M O N G O L I A Environmental Monitor 2003 40872 THE WORLD BANK ENVIR ONMENT MONITOR 2003 L a n d R e s o u r c e s a n d T h e i r M a n a g e m e n t THE WORLD BANK CONTENTS PREFACE IV ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS V SECTION I:PHYSICAL FEATURES OF AND L 2 SECTION II:LAND,POVERTY,AND LIVELIHOODS 16 SECTION III: LEGAL AND NSTITUTIONAL I DIMENSIONS OF AND L MANAGEMENT 24 SECTION IV: FUTURE CHALLENGES 32 MONGOLIA AT AGLANCE 33 NOTES 34 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development /THEWORLD BANK 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 TheWorld Bank Mongolia Office Ulaanbaatar,11 A PeaceAvenue Ulaanbaatar 210648, Mongolia All rights reserved. First printing June 2003 This document was prepared by a World BankTeam comprising Messrs./Mmes.Anna Corsi (ESDVP), Giovanna Dore (TaskTeam Leader), Tanvi Nagpal, and Tony Whitten (EASES); Robin Mearns (EASRD);Yarissa Richmond Lyngdoh (EASUR); H.Ykhanbai (Mongolia Ministry of Nature and Environment). Jeffrey Lecksell was responsible for the map design. Photos were taken by Giovanna Dore andTonyWhitten.Cover and layout design were done by Jim Cantrell. Inputs and comments by Messrs./Mmes. John Bruce (LEGEN), Jochen Becker, Gerhard Ruhrmann (Rheinbraun Engineering und Wasser - GmbH), Nicholas Crisp, John Dick, Michael Mullen (Food and Agriculture Organization), Clyde Goulden (Academy of Natural Sciences,Philadelphia),Hans Hoffman (GTZ),Glenn Morgan,Sulistiovati Nainggolan (EASES),andVera Songwe (EASPR) are gratefully acknowledged. The views expressed in the Mongolia Environment Monitor are entirely those of the authors and should not be cited without prior permission. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank Group, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. The material contained herein has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable but is not necessarily complete and cannot be guaranteed. ii Mongolia Environment Monitor PREFACE M ongolia's land resources are of global importance, Parliament has recently passed the Land Privatization Law.The and central to the country's well-being and its Ministry of Nature and Environment proclaimed 2002 as theYear economic development. Yet, these resources are of the Land for Mongolia; the Government is working with facing mounting threats. international and non-governmental organizations to raise awareness about the causes of land degradation, and to With a territory of 156.4 million hectares (ha) and a population disseminate information on policies and practices that would of only about 2.4 million, Mongolia ranks first in the world for improve land management.However,effective implementation per-capitalandarea(0.6km2/perpersonin2001).Approximately, of these initiatives requires the analysis of trends and monitoring 82percentofthelandareaisgrassland,andrepresentsthelargest ofkeyindicators,andanimprovedunderstandingofthecomplex remaining contiguous area of common grazing in the world, interactions between natural and institutional causes of land whichencompassesawiderangeofecosystems,includingdesert- degradation. steppe and forest-mountain steppe. The 2003 Mongolia Environment Monitor is divided into four In the past two decades, a combination of human actions and sections. The first presents an overview of the state of land natural causes has led to a significant decline in land quality. resources, and the pressures they face.The second, focuses on Human causes include changes in conventional livestock the relationships among land, poverty and livelihoods, while the husbandry,overgrazing,and weak protection against intensive third outlines key features of Mongolia's land management exploitation for traditional uses. Natural causes include a harsh legislation and institutions.The final section presents the main and dry climate, short growing seasons, and light and thin soils. land management challenges. Asaresultofthesechanges,livelihoodsthatarecloselyconnected to the land have been adversely impacted.Most importantly,the The information contained in this report has been obtained from smaller and poorer herders are more likely than ever to lose their many sources.These include reports published by government incomes when facing harsh winters or fluctuating market agencies, universities, NGOs, the World Bank, bilateral donor conditions. agencies, and unpublished academic reports. As Mongolia completes its transition from a centrally-planned This issue of the Monitor was prepared by theWorld Bank East to a market economy,it is critical that the Government promotes Asia Environment and Social Development Unit in collaboration a better understanding of the importance of sustainable land with the East Asia and Pacific Rural Development and Natural management.To this end, in addition to updating the body of Resources and Urban Development Sector Units, and the laws regulating the ownership and use of land resources, the Mongolian Ministry of Nature and Environment. 2003 iii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ADB Asian Development Bank MI Ministry of Infrastructure ADB Asian Development Bank MIT Ministry ofTrade and Industry GDP Gross Domestic Product MNE Ministry of Nature and Environment GoM Government of Mongolia NEAP National EnvironmentalAction Plan ha hectares NGO Non-governmental organization IFAD International Fund forAgricultural NPACD National Plan to Combat Desertification Development SU Stock units km kilometer UN United Nations km2 square kilometer UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat m3 cubic meter Desertification MAP 21 MongoliaAction Plan for 21st Century UNDP United Nations Development Programme MFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture UNEP United Nations Environment Programme iv Mongolia Environment Monitor MAP 1 -- ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSITIVE AREAS 2003 1 SECTION 1: PHYSICAL FEATURES OF LAND M ongolia has a land area of approximately 1.56 Land Use Area, 1998 million square kilometers (km²). Mongolia may be Water one of the most sparsely populated countries in the Forests bodies 11% world, however, land area per capita has fallen by a 1% Reserves 5% factor of four from an average of 2.4 km² in 1919 to 0.6 km² in Arable 2001 due to rapid population growth. 1% Grasslands and arid grazing make up approximately 80 percent of the land area; it encompasses a wide range of biogeogra- Hay phical zones: high mountains, mountain taiga, mountain 1% steppe, dry steppe grassland, Gobi desert-steppe, and desert. Other Forests cover 11 percent of Mongolia's territory; and wetlands, 1% Pasture including marshlands, add a further 15,000 km². 80% Source: Authors. Arable land has declined from around 10,000 km² in the early 1990s (then under mechanized state farms) to a little over 7,000 km² in 2001, representing at most one percent of Mongolia's rotational strip-fallowing, but declining state subsidies for land area. Less than a third of arable land was sown by 2001. agriculture, have also resulted in smaller investment in This is partly because of the traditional Mongolian practice of irrigation and other inputs. Horses grazing in pastures in Eastern Khovsgol aimag. 2 Mongolia Environment Monitor SECTION 1: PHYSICAL FEATURES OF LAND GRASSLAND AND DESERT Virtually all of Mongolia's rangeland is in arid and semi-arid areas where the coefficient of inter-annual variation in Grasslands in Mongolia have a very short growing season, precipitation ranges from around 28 percent in mountain- limited by cold temperatures, and by low and highly variable steppe areas, to 50 percent or so in desert-steppe areas.1 It has precipitation. Pasture growth begins in mid-May and usually been predicted that in areas where the inter-annual variation ceases after mid-August. Frosts can set in as early as the end in precipitation exceeds 33 percent,range vegetation condition ofAugust,and end as late as June.The thermal growing season tends to be more influenced by levels of precipitation than by is shorter in the mountains and longer in the Gobi, despite a changes in grazing pressure.2 This implies that Mongolia's more variable rainfall. Of the approximately 80 percent of area rangelands would be expected to conform to the characteristics that is under grassland and arid grazing, around 27 percent of`non-equilibrial'as opposed to`equilibrial'grazing systems . may be classified as forest/mountain steppe; 30 percent as dry steppe grassland,and the remaining 43 percent as Gobi desert- steppe and desert. There are few rigorous studies of rangeland vegetation dynamics in Mongolia that draw on field observations.Those Given the presumed association between land degradation and that do, suggest that the intensity of use by grazing livestock, patterns of grassland use by livestock and their herders, it is of and inter-annual variations in precipitation, both play a role in utmost importance to understand how distinct ecosystems influencing vegetation condition. In the mid 1990s, vegetation respond differently to grazing pressure. In most of the world's condition in desert-steppe areas (measured in terms of dryland grazing ecosystems, grazing pressure is but one of the standing biomass, vegetation cover and composition, and features responsible for changes in vegetation condition. In species richness and diversity), was found to be significantly the most arid areas, variation in precipitation is a better influenced by inter-annual precipitation but not so by changes predictor of vegetation condition than is grazing pressure. in grazing pressure. In mountain-steppe and steppe areas, EQUILIBRIAL- NON-EQUILIBRIAL CONTINUUM IN GRAZING ECOSYSTEMS The `new' thinking on range ecology highlights the distinction between equilibrial and non-equilibrial ecological systems. This is not an either/or distinction, but rather a continuum.At one extreme, relatively equilibrial systems have two characteristics: the density of grazing livestock explains a significant amount of the variation in vegetation dynamics over time;and conventional range management techniques such as maintaining appropriate stocking rates remain most suitable for sustainable grassland management. At the other extreme,relatively disequilibrial systems are those in which livestock populations and vegetation dynamics are only loosely coupled. Density-independent factors, such as precipitation, explain a higher amount of variation in vegetation dynamics. Typical pastoral management adaptations to such spatial and temporal variability include`tracking'available nutrition from natural grazing and browsing, usually by moving from area to area.Annual rainfall totals and/or the coefficient of variation in annual precipitation is often taken to be a proxy for this continuum, given that more arid areas tend to experience greater inter-annual variability in precipitation. While many of these insights are derived from empirical work in African savanna ecosystems, a steadily growing body of work shows that they are also relevant to other pastoral production systems, including Mongolia.What emerges from this work is a more nuanced view of the importance of mobility and flexibility in pastoral land tenure and resource access, without rejecting outright the need to consider density-dependent grazing pressure as well. Source: Bruce, John and Robin Mearns. 2002."Natural Resources Management and Land Policy in Developing Countries: Lessons Learned and New Challenges for the World Bank."Drylands Programme.Issues Paper No. 115. London: International Institute for Environment and Development. 2003 3 SECTION 1: PHYSICAL FEATURES OFLAND MAPS II, III, IV, AND V. INTER-ANNUAL VARIATIONINVEGETATION GROWTH 4 Mongolia Environment Monitor SECTION 1: PHYSICAL FEATURES OF LAND increasing grazing pressure led to declines in grass cover,while Changes in Livestock Population the growth of herbs and weedy annuals increased. In these (expressed in stock units) areas, inter-annual variation in precipitation also influenced Year Total stock units* (`000) total vegetation cover, species richness and diversity.3 1918 3535.2 1924 4741.2 These findings suggest that the effects of variations in grazing 1930 6820.8 pressure and precipitation on Mongolian rangeland vegetation 1950 8933.4 dynamics are complex and interactive.The evidence does give 1961 7865.3 grounds for concern about increasing grazing pressure in the 1970 7096.4 higher-rainfall steppe and mountain-steppe areas where 1980 7698.0 domestic livestock populations tend to be higher. But the 1985 7540.2 available evidence also casts in doubt two commonly held 1992 8317.1 1996 9134.4 beliefs. First, that rising animal numbers or increasing 1999 10916.2 concentration of grazing pressure necessarily lead to rangeland 2001 7482.6 degradation in Mongolia. And, second, that where vegetation cover has been reduced through heavy grazing pressure, it Note: *Stock units based on Mongolian bod or large stock (cow/horse) equivalent. represents an irreversible change in range condition. However, this does not imply that land degradation as a result Much has been made of a recent increase in livestock of grazing pressure is not a problem. Rather, these data point population since the onset of economic transition in the early to the fact that incipient pasture land degradation in Mongolia, 1990s. In fact, when expressed in standard stock units,4 under economic transition, is attributable to more complex Mongolia's national herd is now smaller than it was in 1950. institutional causes. 2003 5 SECTION 1: PHYSICAL FEATURES OF LAND WETLANDS the world's most productive environments.They are cradles of biological diversity, providing water and primary productivity Wetlands are areas where water is the primary factor controlling for countless species of plants and animals. They tend to the environment and associated plant and animal life. They support high concentrations of birds, mammals, reptiles, occur where the water table is at or near the land surface, or amphibians, fish and invertebrate species.The interactions of where land is covered by shallow water. Wetlands are among the physical,biological and chemical components of a wetland MONGOLIA'S RAMSAR SITES Ayrag Nuur.Khovd Province; 45,000 ha; 48º53'N 093º25'E.Proposed National Park. Ayrag Nuur is a shallow,freshwater lake in the Mongolian Great Lakes Basin.It is an exceptionally important breeding and resting site for a variety of waterbirds and the only remaining place in Mongolia where the Dalmatian Pelican regularly comes to breed. The lake is of fundamental importance for the groundwater recharge of the area. Other noteworthy waterbird species include the globally-threatened Swan Goose and Relict Gull. Land use around the wetland is limited to semi-nomadic animal husbandry. Khar Us Nuur. Khovd Province; 321,360 ha; 47º58'N 092º50'E. Khar Us Nuur National Park has three large but shallow lakes--Khar Us Nuur, Khar Nuur and Dorgon Nuur. Vast reedbeds and extensive aquatic plant communities provide a suitable habitat for a large number of breeding and migratory waterbirds, including the globally- threatened Swan Goose, Ferruginous Duck,White-headed Duck and Relict Gull.Three species of fish endemic to Western Mongolia occur in these lakes.The lakes are of fundamental importance for the groundwater recharge of the area,and are of social and cultural significance because of the presence of a number of sacred places and archeological sites. Current land use around the lakes is semi-nomadic animal husbandry. Mongol Daguur. Dornod Province; 210,000 ha; 49º42'N 115º06'E. International Protected Area; Strictly Protected Area; Nature Reserve; Crane Network Site. A transboundary protected area with Russia and China set in a basin formed by tectonic and volcanic activity,the site includes vast steppes, marshy wetlands, rivers and lakes. It supports a high species diversity with many rare plants. As many as 260 bird species use the site for staging,breeding or wintering,including six species of cranes of which two are threatened.Semi-nomadic animal husbandry is the principal livelihood of the local population. Crop production is also practiced. Ogii Nuur. Arkhangai Province,2,510 ha; 47º46'N 102º46'E.Anatidae Network Site. Ogii Nuur is a freshwater lake located in the valley of the Orkhon River, comprising extensive alluvial areas of grassland, river channels, pools and marshes surrounded by grassy steppe.The maximum depth of the lake is 16m, but about 40 percent of the lake is less than 3m deep. The lake supports an intensive fishery and livestock grazing. It is a very important breeding and staging area for a wide variety of ducks, geese, and swans. Terhiyn Tsagaan Nuur. Arkhangai Province; 6,110 ha; 48º10'N 099º43'E.Natural Park; Anatidae Network Site. A freshwater and nutrient-poor lake formed by volcanic activity,Terhiyn Tsangaan Nuur is located in the Suman River valley in the Central Khangai Mountains. As with most wetlands in Mongolia, land use in and around the lake comprises of fishing and livestock grazing. The extensive marshes in the west are an important breeding and staging area for migratory waterfowl. Valley of Lakes (Boon Tsagaan Nuur, Taatsiin Tsagaan Nuur, Adgiin Tasgaan Nuur, Orog Nuur). Bayankhongor Province; 45,600 ha; 45º19'N 099º58'E. The Valley of Lakes consists of a chain of four saline lakes at the foot of the Gobi Altai, ranging from 1100m to 1235m in altitude.The lakes are shallow,with a saucer-shaped depth profile,and vary considerably in size both seasonally and from year to year.These lakes are known to be important staging areas for migratory waterfowl,and it has been suggested that they might be breeding areas for the rare Relict Gull. They provide grazing land for domestic livestock in an otherwise arid region. Source: http://www.ramsar.org/profiles_mongolia.htm. 6 Mongolia Environment Monitor SECTION 1: PHYSICAL FEATURES OF LAND enable it to perform many vital functions. For example, population density, especially around the lakes in the semi- wetlands are critical for water storage, storm protection and arid region, and the fact that fish and waterfowl are not flood mitigation, groundwater recharge and discharge, water traditional food sources, are two main reasons. A history of purification through retention of nutrients, sediments, and wildfowl protection dating back to the 13th century, and pollutants, and stabilization of local climate conditions, Buddhist influence from the 16th century have reinforced this particularly rainfall and temperature. protection of the wetlands. Mongolia's wetlands,including marshlands,occupy 1.5 million Even so, economic changes are creating new impacts on ha, varying from the cold, deep and very low nutrient Lake wetlands. Fishing is increasing to satisfy demand from China. Khovsgol to hosts of shallow and temporary salt lakes. There Mining along the Tuul River is raising its concentrations of are 3500 freshwater and saline lakes, 3811 rivers and streams heavy metals (mainly mercury), and increasing its sediment with a total length of 50,000 km, many with large floodplains, loads twenty-fold. In some areas, notably Zaamar, the as well as 187 glaciers. floodplains are literally being turned upside down to find gold. Even remote and large Lake Khovsgol suffers the occasional Mongolia joined the Ramsar Wetlands Convention in 1998. abuses of fuel trucks falling through the ice at the start and The Convention recognizes wetlands as ecosystems that are end of winter when they take a short cut across the ice,spilling extremely important for biodiversity conservation in general their contents into the lake even if the practice has been and for the well-being of human communities. On the basis outlawed. of several criteria, six sites with a combined surface area of 630,580 ha, have been designated wetlands of international It is clear that 1.5 million hectares of ecologically productive importance. Conservation or appropriate wise-use is to be land should not go unmanaged. By joining the Ramsar promoted at these sites. Convention, GoM has already committed itself to protecting the most important wetlands. Impacts of economic activity on Mongolia's wetlands have been subject to only low levels of the other wetlands must be studied, so that these areas too exploitation and thus remain relatively undisturbed. Low are protected for future generations. 2003 7 SECTION 1: PHYSICAL FEATURES OF LAND FOREST LAND Forest Territory 20 18 The `forest territory' of Mongolia, as understood in the 16 Mongolian Forest Law, occupies over 18.3 million ha, or 11 14 es 12 percent of its area.5 Due to the complexity of forest distribution, tar 10 the term includes land with dense, closed-canopy forest6, 8 Hec (millions) 6 sparse open-canopy forest, as well as land with no forest such 4 as grasslands, shrublands, wetlands, agricultural areas and 2 0 human settlements. Intact Depleted Non- Total Forest Forest Forest (>30% (< 30% crown crown There are two major types of forests. Forests of mainly larch closure) closure) and pine,part of the vast SiberianTaiga,cover the north-central Coniferous Saxaul Total mountains between 800-2500 meters. Because they are at the southern edge of the Taiga, and are experiencing the impacts of both climate change and human activity on the edge of the grazing lands of the steppe, these forests are globally Distribution of Coniferous Forest significant. The second forest type, comprising mainly saxaul, 40 is found in the southwest deserts. These forests protect the 35 land against erosion and desertification, and provide seasonal 30 25 livestock fodder and fuelwood. All trees grow very slowly es tar 20 because of the extreme climate and low water availability.7 Hec (thousands) 15 10 A long-term, cyclical drying of Mongolia's climate is causing a 5 slow northerly retreat of its forests. However, much of the 0 recent, rapid deforestation is primarily due to fire, improper v Tu han Bulgan Khentii hangai vk commercial and illegal logging, inadequate enforcement of Khovsgol Selenge Za Aimaigs Ark forest rules and regulations, grazing and browsing of young trees by livestock, and insect infestations.8 Area of"Forest Territory" Area of Intact Forest During the last century, Mongolia lost approximately four million ha of forests, averaging 40,000 ha annually. Between Forest land and its resources are not well managed. Official 1990 and 2000, due largely to unsustainable exploitation, the records indicate that timber harvest levels have fallen rate of deforestation increased to 60,000 ha per year.This was considerably since 1990--from an average of about 1.8 million mostly from potentially commercial forests, with a standing m3 per year during the 1980s to about 620,000 m3 in 2002. volume of timber of 100-150 m3 per ha. As a result of this Given the grossly unsustainable nature of the harvest before ongoing loss and degradation, only 12.4 million ha of closed- 1980, this is not a bad thing. The planned 2002 legal timber canopy forests remain. Much of the remaining forests are harvest included 40,000 m3 of round wood and 580,000 m3 of fragmented and degraded.Loss and degradation of forests have fuelwood. It should be understood, however, that while serious and long-lasting impacts on groundwater recharge, estimates vary considerably,the legal timber harvest comprises local climate, biodiversity and the straightforward loss of only a small portion of the totals actually harvested. Current valuable timber resources that could have been sustainably estimates of actual 2002 domestic sawn wood consumption managed. range between 340,000 and one million m3, and annual 8 Mongolia Environment Monitor SECTION 1: PHYSICAL FEATURES OF LAND domestic fuelwood consumption is subject to an even greater the roots, and especially the difficulty of protecting the range of estimates ­ between 625,000 and two million m3. Thus seedlings from the depredations of livestock, replanting has in total, the current annual timber harvest is estimated to fall not yielded extensive young forests. As a result, considerable somewhere between 965,000 to three million m3.This suggests sums of money have been wasted. Mongolia is far from being a total illegal wood harvest,for which the Government receives alone in experiencing difficulties in directly growing forest and no royalties or taxes, in the range of 345,000 to 2.38 million m3 yet there is institutional resistance to the alternative of relying per year or between 36 and 80 percent of total harvest. This on natural regeneration as the force for forest regrowth. The degree of mismanagement is unsustainable and if forests are essential protection from livestock requires communities to not better managed, there will undoubtedly be further have a significant degree of involvement. It is these poor rural deteriorations of the land, water and climate. communities whose livelihood is likely to suffer the most if lands become more degraded. The present area zoned as `utilization forest' is clearly inadequate to support a viable domestic wood-based industry PERMAFROST or to attract the capital it needs to modernize for greater Mongolia lies on a high continental plateau, and has a climate efficiency. The management of forest land through top-down that is conducive to the formation of permafrost or frozen enforcement of regulations has been ineffective, and a two- ground.More than 60 percent of the country experiences some prong strategy involving gradual expansion of community variety of permafrost, depending on the local climate, altitude, forest management and strengthening of the existing exposure to sun and plant cover.Forested areas and north-facing government enforcement regime offers the best alternative to slopes that receive less sun are most likely to be underlain with minimize illegal harvesting. permafrost. Permafrost extends from the northern border of Khovsgol aimag About 65 percent of the total wood harvested is used by poor into the Khangai Mountains,and as far south as Ulaanbaatar and rural and urban households for both cooking and residential the Altai Mountains. Although the surface layer, known as the heating.This wood is a source of energy for which no realistic "active zone", warms during the winter months, soils and rocks alternative exists at a time of serious, accelerating forest that are one to three meters below the top layer remain frozen. depletion. It is estimated that if no alternative sources of Depending on the location, the temperature of permafrost in domestic fuel are developed and current levels of forest Mongolia is from -0.5 to -30 degrees centigrade.The permafrost depletion continue unabated, serious fuelwood shortages will can be 10 to 20 m thick in southern areas, to well over 100 to begin to be experienced in urban areas by the end of this decade 200 m thick in the north, particularly in the mountains. and Mongolia will suffer substantial losses of biodiversity and Forest cutting and heavy pastoral use that lead to the loss of important forest resources. ground vegetation cover,in the presence of climate change,are causing a warming of the ground and melting of the permafrost. In the decades prior to and since 1990, GoM has sought to This loss of permafrost has several impacts. Soil can become establish programs of tree replanting both as a means of unstable,leading to a downward movement of soil on hill slopes. creating employment and also to restore forest areas. None of Melting of permafrost increases the drying of soil, resulting in these programs have been particularly successful and the area reduced growth of plants for grazing animals. Permafrost soils successfully replanted represents only five percent of the total have high organic content and warming increases the rate at which organic matter breaks down, increasing the release of forest lost. At present, 150,000 hectares of forest need to be carbon dioxide and methane, both green house gases, into the restored or allowed to regenerate; however,only 5,000 hectares air. Finally, buildings erected on permafrost ground without are being restored annually. proper support, have collapsed in Khatgal, and road surfaces have become very unstable and almost impassable. Because of poor handling of the seedlings, inadequately- Source: C. Goulden, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. prepared ground,lack of the necessary fungal associations with 2003 9 10 M ongolia M AP SECTION En VI. vir onment H 1: YPOTHESIZED PHYSICAL M onitor FEATURES AND EXISTING OF LAND C ONIFEROUS FOREST Source: Map of original forest cover adapted from World Resources Institute (WRI). 1997. The Last Frontier Forests: Ecosystems and Economies on the Edge. Washington, DC: WRI. M AP VII. O RIGINAL AND SECTION C URRENT 1: EXTENSION PHYSICAL FEATURES OF PERMAFROST OF LAND 2003 11 SECTION 1: PHYSICAL FEATURES OF LAND BIODIVERSITY in central Siberia, and 2,176 in Inner Mongolia10). It also provides habitat for wildlife now extinct or rare elsewhere,such Two of the world's most biologically outstanding`ecoregions' - as the snow leopard, Przewalski's horse, wild donkey, wild the Daurian Steppes and the Altai-Sayan Mountains are in sheep, ibex, Gobi bear, Bactrian camel, and Saiga antelope. Mongolia.9 Coniferous forests and extensive alpine landscapes formabiogeographicdividebetweenSiberiaandthedesertbasins Many plants and animals are used both for local purposes and of Central Asia, and are centers of plant and animal biodiversity. export. Plants have medicinal uses (e.g rhodiola, valerian, and scholar tree) and fuelwood uses (e.g. saxaul, salttree, and The relatively high biodiversity is a result of the combination tamarisk).Animals are hunted for wild meat as well as for their of flora and fauna from Northern and Inner Asia. Mongolia is fur (e.g. sable, fox, lynx and marmot). Deer antlers are sought home to more than 2,823 species of plants (compared to 2,400 for their use in traditional Chinese medicine. Nesting kites. 12 Mongolia Environment Monitor SECTION 1: PHYSICAL FEATURES OF LAND The Government recognizes that the country's biodiversity is of land under special protection will lead to better biodiversity a significant economic resource and a source of spiritual protection or ecological land management. enjoyment for Mongolians and others. Throughout history, it has protected lands and species that have been deemed special to the people of Mongolia. The Bogd Khan Mountain, just Protected Areas System south of Ulaanbaatar, was declared a nature reserve in 1778. 20 The Government has designated 48 protected areas around es tar the country, covering over 20 million ha - 13 percent of the 15 hec country. In addition, local governments have declared 115 of 10 protected areas, covering one million ha. 5 Over 10 million ha around the Special Protected Areas and Thousands 0 National Parks have been designated as buffer zones.The area 55- 60- 65- 70- 75- 80- 85- 90- 95- 59 64 69 74 79 84 89 94 99 of land enjoying a degree of institutionalized protection in Mongolia is about the entire size of Britain. Although, the Area of newly gazetted protected areas in five-year percentage of land currently under protection exceeds blocks international norms,GoM intends to increase its protected area Cumulative area of protected areas system network to up to 30 percent of the country's territory. Within these areas,some degree of regulated multiple uses are allowed in the zones identified as limited used zones by the Law on Special Protected Areas. These uses include traditional BRANDT'S VOLE husbandry, road construction and construction of tourism infrastructure. Hunting, logging, and other construction are One of the most contentious land management issues is the role of the small Brandt's Vole whose global distribution lies not permitted. almost entirely within an ever-broadening band across the middle of Mongolia. Brandt's voles are considered by many to Despite steps taken by government, biodiversity is facing be pests and have been poisoned using aerial spraying for some significant threats from a multitude of sources, changing the 40 years. Dense concentrations of Brandt's voles can consume look and dynamics of the land. Overuse and over-collection 40 percent of the total vegetation in an area. Heavy grazing of plant and animal species are the main threats and many improves the pasture for voles, which prefer medium and short areas are reported to be`empty'of wildlife. Steppe and forest grasses to tall ones,and intermediate to thicker cover.The voles in turn reduce the amount of grazing available for livestock. fires kill wildlife and reduce the area of habitat available. Climate change is also increasingly seen as a source of concern Poisoning Brandt's voles raises the risk of poisoning many non- since it affects soil temperatures and moisture,vegetation, and target species, including vole predators, which also live on the consequently the distribution of species. steppe. It is increasingly recognized that herders need to manage the steppe quality themselves to produce pasture Inappropriate and poorly-enforced hunting quotas and habitat which is unfavorable to voles and productive for livestock. Releasing pressure on the pastures,and encouraging environmental laws,failure to protect areas from multiple tracks predators by providing perches/nest sites are two means of of tourist transport, and inadequately resourced environmental achieving this outcome. inspectors in the aimags and soums11 are examples of failures Source: Adapted from Laurie A.2000."Brandt's Vole outbreaks and control in to effectively implement existing policies. In such a policy China--An ecological approach."GEF-UNDP Eastern Steppe Biodiversity Project,Choibalsan. environment it is unclear that simply increasing the amount 2003 13 SECTION 1: PHYSICAL FEATURES OF LAND LAND DEGRADATION The soil surface in arid regions supports microbial communities termed cryptobiotic crusts.These form an inconspicuous gray- In general, land degradation refers to a change in land quality, brown matrix on the sand, consisting of fungi, cyanobacteria, most often as a result of human activities,undermining its capacity mosses, bacteria, green algae and lichens. If the soil remains undisturbed, the cryptobiotic crust covers much of the spaces to sustain current uses.Estimates vary as to the extent and degree between vascular plants and helps to retain moisture in the of land degradation; reflecting differences in definitions of land upper layer of soil, thus diminishing erosion, and providing degradation used by agencies. However, since many of these nutrients for plants. The impact of livestock on the crust varies: definitions themselves are not readily available, one should the soft feet of camels are innocuous, but the sharp hooves of be skeptical about the accuracy of the estimates.12 goats are very damaging. Once the crust is broken it is very easy for the wind to erode away sand at the exposed edges. The Mongolian Land Administration Authority estimates that 11 million ha of pasture land or nine percent of total pasture Sand storms are, to a degree, entirely natural in origin. land area, is `degraded to some extent'. The National However,they are becoming a human-induced natural disaster. Environmental Action Plan 2000 (NEAP 2000) suggests that Global warming is believed to be drying the already dry areas seven percent of all pasture land has become`heavily degraded.' of northeast Asia, creating conditions more conducive to The Mongolian Action Plan for the 21st Century (MAP-21) desertification.In addition,overgrazing,loss of saxaul tree cover estimates that between five to nine percent of the total pasture in the Gobi, breaking of the soil surface through ploughing, land had become`severely degraded' and 30 percent had been mining, and sharp animal hooves have also contributed to `damaged' by 1998. It also estimates that 78 percent of the worsening sand storms. Such severe storms have major total land area is`damaged or depleted.' economic impacts on health,livestock,buildings,transport and tourism. Conversely,they can increase the primary production Some 41 percent of Mongolia's land area is known as Gobi, a of the seas east of Mongolia, the sand can neutralize the local term that refers specifically to stony desert with very sparse, effects of acid rain, and it has a cooling effect on the climate. shrub vegetation. Low primary productivity in this area is independent of human use. However, inclusion of Gobi land While not the only factor,improved land management is crucial may account for the high land degradation estimate cited in to reducing the number of sand storms and their impacts.This MAP-21. The extent of Mongolian territory covered by sand (including dunes) appears to have been remarkably stable over the last 40 years, having increased by just 0.02 percent. If `desertification' is understood in this narrow sense, the area said to be desertified in Mongolia is very limited indeed. Dust storms of fine sand particles are a phenomenon experienced each spring but the frequency and intensity with which they occur have been on the rise.In March 2002,a major storm affected Mongolia, 18 provinces of China, Japan and Korea, and was detected even in western United States and Canada. Sand storms are caused by strong northwesterly winds from March to May, updrafts created by high ground temperatures, and the presence of loose fine sand. Sand dunes in the Gobi desert. 14 Mongolia Environment Monitor SECTION 1: PHYSICAL FEATURES OFLAND MONGOLIA AND THE UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION TO COMBAT DESERTIFICATION The United Nations (UN) recognizes desertification as a leading cause of poverty and hunger, and has developed a Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).Like many other countries affected by desertification problems, Mongolia signed UNCCD in 1994,and its parliament ratified the Convention in 1996. As part of the Convention, signatories are required to draft a National Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (NPACD). In Mongolia, NPACD has also been used as a basis for obtaining external assistance and mobilizing internal support. The Ministry of Nature and Environment (MNE) implements both the Convention and the Action Plan through its National Committee to Combat Desertification. There are three phases of NPACD implementation: first, creating the legal environment to strengthen working relations and policy coordination between central and local governments;second,creating desertification monitoring capacity,identifying areas that are being severely degraded, and putting into place policies that would reverse the desertification process; and finally, completing all the required activities, and strengthening national capacity to combat future desertification. Efforts to combat desertification are present in over 20 programs and action plans,including Ecological Concept,Mongolian Action Program for the 21st Century,NationalWater Program,National Program on Forestry, National Program on Natural Disaster Reduction and the Government Action Program 2000-2004. Two international seminars, conducted in cooperation with the Secretariat of the Convention to Combat Desertification, and a series of national seminars have been held at the national and local level. As a result, public awareness of issues pertaining to desertification is increasing, especially among communities.Between 1995 and 1998, the Government signed seven inter-governmental and over 20 inter- ministerial agreements with neighboring and other countries, to protect the environment.Many of these agreements contains provisions to cooperate in combating desertification. Since 1990, 14 projects with total costs of US$ 24.6 million, are being implemented with the assistance of the international donor community. In June 2003,GOM approved the new National Action Plan and Program to combat desertification for the period 2003­07,covering practical measures, studies of impacts, adaptation, capacity building and cooperation. Source: Adapted from Mongolia:State of the Environment 2002, United Nations Environment Programme and Ministry of Nature and Environment,Mongolia. relationship has been recognized in the 1997 National Action close to oases, and the stabilization of sandy soils near the Plan to Combat Desertification and confirmed in the new 2003 Chinese border through reduced grazing and control of version. This Plan stresses the importance of preventive commercial collection of fuelwood and medicinal plants, measures and sustainable rangeland management, especially capacity building, and study of impacts. 2003 15 SECTION I1: LAND, POVERTY, AND LIVELIHOODS I n the economic transition of the 1990s, decollectivization Herd Composition by Species, 1990 and privatization left many people unemployed. Large Camels numbers turned to livestock production as a means of Goats 2% Horses supporting their families. The total number of herding 20% 9% Cattle households doubled from 75,000 in 1990 to 185,500 in 2001.13 11% Differences between new and existing herders in terms of their livelihood orientation,and levels of wealth,skill and experience in herding, have had profound implications for pastureland management. Sheep 58% Source:Authors. As a result of a dramatic increase in the livestock herd from 1993 to 1998, and an equally remarkable decline from 1999 to 2001, total livestock numbers remained more or less constant Total Livestock, 1985­2001 over the period 1990­2001. The main reason for the substantial 35 increase in livestock numbers through the 1990s was the 33 breakdown of the centralized marketing system that had 31 prevailed under collectivized agriculture. Guaranteed markets 29 estock for meat and other livestock products had curtailed national liv 27 herd growth through high rates of annual off-take each of 25 autumn. This also ensured that fewer animals needed to be 23 head (thousands) carried and fed over the harsh winter/spring period. 21 Total 19 17 The breakdown of this system in the early 1990s, and the 15 parallel collapse of the state-subsidized distribution of consumer goods through wholesale agents, resulted in sharply 1985 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 deteriorating terms of trade for herding households. Herders Source:Authors. preferred to keep animals`on the hoof'rather than sell them for low prices relative to the cost of consumer goods. In the Herder Households as Share of Total, inflationary economic environment of the early to mid-1990s, 1989­2001 increasing the size of household herds became herders'chief 600 objective. s dl 500 The early 1990s saw a steady net flow of urban-to-rural eho 400 us migrants, swelling the populations of most rural districts, ho f 300 particularly in central and western Mongolia.This trend could o er (thousands) 200 be attributed to the many newly unemployed state workers b who acquired a few animals under the privatization of state Num 100 and collective assets, and took up life as herders in the 0 countryside. Notable exceptions to this trend were Kazakh- 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 dominated Bayan-Ölgii aimag in the far West, which saw an Total households Herder households outflow of migrant workers to Kazakhstan in the early 1990s under labor contracts arranged through the Ministries of Labor Source:Authors. 16 Mongolia Environment Monitor SECTION I1: LAND, POVERTY, AND LIVELIHOODS of the two countries; and some very remote areas such as parts to that in transitional Kazakhstan. And Dornod's remote of Dornod aimag in the far East, Khövsgöl aimag in the North. eastern steppes continued to be depopulated.Overall,however, Also other areas closer to urban centers ­ such as in Khentii the process of rural-to-urban migration--particularly to (close to Ulaanbaatar),Selenge (close to Darkhan and Erdenet), Ulaanbaatar--became a major concern for the national and the newly created Gov'sumber aimags ­ also experienced government. In response, in 2000,GoM announced a`regional declining populations. development' policy that aimed to bring about a more even spatial pattern of economic opportunity throughout Mongolia. By the second half of the 1990s this pattern had more or less reversed.Herders,and other rural inhabitants,began to migrate The species composition of the national herd also changed as a result of economic changes in the 1990s. Most notably, goats toward markets so as to reduce transaction costs and improve have increased as a share of total livestock from 20 percent in their household terms of trade. This process of population 1990 to 37 percent in 2001, as a direct response to higher, if concentration began taking place at virtually all scale levels: fluctuating, world cashmere prices. This increase has come within districts (from outlying areas to those closer to district primarily at the expense of sheep, which declined in relative centers), within provinces (closer to provincial centers and terms from 58 percent of the national herd to 46 percent over major transport axes), and on a national scale (from more the same period. The shift has affected areas not previously remote provinces, particularly in western Mongolia, towards associated with cashmere production such as those in northern those in central Mongolia closer to Ulaanbaatar). Mongolia. In a recent, participatory assessment of changing living standards in the 1990s, the only rural communities in Most rural districts saw a net outflow of people. This was which most people felt better off were those best placed to particularly marked from more remote areas of western take advantage of cashmere trading opportunities along the Mongolia (Uvs, Zavkhan, and Gov'Altai aimags). Again, there Chinese border.14 were notable exceptions to this broad trend.Bayan-Ölgii's rural population increased significantly, with the return of many This marked shift in herd composition between sheep and migrant workers who preferred life in transitional Mongolia goats has important implications for risk management in Nomadic herders and their animals camp on the outskirts of the Gobi. 2003 17 18 M ongolia M AP SECTION En VIII. vir onment POPULATION I1: M LAND onitor ,POVERTY C HANGE ,AND IN M LIVELIHOODS ONGOLIA OVER 1990­95 M AP IX. POPULATION SECTION C HANGE I1: IN LAND M ONGOLIA ,POVERTY OVER ,AND 1996­2000 LIVELIHOODS 2003 19 SECTION I1: LAND, POVERTY, AND LIVELIHOODS livestock production, since goats tend to be more susceptible often to `capture' the best winter/spring camp sites, and to to the effects of cold and nutritional stress than sheep. The maintain a year-round base at these camps in order to guard implications for pasture land management are less clear. The the pastures they claimed against out-of-season trespass by fact that goats are less selective than sheep in their foraging others.The allocation of`possession contracts'(a form of tenure strategies is often thought to have more damaging not unlike long-term leases) over winter camps in many areas consequences for vegetation cover, species richness, and during the late 1990s, gave formal, legal backing to customary diversity land claims under the 1994 Land Law, and reinforced the tendency for better-off herders to remain more sedentary The relative shares of cattle and horses in the overall national throughout the year. herd remained constant between 1990 and 2000, at 11 percent and nine percent respectively. However, losses of these large These socially differentiated patterns of livestock ownership stocks during the three consecutive dzud15 were more and production strategies have important implications for significant in relative terms than those of small ruminants. pasture land management. Rising human (herder) and livestock populations in general, and their growing While household herds generally increased in size throughout concentration in particular, clearly place greater pressure on much of the 1990s, the distribution of livestock holdings among limited grazing resources.While the underlying range ecology herding households became progressively more unequal. This is complex, and drier areas are probably more resilient than it growth in inequality was consistent with the widening gap is often assumed, there is little doubt that there are serious between rich and poor in society more generally. In 1990, two- constraints on available pasture land in the more accessible thirds of all herding households had private herds of not more steppe regions of the country. Herding has also led to severe than 30 head of animals. By 2000, the same proportion of congestion in many forest/mountain steppe areas where households had herds of around 150 animals.For most herders, topography is a limiting factor. The increasing heterogeneity this increase in herd size barely kept pace with the rising cost of herding communities--owing to differences in household of living. A small proportion of rich herders saw their herds herd sizes, levels of experience in herding, and between local increase very substantially by the late 1990s. This trend of herders and in-migrants from other areas--poses more difficult concentration in livestock holdings declined somewhat after 1999, owing to dzud losses that hit larger herders hard in challenges of coordination of pasture land use among absolute terms (although much less severely than poor herders, herders.16 relative to their total livestock holdings). In the past, the herding community at rural sub-district level In comparison with existing herders,`newcomers'to herding may have decided, in a quarterly public meeting, to set aside in the early to mid-1990s were less skilled and experienced in certain areas of their territory for use during particular seasons. livestock production. Their herds were generally smaller and But against a background of declining trust among community less likely to increase over time. New herders were more members, and inconsistencies in the land law regarding the inclined to sell or slaughter animals to meet livelihood needs. possibilities of denying non-community members access to They also tended to move less frequently than more local pasture,there are few mechanisms for ensuring that these experienced ones, and to remain closer to settlements, roads, agreements `stick'. It is becoming harder to impose effective and other points of market access. sanctions on `free-riders'since they may be newcomers who were not party to those agreements. These and other factors There is also evidence that richer herders tended to move less have led to rising levels of conflict over pasture land and camp frequently by the late 1990s. In their case, the motivation was sites in many areas. 20 Mongolia Environment Monitor SECTION I1: LAND, POVERTY, AND LIVELIHOODS COMMUNITY-BASED PASTURE LAND MANAGEMENT Between August 2000 and February 2002, a small project supported by a local NGO and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) tested an innovative approach to pastureland management by customary herding communities. Three project sites, exhibiting varying degrees of population pressure and market access, were selected in different ecological zones. The project concept rested on the following hypothesis:herders are more likely to cooperate in pastureland management when they also have an interest in working together on other activities that have a more immediate bearing on their livelihoods. Such activities include veterinary service provision, livestock breeding, preparing or purchasing supplementary fodder, and livestock product marketing and processing. Guided by this hypothesis, the project provided external support available in several mutually-supporting areas. It provided institutional strengthening of existing herder groups of 20 households or more, based on customary residence and seasonal migration patterns. Herder groups were offered training in business and organizational skills.The project also created revolving funds to assist with the purchase of essential veterinary medicines and supplementary animal feed, and to access high-quality breeding animals. In addition, local governments provided services to link herder groups. Group pastureland `possession contracts' were also promoted, under the existing Land Law, as a means of fostering more conservation-oriented and socially-inclusive pastureland use practices. External support by UNDP and the Government of New Zealand,was withdrawn only in February 2002.While it is still too early to judge the long-term impact of this pilot, a promising start has been made. There are plans to replicate and scale-up the pilot under new programs supported by the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, and the Government of the Netherlands. Future sustainability will depend on devising a model that will work without external subsidy. Similar work is also being financed by IDRC and GTZ. Source: CPR. 2002."Support to Implementing Mongolian Action Plan-21: Strengthening Customary Herding Communities."Final Report to UNDP. Ulaanbaatar: Center for Policy Research. 2003 21 SECTION I1: LAND, POVERTY, AND LIVELIHOODS DZUD AND PASTORAL RISK MANAGEMENT scale of recent dzud events had devastating impact on livelihoods, particularly for new, inexperienced herders. Dzud is the collective term for a range of winter weather-related conditions that prevent domestic animals from foraging in The consecutive dzud of 1999/2000 to 2000/2001 resulted in open grazing. Dzud is a fact of life for Mongolian herders, combined losses of over seven million head of animals,or over who have developed strategies for coping with and adapting 22 percent of the total livestock population. Almost 10,000 to their harsh environment. Heavy accumulations of snow or herding households were left with no animals at all, and a ice crusts covering pastures are the most common form of dzud further 15,000 were left with fewer than 100 animals. A herd (white dzud). In situations where this precipitation is the size of around 150 animals is generally regarded as the primary source of drinking water for livestock, the absence of minimum required to maintain a livelihood for a typical herding snow or ice at winter pastures is also a type of dzud (black household. Some 75 percent of herding households currently dzud). Since forage production on natural pastures is almost have herds of less than this minimum threshold size, and are entirely dependent on rainfall during the short summer highly vulnerable to the effects of drought and dzud. growing period, dzud conditions are exacerbated by drought in the preceding summer, so that there is less forage available Recent analysis of livestock mortality using a 30-year data set for over-wintering animals. Historically, major dzud have for all types of animals revealed that underlying vulnerability occurred roughly every seven years, but more experienced to drought and dzud varies widely throughout Mongolia. In herders are not surprised when they occur in consecutive years this analysis,risk was modeled to test the feasibility of an index- as has happened recently. based approach to livestock insurance, based on district-level livestock mortality data, rather than on assessing risk at the Consecutive dzud during the severe winters of 1999-2000 individual household level.17 Dundgov province emerged as through 2001-2002 brought home to policy makers and the province in which animal husbandry has historically been international donors alike just how risky Mongolia's most risky, with mortality around five times higher than in the environment is for livestock production. The unprecedented least risk-prone provinces. During the 1999/2000 dzud, Map X. Relative risk index by province Source: J.Skees and A.Enkh-Amgalan.2002."Examining the Feasibility of Livestock Insurance in Mongolia."Policy Research Working Paper 2886.Washington, DC:World Bank. 22 Mongolia Environment Monitor SECTION I1: LAND, POVERTY, AND LIVELIHOODS Dundgov lost over 30 percent of its total livestock. Over the technologies, and revolving funds for emergency fodder two year period 1999-2001 the worst-affected province-- supply and management at provincial level; and Zavkhan--lost almost half of its total livestock. ! Development of micro-finance services appropriately tailored to herder needs,including weather and/or mortality It is inaccurate to view dzud as simply`natural disasters'. The index-based approaches to livestock insurance, and micro- severe consequences of recent dzud owe as much to credit. institutional failures as to Mongolia's harsh environment. While humanitarian assistance was essential for saving human lives, In addition to these efforts, the longer-term challenge is to and livestock, the priority now is for GoM and the international broaden the assets of the rural poor. Expanded opportunities community to ensure that appropriate action is taken to for rural livelihood diversification beyond raising livestock improve risk preparedness by herders, local governments, and would facilitate`exit strategies'for the many herders who face other key actors. little prospect of achieving a secure and sustainable livelihood in the livestock sector. Past experience under Mongolia's To this end, GoM passed Resolution No. 47 in spring 2001, National PovertyAlleviation Program points to the importance establishing a national program of action to improve risk of extending the outreach of micro-finance services to the poor preparedness in the face of drought and dzud. International in remote rural areas. Rural communities themselves must be support from the World Bank, International Fund for able to prioritize investment needs and manage small-scale Agricultural Development,Asian Development Bank,and other infrastructure such as wells, rural access roads, and facilities agencies will be important in ensuring that it can be for health and education services. The Participatory Living implemented effectively. A combination of diverse measures, Standards Assessment 2000 confirmed that rural communities including the following, is required: would like to ensure that such investments and forms of service provision remain compatible with mobile livestock production. ! Longer-range risk forecasting, management, and contingency planning, including the clarification of institutional roles and responsibilities in dzud response; ! Measures to support marketing of livestock and livestock products, in part to permit rapid destocking at supported prices prior to dzud and drought; ! Support for community-based pastureland tenure and management arrangements to ensure the equitable implementation of key provisions of the existing land law. Such provisions include group-based approaches to well rehabilitation on remote, under-utilized pastures; and mechanisms for dispute and conflict resolution; ! Hay and fodder development and management,including testing of alternative business models for commercial hay and fodder production using mechanized and animal-drawn Winter camps in the Selenge Aimag. 2003 23 SECTION III. LEGAL AND NSTITUTIONAL I DIMENSIONS OF LAND MANAGEMENT T he 1992 Constitution and the 1994 Civil Code provide the overall legislative framework for land management LAND TENURE SYSTEMS AND PROPERTY RIGHTS and administration in Mongolia. The right to own Land tenure systems are usually categorized by forms of property is a basic right recognized and guaranteed by ownership. Private property, communal property, and state the Constitution. Article 16 guarantees citizens the right to property are the three basic categories of property rights. A the fair acquisition,possession and inheritance of movable and fourth category,open access,refers to situations where property immovable property,including land.Article 6 states that citizens rights are left unassigned. Under private property, land rights are assigned to an individual, whereas under state property, may be given land for private ownership, with the exception ownership of land is vested in the state. Under communal land of pastures and areas under public utilization and special use. tenure,the local community is regarded as owning the land,and State and public bodies may not appropriate private property use or usufruct rights are allocated to its members. All or some except for public needs and with the payment of compensation. of these forms of ownership may exist in one country for different tracts of land. However, in most countries one Chapter 7 of the 1994 Civil Code contains provisions governing ownership system tends to dominate. Land tenure systems can be created by state laws (statutory tenure) or have local origins the creation, termination, transfer and inheritance of property in accordance with traditional practices (customary tenure). rights. It also contains specific regulations on land ownership, possession and use rights. Article 87 restricts land ownership In Mongolia, many forms of land tenure coexist. Once the new to Mongolian citizens, who are entitled to possess, use, and Land Law has been implemented, approximately one percent dispose of their property at their discretion according to law. of the total land area,all of it urban or agricultural,will be under private ownership. Private ownership typically involves fewer The Land Law, passed in 1994, regulates the possession and restrictions on the use and transfer of land, greater security of tenure and ability to use land as a collateral. However, it may use of state-owned land, and land protection. Mongolian also lead to inequitable access to land, and a significant citizens,companies,and organizations may be granted the right divergence between the private and social interests in the use to lease state-owned land (including pasture land, forest, and of land. In the case of pastureland--where economic activity is water basins) for up to 60 years, with the possibility of an limited,suitable alternative uses are lacking,and ecological risks extension for a further 40 years. Land use rights for specific are high--private ownership systems generally do not apply, purposes can be given to foreigners for up to five years through but rather group possession rights are considered. a contract, which may be extended by up to five years. Source: Authors. In order to implement the 1994 Land Law, GoM passed organizations, and regulation of transactions related to such Resolution 143 in 1995. The Resolution gave local governments ownership and use. The newly approved Law introduces a at the aimag and soum levels, primary responsibility for number of important improvements. Among these are the implementing the Land Law. elimination of the shorter lease term (25 years) initially required However, due to limited institutional capacity at these levels for farming land,and the right of possession holders to transfer and insufficient implementation regulations, enforcement of their licenses or use them as a collateral, after approval by the the Land Law remains poor. To date, local governments have relevant local authorities. Also, it provides for better access to focused more on information gathering rather than on winter and spring camps and associated pasture,by introducing allocation of secure land rights. the possibility of allocating possession of land to groups not smaller than the herding camp (or khot ail), as opposed to The new Land Law and the Law on Mongolian Citizens' households as was previously the case. Summer and autumn Ownership of Land, both approved in 2002, represent an camps will be allocated to bags and khot ail,and freely accessed important step toward land ownership and use by citizens and by these communities. The new law aims to protect winter 24 Mongolia Environment Monitor SECTION III. LEGAL AND NSTITUTIONAL I DIMENSIONS OF LAND MANAGEMENT HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF LAND LEGISLATION, 1229­2002 Name of legislation Year Key provisions relating to land use Great Yassa (legal Code) 1229 (i) Consolidation and codification of customary laws of the confederated nomadic tribes of the Mongol Empire; (ii) Specific groups of herders explicitly linked with geographically defined territories; (iii) Nomadic movements coordinated by designated leaders. Mongol-Oirat 1640 (i) Specifically addressed pasture rights of neighborhood groups of herders; (ii) Contained Regulations prohibitions against freely nomadic herders. Khalka Djurim 1709 (i) Further codification of customary law of the steppe; (ii) Contained explicit references to pasture rights, distinguishing between secular and monastery herds following the rise of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia in late 16th century; (iii) Made provisions for sacred sites and reserved camp sites; (iv) Formalized criteria for settling disputes over campsites. Manchu Imperial Legal 1798 (i) Aimed explicitly to restrict long distance nomadic movements, recognizing that it would Code allow for concentration and confederation of power among tribes; (ii) Territorial boundari es of princely fiefdoms officially surveyed, mapped and demarcated on the ground; maps held by aimag administrations and master copies in Peking; (iii) Movements across territorial boundaries by feudal princes and their subjects highly restricted; (iv) Customary pasture rights co-existed with formal regulations, the latter varying in specificity from one ecological zone to another; (v) Rights to winter camps and pasture well defined at individual level or shared by small groups of households; often designation of other seasonal pastures, migration routes and grazing reserves as well. Land Utilization Code of 1942 (i) Gave preferential rights to collective to select territories with the best pasture, arable and hay Mongolian People's fields, and water sources; (ii) Basic pattern of seasonal pasture rotation retained, but herders Republic (MPR) confined within smaller, district territories (soum); (iii) Considerable investments in permanent shelters, fences and wells to improve livestock survival, and heavy promotion of otor (strategic movements of livestock for fattening, avoidance of drought and deep snow, or to bring them to fresh pasture). MPR Land Use Law 1971 (i) All land in state ownership, granted in perpetuity to collectives, cooperatives and citizens; (ii) Collective leaders responsible for land allocation to herder members (in practice often following customary rights). Constitution of 1992 (i) State retains right of eminent domain over all land, which shall be subject to state protection; Mongolia (ii) provides for private land ownership by citizens of Mongolia; (iii) Article 6 prohibits private ownership of pasture land, which remains in state ownership; (iv)Prohibits transfer of land to foreign citizens, although foreign citizens may lease land on limited terms; (v) Article 16 (3) confers right to fair acquisition,possession and inheritance of movable and immovable property; (vi) Precludes appropriation of private except for public need and on payment of due compensation. Civil Code (revised) 1994 (i) Contains property law of Mongolia, governing creation, termination and transfer of property rights; also contract and inheritance law; (ii) Article 77, 87, 100 -117, and 143 specifically concern land ownership, possession and use rights; Art.281 states that lease of land is governed separately by the Land Law; (iii) Article 95 provides for equal rights possession, use and disposal of family property by spouses and other family members; (iv) Article 181(1) inserted in amendment of October 1996 to allow mortgage of immovable property, including land as and when transferred to private ownership Land Law 1994 (i) Regulates possession, use and protection of land; (ii) Articles 20 -24 specify roles of respective levels of central and local government, Article 51 regulates use and protection of pasture land, and Article 56 settlement of disputes; (iii) Obliges land possessors and users to meet various requirements of`efficient and rational land use and protection'; (iv) Grants Mongolian citizens, economic entities and organizations the right to possess (lease) state owned land (including pasture land) for up to 60 years with possibility of extensions of up to 40 years; transfer to leasehold interest permitted only by inheritance; (v) Foreign citizens may obtain land use contract for 5 years with one possible extension, but are expressly forbidden from using the land for agriculture or livestock grazing. Law on Special 1995 (i) Regulates use and procurement of land for state special protection and conservation to Protected Areas preserve unique land formation, rare and endangered species, historic and cultural monuments, and natural beauty; (ii) Designates four classifications of protected areas, and specifies respective protection regimes and where relevant permitted land uses in pristine, conservation and limited use zones of protected areas. Law on Land Fee 1997 (i) Provides for payment of fees by individual, business entities and organizations to the state Payment budget for land utilization and possession; (ii) Pasture use possession calculated on the basis of the livestock units, land fertility and location; (iii) Herding households should be totally exempted from land fee payment for pasture and hay land use; (iv) 90% exemption to Mongolian citizen for individual plots up to 0.07 ha; (v) Land fee revenues shall be transferred to the local budget, and a certain percentage spent on land management, protection and rehabilitation. Land Law 2002 See text for details. Law on Mongolian 2002 See text for details. Citizens'Ownership of Land Source: Agriteam Canada 1997. Study of Extensive Livestock Production Systems in Mongolia. Final report submitted to ADB.TA 2602.mon. Calgary. 2003 25 SECTION III. LEGAL AND NSTITUTIONAL I DIMENSIONS OF LAND MANAGEMENT and spring pastures,by preventing grazing during summer and While continuing to restrict ownership to Mongolian nationals, fall (Article 54.2), and provides for sanctions to be imposed in the new law specifically confers the right to own land not to cases of out-of-season trespass (Article 66.3).18 every citizen but to every family officially registered at their respective administrative units. It is expected that after the Although the Constitution provides for the private ownership implementation of the Law,approximately one percent of total of non-pastoral land, in practice all land has continued to be Mongolian territory will be privately owned. owned by the state. The Law on Mongolian Citizens' Ownership of Land, coming into effect in May 1, 2003, It is expected that privatization of land in urban areas (0.01 regulates the allocation of land to citizens of Mongolia for percent of total land) will be carried out for free, while ownership, types and sizes of land to be owned, the power of subsequent acquisitions of land will require payment. Families the local administrations and the procedures for enacting land in Ulaanbaatar are entitled to 0.07 ha. In rural aimag centers ownership. A complementary Act, the Land Fee Law, which up to 0.35 ha, and in soum centers up to 0.5 ha of land will be will support the practical application of the Ownership Law, is allocated. Individuals who possess land on leasehold terms still being considered by the Parliament. Presently, it is unclear (including farming) have the preemptive right to purchase it how the provisions of the Law will be enacted. form the state. Logging opeartion in Kungkel, Selenge Aimag. 26 Mongolia Environment Monitor SECTION III. LEGAL AND NSTITUTIONAL I DIMENSIONS OF LAND MANAGEMENT Protected areas are regulated, other than specifically by the Law on Special Protected Areas, by the 1994 Land Law and THE GOOD GOVERNANCE FOR HUMAN SECURITY Resolution Number 143. The Law establishes that local PROGRAMME, AND NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL governments are allowed to appropriate land under state ACTION PLAN special protection.Similarly,Resolution Number 143 authorizes The `Good Governance for Human Security Programme, which the central government to acquire land under possession of was approved in 2001, is GoM's official program to address the citizens, entities and organizations for special needs. In such economic, financial, political, social, and environmental challenges facing Mongolia. cases, the law provide for compensation to be paid to the license possessor. The Good Governance for Human Security Programme identifies Other important land-related laws include the following: 11 action priorities. The following three relate specifically to ! Law on Subsoil (1989),regulates the use and protection of environmental issues:(i) Implement environmental policy aimed subsoil and licensing of related activities. It establishes that at providing sustainable development and ecological balance subsoil is the property of the State and can be given utilized by harmonizing protection of biodiversity with regional socio- economic development; (ii) Intensify land reform; and (iii) by others only on the basis of a use contract. Improve the living environment of the citizenry by reducing air, ! Forest Code (1995), regulates the rights over forest lands water and soil pollution in urban areas,and by recycling garbage and recognizes community rights over this resource. and waste. ! General Law on Environmental Protection (1995), establishes duties of land owners, possessors and users to The development goals of the National Environmental Action use the land and its resources in an environmentally Plan (NEAP), adopted in 1995, are in line with the priorities set sustainable way. in the Good Governance for Human Security Programme. The actions and objectives of NEAP have also been incorporated ! Law on Registration of Immovable Property (1997), into the Programme's Action Plan for the next few years.These regulates the registration and protection of private include sustainable use of the environment and natural ownership rights of immovable property. resources, capacity building, improved public awareness and ! Law on Minerals (1997),regulates exploration and mining participation, pollution reduction, and combating of mineral resources--except oil and gas--and licensing of desertification. related activities. Source: Ministry of Nature and Environment, Ulaanbaatar. ! Law of Cadastral Survey and Land Cadastre (1999), establishes the basis for the cadastral system development. ! Law on Immovable PropertyTax (2000), imposes a tax on owners of immovable property. 2003 27 SECTION III. LEGAL AND NSTITUTIONAL I DIMENSIONS OF LAND MANAGEMENT LAWS AND NSTITUTIONS I GOVERNING MINERAL EXPLORATION AND MINING Mongolia has extensive mineral resources,and has become home to some of the world's largest mining operations. Significant hydrocarbon potential and over 6,000 deposits of 80 different minerals have been discovered, including copper, coal, molybdenum, fluorspar, uranium, tin, tungsten and gold.The mining sector is now the country's largest industry, accounting for about 55 percent of total industrial output. Mongolia's legal and fiscal regime for developing the mineral sector is one of the most progressive and transparent in Asia.It has,therefore, encouraged investment, especially by foreign companies. The legislative framework for managing mineral resources consists mainly of the Constitution, 1989 Subsoil Law, and 1997 Minerals Law, which clearly establish the State as having exclusive property rights over its mineral resources. The Minerals Law provides for a licensing system for exploration and mining activities,with simple and clear procedures. Thus far,about 20 percent of Mongolia's territory has been licensed for exploration and mining. Exploration licenses,up to 400,000 hectares each, can be granted for a maximum of seven years to Mongolian or foreign citizens or legal persons, with no restrictions on the number of licenses that can be granted to a person or legal entity. Mining licenses can be granted only to legal persons for a term of 60 years, extendable for a further period of 40 years,with no restrictions on the repatriation of profits. Mineral licenses can be transferred or pledged in whole or in part. The Minerals Law contains provisions to address the environmental impact of mining activities (Articles 28-31). Relevant environmental protection authorities need to approve any exploration or mining activities. License holders are requested to prepare an environmental impact assessment, and an environment protection plan, which needs to be updated annually to ensure that pollution caused by the exploration activities does not exceed maximum limits. Investors are also required to report on steps taken to protect the environment and natural resources. However, license holders are not obligated to rehabilitate the area affected by mining activities, and to eliminate environmental dangers completely.They must deposit an amount equal to 50 percent of the environmental protection budget in a special bank account,to be refunded upon full implementation of the environmental protection plan. This provision has not led to environmental protection as had been expected. Operators often do not have the capacity to come up with the remaining 50 percent to complete environmental works. In general, enforcement of the environmental provisions has been problematic. A weak environmental inspection system is one of the many factors contributing to this problem. At the central level,the institutions relevant to the mining sector are the Ministry of Industry and Trade (MIT),the Ministry of Infrastructure (MI), and the Ministry of Nature and Environment (MNE). The Mineral Resources Authority,and the State Inspection of Industry and Trade, are the core MIT agencies for overseeing the mining industry. The Mineral Resources Authority is responsible for the development and implementation of the geology and mining sectors' state policy. Specifically, it is tasked with providing and maintaining geological information, through the administration of the Geological Information Center. It also conducts research on the development of mineral resources, and suggests regulations for environmental protection and labor safety at mines. The Authority is also responsible for issuing licenses for mineral exploration and mining, through the Office of Geological and Mining Cadastre. The State Inspection of Industry and Trade is responsible for monitoring exploration and mining activities and ensuring compliance with the laws on geology and mining, including environment friendly use of mineral resources. Through its Environmental Inspectors, MNE shares responsibilities for carrying out inspections of exploration and mining activities to ensure compliance with environmental laws. The Coal Agency under MI is responsible for managing state-owned mining operations. At the local level,provincial and district governments are responsible for organizing and ensuring implementation of mining legislation and compliance with environmental protection, health and safety regulations. At the provincial level, these activities are carried out by the Expert Inspection Office, under MIT, and the Environmental State Chief Inspector. Similarly,at the district level,inspectors have been appointed under both MIT and MNE. In 2002,with the goal of addressing the overlapping authorities of MIT and MNE,GoM issued a resolution on the reorganization of inspectorates,which provides for the establishment of a single Inspecting Agency reporting directly to the Prime Minister. The new agency is expected to be established in 2003. Source: Authors. 28 Mongolia Environment Monitor CHANGES IN MONGOLIAN LAND-USE PATTERNS, LAND-USE REGULATION, AND LAND TENURE SECTION Manchu Rule and Mongol Empire Autonomy Early Communism Collective Privatization (1206-1690) (1691-1911) (1924-1959) (1960-1990) (1990) Regulatory Institutions III. Clans and tribal groups Monastery and secular Neighborhood groups (little Collective None nobility formal regulation) Neighborhood groups (bag) LEGAL Land-Use Patterns Wide ranging seasonal Confined to khoshuun Reduced distance of Confined to sum brigades Further reduced distance migrations (military-territorial units) migrations and diversity of and frequency of moves boundaries ecological zones Average of four moves per Year-round use of desert AND year riparian and reserve pastures Lang distances, frequent Year-round use of desert Diversity of ecological Increased trespassing moves, multiple ecological riparian areas resources reduced INSTITUTIONAL zones Many shelters built Animals concentrated near towns and roads Land-Use Regulations Clan chiefs signal and direct Nobles direct movement No enforced formal Collectives enforce seasonal No formal regulation or movement regulation of movement moves and otor enforcement Grazing prohibited in some Neighborhood groups Transport provided by Lack of coordinated seasonal areas migrate together collectives movements Community sanctions for Emergency reserve pasture D out-of-season use areas IMENSIONS Land Tenure and Legal Framework Chinggis Khan and his Nobles allocate; no right to Customary rights within Collectives allocate pasture, Customary rights weak successors grant fields for alienate administration often along customary rights political loyalty Lack of transport restricts All property state owned Informal institutions of access to the poor access in flux Customary law of the steppe Law of the steppe codified; Disputes resolved by Pasture leasing system OF first come, first serve brigades and collective proposed khural (council) Disputes resolved by tamga Inter-territorial use Disputes resolved by local LAND (administrative officer) agreements governments (bag, soum) Inter-territorial use of Shelters privatized agreements by the 1800s, M quasi private rights to hay, ANAGEMENT shelters, and winter camps in some areas Source: Maria E. Fernandez-Gimenez.1999. "Sustaining the Steppes: A Geographical History of Pastoral Land Use in Mongolia," The Geographical Review 89 (3):315-342, July 1999. 2003 29 SECTION III. LEGAL AND NSTITUTIONAL I DIMENSIONS OF LAND MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS authorities (aimag and capital city) and district authorities (soum and duureg) are responsible for ensuring land policy At the national level, policies relating to livestock production, implementation, enforcing land legislation in their territories, environmental protection and natural resource use, and rural monitoring the use of land, drafting land management plans, development are defined by the National Legislature's (Ikh and establishing pasture and settled livestock breeding areas Khural) Standing Committee on Rural Development and within their territories. Environment. Primary responsibility for land use regulation, At district level, environmental inspectors currently have dual land management,protection and administration,lies with the responsibility for land management and environmental Ministry of Nature and Environment (MNE). It is the lead protection The problem is that they often lack the education agency for implementing GoM policy and legislation on land and experience necessary to effectively carry out the functions (specifically the Land Law, the Law on Ownership, and the assigned to them. Municipal authorities are also responsible Law on Cadastral Survey and Registration), and has the for enforcing laws and monitoring the use of land. In general, authority to approve standards and regulations on land municipal authorities are responsible for implementing management. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MFA) decisions made at the district level, and are fundamentally shares some of these responsibilities with regard to the responsible for the protection and use of common use lands livestock sector. The 2002 Land Law has transferred the authority to grant land In 1997, a central Land Management Agency, with officers at possession and use rights from the municipal (bag and khoroo) national, provincial and district levels, was established to to the district (soum and duureg) level. Decisions on how land supervise and support the implementation of legislation and will be allocated for ownership will also be made at the district government regulations related to land use. Responsibilities level.The application process has been streamlined, although for implementing legislation, and land planning and it is still unclear what functions will be performed at the management activities are fairly decentralized. Provincial municipal level, and how land will be allocated in practice. Likely Institutional Structure for Land Management Government of Mongolia Government of Mongolia Ministry of Food and Ministry of Food and Ministry for Nature Ministry for Nature Agriculture Agriculture and Environment and Environment Land Management Land Management Authority Authority Aimag (province) Government Aimag (province) Government City Capital Government City Capital Government Land Department Land Department Environmental Inspectors Land Department Environmental Inspectors Land Department Environmental Inspectors Environmental Inspectors Duureg (urban district) govt. Soum (rural district) govt. Duureg (urban district) govt. Soum (rural district) govt. Land Officers Land Officers Land Department Land Department Environment Inspectors Environment Inspectors Environment Inspectors Governor of Bag (rural sub-district) Governor of Bag (rural sub-district) Governor of Khoroo (urban sub-district) Governor of Khoroo (urban sub-district) Local Community Local Community Local Community Local Community 30 Mongolia Environment Monitor SECTION III. LEGAL AND NSTITUTIONAL I DIMENSIONS OF LAND MANAGEMENT The new Law provides for the creation of a Land Management reforms. Local governments face severe financial constraints Authority reporting directly to the Prime Minister's office, and are unable to attract well trained staff. which will supersede the previous Land ManagementAgency. Several land management functions at the national level (land The division of responsibilities for land management among registry, land cadastre maintenance and land administration) different administration levels is unclear, and several overlaps will be consolidated under this Authority. The Authority may exist between their mandates. The new Land Law simply states also play a role in policy formulation. Its main responsibilities the roles of different levels of government, but fails to provide include implementing GoM land policy,developing a National rules for dealing with overlaps, conflicts and gaps. Division of Land Management Plan, administering cadastral activities, responsibility and lack of real coordination mechanisms approving regulations land possession and land use licenses, between MNE and MFA have resulted in unsustainable land and human resources development for land management. use and weak management. One of the most significant areas Land Departments will be established in each aimag, the capital of conflict is the expansion of protected areas to cover city, and districts, and land officers will be appointed for each customary grazing lands. In addition, both MNE and local soum. However, a timeline for the establishment of the governors are empowered to issue natural-use permits but Authority has not yet been provided. there is no indication of which agency has jurisdiction under what circumstances. The unclear division of responsibility is Similar responsibilities for land management activities and exacerbated by inherent conflicts of interest. Most serious is planning for their territories will be assigned to land the conflict of interest between district governors and local department's officials at the aimag, capital city and district environmental and land use officers. The district governor, levels, and to land officers at the soum level. Further responsible for short term budgets, is unlikely to enforce the responsibilities include conducting cadastral surveys and implementation of pasture land management plans, if these keeping land databases, and levying land fees. plans limit livestock numbers in a way that would reduce local budget revenues. In general, authorities responsible for land management lack sufficient capacity to enforce existing legislation and the new 2003 31 SECTION IV. FUTURE CHALLENGES T here is a growing recognition of the importance of weak.Although traditional herders have adapted to the harsh Mongolia's natural resources, both within the and unpredictable climate, newcomers and those with smaller Government and the international donor community. herds, risk losing the bulk of their assets with every dzud event. The Government is committed to protecting vast tracts of forests, wetlands and pastures. To this end, it has passed 4. Land Markets. As the country completes a transition from a several laws and resolutions, and become signatory to planned to a free-market economy,poorly functioning markets important international conventions. However, the actual require strengthening. This would encourage more efficient implementation of official policies continues to be weak, and use of forest resources, and stimulate the provision of Mongolia's environment faces mounting threats. alternatives to raw wood consumption such as briquettes. Based on the available information and analyses, this report 5. Laws on Pasture Use. There are inherent conflicts between has identified the following major challenges for the future: laws, especially with respect to use of pastures. As the new Land Law is implemented it is critical that such conflicts be 1. Public Access to Information.There is little to no public access resolved. Further, there are few alternative approaches to to information regarding the content of land legislation, and pasture-land dispute resolution. Such approaches would the implementation responsibilities of local governments. Such complement the administrative options enshrined in the land access is important because the mechanisms by which the new law. Land Law will be implemented are still unclear. Public consultation in the further development of national land 6. Community-based Forestry. Community-based management legislation will be of paramount importance to ensure that local of forest resources is a practical alternative to the top-down officials earn the trust of the people and can effectively carry forest management approach that has yielded poor results. In out their responsibilities. In this context, it is critical that addition to granting communities the rights to manage forests, implementation guidelines be elaborate but clear, context- local officials should have adequate financial and human sensitive,and flexible, and that they be upheld in a transparent resources to perform the monitoring duties that they are manner. assigned. 2. Land-Poverty Nexus. There are several GoM and bilateral 7.Environmental Management and Protection Funding. In general, initiatives that address the land-poverty nexus.These have yet environmental monitoring and management are poorly funded to translate into substantial improvements in land and environmental protection provisions are rarely management, both due to limited institutional capacity and implemented.As the mining industry expands in Mongolia, it the lack of viable alternatives to herding. is critical that environmental safeguards are observed before, during and after the mining operations. 3. Institutional Capacity for Disaster Management. The institutional ability to respond to natural disasters remains 32 Mongolia Environment Monitor MONGOLIA AT-A-GLANCE Geography Economy and Society Location: Northern Asia,between China and Russia GDP: US$ 4.7 billion (2000 est.) Total area: 1.565 million sq.km GDP growth rate: 1 percent (2000 est.) Land boundaries:Total:8,161.9 Km GDP composition by sector: Border countries: China 4,676.9 km Agriculture: 36 percent Russia 3,485 km Industry: 22 percent Services: . 42 percent (2000 est.) Elevation extremes:Lowest point:Khoh Nuur 518 m; Highest point: Nayramadlin Orgil 4,374 m Currency: Tögrög;U$ 1 = 1,097 Tögrög Mineral resources: oil,coal,copper,molybdenum,tungsten, Inflation rate:7r: $200 million (1998 est.) phosphates, tin, nickel, zinc, gold, silver, iron Industrial production growth rate: 2.4% (2000 est.) Land use: Agriculture products: wheat,barley,potatoes,fo rage crops; arable land: 5.7 percent sheep, goats, cattle, camels, hors es permanent pastures: 81 percent forest and woodlands: 11.4 percent Exports total value: $454.3 million (f.o.b.,1999) other: 1.9 percent (2000 est.) Export partners: China 60%,US 20%,Russia 9%,Japan 2% (2000 est.) Irrigated land:800 sq km (1993 est.) Imports-Total value: $510.7 million (c.i.f.,1999) Climate: continental (large daily and seasonal temperature Import Partners: Russia 33%,China 21%,Japan 12%,South ranges) Korea 10%,US 4% (1999) National capital:Ulaanbaatar Population,mid-year: 2,654,999 (2001 est.) Administrative divisions:21 aimag (province),The aimag Population growth rate: 1.4 percent (2001 est.) (=province) is the largest sub-national administrative unit; Poverty (percent below poverty line): 40 (2000 est.) Mongolia is divided into 21 aimags.The sub-national Birth rate:21.8 births/1,000 population (2001 est.) administrative unit below the aimag is the soum (=district), Death rate: 7.1 deaths/1,000 population (2001 est.) which is divided into bag (=sub-district).In the capital city Infant mortality rate: 53.5 deaths/1,000 live births (2001 districts are called duureg and sub-districts khoroo. est.) Fiscal Year :January 1st ­ December 31st Life expectancy at birth:64 years Independence: 11 July 1921 (from China) Access to safe water:60 % of total population Access to sanitation:25 % of total population Literacy (at age 15) total population: 97% 2003 33 NOTES 1. In mountain steppe areas the mean annual precipitation below the Aimag (province) in rural areas. Soum are is around 250 mm, and in desert-steppe areas around or divided into Bag (subdistricts). In the capital city and other less than 100 mm. urban areas, districts are called Duureg, and sub-districts 2. Ellis, J.E., andT. Chuluun. 1993."Cross ­country survey of are referred to as Khoroo. climate, ecology, and land use among Mongolian 12. It is not clear, for example, whether the definitions refer pastoralists."Paper presented at Conference on Grassland to changes in range vegetation cover or species Ecosystems of the Mongolian Steppe, November 4-7, Racine, composition; whether they are based on field observations, WI: Wingspread Center. and if so,from how many experimental plots; and whether 3. Fernandez-Gimenez, M.E., and B. Allen-Diaz. 1999. or not the processes of vegetation change are thought to "Testing a non-equilibrium model of rangeland vegetation be irreversible. dynamics in Mongolia."Journal of Applied Ecology 36:871- 13. This represents an increase from 351,000 people, or 17 885. percent of the population,to 834,750 people,or 34 percent 4. Mongolia uses two types of standard livestock unit: bod, of the population. based on large stock--horses and cattle; and bog, based 14. NSO and World Bank. 2000 `Mongolia Participatory Living on small stock--sheep and goats. The data here are Standard Assessment 2000.' Ulaanbaatar: Mongolia expressed in bod units, and equivalents by species are 1 National Statistical Office and World Bank. bod = 1 horse/cow (including yak), 7 sheep/goats, 0.5 15. Dzud is the collective term for a range of winter weather- camel. related conditions that prevent domestic animals from 5. For more information on environmental legislation , see foraging in open grazing. For details see the following Section III in this publication. subsection. 6. Closed canopy is the description given to a stand of trees 16. Mearns, R. 1996. "Community, collective action and when the main level of trees forming the canopy are common grazing: the case of post-socialist Mongolia." touching and intermingled so that light cannot reach the Journal of Development Studies, 32 (3):297-339. forest floor directly. 17. Skees, J., and A. Enkh-Amgalan. 2002. "Examining the 7. A larch tree just 2.5 cm in diameter can be 40 years old. Feasibility of Livestock Insurance in Mongolia." Policy 8. The larch bud moth and theAsian gypsy moth,which feed ResearchWorking Paper 2886.Washington,DC:World Bank. on larch and other trees,affect an average of about 100,000 18. There appears to be a contradiction in the new Law, ha each year. between Article 6.2 and Article 54.2, with regard to free 9. WorldWildlife Fund.2000. The Global 200 Eco-regions.http:/ access to pastures. Article 6.2 states that, pasturelands, /www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/ecoregions/ water points in pasturelands,wells and salt licks are among global zoo/pages/home.htm those types of land that"regardless of whether they are 10. Gunin, and others. 1999. Vegetation Dynamics of Mongolia; given into possession or use, shall be used for common Kluwer, Amsterdam . purpose under government regulation." 11. Soum (district) is the sub-national administrative unit 34 Mongolia Environment Monitor THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, NW Washington, D. C. 20433 U.S.A. Tel: 202-477-1234 Fax: 202-477-6391 Telex: MCI 64145 WORLDBANK MCI 248423 WORLDBANK Internet: http://worldbank.org THE WORLD BANK MONGOLIA OFFICE Ulaanbaatar, 11 A Peace Avenue Ulaanbaatar 210648, Mongolia