79711 POLICY NOTE NO. 38 JUNE 2013 Africa Trade Policy Notes Louis Njie Ndumbe Unshackling Women Traders: Cross-border Trade of Eru from Cameroon to Nigeria Introduction HIGHLIGHTS Eru trade is a main source of Eru, a vegetable found in the forest, plays an important role in trade between countries in West and Central Africa, especially between income for individuals Cameroon and Nigeria. This note analyses the environment for trade in Eru involved in the value chain. as an example of a high value non-wood forest product (NWFP) that has a Available estimates suggest great potential both in terms of exports but also for income generating that Eru contributes on activities. Women are heavily involved in Eru trade as both harvesters and average 62% of a harvester‘s small-scale traders. It is a key means for many women to diversify the income stream of their household and reduce their financial dependence on annual income. men. Hence, it is of particular importance to analyze the Eru value chain from a gender perspective. The note discusses how women face substantial A key challenge facing the constraints relative to men in developing their Eru business, which limits production and trade of Eru their value-added and the contribution of their work to their household‘s is over-exploitation and the income. lack of governance to The note also discusses a key challenge facing countries in the region implement sustainable notably, how to support trade in Eru with its potential for poverty reduction, management of these natural while also ensuring its sustainable cultivation. Current destructive harvesting resources. techniques, extraction rates in excess of what can naturally be replenished, the rapid decline of the natural habitat of the plant and the lack of effective Given the potential of the Eru management of forests, and of Eru itself, compromise the long-term sustainability of this important natural resource. Gender imbalances in value chain to promote access to training and finance, and ownership of land undermine effective household welfare, removing responses to this problem. the constraints faced by female producers and traders Background of Eru can have a great Central Africa harbors the Congo basin forest, the second largest forest impact on economic growth reserve in the world after the Amazon forest. This forest has a huge diversity and poverty reduction. of biological resources including non-wood forest products (NWFPs), comprising two Gnetum species that are widely traded in the region, Gnetumafricanum and bucholzianum, locally known as ‗Eru‘ by the Anglophones and ‗Okok‘ by the Francophones in Cameroon.1 WORLD BANK 1 In Nigeria, they are locally known as ‗okasi‘ by the Ibos and ‗afang‘ by the AkwaIboms. Dealers in Cameroon and Nigeria local ly refer to them as ‗salad‘. The eru leaves are eaten raw, or shredded and added to soups, stews, porridges, and fish and meat dishes. Both species of eru are highly nutritious and an important source of protein, essential amino acids, and minerals. 1| www.worldbank.org/afr/trade Current estimates suggest 40% of Cameroon‘s female (CIFOR 2009). Ndoye (1997) reported population live below the poverty line of 1 USD that about 94% of intermediaries operating in the per day. Over half of the population is in rural humid forest zone of Cameroon were women. areas (INS 2007 ECAM 3).Sourced principally In addition, all of the retailers identified in the from Cameroon, Eru is an important product for Southwest Region were women (CIFOR, 2009). the country given the volume of Eru trade and its Finally, of the estimated 265 exporters 58% were high economic value in an area of high poverty. female (CIFOR, 2009). Even though exports of Eru from Cameroon to Nigeria are not well recorded by customs officials Profit margins for those working in this sector at the border, evidence suggests there are depend, among other things, on gender, family substantial and increasing export flows. In 1992 status and age of the entrepreneurs. For example, exports of Eru from Cameroon to Nigeria were women are more restricted in their access to estimated to be 428 tons (FAO 2009).By forest resources than men (Ingram et al. 2012). 2009,this trade measured more than 4,000 tons, Eru of good quality—meaning large, thick and and represented about 78% of the overall volume dark green leaves—and quantity are generally of international trade in Eru. At the price of found in closed canopy forests and mostly on 1,000FCFA/Kg, this means that Cameroon trees and tree canopies. Local customs however exported about 4 billion FCFA worth of Eru to discriminate against women with respect to access Nigeria or 7.6 million USD.2 Overall, to trees (timber, commercial fruit trees and Cameroon‘s exports of Eru to the world are commercial fuel wood) and other productive about 5.1 billion FCFA, equivalent to 9.8 million resources like bamboo, raffia, cola etc. Under USD, and represent 0.3% of total Cameroonian communal tenure regimes, women traditionally exports. obtain legal rights to family land, but they do not possess inheritance rights. Consequently, for Eru trade is a main source of income for crops like Eru, women can exercise their right to individuals involved in the value chain. Available cultivate in the forest. However, unlike male estimates suggest that Eru contributes on average harvesting agents, women are restricted from 62% of a harvester‘s annual income. Dependence climbing trees to collect Eru. As a result, males upon Eru-based incomes increases for those have access to the best harvesting areas, collect further from the forest, providing on average 75% the best crop in terms of quantity and quality, of retailer‘s (1,268 USD) and 58% of exporter‘s make larger profits from Eru activity, and support annual incomes (7,000 USD) (CIFOR 2009 and more people from Eru revenues (Ingram et al. Ingram et. al 2012). FAO (2009) reports that 2012). women trading Eru, as harvesters and traders, make daily profit margins during the main season A key challenge facing the production and trade that vary between 16 USD and 160 USD of Eru is over-exploitation and the lack of depending upon the prevailing market conditions governance to implement sustainable and whether the seller is a harvester or a trader.² management of these natural resources. Central Likewise, profits along the value chain increase African countries have made commitments to the further away from the forests, with exporters sustainably managing their forest resources by enjoying the highest profit margins and harvesters ratifying a number of international legal making the least profits. instruments. The implementation of these legal tools, however, is often ineffective due to weak Eru is also one of few products in which women enforcement and inadequate consideration of are actively involved either as harvester or small- sub-regional interests and realities (FAO 2009). scale trader. Women dominate the lowest segments of the value chain.Amongst a total of Removing the constraints to Eru trade and 759 harvesters interviewed in the Southwest and addressing the gender specific barriers that are Littoral regions of Cameroon almost 80% were discussed in this note will be an important step towards a more organized and transparent market at the exchange rate XAF/USD=524 2 2| www.worldbank.org/afr/trade for Eru. Likewise, it will provide a stronger base livelihood.‖Finally, 70 % of the participants for implementing a regulatory environment that confirmed that they take part in Eru harvesting will ensure sustainable management of this and trade because it contributes to diversifying important resource for the people of Southwest the income stream of the household and hence Cameroon. An approach that simply restricts the reduces their vulnerability. collection of Eru from the forests will have especially deleterious effects on the incomes of Figure 1: Key border crossings in the Southwest women. Region of Cameroon and the Mamfe/Ekok/Ikom trade corridor. Women and Trade in Eru: Constraints along the Value Chain This note investigates the role of men and women along the Eru value chain. The analysis is based on interviews, mainly conducted in focus group discussions and complemented by some face-to-face interviews. Interviews were conducted with 60 women and 20 men involved in the Eru value chain as harvesters, direct exporters, or intermediaries along the Bamenda/Mamfe/Ekok trade corridor leading directly to the Ikom market in Nigeria (See figure 1).3This corridor is characterized by a high volume of Eru trade. Around 40% of Eru exporters who export to Nigeria through the Southwest region of Cameroon use this route. Below is a summary of the key outcomes from the focus group discussions. A key feature that makes Eru trading an attractive The benefits from women‘s participation in activity is that profits can be quickly realized Eru trade relative to other seasonal products such as cocoa and egusi seeds.4Trade in Eru is an all-season The income from Eru trade allows women to activity. Furthermore, the product is found free contribute financially to their household, in the forest. This entails that very little start-up especially to their children‘s education. For capital is required relative to other activities. If example, one participant in the discussion group capital is required, small amounts can be said, ―[M]oney from Eru has helped me a lot. It obtained from savings in community associations helps us to afford food for the household and to (‗Njangi‘). Finally, cultivating Eru is an activity in pay for children‘s education.‖ Taking part in Eru which those with a low level of formal education trade is also seen as a source of empowerment can effectively participate. for women. One response that reflects the overall impression from the focus groups was ―I am happy to have [my] own business and [do] not receive orders from any boss[;] neither [do I] need to depend on any man for [my] Egusi seeds are the fat- and protein-rich seeds of 4 a cucurbitaceous plant used in preparing egusi soup - a kind of soup thickened with the ground egusi seeds cooked with An interview guide (qualitative questionnaire) was used to 3 water, oil and typically containing vegetables, seasonings conduct interviews for each stakeholder group moderated by and meat which is popular in many West and Central a female facilitator. African countries. 3| www.worldbank.org/afr/trade Gender specific constraints  Husbands consider Eru trading and harvesting to be a profession with low-status which they While women are heavily involved in the Eru find suitable for women, including their wives; value chain, they also face constraints that are  Women have to consult with their husbands gender specific. The key issues raised in the focus before investing or spending their profits. One group discussions include: discussant shared that, ―Our husbands are the heads of household. Because of the respect Domestic violence as a result of the time devoted we have for them and in order to justify the by women to exporting and intermediary business time we spend doing business and the activities. Some female exporters and benefits of the business, we often make them intermediaries are victims of verbal and physical to be aware of profits and losses and on how abuse from their husbands. Women do not take we may want to use the money. It is a lack of action to report such abuse because they say, respect to the husband for a woman not to ―The pride of the African woman is to be under do this which may often result to problems the roof of a man and having children.‖ with husband.‖ According to interviews women say, the only solution appears to be to stop exporting or give Lack of ownership of land limits female access to their merchandise to colleagues, who sell Eru on credit. The profit from Eru is mainly used to their behalf. support children‘s education, health and other household needs. If funds are available for Time related constraints arise due to the social savings, they are put into ―njangis‖; community- bias towards women performing household based financial associations based on mutual chores and the reality of reproductive decisions. trust. Yet, according to participants in the study‘s About 40% of participants lamented their focus groups, funds from these associations are inability to spend more time on trading activities typically used by their husbands for cocoa and that they usually miss some of their planned production. Cocoa production is a male- trips to collect Eru because of household dominated activity since it requires a longer term responsibilities. More than 90% of exporters and investment on land that cannot generally be intermediaries agreed that taking care of their owned by women. A participant explained that business and household during pregnancy is very culturally women do not own land because it is difficult. Furthermore, discussions revealed that believed that, ―The girl child in a family has not women have very little or no knowledge about come to stay, but will one day become another birth control. Discussants made it clear that they man‘s ‗property‘. And usually when the man dies do not have the power to refuse their husbands, and leaves the wife, one of the man‘s relatives will as one participant pointed out that: ―it is ‗inherit‘ the woman and she becomes his considered a pride of fruitfulness by the society wife.‖Men generally have exclusive rights to for us women to have more children.‖ However, manage and administer property. As a result, contrary to societal expectations, participants said women cannot obtain access to credit due to the they do not consider having many children a absence of collateral. This severely constrains priority. their capacity to grow their business. Limited influence on decision-making related to Limited education and access to training. participation in Eru activities and the allocation of According to the interviews, women involved in the income generated from its trade. While the Eru value chain, as exporters and harvesters, small-scale Eru trade is dominated by women, want training on how to access credit and expand decisions are only made by women after their business. In addition, some would like consultation with their husbands. Consequently, further education. They complain that available women tend to be dominated by the opinion of training activities are concentrated on male- their husband. Focus group discussions revealed dominated activities. Also, they say their role in that: the household limits the amount of time available for such activities. As one participant pointed out, 4| www.worldbank.org/afr/trade ―Our access to further education and training is some women in a vulnerable position whereby inhibited by the obligation to take care of our some may succumb to sexual blackmail, as focus children and to cook food for the household.‖ group participants suggested, although no participant directly admitted to having been Of particular importance, given the challenge of involved in this type of situation. sustainable harvesting and trade of Eru, is that the women harvesters do not have access to knowledge on how to domesticate Eru, despite Box 1. The Administrative Process to Exporting Eru: expressing a strong interest to learn. This is Documentation and Taxes complicated by the lack of female access to land upon which domesticated Eru could be grown. To export Eru, an individual should possess the following Eru is becoming scarce. Distances travelled to get documents: an export authorization, a certificate of origin, a Eru from the forest are increasing. In addition, specification sheet, a phytosanitary certificate, and proof of the way in which Eruis harvested affects its payment of the graduated surtax. Exporters are indeed sustainability. It is reported that some males obliged to pay two types of taxes: harvest Eru unsustainably from the trees, along 1) Ordinary (or general) taxes applicable to all businessmen, payable at the taxation centre with which the Eru plant thrives. This undermines the competent jurisdiction (full discharge tax, fees for Eru plant. According to women interviewed market stalls and others); during focus group discussions, this practice is 2) Eru taxes, which are based on the export volume of causing progressive exposure of the forest and Eru and comprise: deforestation. This is a good example of how a) Regeneration tax payable before exploitation 25% traditional female knowledge of the resource and st as of January 31 , during exploitation 50% as of st forest could be very useful in enhancing its May 31 , at the end of exploitation 25% as of st protection and sustainability. October 31 ; b) Graduated surtax payable upon exportation of In this context Van Vliet (2010) shows that unprocessed Eru, in the case where the quotas are exceeded (CFAF 10/KG); development agencies working around the c) Surtax upon exportation of fresh Eru (CFAF Takamanda area have failed to fully take into 50/KG) and dried Gnetum (CFAF 75/KG); account gender differences in resource use and d) Phytosanitary tax (CFAF 6,500). land tenure when designing projects to support The Eru exporter should expect a payment of CFAF sustainable agricultural activities. The ongoing 650/KG if transported by air, and several other taxes and shift in livelihood, especially that of men, from charges depending on the country of destination and the the sustainable harvest of non-timber forest means of transport (FAO 2009). products to the production of cash crops, primarily cocoa, is leading to the conversion of Limited access to market contacts and trading closed canopy forests into cocoa-forestry systems. networks. Responsibilities in the home limit the With the transformation of the forests into cocoa access of women to contacts in the market, role producing, rather than Eru producing land, models and social interaction. As a result, their urgent action is needed to preserve this way of life contact with the ―business culture,‖ which serves and financial means for women. as the main training ground for trade, is therefore constrained. Meanwhile, men who are relieved Harassment from officials. Exporters and of many household tasks, benefit from greater intermediaries also report harassment from mobility, have better access to markets, credit and government officials, and at times buyers, which business connections. Such access provides them causes delays and losses given the perishable with a forum to meet, learn from, and gain the nature of their products. Officials sometimes support of others who trade in different products. accept promises from traders to pay ―settlements‖ These constraints to the interaction of women or bribes after sales; however if the market is not with other market players hinder the growth of favorable, this can lead to debt accumulation. Eru activities and limits diversification into other Moreover, when debts are not paid, officials can trade activities. For example, bush mango trade confiscate products. This situation usually puts requires larger capital and access to ―connectors‖ 5| www.worldbank.org/afr/trade (i.e. experienced traders), who match traders up Idenau port in the Southwest Region was a with buyers in Nigeria. woman. Trade and Business related constraints The complicated nature of the administrative process to obtain permits automatically disqualifies poor and uneducated women who In addition to the explicit gender constraints both do not meet the criteria and are the main discussed above, women, as well as men, involved actors involved in the value chain. in the Eru trade face a range of trade and business related constraints. However, in practice To facilitate their export activity, some women often face greater difficulties in intermediaries and exporters purchase waybills overcoming these constraints than men. The from corporations rather than acquire the permits main constraints include: directly from the government, because of the cumbersome and opaque administrative Inability to acquire administrative trade and procedures. These corporations act as brokers transport documents. Given that Eru is a special and sell quotas at prices above the original forest product, sale and/or marketing is regulated. regeneration tax. The waybill gives exporters the Box 1 outlines the documentation and taxes an right to transport Eru and it must be presented at exporter must provide the government. Despite every check point along the way. The average the detailed list of documentation and taxes cost of a waybill for small-scale traders is 12 officially required by the government, there is no FCFA/Kg of Eru, representing 1.2% of the sense of any system in place to monitor that average price received per Kg by exporters. It is exporters have all of this documentation and pay important to note that it is illegal for large these taxes, which underlines the fact that these corporations to sell waybills to exporters; administrative barriers to Eru trade should be however, this practice is necessitated by the streamlined. complicated and arduous process for exporters to obtain such trading permits. For a given operator, administrative procedures for the marketing of Eru are very cumbersome According to traders, more powerful and and begin at the central service of the ministry in influential permit holders have sought to exercise charge of forestry, notably by obtaining three control over the trade in Eru by ―blocking‖ the main documents: access of other smaller traders to permits through a process dogged by corruption. Again, this is 1. Approval document which gives access to the likely to impinge particularly heavily on women, forestry profession and includes a file whose lack of contact with effective networks of processing fee of 150, 000CFAF; traders is likely to limit their ability to confront 2. Special permit to cultivate Eru, which gives corruption in the allocation of permits. In order access to the resource; and to facilitate Eru trade, it would be useful to 3. Record of waybill receipts, which authorizes reform and streamline the administrative process the operator to transport the product. in place, which limits female involvement in the market and creates unnecessary barriers to Eru In addition, Box 2 explains the two-step process trade. Traders should be able to obtain permits to obtain administrative approval from the directly from the Ministry of Forestry and Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife. Wildlife with a simple, affordable, and transparent procedure. Since men have better access to credit and business connectors than women they are in a better position to gain the support of others and to acquire cultivation and marketing permits from the government. For example, in 2009 only one out of six permit holders that exported through 6| www.worldbank.org/afr/trade Box 2. Process to Obtain Administrative Approval that the construction of the Mamfe – Ekok road The initial granting of approval is the first stage of should facilitate trade. However, informal the administrative procedure and it is subject to the payments to forestry guards, councils, customs, recommendation of the technical committee, on the police, quarantine and commerce officials along basis of a file submitted to the Ministry of Forestry the route make road transport unpopular and and Wildlife against a receipt. undesirable to exporters. Ultimately, these payments will undermine the value of the The file comprises the following documents: investment in the new road. Furthermore, even after presenting way bills, exporters must make For individuals: a stamped application bearing the applicant‘s full name, nationality, profession and informal payments to officials. For example, on place of residence; curriculum vitae indicating average at the Satom and John Holt beaches, professional experience and qualifications; a non- exporters still have to pay officials 1,000 conviction certificate, not more than three months FCFA/200 Kg bag of Eru leaves transported. old; and the statistical and trade registration However, this is less than the average amount numbers. they would have to pay white using road transport—about 1,500 FCFA/200Kg bag—where For corporate bodies: a stamped application there are multiple road blocks and consequently indicating the company name and address; a copy of higher charges. the company‘s articles of association; the statistical and trade registration numbers; the manager‘s no n- conviction certificate, not more than three months Transport costs alone account for the highest old; curriculum vitae of the manager or official in proportion of exporters‘ costs, about 23 percent. charge of forestry operations indicating notably his This, together with the five formal and informal technical knowledge and professional experience; types of taxes (forestry, council, quarantine, current and previous activities of the company; and custom and police), comprises 59% of total costs an attestation of regular payment of contributions and constitutes about 19% of the share of profit due to the national social insurance fund. for exporters.5 The euphemistically named ―police tax‖, used to cover bribes and corruption For individual and corporate bodies: the area of to police and gendarmes, usually en route, alone activity for which approval is sought; documentary amounts to 14% of costs (CIFOR, 2009). For evidence of the technical knowledge of the applicant, in the case of private individuals, or of the example, intermediaries travelling from Yaounde official in charge of operations, in the case of to Bamenda pay on average 5,000 FCFA, but corporate bodies; a tax certificate; a statement of tax sometimes pay up to 15,000 FCFA for situation; and proof of file processing fee payment. ―settlements‖ during peak season (November/December) when roadblocks are In addition to the administrative hurdles set for prevalent. Eru exporters to jump through, it also seems that the government has set up informal export quotas Market power of buyers in the Nigerian market for unprocessed Eru. Even though there is no pushes down returns to Cameroonian exporters. official information of such informal quotas, At the Ikom market in Nigeria, Cameroonian these kinds of unsanctioned barriers to trade are exporters have very low bargaining power. another business related constraint faced by According to the focus group discussions, this is traders. due to several reasons. First, the Association of Afang Dealers in Nigeria (the Nigeria High transport costs, roadblocks, and corruption wholesalers) forbids Cameroonian exporters to hinder road transport. The poor state of the sell directly to retailers. Second, Nigerian Mamfe – Ekok road and high transportation wholesalers have formed a cartel thanks to their costs, compounded by hikes in the price of fuel vibrant association. The association constitutes discourage road transport. Hence river transport two major warehouses—the AkwaIbom via Satom and John Holt beaches, which are located on the Cross River, are the preferred 5 Profit margins were calculated using average prices and costs means of transportation. Participants revealed of exporters. Average figures are based on calculations from reported actual quantities, cost and prices. 7| www.worldbank.org/afr/trade warehouse and the Ibo warehouse. Within these two major groups, there are minor ―shades‖ or These factors also explain why women continue groups of at least 5 members. Each ―shade‖ has to concentrate their activities outside of the its established customers in Nigeria and suppliers household on Eru. It is an activity that requires in Cameroon. Each member ensures the smooth little capital and low skills. Given the potential of running of the shade in the absence of the other the Eru value chain to promote household members. At least one member of the ―shade‖ welfare, removing the constraints faced by female always remains in the market to attend to producers and traders of Eru can have a great suppliers and serve customers. ―Shade‖ members impact on economic growth and poverty then arrange the returns and expenditures among reduction. In addition, access to more profitable themselves based on financial records (CIFOR export activities, such as bush mango and cocoa, 2009). For example, if a ―shade‖ member owes which remain male dominated, would have a money to a supplier or if a customer owes money positive impact on women‘s economic and to a ―shade‖ member, the money is paid to or by political status. the member on duty for that day (whether he was involved in the previous transaction or not). In There are six key steps that can be taken to this situation, Cameroonian traders who do not address the obstacles faced by women in have an association to represent them6, have low achieving their potential as small entrepreneurial bargaining power and the prices they receive are traders in the west of Cameroon. They are: dictated by the Nigerian associations. 1. Formulate and implement policies that Conclusions and Recommendations promote gender equality at the national level.The government should define laws and Trade in Eru is an example of a natural product policies that guarantee equal rights for men that provides significant contributions to the and women in the exercise of control over livelihoods of actors along the value chain in assets such as land and in accessing services Southwest Cameroon, who are predominantly such as education, and credit. This also poor women. Women are involved in this trade requires giving women control over out of necessity, as it is the only major livelihood economic decisions which affect their lives opportunity available to them and its revenues and, on a political level, a greater sharing of meet the basic needs of their households. Trade reproductive responsibilities among women in Eru also has a catalytic function for other and men in society. The government should economic activities, as profits from this activity also ensure that institutions and officials that are typically invested in other food and have a stake in the forestry and agricultural education. sectors are adequately trained to be able to effectively implement gender equality under However, women face a range of societal, the law. The government should also work in business and trade related constraints. Women collaboration with civil society to ensure that face pervasive harassment, lack of access to credit both women and men are educated on the and training, and restrictions on their mobility rights of women. and capacity to exploit market opportunities. These factors explain their limited ability to take 2. Put in place a market information system and full advantage of trade and to increase control implement a policy framework to organize over their own lives and families. An increase in women traders to improve their bargaining the involvement of women in economic activities power and economies of scale.Many outside of the household would also mean an informal exporters in Cameroon appear not increase in autonomy within households, thus to realise the full size, potential and prices in leading to greater domestic power and control. the Nigerian market. A catalogue or database of all actors in the chain could facilitate research and regulation of the sector while monitoring the resource. Whilst cultural 8| www.worldbank.org/afr/trade attitudes to organisation may challenge the administrative procedure would contribute to level of association and collective action a more sustainable trading system for Eru. possible, this sector would benefit from the organization of main actors into associations 5. Training and capacity building for and the strengthening of the capacities of women.Education and skill building will these associations. broaden the range of choices women can make and give them more influence within 3. Remove road blocks and other barriers to their households and in society. Building the trade along key corridors.The large potential human capital of women and girls will make Nigerian consumer market with its proximity them become better producers, confident to the fertile production areas of Cameroon, traders and stronger citizens. offers a major opportunity for small Cameroonian exporters. However poor Benchmark progress in removing gender bias infrastructure and costs create delays, poor along the Eru value chain.Baseline surveys and roads, taxes and corruption along the route continuous monitoring and evaluation of sex- and act as significant barriers to efficient disaggregated data will greatly help the trade. understanding of gender differences in trade. Such studies will also exhibit the positive 4. Reform and streamline the administrative implications of gender equality to support the permit system for exporters.The government formulation of appropriate and gender aware of Cameroon employs unnecessarily policies and programmes in the forestry and complicated documentation and agricultural sectors. Making women‘s voices administrative procedures for Eru exporters. heard at all levels of decision-making in these Simplifying documentary requirements for sectors is critical. exporters and the inordinately long About the Author Louis Njie Ndumbe is an independent consultant and co-founder of Environmental Education, Conservation and Research (EECORE) NGO, Cameroon. This work is funded by the Multi-Donor Trust Fund for Trade and Development supported by the governments of the United Kingdom, Sweden and Norway. The views expressed in this paper reflect solely those of the author and not necessarily the views of the funders, the World Bank Group or its Executive Directors. 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