution in an environmentally responsible manner. the weight of particulates suspended in the air. Its work applies to low-income, emerging and transition economies and 4The monitor used to measure the particulate levels in this study captured particulate sizes corresponding roughly to PM2.5. directly contributes to achieving the Millennium Development Goals. 5To attain this standard, the 3-year average of the 98th percentile of 24 concentrations must not exceed 35 µg/m3. KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE Series December 2006 39905 Stove Characteristics An important characteristic in Mongolian stoves, Stove Improvement Project Receives Blessing from Supreme Lama of Mongolia regardless of type, is the chimney. Although the design of improved stoves is different from the traditional version, Buddhist traditions run deep among the residents of the ger district. The popular belief concerning golomt--the hearth/fire spirit--received both improved and traditional stoves have chimneys particular attention during preparation of the Stove Improvement extending to the outside. As shown in Figure 1, the G2- Project. 2000 type has smaller combustion chambers than the The stove, traditionally constructed in the center of the ger, symbolizes traditional stoves and a grate and air inlet that together the family's ties with ancestors. Desecration or disrespect of the stove space is a sin and insult to the master of the house. force air upward through the burning coal from underneath. The TT-03 is designed with metal flangs on The golomt dwells within the stove. It is the highest being in the household, bringing peace and good luck to those within the ger or each of the sides to improve heat radiation in the room, house. The fire spirit is passed from parent to "best" child--at the clay lining to hold heat and a chimney valve to help parents' discretion--and a decision to alter the stove requires a consideration of the golomt. When a new stove is installed, a lama or control the burn rate. priest takes ash from the old one to place in the new one and prays that the golomt will reside in the new stove and bring blessings on the Figure 1: Traditional and Improved Stoves in Mongolia family as before. Because a buyer would not know about the golomt of the previous owner, there is a limited market for second-hand stoves. Traditional G2-2000 TT-03 During project preparation stage, the project team designed a social marketing component sensitive to the the significance of the golomt. The project benefited from extensive consultation with the head of a Buddhist temple in Ulaanbaatar and the Supreme Lama of Mongolia. In traditional style, a fire offering ceremony took place to bless the Stove Improvement Project and initiate its launch. One of the most important emerging benefits of using Only ger households with stoves in use for six months or improved stoves is the reduction of coal consumption. Table longer were considered, taking into account time needed 1 shows that coal consumption for the households studied for stove familiarity. Kitchen layouts in households were decreases for improved stoves. This is significant considering not disturbed and household members were not the strong correlation between fuel usage and PM/CO. introduced to or trained in improved kitchen practices. Despite the fact the PM results were mixed, the reduction Results Table 1: Reduction of Fuel Consumption in fuel consumption can ultimately lead to lower PM levels in the long run and improve indoor air quality. Independent Areas Decrease of fuel household Stove Type consumption % The study shows that improved stoves and ventilated layouts characteristics MONGOLIA1 reduce indoor pollution substantially; however, the impact and environmental G2-2000 ­ Ulaanbaatar of outdoor pollutants on indoor concentrations remains a factors considered Wood Use N/A question. Future work calls for more in depth research of did not vary Coal Use 22% ambient (or surrounding) conditions on indoor sources. significantly across TT-03 ­ Ulaanbaatar households, Wood Use 12% CHINA regardless which Coal Use 21% More than 70% of households in China rely on solid fuels stove types were CHINA2 (biomass and coal) for domestic energy use. China is used. The study Guizhou: Coal stove 30% particularly interesting to study due to its wide topography, did show that for Gansu: Biomass stove 51% regional climactic variation, varied fuel use and availability, improved stoves and its socio-cultural demography. IAP in China is the fifth there was a Shaanxi: Coal underground stove 41% most important health risk factor and an energy transition reduction in CO Inner Mongolia: Biomass stove - N/A to cleaner fuels continues to be slow (Baris and Ezzati, 2006). levels, but results bed device for PM data were 1Data has been calculated from Table 3.2 (Cowlin, et al. 2005). The World Bank in collaboration with the China Center for 2Data has been calculated from Table 4.8 (Baris and Ezzati, 2006) mixed. Such results Disease Control and Prevention and the Foreign Loan Office are likely due to significant levels of outdoor pollution, at the Ministry of Health carried out one of the first caused by chimneys from both traditional and community-based trials to assess the linkages between improved stoves venting emissions. technology, user knowledge and behavior. The project built on a field study that started in 2002 in the four provinces of Gers using traditional stoves sampled in the study had a Gansu, Guizhou, Shaanxi, and Inner Mongolia to: (1) better combined mean of 24-hour CO concentration of 11.6 determine the scope and severity of IAP in these areas; (2) ppm, while homes with improved stoves had a 24-hour pilot a combination of solutions from a multi-sectoral mean value of 8.9 ppm for the TT-03 stoves and 7.9 ppm perspective; and (3) evaluate cultural, socio-economic and for G2-2000 stoves ­ a CO reduction of 23% and 32% organizational feasibility of these solutions. respectively. ESMAP Knowledge Exchange Series No. 8 2 For the purpose of this note, we will focus on methodology, In Guizhou, residents primarily use a coal or air circular stove characteristics, and IAP results based on heating stove, which is made of steel or high cast iron and season exposure. composed of the basement, stove body, stove core, fire holding setting and covers. Important features are upper Methodology and lower outlets and a connected chimney. The closing The study took place during a 2-year period to monitor of the upper outlet determines the smoke/heat flow pollutants (PM and CO) in multiple locations and better through chimney tract that increases utilization for heating, understand the role of cooking, heating, and food drying and the lower inlet controls the smoke/heat flows for exposure. In China, most households interchange biomass cooking. and coal in multi-purpose stoves for both cooking and heating (Yinlong et al. , 2005a). In Shaanxi, coal range and underground stoves are popular. Local people typically use brick-made range and Baseline data indicate that IAP is a serious issue in all four underground stoves, however many are designed provinces. Carbon monoxide levels exceeded WHO improperly and have no or poorly made chimneys. guidelines of 10 ppm in Shaanxi and Gansu during the Improved stoves add chimneys and an improved tract peak-heating season in December. On average, levels system for better heat/smoke flow. The heating in the of PM exceeded the national standard by almost 100% in underground stove is favorable and results are best when Inner Mongolia and by about 70% in Gansu, Shaanxi, and the floor is properly treated after construction with no less Guizhou. Levels of CO exceeded the national standard 2.5m2 cement sealing. Ceramic tile is sometimes used by almost 50% in Inner Mongolia, and by 45% and 33% in around stove mouth for decoration. Shaanxi and Gansu, respectively (Baris and Ezzati, 2006). Figure 2: Biomass range stove intervention During implementation of the intervention, sampled in Gansu Province households were divided into 1) stove plus behavioral Before After intervention, 2) behavioral intervention, and 3) control groups. For the stove plus behavioral intervention group, 2,500 households were provided new stoves with improved ventilation systems on a subsidized basis. In addition, some 200 households from the behavioral intervention group decided to install new stoves at full cost. Also considered in the study were the housing In Gansu, coal/biomass two-fuel range stoves are used characteristics of the study population. For example, in (see picture). A growing number of locals are using coal all provinces most houses have a kitchen separated from because of the shortage in wood/crop residues due to the living/sleeping area. In Gansu and Inner Mongolia, forest protection policies. Typically the kitchens are there is no separate bedroom whereas in the other two separate, but without a door. The intervention includes provinces there is a third room. Interestingly, in Guizhou, improved chimneys and smoke tracts for heated beds. much of the cooking actually took place in the living room and in Inner Mongolia people tended to go between the In Inner Mongolia, biomass bed stoves are popular. use of kitchen and bedroom for cooking. On average, Typically, the cave-like houses consist of stove beds without 75% of the kitchens across the provinces (some provinces any chimney or separation between the actual stove and were higher in number than others) had windows, but bed. Ventilation occurs usually through a small window or ventilation fans were not widespread, with less than 1% in door only. Improved stoves introduced a partition to Guizhou province. separate the bed from the stove, and also include an exhaustion fan and chimney. In addition, pollutant levels from a small number of old and new stoves were measured under controlled stove Results use conditions equal to ideal stove use behavior. This study demonstrates that multiple uses of energy, such Technical experts were available on site to assist with the as cooking, heating, and food drying, result in multiple operation of new stoves. routes of exposure to IAP, varying substantially from one Stove Characteristics province to the other (Yinlong et al., 2005b). It also demonstrates that heating is an important source of The technology intervention in China involved exposure to indoor air pollutants, especially in the northern improvement of entire kitchen layouts and ventilation China. Both Gansu and Inner Mongolia had the highest systems, which were then customized for the different PM concentrations, reflecting the impact of colder provinces. The types of stoves selected and improved are temperatures and longer heating hours on pollutant levels described here: indoors. ESMAP Knowledge Exchange Series No. 8 3 A Family Affair: The Significance of the Kang in Chinese Culture Outdoor pollution was not analyzed in the China study, which focused on user behavior and health education in The kang is a heating platform made of bricks or fired clay. The interior cavity channels exhaust from an attached stove through a flue (pipe) or combination with technology. However, similar to the smoke tract connecting the two structures together. With great capacity Mongolia case, an important emerging benefit is the reduction to retain heat if insulated correctly, the kang provides warmth during in fuel use. In addition, there were significant reductions in PM cold winter nights and can be very efficient in utilizing smoke emitted by the connected stove. and CO with varied results across the different provinces. Interestingly, there is little evidence that the health education Typically used for sleeping, the kang is also a place for congregation and family gatherings, where stories are shared between generations. programs improved risk behavior of users. Improved kangs in the China IAP project have a partition wall separating the stove from the platform. Both studies demonstrate the complexity of addressing indoor air pollution. In Mongolia, a look at ambient pollution is necessary to better understand the results of indoor pollutants The full intervention group was characterized by larger in the gers. In China, where the intervention encompassed a reductions of PM and CO in all of the provinces, with mixed multi-sectoral approach, unexpected considerations continue significance between the sites. This is due to variation in stove to emerge, in particular the different ways that cooking and use and different housing characteristics. Pollutant heating impact health and pollution in cold climate concentration levels and composition greatly depend on environments. Future studies are necessary to better address whether a stove is used for cooking or heating, and is a these important and increasingly relevant issues. significant consideration especially when designing interventions for cold climate countries. References Overall, measurements under household conditions reveal that Baris, Enis and Majid Ezzati. 2006. Sustainable and Efficient Energy Use to Alleviate Indoor Air Pollution in Poor Rural Areas in China. World the new stove/ventilation technologies had much higher Bank. Washington DC. (Forthcoming) efficiency and lower emissions than the old stoves. The Cowlin, Shannon, Rachel B. Kaufmann, Rufus Edwards, and Kirk R. measurements taken under the controlled conditions show Smith. 2005. Impact of Improved Stoves on Indoor Air Quality in an even more substantial reduction in concentrations of PM Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. ESMAP Report. Washington DC. and CO (13-15%). This can be explained by the fact that those Dasgupta, Susmita, Mainul Huq, M. Khaliquzzaman, Craig Meisner, Kiran operating the stoves in controlled conditions were of a higher Pandey, and David Wheeler. 2004. Monitoring Indoor Air Pollution. World Bank, Washington DC. skill or expertise. Ezzati, Majid and Daniel M. Kammen. 2002. "The Health Impacts of Similar to the Mongolia case, Table 1 shows that new stoves Exposure to Indoor Air Pollution from Solid Fuels in Developing Countries: Knowledge, Gaps, and Data Needs." Environmental Health decreased fuel consumption significantly and even more so Perspectives, Volume 110: No. 11. in the China case with a 30-50% reduction rate. This is more Global Environmental Facility (GEF) and World Bank. 2000. likely a result of the new stoves improved combustion and Improved Household Stoves in Mongolian Urban Centers. Project ventilation systems. This study found no IAP reduction benefits Brief. Washington DC. from health education and behavioral interventions alone, Smith, Kirk. 2006. Rural Air Pollution: A Major But Often Ignored despite the relatively extensive program. Development Concern. Commission on Sustainable Development Thematic Session on Integrated Approaches to Addressing Air Pollution and Atmospheric Problems. United Nations, New York City. Conclusion Yinlong, Jin, Xiao Ma, Xining Chen, Yibin Cheng, Enis Baris, and Majid The Mongolia program tackled IAP by carrying out a targeted Ezzati. 2005a. "Exposure to indoor air pollution from household energy fuel efficiency intervention. A major benefit of the intervention use in rural China: The interactions of technology, behavior and knowledge in health risk management." Social Science and Medicine, is the reduction of fuel consumption. However, the study also 5268: 1-16. reveals that an important source of IAP in the ger district is Yinlong, Jin, Zheng Zhou, Gongli He, Huangzhang Wei, Jiang Liu, Fan ambient outdoor air pollution--a likely reason for the high Liu, Ning Tang, Bo Ying, Yangchang Liu, Guohua Hu, Hongwei Wang, concentration of pollutants indoors despite the introduction Kalpana Balakrishnan, Kimber Watson, Enis Baris, and Majid Ezzati. 2005b. "Geographical, Spatial, and Temporal Distributions of Multiple of improved stoves. Indoor Air Pollutants in Four Chinese Provinces. Environmental Science & Technology, 39 (24): 9431-9439. Copyright 2006 Photo Credits: İDouglas Barnes Production Team: Marjorie K. Araya, Douglas F. Barnes, and Samantha M. Constant Contact Information: esmap@worldbank.org Enis Baris is a Senior Public Health Specialist in the Eastern Europe and Central Asia Region at the World Bank. Salvador Rivera is a Senior Energy Specialist in the East Asia and Pacific Region at the World Bank. Zuzana Boehmova is a consultant in the Eastern Europe and Central Asia Region at the World Bank. Samantha Constant is a consultant in the Energy and Water Department at the World Bank. To order copies of the full publication and for more information, please visit us at our website: http://www.esmap.org. The Knowledge Exchange Series is issued by ESMAP to disseminate the results of significant work in the energy sector for the benefit of the development community in the most effective and most accessible way possible. This brochure is printed on recycled paper. http://www.esmap.org