73438 Toward Gender Equality in East Asia and the Pacific A Companion to the World Development Report WO RLD BA NK E A S T A SIA A N D PACI FIC REGIO N A L REP O RT S Well known for their economic success and dynamism, countries in the East Asia and Pacific region must tackle an increasingly complex set of challenges to continue on a path of sustain- able development. Learning from others within the region and beyond can help identify what works, what doesn’t, and why, in the search for practical solutions to these challenges. This regional report series presents analyses of issues relevant to the region, drawing on the global knowledge and experience of the World Bank and its partners. The series aims to inform public discussion, policy formulation, and development practitioners’ actions to turn challenges into opportunities. World Bank East Asia and Pacific Regional Report Toward Gender Equality in East Asia and the Pacific A Companion to the World Development Report © 2012 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved 1 2 3 4 15 14 13 12 This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. Note that The World Bank does not necessarily own each component of the content included in the work. The World Bank there- fore does not warrant that the use of the content contained in the work will not infringe on the rights of third parties. The risk of claims resulting from such infringement rests solely with you. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. 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Toward Gender Equality in East Asia and the Pacific: A Companion to the World Development Report. Washington, DC: World Bank. doi: 10.1596/978-0-8213-9623-0 License: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 Translations—If you create a translation of this work, please add the following disclaimer along with the attribution: This translation was not created by The World Bank and should not be considered an official World Bank translation. The World Bank shall not be liable for any content or error in this translation. All queries on rights and licenses should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. ISBN (paper): 978-0-8213-9623-0 ISBN (electronic): 978-0-8213-9626-1 DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-9623-0 Cover photo: © www.istockphoto.com / Bartosz Hadyniak Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Toward gender equality in East Asia and the Pacific.   p. cm. — (World Bank East Asia and Pacific regional report)   “A companion to the World development report.�   Includes bibliographical references.   ISBN 978-0-8213-9623-0 — ISBN 978-0-8213-9626-1 (electronic)   1. Women’s rights—Asia.  2. Women’s rights—Pacific Area.  3. Women in development—Asia.  4. Women in development—Pacific Area.  5. Sex discrimination against women—Asia.  6. Sex discrimination against women—Pacific Area.  I. World Bank.  II. World development report. III. Series: World Bank East Asia and Pacific regional report. HQ1236.5.A78T69 2012 323.3’4095—dc23 2012030808 Contents Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv Acknowledgments Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Why does gender equality matter for development?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Recent progress, pending challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Why do many gender inequalities persist? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Emerging opportunities and risks in an increasingly integrated world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Toward gender equality in East Asia and the Pacific: Directions for policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 1. The State of Gender Equality in East Asia and the Pacific. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Why does gender equality matter for development?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Recent progress, pending challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Fostering new opportunities, managing emerging risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Gender equality in East Asia and the Pacific: A roadmap to the report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 2. Gender and Endowments: Access to Human Capital and Productive Assets . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Substantial progress toward gender equality in education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Improvements and remaining gender issues in health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Gender equality in productive assets: An unfinished agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Policies to promote gender equality in endowments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 v v i    C o n t e n t s 3. Gender and Economic Opportunity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Limited effects of growth on gender gaps in economic opportunity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Gender differences in economic activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 What determines gender inequality in economic opportunities?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Policies to promote gender equality in economic opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 4. Agency: Voice and Influence within the Home and in Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Agency—important for gender equality and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 The state of women’s agency in East Asia and the Pacific. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Explaining progress and pending challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Policy approaches to promote gender equality in agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 5. Gender and the Region’s Emerging Development Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Globalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Migration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Urbanization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Aging populations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Information and communication technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 6. Promoting Gender Equality in East Asia and the Pacific: Directions for Policy. . . . . . . . . 213 Promoting gender equality in human development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Taking active measures to promote gender equality in economic opportunity . . . . . . . . . . 221 Taking measures to strengthen women’s voice and influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Fostering new opportunities, managing emerging risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Filling knowledge gaps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Boxes 1.1 Defining and measuring gender equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 1.2 Defining and measuring agency: Women’s voice, influence, and participation. . . . . . . . 48 2.1 Various parts of the world experience reverse gender gaps in education . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 2.2 Recent improvement in the sex ratio at birth in the Republic of Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 3.1 Is higher female labor force participation always a good thing?.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 3.2 Gender-related beliefs on appropriate employment in Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, and Vietnam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 4.1 Gender and land tenure in a plural legal environment: The case of the Solomon Islands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 4.2 Strengthening state mechanisms for gender equality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 6.1 Reducing maternal mortality rates through improved staffing and quality of service delivery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 6.2 The design of infrastructure projects has important gender dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . 223 6.3 Leveling the playing field in access to resources: Lessons from Papua New Guinea and Mongolia����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������227 C o n t e n t s   v ii 6.4 The impact of active labor market policies on female employment: Evidence from across the world��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������231 Figures O.1 The East Asia and Pacific region has experienced rapid economic growth. . . . . . . . . . . 2 O.2 Poverty reduction in the East Asia and Pacific region has been impressive. . . . . . . . . . . 2 O.3 Girls’ secondary school enrollments have converged to those of boys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 O.4 Maternal mortality rates have declined in most countries in the region. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 O.5  Female labor force participation is high by global standards but also varies substantially across the region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 O.6  Across the region, female-headed households own less land than male-headed households. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 O.7 Women in East Asia and the Pacific still earn less than men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 O.8  In urban China and Indonesia, gender wage gaps are largest among low wage earners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 O.9 Enterprises with female managers tend to be smaller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 O.10 Who decides how wives’ cash earnings are used varies widely across the region. . . . . 10 O.11 Women’s representation in parliament is low, especially in the Pacific. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 O.12 Violence against women is high in the region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 O.13 Women are concentrated in certain fields of study, such as education and medicine, but are underrepresented in law and engineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 O.14 In Lao PDR, women—particularly those with young children—must balance household and market work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 O.15 In Indonesia, female-led enterprises are clustered in lower-productivity and less capital-intensive industries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 O.16 Male- and female-led firms report similar constraints in Indonesia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 O.17 Men and, in some cases, women believe that men make better political leaders than women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 O.18 The share of female workers in export-oriented firms is relatively high. . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 O.19 China has seen remarkable growth in Internet use since 2000, but women’s use trails men’s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 O.20 The old-age dependency ratio is increasing in most East Asian countries . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.1 The East Asia and Pacific region has experienced rapid economic growth. . . . . . . . . . 34 1.2 Poverty reduction in the East Asia and Pacific region has been impressive. . . . . . . . . . 34 1.3 Girls’ secondary school enrollments have converged to those of boys. . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 1.4  Tertiary school enrollments of females have converged to those of males in East Asia and the Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 1.5 Gender gaps in secondary school enrollment vary substantially across countries . . . . 39 1.6  Gender gaps in education have reversed in several countries, particularly at the tertiary level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 1.7 Minority populations in Vietnam often experience lower educational enrollments. . . 40 1.8  In Indonesia, gender gaps in enrollment do not vary substantially by household wealth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 1.9 Fertility rates have declined across the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 1.10 Under-five mortality rates have declined sharply for both boys and girls. . . . . . . . . . . . 41 1.11 Maternal mortality rates have declined across the world. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 1.12 Maternal mortality rate has declined in most countries in the region . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 1.13 East Asia has a highly skewed male-to-female ratio at birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 1.14 The East Asia and Pacific region has high female labor force participation rates. . . . . . . 44 v i i i    C o n t e n t s 1.15 Female labor force participation varies substantially across countries . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 1.16  The fraction of the workforce employed in agriculture has declined in the East Asia and Pacific region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 1.17 The evolution of sectoral composition by gender varies across countries. . . . . . . . . . . 46 1.18 Women are more likely than men to be temporary workers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 1.19 Enterprises with female management tend to be smaller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 1.20  In Lao PDR, women—particularly those with young children—must balance household work commitments with market work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 1.21 Women in East Asia still earn less than men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 1.22  Women in East Asia and the Pacific have more control over earnings and household decisions across all wealth quintiles than women from other developing regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 1.23  Female representation in parliament in East Asian and Pacific countries has hardly changed since the 1990s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 1.24 Women’s representation in parliament is low, especially in the Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 1.25  Men, and in some cases women, believe that men make better political leaders than women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 1.26  More women hold top management positions in East Asia and the Pacific than in other developing regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 1.27 Violence against women is high in East Asia and the Pacific. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 1.28 The dependency ratio is increasing in most East Asian countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 2.1  Enrollment for both genders has been converging even among the poorest populations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 2.2 Gender gaps in youth literacy are smaller than gender gaps in adult literacy. . . . . . . . . 63 B2.1.1 The biggest enrollment disadvantage for boys in the Phillippines is among the poor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 2.3 Girls in some ethnic minority groups in Lao PDR lag even further in enrollment. . . . . 65 2.4 Girls in some ethnic minority groups in Vietnam lag even further in enrollment . . . . . 65 2.5 Even girls in wealthier households in Cambodia and Lao PDR lag behind boys. . . . . . 67 2.6  Women are concentrated in certain fields of study, such as education and health, but are underrepresented in law and engineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 2.7 Girls tend to outperform boys in several subjects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 2.8 Maternal mortality is lower in higher-income countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 2.9 Female infant mortality is lower in higher-income countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 2.10  Most East Asia and Pacific region countries do not have female-skewed under-five mortality and infant mortality, except China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 2.11  Women in wealthier households are more likely to have births assisted by trained medical staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 2.12 Contraceptive prevalence varies across East Asian and Pacific countries. . . . . . . . . . . . 77 2.13  The percentage of births attended by skilled professionals varies across East Asian and Pacific countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 2.14  Women in rural areas are less likely to have births assisted by trained medical staff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 2.15  Sex ratios at higher order births are still of concern, even though the overall sex ratio at birth has approached the normal range in the Republic of Korea. . . . . . . . 79 2.16 Men are more likely to smoke than women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 2.17 Men are more likely to drink than women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 2.18 Tobacco use is positively correlated with mortality due to lung cancer. . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 2.19  Alcohol consumption is positively correlated with mortality due to alcohol use disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 C o n t e n t s   i x 2.20 The poor are slightly more likely to engage in smoking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 2.21 The probability of owning land is not substantially lower for female-headed households than for male-headed households . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 2.22 Female-headed households own less land in terms of land size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 2.23 Vietnamese men owned more agricultural land plots than did women in 2008. . . . . . 88 2.24 Female-headed households are less likely to own livestock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 2.25 Female-headed households are slightly less likely to borrow from a financial institution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 2.26 Women are slightly less likely than men to report having an account at a formal financial institution.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 3.1  Female labor force participation in the Republic of Korea rose for women of all ages between 1960 and 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 3.2  Labor force participation is greater in rural areas than in urban areas for both males and females . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 3.3  Female labor force participation rates in Malaysia have risen over time among 20- to 55-year-olds, but continue to decline during child-bearing years. . . . . 109 3.4  Women in rural Vietnam with children under age 2 are substantially less likely to participate in the labor market than those without young children. . . . . . . . 110 3.5  Women earn less than men in the majority of East Asian and Pacific countries and in all sectors of the economy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 3.6  Male- and female-owned firms in the formal sector do not display substantial differences in productivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 3.7  In the informal sector, gender-based differences in productivity are more pronounced than in the formal sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 3.8 Women are more likely than men to work as unpaid family workers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 3.9  Women are slightly more likely to be employed in the informal sector than men. Rural-urban differences in informality are greater than gender differences within rural or urban areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 3.10 Men and women work in different sectors throughout the East Asia and Pacific region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 3.11 The pattern of female ownership by firm size varies across countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 3.12 In Indonesia, female-led enterprises are clustered in lower-productivity and capital-intensive industries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 3.13 Female labor force participation is high by global standards but also varies substantially across the region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 3.14 The fraction of the gender wage gap explained by differences in characteristics is smaller than the fraction of the wage gap attributable to differences in returns in Indonesia, 2009. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 3.15 Differences in productivity across informal and formal firms in Vietnam are larger than differences across male- and female-led enterprises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 3.16 Self-reporting shows little difference in access to finance between male- and female-run firms, with the exception of Timor-Leste and Tonga. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 3.17 Male- and female-led informal firms report similar constraints in Indonesia . . . . . . 124 3.18 In Cambodia, women—particularly those with young children—balance household work commitment with market work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 3.19 Women in Timor-Leste spend more time on domestic activities than men, and these differences are found among richer as well as poorer households. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 4.1  There is a positive relationship between economic development and civic activism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 x    C o n t e n t s 4.2  There is no clear relationship between economic development and women’s representation in parliament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 4.3  Who decides how wives’ cash earnings are used varies across the region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 4.4  A majority of wives control decisions regarding their own health care and household purchases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 4.5  Women in East Asia have greater control over decisions than in other regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 4.6 Fertility rates in the region have declined over the past three decades. . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 4.7 Adolescent fertility is especially high in the Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 4.8 The rate of unwanted and mistimed pregnancies is especially high in the Pacific . . . . 152 4.9  Many firms have female participation in ownership, but fewer have a female top manager. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 4.10 Civic activism has grown in the low- and middle-income countries in the region . . . . 153 4.11 Women’s representation in parliament has grown in much of East Asia but has experienced little change in the Pacific Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 4.12 Women’s representation in parliament is low, especially in the Pacific. . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 4.13 Violence against women is high in the region.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 4.14 The incidence of sexual intimate-partner violence is significantly higher in the Pacific. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 4.15 Gender-based violence can have inter-generational consequences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 4.16 Many men and women in the region believe that men make better political leaders than women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 5.1  Women are more likely to work in export-oriented firms than in non-export-oriented firms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 5.2  Employment in textile and apparel in Vietnam grew substantially between 2000 and 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 5.3 Women predominate in the garment sector in four East Asian countries. . . . . . . . . . . 182 5.4  The share of international female migrants has increased over time in Indonesia and Vietnam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 5.5  The urban population now accounts for more than 50 percent of the world’s population. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 5.6 Urbanization is expected to be rapid in East Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 5.7  The rates of urban growth are predicted to vary substantially across countries in the Pacific. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 5.8  In most East Asian and Pacific countries, urban areas have better access to improved sanitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 5.9  Rural areas have lower access to improved water sources than urban areas in the majority of countries in the region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 5.10 The old age dependency ratio is expected to increase for both men and women in the next two decades; the female ratio will exceed the male ratio in the future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 5.11 The gender gap in life expectancy at birth is lower in the East Asia and Pacific region than in many other regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 5.12 Life expectancy at birth in the region has improved for both men and women since 1990, although gender gaps have widened in some countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 5.13 Women ages 65 and above are far more likely to be widowed than men. . . . . . . . . . . 197 5.14 Women’s time devoted to housework and caregiving activities is not significantly greater in households with elderly members. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 C o n t e n t s   x i 5.15 Internet use has increased substantially in the East Asia and Pacific region and around the developing world since 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 5.16 The number of cell phone subscribers per 100 people in the East Asia and Pacific region has grown substantially since 2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 5.17 Internet use has grown quickly in many countries in the region but has grown slowly in others. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 5.18 The number of cell phone subscribers in the population has grown across most of East Asia but has remained limited in some Pacific countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 5.19 Women in the region are less likely to be mobile phone subscribers than men. . . . . . . 202 5.20 Internet use has grown for both men and women in China, although a persistent gender gap in access remains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Tables 2.1 Labor market returns to studying engineering are high relative to studying education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 2.2 School curricula in a number of East Asian countries have gender stereotyping. . . . . . 71 2.3 The East Asia and Pacific region, mainly driven by China, is characterized by its large number of missing girls at birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 2.4 Most East Asian and Pacific countries do not differentiate by gender in inheritance and property laws. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 3.1 Legal retirement ages in the East Asia and Pacific region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 4.1 Legislation against gender-based violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 4.2 Political affirmative action in East Asia and the Pacific. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 5.1 Evidence shows no systematic gender differences in consumption poverty among the elderly, regardless of family status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 6.1 Selected policy approaches to tackle excessive tobacco and alcohol use. . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Foreword O ver the past few decades, the East access than men to a range of productive Asia and Pacific region has been assets and services, including land, finan- the most economically dynamic cial capital, agricultural extension services, region in the world. In most countries and new information technologies. Sub- in the region, incomes have grown dra- stantial employment segregation by gender matically, and with that growth, absolute remains. Women are less likely than men to poverty has declined rapidly. Most of the work in formal sector jobs and more likely region’s economies have also shifted away to work in poorly remunerated occupations from agriculture and toward manufactur- and enterprises. Despite the closing of educa- ing and services. Rapid growth, structural tion gaps, women still earn less than men for transformation, and poverty reduction have similar work all across the region. Women been accompanied by progress toward gen- in East Asian and Pacific countries still have der equality in several key areas. Economic a weaker voice and less influence than men, development has led to the closing of gender whether within the household, in the private gaps in school enrollments and a decline in sector, in civil society, or in politics. And maternal mortality rates: girls in the region women across the region remain vulnerable as a whole now enroll in secondary schools to gender-based violence, often at the hand of at a higher rate than boys, and maternal an intimate partner. mortality has fallen by half over the past The main message of this book, Toward 20 years. Access to economic opportuni- Gender Equality in East Asia and the ties has also increased, particularly among Pacific— a regional companion to the World younger, better educated women. In many Development Report 2012: Gender Equal- ways, women in East Asian and Pacific ity and Development—is that policy makers countries are better positioned than ever in the region need to understand why prog- before to participate in, contribute to, and ress in closing gender gaps has been mixed benefit from development. and to implement corrective policies where Yet, the experience of the region illustrates gaps remain persistent. The reason is that also how growth and economic development gender equality is both an important devel- are not enough to attain gender equality opment objective in its own right as well as in all its dimensions. Women still have less good development policy. A growing body of xiii x i v    F o r e w o r d evidence shows that promoting gender equal- public action in the countries of East Asia ity in access to productive resources, eco- and the Pacific. First, promoting gender nomic opportunity, and voice can contribute equality in human development remains to higher economic productivity, improve the important where gender gaps in education economic prospects and wellbeing of the next and health outcomes remain large. Second, generation, and lead to more effective devel- policies to close gender gaps in economic opment policy making. Yet, gender equality opportunity have a critical role. Such mea- in many areas does not happen automatically. sures are often warranted on both equity Thus, gender-aware public policy is required and efficiency grounds. Third, initiatives to if countries are to achieve both gender equal- strengthen women’s voice and influence— ity and more rapid development. and to protect them from violence—are As a regional report, Toward Gender also called for across the region. Strength- Equality in East Asia and the Pacific focuses ening women’s agency will enhance the on issues that are particularly pertinent to quality of development decision making the region. Among other things, the report and, thus, development broadly. A nd, examines the gender dimensions of several finally, public policy can foster the oppor- emerging trends in the region—increased tunities and manage the risks associated global economic integration, the rising use with emerging trends in the region; taking of information and communication tech- a gender-aware approach to policy making nologies, migration, urbanization, and rapid in this area will lead to better gender— population aging—all of which are generat- and development—outcomes. ing new opportunities, but also new risks, for This report shows that in East Asia and promoting gender equality. The report also the Pacific, as in other parts of the world, contributes to the development of new data gender equality is both the right development and evidence on gender and development, objective as well as good development policy. significantly strengthening the ability of countries to formulate evidence-based policy Pamela Cox in this area. Vice President Drawing on this evidence base, the East Asia and Pacific Region report identifies four priority areas for The World Bank Acknowledgments T his study has been prepared by a mul- The team is grateful for the ongoing sup- tisectoral, multidisciplinary team led port and guidance provided by members of by Andrew Mason under the guid- the East Asia and Pacific Region’s manage- ance of Bert Hofman and Sudhir Shetty. ment, including James Adams, Pamela Cox, The report was written by a core team com- Vikram Nehru, John Roome, Emmanuel prising Reena Badiani, Trang Van Nguyen, Jimenez, Linda Van Gelder, Magda Lovei, Katherine Patrick, Ximena Del Carpio, and Xiaoqing Yu, Annette Dixon, Victoria Andrew Mason, with significant contribu- Kwakwa, and Coralie Gevers. The team tions from Jennifer Golan. Patricia Fer- also appreciates the support of the members nandes, Anne Kuriakose, Rea Chiongson, of the Region’s Gender Practice Group, past and Daniel Mont also provided substantive and present, including Nina Bhatt, Helene inputs. New data analysis for the report was Carlsson Rex, Markus Kostner, Eduardo carried out by Juan Feng, Reno Dewina, and Velez, and Lester Dally. Furthermore, the Flora Nankhuni, using the East Asia and team benefitted from the ongoing interac- Pacific Region’s Poverty Monitoring Data- ­ oordination, and support of the World tion, c base. Background papers for the report were Development Report 2012 team, namely written by Sarah Iqbal, Nayda Almodovar Ana Revenga, Sudhir Shetty, Ana Maria Reteguis, Yasmin Klaudia bin Humam, Munoz, Carolina Sanchez-Paramo, Luis Ben- Josefina Posadas, Reena Badiani, John veniste, Markus Goldstein, Jishnu Das, and Rang, Benedikte Bjerge, Chris Sakellariou, Aline Coudouel. and Dongxiao Liu. Qualitative studies on During the report’s preparation, the team women’s economic decision making in Fiji, received helpful comments from four peer Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and Vietnam reviewers: Gillian Brown, Jeni ­ K lugman, were coordinated by Carolyn Turk and Patti Pierella Paci, and Martin Rama. Several L. Petesch as part of a 22-country research country teams, represented by their Coun- effort carried out under the auspices of the try Gender Coordinators (including Laura World Development Report 2012 on gender Bailey, Edith Bowles, Yulia Immajati, Vanna ­ equality and development. Production sup- Nil, Solvita Klapare, Erdene Ochir Badarch, port was provided by Lynn Yeargin, Cath- and Pamornrat Tansanguanwong), also pro- ryn Summers, and Mildred Gonsalvez. vided valuable feedback at various stages. xv x v i    A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s In addition, the team received construc- on preliminary findings and messages tive comments and inputs from Keith Bell, from the participants of the International Shubham Chaudhury, Qimiao Fan, Mary Association for Feminist Economics, held H allward Dreimeier, Mathew Verghis, ­ in June 2011 in Hangzhou, China; from R obert Jauncey, Gladys Lopez-Acevedo, ­ country team ­colleagues in Cambodia, the David Newhouse, ­ C armen N­ iethammer, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, and Bob R ­ ijkers, Sevi Simavi, Monica das Thailand who participated in a video semi- Gupta, I ­ sabella Micali Drossos, Thuy Thi nar in September 2011; from participants Thu Nguyen, Tehmina Khan, and Car- in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation los Sobrado. Mark Ingebretsen, Patricia (APEC) Women and the Economy Sum- Katayama, and Andrés Meneses, from the mit held in San Francisco in September Office of the Publisher, provided excellent 2011; and from colleagues, counterparts, support in the design and publication of the and other stakeholders who participated report. Mohamad Al-Arief and Carl Hanlon in events in Australia and New Zealand provided invaluable guidance on a dissemi- in November 2011; Japan, Indonesia, and nation and communication strategy. Vietnam in December 2011; and in Papua The team benefited from early consulta- New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Fiji tions with policy makers, civil society rep- in March 2012. resentatives, academics, and development Generous financial support for the prepa- partners in Indonesia, Mongolia, T ­ hailand, ration and dissemination of this report was and Vietnam. It also gained from feedback provided by AusAID. Abbreviations ADAPT An Giang Dong Thap Alliance for the Prevention against Trafficking ADB Asian Development Bank AED Academy for Education Development AGI Adolescent Girls Initiative ALMPs active labor market policies ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nationals AusAID Australian Agency for International Development BFC Better Factories Cambodia BMI body mass index BPS Badan Pusat Statistik BREAD Bureau for Research and Economic Analysis of Development CAPWIP Center for Asia-Pacific Women in Politics CAREM-Asia Coordination of Action Research on AIDS, Mobility-Asia CCT conditional cash transfers CDD community-driven development CEDAW  Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women CGA Country Gender Assessment CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CWCC Cambodian Women’s Crisis Centre CWDI Corporate Women Directors International DFID Department for International Development (United Kingdom) DHS Demographic and Health Surveys EAP East Asia and Pacific EC European Commission ECA Europe and Central Asia ECPAT End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism EFA education for all EPZ Export Processing Zone FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FCND Food Consumption and Nutrition Division xvii x v i i i    A b b r e v i a t i o n s FODE Flexible Open and Distance Education GBV gender-based violence GDC Gender and Development for Cambodia GDP gross domestic product GEM gender equity model GNP Grand National Party G-PSF Government-Private Sector Forum GRID Global Resource Information Data Base HEF Health Equity Fund HNP Health Nutrition and Population HSI Hang Seng Index ICT information and communication technology ICRW International Center for Research on Women IDEA International Development Evaluation Association IFC International Finance Corporation ILO International Labour Office INSTRAW United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women IOM International Organization for Migration ISCO International Standard Classification of Occupations ISD Indices of Social Development KDP Kecamantan Development Program KILM Key Indicators of the Labour Market LAC Latin America and the Caribbean Lao PDR Lao People’s Democratic Republic MDGs Millennium Development Goals MENA Middle East and North Africa MIC middle income countries MMR maternal mortality rate MPDF Mekong Project Development Facility MSMEs micro, small, and medium enterprises NCRFW National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women NGOs nongovernmental organizations NIPH National Institute of Public Health NIS National Institute of Statistics NSD National Statistics Directorate NSO National Statistics Office OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ORC Opinion Research Corporation PEKKA Indonesia Women Headed Household Program PISA Programme for International Student Assessment PPP purchasing power parity SAR special administrative region SciCon Science Connections SEZ Special Economic Zone SHG self-help group SIGI Social Institutional and Gender Index SMEs small and medium enterprises SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community SRB sex ratios at birth STI sexually-transmitted infections SUSI Survey of Cottage and Small-Scale Firms (Survei Usaha Terintegrasi) A b b r e v i a t i o n s   x ix ThaiHealth Thai Health Promotion Foundation TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study UN United Nations UNDP United Nation Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFPA United Nations Fund for Population Activities UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNIFEM United Nations Development Fund for Women VCCI Vietnam Chamber of Commerce and Industry WBL Women, Business, and the Law WDR World Development Report WHO World Health Organization ISO 3166 country name abbreviations AUS Australia CHN China FJI Fiji FSM Federated States of Micronesia HKG Hong Kong SAR, China IDN Indonesia JPN Japan KHM Cambodia KIR Kiribati KOR Republic of Korea LAO Lao People’s Democratic Republic MHL Marshall Islands MMR Myanmar MNG Mongolia MYS Malaysia NZL New Zealand PHL Philippines PLW Palau PNG Papua New Guinea PRK Democratic Republic of Korea PYF French Polynesia SGP Singapore SLB Solomon Islands THA Thailand TMP Timor-Leste TON Tonga TUV Tuvalu TWN Taiwan, China VNM Vietnam VUT Vanuatu WSM Samoa Overview I n recent decades, women across the decades have been associated with reduced globe have made positive strides toward gender inequalities in several dimensions. gender equality. Literacy rates for young The region grew at 7 percent on average women and girls are higher than ever before, between 2000 and 2008 (figure O.1), the while gender gaps in primary education structure of the region’s economies has shifted have closed in almost all countries. In the away from agriculture toward manufacturing last three decades, over half a billion women and services, and extreme poverty has fallen have joined the world’s labor force (World dramatically. Indeed, the share of the region’s Bank 2011c). Progress toward gender equal- population living on less than US$1.25 a ity in East Asia and the Pacific has been day has declined by more than 50 percent similarly noteworthy. Most countries in the since 1990—from among the highest rates region have either reached or surpassed gen- of poverty in the world to among the lowest der parity in education enrollments. Health (figure O.2). Growth, structural transforma- outcomes for both women and men have tion, and poverty reduction have been accom- improved significantly. Female labor force panied by considerable progress toward participation rates in the region are rela- gender equality in several key areas, particu- tively high. Yet, despite considerable progress larly education and health. Many countries in this economically dynamic region, gender in the region have experienced closing gen- disparities persist in a number of important der gaps in school enrollments and declining areas—particularly in access to economic maternal and child mortality rates. opportunity and in voice and influence in society. For policy makers in East Asian But growth and development have not been and Pacific countries, closing these gender enough to attain gender equality in all its gaps represents an important challenge dimensions. Women still have less access to achieving more inclusive and effective than men to a range of productive assets and development. services, including land, financial capi- tal, agricultural extension services, and The East Asia and Pacific Region’s signifi- new information technologies. Substantial cant economic growth, structural transfor- employment segregation by gender remains. mation, and poverty reduction in the last few Women are less likely than men to work in 1 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE O.1  The East Asia and Pacific region has experienced rapid Pacific countries still have a weaker voice and economic growth less influence than men, whether in house- hold decision making, in the private sector, in average annual GDP growth rate civil society, or in politics. Moreover, women 10 across the region remain vulnerable to 8 gender-based violence, often at the hand of an intimate partner. 6 4 This report clarifies empirically the rela- tionship between gender and develop- percent 2 ment and outlines an agenda for public 0 action to promote gender equalit y in East Asian and Pacific countries. The –2 report was written as a companion to the –4 World Development Report 2012: Gen- der Equality and Development (World –6 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99 2000–04 2005–09 Bank 2011c) and is intended as a tool to help policy makers in the region promote East Asia and Paci c Europe and Central Asia both gender equality and more effective Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa development. Following the World Devel- opment Report 2012 , this report focuses on gender outcomes in three domains: Source: World Development Indicators (WDI) database. (a) endowments—human and productive capital; (b) economic opportunity—par- FIGURE O.2  Poverty reduction in the East Asia and Pacific region ticipation and returns in the economy; and has been impressive (c) agency—women’s voice and influence in all facets of society. poverty trends by region 90 The report makes several distinct contri- percentage of the population living below 80 butions to policy makers’ understanding of 70 gender, development, and public policy in 60 East Asian and Pacific countries. $1.25 a day 50 First, the analysis focuses on issues that •   40 are particularly relevant to the region. 30 Compared with other developing regions, 20 for example, female access to basic edu- 10 cation is no longer a first-order concern 0 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 in most East Asian and Pacific countries. Gender stereotyping and gender “stream- East Asia and Paci c Europe and Central Asia ing� in education still represent critical Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa challenges, however, and thus receive par- South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa ticular emphasis in the report. S econd, the report examines the gender •   Source: PovcalNet. dimensions of several emerging trends that are important to the region’s development: formal sector jobs and more likely to work in increased global economic integration, poorly remunerated occupations and enter- rising use of information and commu- prises. And despite closing of education gaps, nication technologies (ICTs), migration, women continue to be paid less than men urbanization, and rapid population aging. for similar work. Women in East Asian and These trends have gender dimensions that O V E R V I E W   3 are not commonly accounted for by policy Development Report 2012 (World Bank makers but that will generate a distinct set 2011c, 3), “Gender equality is smart econom- of challenges for promoting gender equal- ics.� Indeed, the literature shows that greater ity going forward. gender equality in endowments, access to T hird, the East Asia and Pacific region is •   economic opportunities, and agency can (a) vast and diverse, with important differ- contribute to higher productivity, income ences in economic and social characteristics growth, and poverty reduction; (b) improve that affect progress toward gender equality. the opportunities and outcomes of the next The report accounts for intraregional diver- generation; and (c) enhance development sity in a way that is not possible in a global decision making. This section explores the report. Particular emphasis is placed, where evidence on these three pathways, in turn. possible, on the challenges faced by coun- tries in the Pacific as distinct from those in Gender equality can contribute to East Asia. higher productivity and income growth Finally, the report has undertaken exten- •   sive empirical analysis of gender equality For households and economies to function using a newly created database of house- at their full potential, resources, skills, and hold surveys for the region. In doing so, talent should be put to their most produc- the report has contributed significantly tive use. If societies allocate resources on to the development of indicators and evi- the basis of one’s gender, as opposed to dence on gender, development, and public one’s skills and abilities, this allocation policy that were not available previously. comes at a cost. Indeed, the economic costs of gender inequalities—whether caused by the persistence of traditional norms or Why does gender equality by overt discrimination—can be consider- matter for development? able. A recent study commissioned for the Gender equality matters intrinsically. Nobel World Development Report 2012 found prize–winning economist Amartya Sen trans- that in the East Asia and Pacific region, formed the discourse on development when output per worker could be 7 to 18 percent he argued that development not only is about higher across a range of countries if female raising people’s incomes or reducing poverty entrepreneurs and workers were to work in but rather involves a process of expanding the same sectors, types of jobs, and activi- freedoms equally for all people (Sen 1999).1 ties as men and to have the same access to Viewed from this perspective, gender equal- productive resources (Cuberes and Teignier- ity is intrinsically valued. The near-universal Baqué 2011). ratification and adoption of the Convention Evidence suggests that misallocation of on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimi- female skills and talent commonly begins nation against Women (CEDAW)2 —and the before women enter the labor force, when subsequent commitment of the international families and societies underinvest in girls’ community to Millennium Development schooling. A number of cross-country stud- Goals 3 and 5—underscores a near-global ies have found a robust inverse relationship consensus that gender equality and women’s between the size of the gender gap in edu- empowerment are development objectives in cation and gross domestic product (GDP) their own right. growth, controlling for average education levels and other factors associated with eco- Gender equality also matters for develop- nomic growth (see, for example, Klasen 2002; ment. A growing body of empirical litera- Knowles, Lorgelly, and Owen 2002). 3 ture from around the world demonstrates Moreover, to the extent that young women that promoting gender equality is also good (or men) choose fields of study on the basis development policy, or as stated in the World of their gender rather than their abilities, 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C this too will exact costs not only on indi- an increasingly competitive world, coun- viduals’ employment and earnings, but also tries will need to harness their resources on a country’s economic productivity more efficiently by improving opportunities for broadly. all and allocating labor on the basis of Gender inequalities in access to pro- skill instead of gender. Gender inequal- ductive assets also have costs in terms of ity, whether in endowments, economic productivity and income. Microeconomic opportunities, or agency, reduces a coun- studies from a number of countries across try’s ability to compete in this increasingly developing regions show that female farm- globalized economic environment (World ers and entrepreneurs are inherently no less Bank 2011c). productive than male farmers and entrepre- neurs; rather, they tend to have less access Promoting gender equality is also an to productive inputs.4 A recent study by investment in the next generation the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates that equaliz- A large body of cross-country and country- ing access to productive resources between specific literature shows that healthier, bet- female and male farmers could increase ter educated mothers have healthier, better agricultural output in developing countries educated children, which can be expected by 2.5 to 4.0 percent (FAO/Sida Partnership to positively affect children’s future pro- Cooperation 2010). ductivity and economic prospects. The A number of studies show that gender- effects begin even before childbirth. In based violence also imposes significant Timor-Leste, highly educated mothers costs on the economies of developing coun- and those in the wealthiest households are tries through lower worker productivity more likely to have their babies delivered and incomes, lower human capital invest- by skilled attendants than less educated ments, and weaker accumulation of social mothers and those from poorer house- capital (Morrison, Ellsberg, and Bott 2007). holds (NSD, Ministry of Finance, and ICF In addition to indirect costs, gender-based Macro 2010). Similarly, Demographic and violence has large direct economic costs on Health Survey data show that Cambodian society. A study in the United States found women with little education are relatively that the direct health care costs of intimate less likely to receive prenatal care and assis- partner violence against adult women were tance from trained health personnel during more than $4 billion USD in 1995 (USCDC birth deliveries than women with more 2003). Reducing gender-based violence education (Johnson, Sao, and Hor 2000). A would thus have significant positive effects mother’s health and nutrition status is also on the region’s economies by reducing found to strongly affect children’s physical health care costs and increasing investments health as well as cognitive and noncogni- in women’s human capital, female worker tive abilities, which can have long-lasting productivity, and women’s accumulation of developmental and societal consequences social capital. (Naudeau et al. 2011). As the global economy becomes more Higher labor force participation as well integrated, the productivity effects associ- as income earned and assets held by women ated with greater gender equality are likely have also been shown to have positive to be increasingly important to East Asian effects on the next generation. In Indonesia, and Pacific countries. Recent studies on the for example, women with a higher share of relationship between gender and trade sug- household assets before marriage tend to gest that gender inequalities have become use more prenatal care and are more likely financially detrimental for countries in a to have their births attended by skilled world of open trade (Do, Levchenko, and health care providers (Beegle, Frankenberg, Raddatz 2011). To participate effectively in and Thomas 2001). Similarly, in China, O V E R V I E W   5 increasing adult female income by 10 per- as good leaders as men, studies suggest that cent of the average household income raised capturing these gender-based differences the fraction of surviving girls by 1 percent- in perspective can lead to not only more age point and increased years of schooling representative but also better decision mak- for both boys and girls. In contrast, a simi- ing. Evidence from South Asia suggests that lar increase in male income reduced survival development policy making can benefit from rates and educational attainment for girls greater gender equality in voice. As an exam- with no impact on boys (Qian 2008). Stud- ple, a study of women elected to local govern- ies from across developing and developed ment in India found that female leadership regions (for example, from places as diverse positively affected the provision of public as Brazil, Ghana, South Africa, and the goods at the local level in ways that better United States) show that income in the hands reflected both women’s and men’s preferences of women positively affects their female chil- (Chattopadhyay and Duflo 2004). Similarly, dren’s health (Duflo 2003; Thomas 1995); studies from rural India and Nepal found that commonly, the marginal effects of income when women who were previously excluded and assets in the hands of mothers are larger from decisions about local natural resource than effects of similar income and assets in management gained greater voice and influ- the hands of fathers. ence, local conservation outcomes improved Reductions in gender-based violence significantly (Agarwal 2010a, 2010b). through greater female agency can also have Women’s collective agency can also be important intergenerational benefits. Sev- transformative, both for individuals and eral studies show that experiencing domes- for society as a whole. For example, for a tic violence between parents as a child group of ethnic minority women in rural contributes to a higher risk of both women China, information sharing among them experiencing domestic violence as adults has helped empower them and raise their and of men perpetrating violence against social standing in the Han-majority com- their spouses (Fehringer and Hindin 2009). munities into which they married (Judd In Timor-Leste, 56.4 percent of women 2010). In a more formal setting, over the last who were victims of spousal violence had 15 years, migrant domestic workers in Hong a father who beat their mother (NSD, Min- Kong SAR, China, have been engaged in istry of Finance, and ICF Macro 2010). In civic action focused on local migrant work- Cambodia, women who reported that their ers’ rights as well as international human mothers experienced domestic violence were rights (Constable 2009). These efforts have more likely to experience physical and psy- contributed to the enactment of laws that chological domestic violence as well (NIPH, now provide migrant domestic workers in NIS, and ORC Macro 2006). Efforts that Hong Kong SAR, China, with some of the increase women’s safety and security and most comprehensive legal protections in the that reduce domestic violence can thus lead world. to lower intergenerational transmission of violence within families. Recent progress, pending challenges Strengthening women’s voice can Over the last few decades, most East Asian enhance the quality of development and Pacific countries made considerable decision making progress toward gender equality in several Several studies show that women and men dimensions. In other dimensions, gender have different policy preferences (Edlund disparities have been more persistent. This and Pande 2001; Lott and Kenny 1999). section reviews recent progress and pend- Despite perceptions in some East Asian and ing challenges in the region, noting where Pacific countries that women do not make economic growth and development have 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C contributed to advances and where they have sharply declined, and under-five mortality been insufficient. rates have halved since 1990 for both boys and girls. Noteworthy gains have been made in birth attendance by health professionals. Growth and development have been In addition, the East Asia and Pacific region accompanied by reduced gender has seen substantial declines in the mater- inequalities in several dimensions nal mortality rate, from approximately 200 Many gender gaps in education have deaths per 100,000 live births in 1990 to closed. Over the last few decades, boys’ and 100 in 2008 (figure O.4). girls’ schooling outcomes have c ­ onverged at levels that are high by international Gender gaps in labor force par ticipa- standards. East Asia and the Pacific has tion have narrowed. Female labor force performed better than other developing ­ p articipation in East Asian and Pacific regions, in terms of both increasing female ­ countries is high by international standards and male educational enrollments and rais- (figure O.5), and among younger cohorts, ing the female-to-male enrollment ratio. In female labor force participation has tended 2010, the region had the highest primary to rise over time. Moreover, as countries school ratio of female-to-male enrollments grow and develop, women are increasingly among all developing regions; at the sec- moving into jobs in the nonagricultural ondary level, only Latin America and the sector and are migrating to urban areas in Caribbean had a higher female-to-male search of better employment opportunities. enrollment ratio (figure O.3). Trends and patterns of labor force partici- pation look similar to those observed in the Key health outcomes have improved. Dur- United States and other countries of the ing the past half century, the region has Organisation for Economic Co-operation experienced significant advances in sev- and Development (OECD) during their eral health indicators. Fertility rates have economic transformations. In many ways, women in East Asia and the Pacific are better positioned today than ever before to participate in and contribute FIGURE O.3  Girls’ secondary school enrollments have converged to their countries’ development. to those of boys female-to-male ratio of secondary school gross enrollment Despite progress, important 1.1 challenges to promoting gender 1.0 equality remain 0.9 Progress has been uneven across the 0.8 region. Substantial variation remains across ratio countries, both in overall enrollment rates 0.7 and in female-to-male enrollment ratios. 0.6 Countries such as Cambodia, the Lao 0.5 People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), 0 and Papua New Guinea still have relatively 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 low enrollment levels and low female-to- male enrollment ratios, particularly at East Asia and Paci c Europe and Central Asia the secondary school level. Furthermore, Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa alt houg h cou nt ries have ex perienced South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa convergence in enrollment among the young, substantial gaps still remain in the educa- Source: WDI database, 2011 data. tional endowments of adult populations. O V E R V I E W   7 Maternal mortality remains high in FIGURE O.4  Maternal mortality rates have declined in most lower-income countries and in several Pacific countries in the region countries (figure O.4). In Lao PDR, for example, maternal mortality rates were still 1,400 modeled estimates of maternal mortality more than 500 deaths per 100,000 births in 1,200 deaths per 100,000 live births 2008, among the highest rates in the world. Indonesia’s maternal mortality rate remains 1,000 high compared to other countries in the 800 region at similar levels of development. 600 Substantial differences in labor force 400 participation occur across countries in the region, even among countries with similar 200 income levels. Relative to their income levels, 0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2008 countries such as China and Vietnam have substantially higher rates of female labor Lao PDR Cambodia Timor-Leste Indonesia force participation than the world average, Papua New Guinea Philippines Vietnam Solomon whereas participation is near the world aver- Islands Mongolia China Malaysia age in countries such as Indonesia and the Philippines, and below average in countries Thailand Fiji such as Fiji and Malaysia (­figure O.5). Source: WDI database, Gender Statistics, 2010 data. Within countries, interactions between gen- der and other socioeconomic characteristics FIGURE O.5  Female labor force participation is high by global can often exacerbate disparities. Economi- standards but also varies substantially across the region cally disadvantaged and minority populations often experience lower educational enroll- female labor force participation rate (ages 15–64) 90 ments, for example. In Vietnam, school par- Lao PDR ticipation among 15- to 17-year-olds is sub- 80 Cambodia stantially higher among the Kinh and Hoa Vietnam Papua New Guinea China Australia (Chinese) majorities than among many of 70 the 52 ethnic minority populations. Among Mongolia Thailand Japan 60 Timor Leste Tonga the more economically disadvantaged and Singapore percent Indonesia less well integrated Hmong, Dao, and Khmer Philippines Korea, Rep. 50 minorities, far fewer girls attend school than boys (Baulch et al. 2002). 5 Geographic dis- 40 Malaysia tance, or remoteness, can also serve to com- Fiji pound gender disadvantage. Women in remote 30 rural areas commonly have limited access to 0 health care, significantly raising the risks asso- 0 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 ciated with pregnancy and childbirth. While log GDP per capita (2005 PPP dollars) Vietnam has experienced noteworthy declines global relationship, 2009 in maternal mortality, on average, over the last decade, progress has been much slower Sources: World Bank staff estimates using Key Indicators of Labour Market (KILM) labor force data in remote and ethnic minority regions (World (International Labour Organization) and purchasing power parity adjusted GDP per capita (in logs and at 2005 prices) from the Penn World Tables. Bank 2011b). Note: GDP = gross domestic product, PPP = purchasing power parity. The data shown for each country are from 2009 and the estimated U-shaped relationship uses data from across the world. Some gender disparities fail to close— the most concerning issues is that despite or close very slowly—with development growth and development, the problem More than a million girls and women per of missing girls remains significant. The year are “missing� in East Asia. Among term “missing women� was first coined 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE O.6  Across the region, female-headed households own to what is observed in developed coun- less land than male-headed households tries. Sen argued that this imbalance in sex ratios reflected severe forms of gender bias hectares of land owned, by sex of household head in affected societies. Biological differences 2.5 between males and females imply that approximately 105 boys are born for every 2.0 100 girls. Nonetheless, China, Vietnam, and until recently, the Republic of Korea 1.5 have experienced substantial deviations hectares from the biological norm, and the trend 1.0 over time, particularly in China, has been alarming. In China, the number of girls 0.5 who are missing per year at birth increased from 890,000 in 1990 to 1,092,000 in 0.0 2008. Missing girls as a fraction of the total number of female births increased from 20 lia, 20 ste, 20 m, 20 dia, 20 DR, 19 sia, na go 08 07 06 08 08 99 ne oP e bo -L 8.6 percent in 1990 to 13.3 percent in 2008 et on do m La or Vi M Ca In Tim (World Bank 2011c). female-headed households male-female gap Source: World Bank staff estimates using household income and expenditure surveys. Gender disparities still exist in access to and control of productive resources. Gender disparities in access to and control of land FIGURE O.7  Women in East Asia and the Pacific still earn less and farm inputs are pervasive in the region than men despite growth and development. Women remain less likely to own land than men. ratio of female-to-male hourly wages, by sector And when women, or specifically, female- Cambodia, headed households, do own land, they 2008 typically have smaller holdings (figure O.6).6 ­ Indonesia, Female-headed households also tend to have 2009 poorer access to other productive inputs and Lao PDR, 2008 support services, including livestock hold- Philippines, ings and access to agricultural extension 2006 services. Thailand, 2009 Despite high labor force participation, Timor-Leste, important gender inequalities in economic 2007 opportunity remain. Women still earn less Vietnam, 2006 than men in nearly all sectors in all coun- 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 tries in the region (figure O.7). Gender ratio wage gaps increase with age, reflecting in part lower levels of experience among government industry women caused by workforce interrup- services agriculture tions and reduced working hours during childbearing years, as well as gender dis- Source: World Bank staff estimates using household income and expenditure surveys. parities in education among older cohorts. Gender wage gaps in the region are also by Amartya Sen (1999) to refer to the phe- st rong ly i n f luenc ed by o c c upat ion a l nomenon that many low-income countries and sectoral segregation, mirroring pat- have far fewer women than men relative terns seen in the United States and other O V E R V I E W   9 OECD countries. Together, differences in FIGURE O.8  In urban China and Indonesia, gender wage gaps are education endowments, experience, and largest among low wage earners industrial and occupational segregation explain up to 30 percent of observed gen- percentage difference between male and female hourly wages 50 der wage disparities in East Asian countries (Sakellariou 2011). 45 Gender wage gaps in the region are often 40 greatest among men and women with rela- 35 tively low education and skill levels. Several 30 percent studies from East Asian and Pacific coun- 25 tries point toward “sticky floors,� that is, 20 wider wage gaps at the bottom than at the 15 top of the earnings distribution (figure O.8). 10 The finding of sticky floors contrasts with studies from OECD countries, which more 5 commonly find “glass ceilings,� that is, 0 larger wage gaps among higher-earning men 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th and women. income decile Women are more likely to work in small China, 2004 Indonesia, 2009 firms, to work in the informal sector, and to be concentrated in lower-paid occupa- Sources: Chi and Li 2007; Sakellariou 2011. tions and sectors. Within firms, women are more likely than men to be temporary workers. Such employment segregation FIGURE O.9  Enterprises with female managers tend to be smaller affects a number of economic outcomes by gender, including earnings, returns to percentage of small, medium, and large rms education and experience, social security 40 with a female manager coverage, and exposure to shocks. Sub- 35 stantial gender-based occupational and sectoral segregation is seen in all countries 30 and does not decline with development. 25 In fact, employment segregation tends to percent increase as economies become more diverse 20 with development. Economic growth and, 15 in particular, urbanization appear to make occupational and sectoral segregation by 10 gender more pronounced, particularly dur- 5 ing the early stages of economic structural 0 change. m s ia ne es na Similarly, female-led enterprises tend pi n et do ilip Vi In Ph to be smaller and more precarious than small rm medium rm large rm m ale-led enterprises (figure O.9) . The ­ micro, small, and medium firm sectors are Source: World Bank staff estimates using Enterprise Surveys database for 2006–11. important segments of most East Asian and Pacific economies and contribute a substan- tial fraction of GDP. Female-led enterprises across the region, particularly in the infor- have fewer employees and assets, and are mal sector, have lower profits, are less likely more likely to be home based or to operate than m ­ ale-led enterprises to be registered, out of nonpermanent premises. Although 1 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C female-owned and -managed enterprises Solomon Islands and 69 percent of part- are not inherently less productive, they tend nered women in Vanuatu report that they to be smaller, less capitalized, and located have experienced some sort of controlling in less remunerative sectors. behavior by their partners. This includes preventing them from seeing family, wanting Women in the region still have less voice and to know where they are at all times, forbid- influence than men. Women’s household ding contact with other men, and control- decision-making power in East Asia and the ling their access to health care (SPC and Pacific is relatively high, but levels of auton- NSO 2009; VWC 2011). omy vary across the region. Women’s auton- Women’s voice and inf luence in the omy in the household can be measured in public domain—as measured by repre- several ways, including control of assets, sentation in national and local political freedom of physical mobility, and voice in assemblies—remains low. The share of decision making. By several of these mea- female parliamentarians in East Asian and sures, including control over large house- Pacific countries is just below the global hold purchases and visiting family and average, at approximately 18 percent in relatives, women in East Asian countries 2011. Despite economic growth and devel- appear to have relatively high autonomy opment in the region, this figure has barely compared with women in other develop- changed since 1990. Although the share of ing regions (World Bank 2011c). Women women in national assemblies varies con- in the Pacific have relatively less control siderably across the region, it is systemati- over their own earnings, however. Over 15 cally lower in the Pacific than in East Asia percent of women in the ­ M arshall Islands, (figure O.11). Indeed, in no country in 15 percent in Samoa, and 13 percent in the Pacific does the share of parliamen- Tuvalu report that their husbands control tarians who are female exceed 10 per- their cash earnings ­ (figure O.10). Moreover, cent, and four countries—the Federated 58 percent of partnered women in the States of Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, and the Solomon Islands — have no female parliamentarians. FIGURE O.10  Who decides how wives’ cash earnings are used The prevalence of gender-based violence varies widely across the region is high in the region, and particularly so in the Pacific where the prevalence of domestic percentage of wives, husbands, and couples deciding how wives’ violence is among the highest in the world. cash earnings will be used As can be seen in figure O.12, 68 percent 100 of ever-married women 15– 49 years of 90 age in Kiribati, 64 percent in the Solomon 80 Islands, and 60 percent in Vanuatu have 70 experienced physical or sexual violence 60 at the hands of an intimate partner (SPC, percent 50 Ministry of Internal and Social Affairs, 40 and Statistics Division 2010; SPC and NSO 30 2009; VWC 2011). Although no nationally 20 10 representative data exist for Papua New 0 Guinea, studies conducted at the subna- tional level suggest that domestic violence oa ia lu a s te s nd ne di es va es m bo is just as prevalent (Ganster-Breidler 2010; on pi Isa Tu -L Sa ilip m or d all In Ca Tim Lewis, Maruia, and Walker 2008). This Ph sh ar M mainly wife jointly mainly husband violence is a linchpin to a bigger story; vio- lence against women represents the extreme Sources: Demographic and Health Surveys, various years. deprivation of voice and freedom among O V E R V I E W   1 1 FIGURE O.11  Women’s representation in parliament is low, especially in the Pacific percentage of seats held by women in the lower or single house, 2011 45 40 35 30 25 percent 20 15 10 5 0 . P rea an G s  rsh an ea T ar m b ia Sin Chi a ilip re La nam P a o mo P r u a N Isla u ng a Sa olia Tu a Kir alu lay i em Ko Japsia ’s . on d ga n a Vie ines rd r-L R co este wo es rld N a ts. an s Is u Th Rep. ple ep Ma bat M y l and mo i Mo ong pu n ala No Timo o PD all uat Ind ilan e w nd od Ca es m P h po u tri S Ma V uin v eo , R i d. p un t a Fe, sia ic ne l cro So Mi ,D rea Ko Source: PARLINE database (Inter-Parliamentary Union). women and, as such, is often associated FIGURE O.12  Violence against women is high in the region with a lack of agency in other dimensions. percentage of women who have experienced Awareness is increasing that men and boys— sexual or physical intimate-partner violence 80 not just women and girls—face gender- 70 specific risks. Some countries in the region 60 have started to experience a reverse gender 50 percent gap in education; girls’ secondary school 40 enrollment now exceeds that of boys in 30 China, Fiji, Malaysia, Mongolia, the Philip- 20 pines, Samoa, and Thailand. Reverse gender 10 gaps at the tertiary level are sometimes even 0 starker: in Thailand, 122.4 females were nd Ph ste s Ca an a on ati Va s u oa sh valu ds ne d di at an an m p rib a e bo nu pi enrolled for every 100 males in 2008. In ail Ja -L Tu Sa Isl Isl Ki ilip m or Th all Tim addition, men across the region experience m ar lo So M higher levels of morbidity and premature mortality related to substance abuse. The East Asia Paci c prevalence of smoking and drinking among males in East Asian and Pacific countries Sources: Demographic and Health Surveys, various years, and government surveys. Note: Data for Thailand are for Bangkok and Nakhonsawan only, and data for Japan are for is much higher than the prevalence among Yokohama only. females. 1 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C Why do many gender whereas females are expected to submit inequalities persist? to their husbands and be caregivers and homemakers. Low household incomes, weak service Weak systems of service delivery also delivery, and traditional norms can constrain progress in education—overall as impede gender equality in education well as for girls. In Cambodia, Lao PDR, and health and Papua New Guinea, for example, school Where gender gaps in education are still enrollments are low overall, and gender gaps observed, low income coupled with high persist. Low enrollment rates in Papua New costs of education can limit household Guinea also reflect limited physical access demand for schooling. Traditional gender to schools and high dropout rates. Poor and norms and practices also strongly influ- sparse school infrastructure, poor teacher ence household schooling decisions. Par- attitudes and attendance, lack of teachers ticipants of focus group discussions in a in remote areas, and negative pupil behav- qualitative research exercise in Papua New ior all contribute to low overall enrollments. Guinea report, for example, that parents Long distances to schools have been observed value boys’ education over girls’ education. to make school attendance costly in both The reason is that males will carry the C ambodia and Lao PDR, particularly for ­ family name and become household heads ­ istances raise safety girls, because long travel d FIGURE O.13  Women are concentrated in certain fields of study, such as education and medicine, but are underrepresented in law and engineering 90 percentage of students who are women, by eld of study 80 70 60 50 percent 40 30 20 10 0 n lth law g n h y nc d og tio in tio at cie an a es er m ol he a ra l s ts, uc ne hn d ist cia ar an ed gi in ec so es, en ce dm lt iti ien ra sa an tu sc es ul m sin ric hu ag bu Indonesia, 2009 Thailand, 2006 Vietnam, 2006 Source: Sakellariou 2011. O V E R V I E W   1 3 concerns among parents. The lack of toilets at deliveries in the forest, including beliefs that many schools makes attendance more difficult women do not need prenatal care or delivery for girls than boys. supported by skilled attendants. These factors Gender streaming in education largely take a heavy toll on women during pregnancy reflects societal norms and expectations and pose higher risks of mortality related to and has implications for gender inequali- birth complications. ties in job placement and earnings. Substan- Strong son preference, intensified by tial differences remain in the composition declining fertility and the availability of pre- of education between men and women in natal sex-identification technology, underlies the region (figure O.13). Economic returns the observed skewed sex ratios at birth in a or comparative advantage of females and few East Asian countries (China, Vietnam, males in different fields of study do not and to a lesser extent now, Korea). Parents’ appear to explain education streaming. choices to keep and care for boys over girls Social norms about appropriate work for can depend on social norms and values, dif- women and men, role models in the labor ferent economic opportunities by gender, market, and gender stereotyping in school and the benefits parents expect from a son curricula play important roles. In East Asia compared to a daughter, including material and the Pacific, teaching materials more support in old age. Although many societies frequently portray males than females in have some mild degree of preference for sons, active and leadership roles. Women are the interplay of culture, state, and political often depicted as secretaries, assistants, processes can generate extreme patrilineality nurses, and teachers whereas men are por- and highly skewed child sex ratios. In addi- trayed as doctors, politicians, or police tion, the manifestation of son preference is officers. Gender streaming in education ulti- influenced by public policies—for example, mately affects the type of work that women China’s one-child policy and Vietnam’s two- and men do and, importantly, affects their child policy—and the spread of prenatal respective abilities to take advantage of exist- sex-determination technology since the early ing and emerging economic opportunities. 1980s. For these reasons, economic growth Poor service delivery and cultural norms and development alone do not necessarily about birthing practices contribute in large reduce son preference and sex ratios at birth part to high maternal mortality in sev- in East Asia. eral East Asian and Pacific countries. Poor Gender norms about masculinity play access to quality obstetric health services, a strong role in influencing the excessive particularly in remote rural areas, places tobacco and alcohol consumption observed women at higher risk for maternal death. among men in many parts of the region. Rural areas tend to be less well served Smoking and drinking are commonly viewed by the health system, and rural residents as masculine behaviors. Men and boys feel have much lower access to birth deliver- substantial pressure to accept gender stereo- ies attended by trained staff than do urban types that they should be strong and tough. residents. Evidence shows that poor health In contrast, social disapproval of women infrastructure and long distances to the who smoke keeps the smoking prevalence nearest health center are both important among women very low in Vietnam, for barriers to reducing maternal mortality in example. Survey data indicate that the pri- Cambodia and Lao PDR. In addition, culture mary reason why most Vietnamese women and tradition play an important role in the do not use tobacco is the expectation that choice of health practices, such as the location “women shouldn’t smoke.� Survey respon- of childbirth, the use of skilled birth atten- dents consider this factor more influential dants, and sterilization practices. Preferences in affecting smoking behaviors than health can vary from birth deliveries at home to concerns. 1 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C Norms regarding women’s household women’s greater need for workplace flex- roles and disparities in productive ibility to facilitate management of their dual resources constrain economic household and market roles. opportunity Female-headed households in the region tend to have less access to land because of Gender norms related to the allocation of the interaction of complex legal, social, and time to household work affect women’s economic factors. In the majority of coun- opportunities in the labor market because tries in East Asia, statutory law does not they are expected to take primary responsi- differentiate property inheritance by gender. bility for home and family in addition to any However, parallel statutory and customary market role. Responsibility in the household legal ­systems in a number of East Asian and fundamentally affects all outcomes in the Pacific Island countries mean that women market sphere—from where women work are not treated equally to men in the imple- and what they do to how much they earn. mentation of the law. Gender inequalities Women work longer total hours than men persist also in access to other productive and devote significantly more time to domestic inputs and support services—from livestock and caregiving activities (figure O.14), par- holdings to agricultural extension services. ticularly in households with small children. Although evidence on access to credit is Many women temporarily leave the labor mixed across the region, female entrepre- force when they must care for small children neurs in several countries, including Timor- or the elderly. Trade-offs between household Leste and Tonga, report greater difficulty and market work can be particularly stark than their male counterparts in accessing in rural areas, where women can spend credit. Such disparities in access to produc- long hours on domestic chores because of tive resources continue to impede gender poor infrastructure and a lack of alterna- equality in access to economic opportunity. tive childcare options. Indeed, differences in A substantial share of the gaps in pro- the types of work that women and men do, ductivity and profits between female- and along with higher rates of female presence male-led firms can be accounted for by in the informal sector, are in part caused by ­ gender-based segregation of enterprises by sector, firm size, and firm characteristics. FIGURE O.14  In Lao PDR, women—particularly those with young This ­“sorting� of firms is found among both children—must balance household and market work formal and informal enterprises and reflects both gender norms regarding time alloca- tion to household and market work and 10 hours spent per day on household and market work differential access to productive inputs. In 9 Indonesia, for example, the food, retail, and 8 garment manufacturing sectors—where 7 female entrepreneurs are most likely to 6 locate—are among the least capital-intensive hours 5 and productive sectors (figure O.15). By con- 4 trast, the transport sector—where male entre- 3 preneurs are most likely to locate—has higher 2 productivity and capital intensity. 1 0 Broader constraints to business devel- without a child with a child without a child with a child opment, such as cumbersome registration men women procedures, affect both female- and male-led enterprises (figure O.16). The most impor- tant issues vary by country, but, within any market work housework and family care given country, both male and female entre- preneurs often identify similar challenges— Source: World Bank staff estimates using Lao Socio-economic Survey, 2008. competition, difficulty in accessing finance, O V E R V I E W   1 5 and lack of electricity—and in comparable FIGURE O.15  In Indonesia, female-led enterprises are clustered in magnitudes. Evidence suggests that such con- lower-productivity and less capital-intensive industries straints may be more onerous among small and informal firms than among larger firms, productivity and assets per worker, by sector however, so to the extent that female-led firms 50 are smaller and more likely to be informal, 45 value added (rupiah, thousands) they are likely to be more adversely affected. 40 35 Gender inequalities in endowments and 30 economic opportunity limit women’s 25 agency… 20 15 A woman’s agency is affected in fundamen- 10 tal ways by her endowments and access to 5 economic opportunities. Gender inequalities 0 in educational attainment, economic assets, g es rt od il and own earnings can hinder women’s abili- rin po ta vic fo re tu ns er ac ties to influence their circumstances in the tra rs uf he an ot home, to enter and participate effectively in m politics, or to leave bad or dangerous house- productivity per worker assets per worker hold situations. In Indonesia, for example, women with little or no education are less Source: World Bank staff estimates using Indonesia Family Life Survey 2007/2008. likely to participate in decisions involving Note: The graph shows productivity and assets per worker in five industries for firms with fewer than their own health care, to make household five workers. Productivity is measured by value added. purchases, or to engage regularly in social FIGURE O.16  Male- and female-led firms report similar constraints activities than women with at least a second- in Indonesia ary education (BPS and ORC Macro 2003). In China and Cambodia, women with less education are less likely to enter politics—for 35 percentage of rms reporting constraints reasons of norms or statute—than women 30 with higher levels of education (Maffii and Hong 2010; Wang and Dai 2010). Moreover, 25 worldwide evidence suggests that a woman’s 20 percent ownership and control of her own assets and income is associated with a decreased risk of 15 intimate-partner violence (Agarwal and 10 Panda 2007; ICRW 2006; Pronyk et al. 2006; Swaminathan, Walker, and Rugadya 5 2008). Women’s income can also positively 0 affect their accumulation of assets, which in capital marketing raw transport energy paying turn positively affects their ability to leave materials wages an abusive partner, to cope with shocks, male female and to invest and expand their earnings and economic opportunities (World Bank Source: World Bank staff estimates using Survey of Cottage and Small-Scale Firms (SUSI) 2002. 2011c). society. As previously noted, traditional … as do traditional norms regarding norms about women’s roles within the women’s roles … home constrain their economic opportuni- Social norms and practices can limit wom- ties and thus their decision-making power en’s voice and influence in the home or in within the home. Traditional gender norms 1 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE O.17  Men and, in some cases, women believe that men region, the legal environment is affected by make better political leaders than women not only statutory but also customary law. Plural legal environments, where both percentage of men and women who think men make better statutory and customary laws are prac- 80 political leaders ticed, can create important challenges 70 to promoting gender equality in voice and i ­nfluence. Statutory laws, customary percentage of men and 60 women over age 30 50 (and sometimes religious) laws and prac- tices can affect women’s voice and influence 40 in different ways when they bestow differ- 30 ent rights by gender. Moreover, in prac- 20 tice, the interaction between statute and 10 custom can mean that women’s legal status 0 varies substantially across ethnic (and reli- gious) groups, even within a single country. a sia ia d at d ay m in an St ite ys na rw ne Ch This interaction can affect women’s rights in es ala ail Un et No do Th Vi M In male female ­ marriage and divorce, reproductive health, education, asset ownership, inheritance, and Source: World Values Survey database, 2005–2009 data. Note: Data for Indonesia, Malaysia, the United States, and Vietnam are for 2006; data for China and freedom of mobility, among other things, Thailand are for 2007; data for Norway are for 2008. which in turn can fundamentally affect the extent of women’s agency. and social expectations also shape people’s In some countries, inadequate legal protec- views about women’s roles in the public tion, weak implementation and enforcement, sphere. Surveys conducted in several East and social tolerance enable gender-based vio- Asian countries indicate, for example, that lence. Although more than three-quarters a majority of men—and sometimes a major- of countries in East Asia have strengthened ity of women—think that men make better legislation on domestic abuse in recent years political leaders than women (figure O.17). (including, for example, Indonesia, Korea, Lao Similarly, in parts of rural China, many PDR, Thailand, and Vietnam), in the Pacific, people still think of women as less capable more than 60 percent of countries still lack suf- (disuzhi), and local norms dictate that they ficient legislation on domestic violence (UNDP should confine their activities to the domes- 2010). Even when countries have appropriate tic settings (Wang and Dai 2010). legislation in place, women remain unpro- tected by the legal system because the laws remain largely unenforced. A recent study … and complex legal environments found, for example, that officers in the Fiji and, often, weak access to justice Police Force Sexual Offences Unit often have The legal setting, along with people’s access unwelcoming attitudes when dealing with to justice, establishes the underlying environ- female victims (UNFPA 2008). The same is ment in which women (and men) can exercise true in some areas in Cambodia, where many agency in the home and in society. Whether local officials still believe that a husband can women and men are equally supported under threaten his wife despite the laws in place the law, and whether their rights are pro- (UNDP Cambodia and VBNK 2010). tected in practice thus critically affect their voice and influence in society. Laws and access to justice also create the environment Emerging opportunities in which women and men can (or cannot) and risks in an increasingly access resources and economic opportunity integrated world and accumulate assets, which also affects Several emerging trends in the region will their agency. In several countries in the present both new opportunities and new O V E R V I E W   1 7 risks to achieving gender equality. East FIGURE O.18  The share of female workers in export-oriented firms Asia and the Pacific are at the forefront is relatively high of several global trends: increasing global economic integration, rising availability percentage of workers who are female in a rm, and use of ICTs, increased domestic and 70 by export status of rm cross-border migration, rapid urbanization, 60 and population aging. Because these trends have gender dimensions, they will affect the 50 evolution of gender equality in the region. 40 percent In many ways, these trends will bring with them new opportunities for gender equality. 30 For example, increased economic integra- 20 tion, greater access to ICTs, and increased migration will likely all contribute to 10 increased income earning opportunities 0 for women. Along with new opportunities, Cambodia China Indonesia Thailand however, these emerging trends will bring exporter non-exporter new risks. Increasing global integration will likely Source: World Bank staff estimates using Enterprise Surveys database for 2002–06. continue to be an important source of Note: Share of female workers = female workers/total workers. ­ n onagricultural employment growth for women, who are already highly represented in export-oriented sectors (figure O.18). And network and share information about start- greater employment and earnings in export- ing and running a business. Limited evidence orientated industries can contribute to greater suggests that women in the region may still female independence and autonomy in deci- have lower access to information technolo- sion making. At the same time, increasing gies than men, however. Although data from global integration can increase economic risk China show rapid growth in access to ICT and uncertainty, as shocks are quickly trans- services, Chinese women are still less likely mitted across integrated markets. A number to use the Internet or to subscribe to mobile of studies find that while shocks do not neces- phone services (figure O.19). Widening gen- sarily have more adverse impacts on women der gaps in access to ICTs raise the risk of than men, they do have gender-differentiated rising disparities in economic opportunity effects on outcomes as diverse as employment, and voice going forward. earnings, labor force participation, educa- High economic growth and increased tion, health, and nutrition (see, for exam- economic integration over the past three ple, Bruni et al. 2011; Rodgers and Menon decades have spurred significant migra- forthcoming). tion across the region. Women consti- Advances in ICTs are opening up oppor- tute nearly half of all migrants in East tunities for both men and women throughout Asia and the Pacific and are increasingly the region. New and emerging technologies, if migrating in search of better economic accessible, can help increase women’s w­ elfare opportunity. Female migrants dominate a through a number of channels by opening number of occupations and sectors, includ- new economic opportunities, empowering ing labor-intensive manufacturing and women by breaking down information barri- export-oriented industries, and domestic ers, facilitating engagement of women in iso- work. Migration can provide women with lated communities in distance learning, and increased economic opportunity, give them enabling them to take collective action. In the chance to improve their knowledge and Malaysia, for example, female entrepreneurs skills, and increase their agency through have created self-help cyber communities to raising their contributions to family income. 1 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE O.19  China has seen remarkable growth in Internet use compensate for the loss of extended family since 2000, but women’s use trails men’s networks. Finally, the high-income economies in 90 internet use in China, by gender East Asia are experiencing rapid population 80 aging. Most emerging countries in the region number of  Internet users, millions have also begun this process; dependency 70 ratios are already increasing in many middle- 60 income countries in East Asia and the Pacific. 50 Old-age dependency is expected to increase 40 even more quickly in the coming decades 30 (figure O.20). Population aging is likely to have gender-differentiated effects at all age 20 levels. Gender differences in time devoted 10 to caring for the elderly imply that in the 0 absence of institutionalized care services, 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 women are likely to bear the brunt of the male female increased demand for elder care (Dwyer and Coward 1992; Ofstedal, Knodel, and Chayovan Source: CNNIC (China Internet Network Information Center) Internet Statistics. 1999). In addition, while women tend to live longer than men, gender differences in edu- cation and labor force participation imply At the same time, migration brings with it that women are less likely to be vested in important gender-specific risks. For exam- formal pension systems and may have fewer ple, many female migrants work as domes- assets to ensure a basic level of well-being in tic workers, an occupation with particularly old age. weak worker protections in most countries. At present, these emerging trends have Female migrants are also disproportionately gender dimensions that are not commonly susceptible to human trafficking. accounted for by policy makers. Nonethe- Many East Asian and Pacific countries are less, these trends will generate a distinct set experiencing unprecedented levels of urban- of challenges for promoting gender equality ization as migrants move to urban areas in going forward. An important role for public search of economic opportunity. Between policy, therefore, will be to support women 2000 and 2015, Indonesia, China, and (and men) in taking advantage of emerging Cambodia are predicted to see an increase ­ opportunities while protecting them against of the population residing in urban areas by the emerging risks. 17, 13, and 9 percentage points, respectively (UN 2010). Urbanization affects all aspects of life, from the nature of employment to Toward gender equality in East the availability of services to one’s ability Asia and the Pacific: Directions to rely on extended family and community for policy networks for support. These changes almost The collection of evidence points to four certainly have gender-specific impacts. While priority areas where public policy can con- urban areas can open up a wider range of tribute to greater gender equality and more economic opportunities for both men and effective development in East Asian and women, women’s ability to take advantage of Pacific countries: new opportunities is likely to depend more fundamentally on the nature and availabil- First, promoting gender equality in human •   ity of urban services—for example, whether development remains a priority where gen- transportation systems facilitate their safe der gaps in education are large or health travel to job sites or affordable child care can outcomes are poor; closing gaps in human O V E R V I E W   1 9 development, where they persist, is likely FIGURE O.20  The old-age dependency ratio is increasing in most to yield high returns. East Asian countries S econd, taking active measures to close •   gender gaps in economic opportunity 0.45 old-age dependency ratio is often warranted on both equity and 0.40 efficiency grounds. Which policy levers 0.35 will yield the highest returns depends on 0.30 the structure of the country’s economy and which specific constraints are most 0.25 ratio binding. 0.20 •   T hird, taking measures to strengthen 0.15 women’s agency—and to protect them 0.10 from violence—is also called for across 0.05 the region; strengthening women’s voice 0.00 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 and influence will contribute to the qual- ity of development decision making and China Fiji Indonesia thus to development more broadly. Malaysia Mongolia Papua New Guinea Fourth, public policy has a critical role in •   Philippines Thailand Vietnam fostering new opportunities and managing emerging risks associated with increas- ing global economic integration, the rising Sources: Data for 1990–2010: World Bank 2010; data for 2020–50: HNPStats Population Projections database. role of ICTs, increasing migration, rapid Note: The old age dependency ratio is defined as the ratio of the elderly (ages 65 and above) to the urbanization, and population aging. working age population (ages 15–64). The following sections examine policy vary by country context, but the evidence approaches to promoting gender equality in makes clear that both demand-side and East Asia and the Pacific in these four prior- supply-side factors are responsible for these ity areas, drawing on recent experience from poor human capital outcomes. the region and beyond. Policies can thus have an impact by improv- ing service delivery (for example, through infrastructure, staffing, incentives, and use of Promoting gender equality in human ICTs) and implementing demand-side inter- development ventions (for instance, through cash transfers to poor households, ­ information campaigns, Closing persistent gender gaps in human and improved accountability). For example, development Indonesia’s school construction program in In countries with unequal gender out- the 1970s significantly increased education comes in education and health, the priority attainment and future earnings (Duflo 2000). remains improving these outcomes. In East In Cambodia, a scholarship program targeted Asia and the Pacific, gender gaps in human at girls and a related program targeted at boys development at the national level tend to and girls from low-income households led to persist where overall outcomes are low. an increase in school enrollment of at least In such cases, public action to strengthen 20 percentage points (Filmer and Schady 2008, countries’ education and health systems will 2009). Evidence indicates that to reduce be called for to improve gender (as well as maternal mortality, interventions that ensure overall) outcomes. For countries with more basic infrastructure and improve account- localized gender disparities, for example, ability for service delivery are important. among specific ethnic groups or in remote, Approaches to providing services that take rural regions, more targeted interventions into account traditional norms and practices may be warranted. The exact constraints also show promise. For example, Malaysia 2 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C has adopted programs that provide guidance expectant parents to bypass the law, and that traditional birth attendants on hygiene enforcement of such laws is difficult. Existing practices, diagnosis of complicated cases, and evidence suggests a more promising approach information on the importance of prenatal is to adopt policies that aim to enhance fam- care. ily perceptions of the value of daughters. While general policies to promote economic Reducing gender streaming in education development may play a role, Korea’s recent For East Asian and Pacific countries where experience suggests that introducing inter- gender equality in access to human capital ventions to influence norms and facilitate is no longer the dominant concern, address- the spread of new social values may also be ing education quality—specifically, gender important, rather than relying on efforts to streaming in education—will have high raise female education and labor force partic- returns. Although concerted efforts in both ipation alone. Information campaigns, finan- education and the labor market will be cial incentives, and improved social security needed to break gender “silos� in education for the elderly can all contribute to changing and, consequently, in the economy, signifi- societal preferences and behaviors. China has cant steps can be taken within the educa- been adopting several of these types of pro- tion system. One important step involves grams. For example, the National Population reform of school curricula to address the and Family Planning Commission scaled up transmission of gender stereotypes through the Chaohu pilot through the national Care the education system. Cambodia, Lao PDR, for Girls campaign in 24 counties with severe and Vietnam have reviewed curricula and gender imbalance. This campaign went revised learning materials or encouraged beyond advocacy and media publicity alone; better practice without gender stereotyp- direct financial incentives for parents to raise ing. Other active interventions may be war- daughters have also been introduced. Prelim- ranted, including information campaigns, inary evidence suggests that these programs financial or nonfinancial incentives, and have had some impact on reducing imbal- efforts to create gender-friendly environ- ances in the sex ratio at birth. ments in higher education. Providing infor- mation on wages and career paths in these Addressing male-specific gender issues programs before individuals choose their Paying attention to male- as well as female- courses may help reduce gender streaming in specific gender issues is appropriate for training. In the United States, for example, reasons of basic welfare as well as for devel- the Science Connections program offered opment effectiveness. In this context, initial monthly science workshops for girls plus signs of reverse gender gaps in education a summer science weekend for families to in several countries should be monitored increase girls’ knowledge about and interest closely. While the long-term implications of in nontraditional careers in science. Schol- male disadvantage in education are still to arships that support women (and men) in be understood, depending on the underly- entering nontraditional fields may provide ing causes, it could have both economic and another avenue for breaking down gender social consequences. Moreover, excessive silos in education. tobacco and alcohol consumption among males in many parts of the region deserves Promoting balanced sex ratios at birth policy attention; the social costs are usu- In the few countries with “missing girls� at ally higher than private costs because of the birth, rooted in the prevalence of son prefer- negative effects of these behaviors on other ence, active measures are needed to address members of the society. Possible measures to the issue. Even where laws against sex-selective tackle this challenge include providing infor- abortion have been enacted, strong incen- mation about the health risks of excessive tives to select the preferred gender still induce tobacco and alcohol consumption, enacting O V E R V I E W   2 1 or increasing taxes on tobacco and alcohol, facilitating a more equitable division of child- imposing regulatory measures on adver- rearing responsibilities and allowing women tising, and restricting smoking in public to have the same opportunities as men for sites. The Thai Health Promotion Foun- advancing their careers in the formal sector. dation, for example, uses alcohol excise tax Within the region, only Cambodia, Indone- revenues to support the operation of an alco- sia, and the Philippines currently have provi- hol control center and a research center on sions for paternity leave. While the principles alcohol consumption, to support advertising behind paternity (and parental) leave are campaigns to reduce alcohol-related traffic appealing, evidence from the OECD on the accidents, and to promote abstinence and take-up of paternity leave is mixed, suggest- increase knowledge about the links between ing that providing paternity leave alone is not alcohol use and domestic violence. sufficient to change the current gender divi- sion of child-rearing responsibilities within households; rather, such leave policies need to Taking active measures to close gender be combined with other approaches to break- gaps in economic opportunity ing down gender norms regarding household Mitigating trade-offs between women’s caregiving. household and market roles Women often face stark time trade-offs Breaking down gender silos in the labor between household and market work, par- market ticularly in rural areas. In such contexts, A key element of breaking down gender programs targeted at reducing women’s time silos in the labor market involves support- on household work—for example, through ing young women and men to invest in skills investment in infrastructure—are likely to on the basis of their productivity rather than increase women’s ability to engage in mar- on the basis of gender norms and percep- ket-based income-earning opportunities. In tions regarding “appropriate� occupations. Lao PDR, for example, evidence indicates Beyond efforts to reduce gender streaming in that having access to electricity extends the education, programs that help both women hours available for both productive and lei- and men understand employment options sure activities, particularly for women and outside of gender silos will likely improve the girls (World Bank 2011a). allocation of talent toward jobs in ways that Policies that support women in balancing improve both equality of economic opportu- their caregiving and market roles are also nity and productivity. In Kenya, for exam- important in strengthening their access to ple, a micro and small enterprise voucher economic opportunity. Access to affordable program, called Jua Kali, provided its female and accessible child care can be critical in beneficiaries information about wages in a this regard. Community child care centers, range of occupations. Preliminary evalua- particularly those targeted at low-income tion of the program suggests that 5 percent neighborhoods, have been found to increase of women who received the information maternal employment in a number of Latin switched to more lucrative (often “male�) American countries. The importance of jobs as compared to those who did not affordable child care, particularly as urban receive the information (Hicks et al. 2011). areas expand, can be seen from recent Breaking down social norms and percep- experience in the region. In Mongolia and tions about gender roles in the workplace is China, reductions in subsidized child care in an area where the public sector can lead by the 1990s and 2000s have significantly and example, particularly with respect to enabling negatively affected female labor force par- women as leaders and managers. The pub- ticipation in urban areas. lic sector is in a unique position to establish Parental and paternity leave can pro- good practice in this regard by encouraging mote greater parity between the sexes by women’s professional advancement, either 2 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C through direct measures such as targets or G ender inequalities in access to informa- •   quotas or through specialized training pro- tion and training, extension services, and grams. In this context, the government of other productive inputs constrain the pro- Malaysia has put in place a system of quotas ductivity of female-led enterprises, both for female managers in the public sector. In within and outside agriculture. In Papua Mexico, the government initiated a system New Guinea, where training and exten- of grants to firms to address gender-related sion services are more likely to reach male employment issues in the workplace, includ- than female farmers, a recently launched ing fostering greater female participation in agriculture training program includes management. several components focused on clos- ing the gap between rural women’s eco- Eliminating resource constraints on female- nomic needs and the inputs and services led farms and enterprises provided. Similarly, in Cambodia, the Despite progress, women continue to have Cambodia-Australia Agricultural Exten- less access to a range of productive resources sion Project has addressed two key con- than do men as a function of their gender straints that have limited female farmers’ rather than because of their innate produc- access to agricultural support: the project tive capabilities. Public policies thus have an has increased by 80 percent the number important role to play in promoting gender of female extension workers and under- equality in the control of productive inputs— takes special initiatives that account for whether land, agricultural extension, tech- female farmers’ relatively lower levels of nology, or financial capital. Improving literacy. women’s access to productive assets can play W hile evidence on access to finance •   an important role in raising enterprise pro- in East Asian and Pacific countries is ductivity in both the farm and nonfarm sec- mixed, women do face particular chal- tors. Following are some examples. lenges in accessing credit, especially given •   S everal countries in the region have their poorer access to land, an impor- made headway in recent years in increas- tant source of collateral. Beyond finan- ing ownership and control of land. In cial constraints, training programs that response to concerns about persistent improve business skills may be imple- gender inequalities in land, several coun- mented to address gender differences in tries—including Indonesia, Lao PDR, entrepreneurial capital. In this context, and Vietnam—have recently adopted an impact assessment of a women’s entre- gender-sensitive reforms in land titling. preneurship training program in Aceh, Since the 2004 Land Law in Vietnam, all Indonesia, found that business planning new land tenure certificates must include and management training helped promote the names of both spouses. Qualita- greater confidence among women train- tive assessment of the reform’s effects in ees, create or strengthen social networks, three provinces suggests that joint titling and identify ways to improve the business improves opportunities for women to environment for female entrepreneurs access loans, empowers women in case of (ILO 2008). disputes, and leads to more mutual deci- As in the case of education and health, sion making (World Bank 2008). Because broad systemic weaknesses—whether in the the reasons for women’s lower access form of cumbersome registration procedures, to land differ across the region—from weak systems of financial intermediation, unfavorable legal frameworks to cultural or lack of electricity—affect both female- norms and practices that deem land to be a and male-led enterprises. Evidence suggests “male asset�—effective policies to increase that such constraints may be more onerous female land holdings need to account for among small and informal firms than among context-specific constraints. larger firms and, therefore, may constrain O V E R V I E W   2 3 female-led enterprises disproportionately. As of active labor market policies in East Asia a result, interventions that focus on improv- and the Pacific is limited, studies from Latin ing the overall investment climate and partic- America and the Middle East suggest that ularly on promoting small business develop- well-designed active labor market policies can ment will be important. Addressing systemic help improve women’s employment outcomes. as well as gender-specific constraints will Affirmative action policies have also been thus be critical to promoting gender equality used to overcome gender-specific barriers to in economic opportunity. employment, whether caused by implicit or overt discrimination in hiring and promotion. Creating an enabling environment for The literature reflects some debate regarding gender equality in employment the benefits and costs of affirmative action, Public policy can strengthen the enabling but the collection of evidence (largely from environment for gender equality in formal high-income countries) suggests that carefully employment. An important element of this designed policies can help break down bar- is to ensure that women and men face a riers to female employment with little or no level legal playing field with respect to jobs adverse effects on firm productivity (World and sectors. Labor regulations that result in Bank 2011c). Affirmative action in hiring asymmetries in the employability and costs and promotion in the public sector can have of hiring male and female workers can be important demonstration effects. In 2004, the found across the region. Ostensibly protec- government of Malaysia introduced a quota tive legislation, in the form of restrictions for the public sector of 30 percent female rep- on women working at night, working over- resentation across all decision-making levels, time, and working in so-called dangerous including positions such as department heads sectors, serves in practice to inhibit women’s or secretary-general (ASEAN 2008). Whereas economic participation. Priority should be in 2006, women held 24.6 percent of top posi- given to reducing labor market restrictions tions in the public sector, by 2010, the fig- that limit women’s employment options. ure had risen to 32.0 percent. More recently, Where the original concerns motivating the Malaysian government set a target for these policies are still valid—for example, 30 percent of corporate board positions to be health and safety issues—measures should held by women by 2016. be taken to ensure that these concerns are addressed more directly through work- Taking measures to strengthen place safety codes, provision of safe and reliable women’s voice and influence transport infrastructure, and so on. Active labor market policies are another Measures to increase women’s endowments means of overcoming gender differences in and economic opportunity, such as those access for formal employment. For example, described previously, contribute to strength- wage subsidies may induce employers to hire ening their voice within the household and female workers whom they may not have in society. Educated women in good health, otherwise considered, due to lack of infor- with assets and income, are better able to act mation about their workplace productivity. on their preferences and influence outcomes This intervention thus provides the opportu- that affect themselves and others in society. nity to reduce gender stereotypes by enabling In addition, several other policy approaches employers to observe women’s skills directly, can directly promote women’s agency and and it can facilitate women gaining valuable reduce gender-based violence. labor market experience. Skills training pro- grams may also enable women and men to Supporting initiatives to transform gender move into professions outside of gender silos, norms and practices particularly when paired with apprenticeship While gender norms may be persistent, they opportunities. Although evidence on the effect are far from static. Individual experiences 2 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C as well as large-scale political and economic Strengthening the legal and institutional processes are capable of bringing about environment dramatic, and often rapid, social change. Nearly all countries in the region have In East Asia, increasing economic integra- acceded to CEDAW, signaling commit- tion and rising access to ICTs are not only ment to adhering to internationally agreed- transforming the economic landscape but upon norms regarding gender equality.7 also increasing flows of information in ways An important pending agenda is to ensure that may serve to transform gender norms that domestic legislation and the institu- in the region. Similarly, migration and rapid tions of implementation and enforcement urbanization across the region are bringing are aligned with countries’ commitments. with them the possibility of newly defined Where comprehensive legal reform is not roles for men and women, as women and possible, governments should identify pri- men alike are exposed to new ideas and pro- orities for action. For example, in contexts duction modalities. where women’s agency within the home The education system can be a vital remains weak, a case exists for reforms to source to change social norms that perpetu- focus on rights in marriage and divorce, ate gender inequality. The integration of inheritance and maintenance laws, and gender equality principles into the school protection of women from gender-based and professional curricula can address violence, which can strengthen the enabling the value system of children early on and, environment for greater voice and influence over time, transform social norms (Utomo in the household. As part of the process of et al. 2009). Evidence of the positive effects monitoring progress toward gender equal- of changing the curriculum is available for ity, governments should undertake regular adults in Thailand where gender sensitiv- assessments to ensure that legal gaps are ity was integrated into the curriculum in being filled and that relevant laws are being the Chulalangkorn medical school. Evalu- enforced. In countries where multiple sys- ation of the program showed that respon- tems of law coexist, assessing customary dents were more aware of gender issues practices to ascertain whether they limit and tended to apply gender concepts and women’s agency and then developing strate- concerns in their work and personal lives gies to address these limiting factors will be (WHO GWH 2007). important. Provision of information through televi- Strengthening the capacities of institu- sion programming can also play a critical tions to enforce the law and increasing role in changing social norms, especially knowledge of the law are also critical. Both with respect to fertility and gender-based financial and human investments need to violence. Evidence shows that people can be made to ensure that public sector per- be prompted to rethink gender roles in soci- sonnel, such as judges and police, have the ety when they are exposed to new informa- knowledge and capacity to actively enforce tion and experiences that challenge existing laws intended to protect women and to pro- norms. In Brazil, despite strong traditional mote gender equality. Concerns have been norms in favor of having many children, raised that police forces in several countries increased exposure to the opposite behavior in the region, including Indonesia, Malay- by popular women in soap operas led to a sia, and Thailand, have been too passive in measurable decline in fertility (Chong and investigating trafficking and enforcing anti- La Ferrara 2009; La Ferrara, Chong, and trafficking laws (U.S. Department of State Duryea 2008). In India, increased expo- 2011). The Cambodian Women’s Crisis sure to television contributed to decreased Center began a community program that acceptance of wife beating, lower fertility increases the awareness of violence against rates, and noticeable shifts away from son women and of the legal rights of women, preference (Jensen and Oster 2008). including the law on domestic violence O V E R V I E W   2 5 and protection that was implemented in these measures can be effective in increas- 2005. The program promotes initiatives to ing female representation in elected bodies. strengthen enforcement of the law by pro- They can also help transform people’s views viding information and training to local about the efficacy of female political lead- authorities and developing community sup- ers (Beaman et al. 2009). At the same time, port networks. electoral quotas do impose constraints on the democratic process. It is thus important Increasing women’s access to justice to keep this—as well as the expected ben- Financial costs and travel distances often efits of increasing female participation in are de facto barriers to women accessing politics—in mind when determining when justice, even when the appropriate laws and how to enact such measures. and institutions are in place. In that context, developing and implementing innovative Pursuing a multipronged approach to methods to improve access to the judi- reducing gender-based violence cial system can help women exercise their Reducing gender-based violence requires agency in the courts when needed. The use action on a number of fronts: efforts to of mobile courts, for example, such as those increase women’s voice within the house- in rural areas of China and Indonesia, pro- hold; enactment and enforcement of appro- vides a solution to the problem of accessi- priate legislation and strengthening of women’s bility and security for women who wish to access to justice; provision of adequate sup- exercise their rights in the legal system but port services for victims of violence; and who are unable to travel to the court. Tech- use of the media to provide information on nology, such as telephone hotlines and web- women’s rights, to increase social aware- sites, can be used to undertake basic legal ness, and to shift social norms with respect transactions. For women with few economic to violence. resources, waiving or subsidizing the costs Countries that take a strong stance on of legal aid can help reduce financial barri- gender-based violence legislation and enforce- ers to accessing the judicial system. ment can make positive strides against such violence in short periods of time. Cam- Enabling women’s participation in politics bodia saw a significant decrease in the inci- and policy making dence of domestic violence between 2000 and Active measures to promote women’s par- 2005, largely attributed to strong efforts by ticipation in policy making can be effective the country’s Ministry of Women’s Affairs, in increasing female representation in local which introduced draft domestic violence and national assemblies in many contexts. A legislation in 2001. Four years later, in Octo- range of affirmative action mechanisms have ber 2005, the National Assembly adopted been used in developing countries. Quotas the legislation. The new law criminalized have been used in several countries, some- acts of domestic violence, provided for the times in the form of constitutional changes protection of victims, and enabled neighbors to reserve a specified number of posts for or local organizations to intervene if they women and sometimes through legislative witnessed domestic violence. As a comple- and political party quotas. Quotas can be ment to the law, women’s organizations and informal (and voluntary) or mandated for- other nongovernmental organizations car- mally at the subnational or national level ried out information campaigns to dissemi- (Dahlerup 2006). The idea is to provide nate information on people’s basic rights and temporary measures to break down bar- responsibilities under the law. riers to the entry of women into politics. Governments also need to provide ade- The suitability and impact of different quate support services for victims when vio- forms of quotas or targets differ depending lence does occur. This support can include a on the specific context. Data suggest that range of services, from police and judiciary to 2 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C health and social services. In Malaysia, the population aging. Many of the emerging government established integrated one-stop opportunities can be fostered through the crisis centers in hospitals that provide easy types of efforts to promote greater gender access to medical care and social services, and equality in endowments, economic opportu- facilitate reporting of violence to specially nity, and agency discussed in this report. For trained police officers (World Bank 2011c). example, where gender gaps in ICT use are growing, ensuring that women have access Creating space for women’s collective to these new technologies may require active agency measures similar to those discussed earlier While promoting women’s individual agency to ensure equal access to other types of pro- is important, supporting women’s collective ductive resources. Managing emerging risks, agency can be an effective way to empower however, may require additional policy women to advocate for and promote effective approaches, such as the following. public action toward gender equality. Expe- Greater economic integration will bring rience from around the region highlights with it increased exposure to employment the potential of enabling women’s collective shocks that will have gender-differentiated agency. For example, during the debate in effects. Adequately addressing the risks asso- Cambodia leading to the 2005 Law on Pre- ciated with economic integration will require vention of Domestic Violence and Protec- designing social protection programs that tion of Victims, the Cambodia Committee take into account the different risks faced of Women, a coalition of 32 nongovernmen- by female and male workers. Building on tal organizations, persistently lobbied the the lessons from recent economic crises, sev- government and the Ministry of Women’s eral developing countries, including some Affairs to secure the legislation’s passage. from East Asia and the Pacific, have begun Similarly, in Fiji, the Fiji Women’s Crisis to recognize the gender dimensions of risk Center campaigned successfully for the and shocks in the design of programs. In implementation of a nationally representa- Indonesia, for example, a conditional cash tive quantitative survey on violence against transfer program, Keluarga Harapan, targets women; the results of this survey are sched- households with members who are particu- uled to be released in 2012. Partnerships larly vulnerable during times of crisis, such as with the private sector, including women’s pregnant and lactating women. business associations, can provide an impor- As female migration across the region tant space for women to interact, learn, and increases economic oppor tunities for advocate for gender equality. A recent initia- women, it creates new concerns about tive to increase women’s participation in the female migrants’ welfare. Protecting female private sector’s dialogue with government in migrants from exploitative situations, Cambodia, through the Government Private including sex work and human trafficking, Sector Forum, has induced policy makers will also require a gender-aware approach. to undertake new initiatives addressing the Greater protection through better laws, needs of female entrepreneurs. enforcement, and monitoring; improved information flows; and safety nets will bet- ter address the vulnerabilities specific to Fostering new opportunities, managing women traveling abroad. Specific areas for emerging risks action include improving legal protections for A new and important challenge for policy female migrants, strengthening the monitor- makers will be to help foster emerging ing and credibility of recruitment agencies, opportunities and, in particular, to manage and developing and providing welfare and emerging risks associated with increasing support services to assist female migrants. economic integration, increasing access to Governments in both sending and receiving ICTs, migration, rapid urbanization, and countries will need to actively address the O V E R V I E W   2 7 issue of human trafficking through preven- different policy options. To fill knowledge tion, protection, and prosecution. Gender- gaps, additional gender-disaggregated data awareness training for people involved in need to be collected. Moreover, additional the migration process will improve their empirical analysis, both on long-standing ability to identify and assist abused female gender issues and the gender implications of migrants, including those trafficked or at emerging trends in the region, will enable risk of being trafficked. policy makers to better promote both gender Growing urbanization in the East Asia equality and more effective development. and Pacific region has presented women not only with increased economic opportunities Notes but also with particular challenges, such as  1. Sen (1999) defines freedoms and “unfree- limited access to child care and higher secu- doms� in five categories: (a) political free- rity risks in urban areas. Thus, policy mak- doms, (b) economic facilities, (c) social oppor- ers need to ensure that child care, education, tunities, (d) transparency guarantees, and infrastructure, transportation, and water and (e) protective security. sanitation policies take into account women’s  2. Adopted in 1979 by the United Nations specific social and cultural needs. Rigorous General Assembly, CEDAW is often referred laws and policies to protect women in urban to as the international bill of rights for women. areas from the risk of violence and exploita- The convention defines what constitutes dis- tion are also warranted. crimination against women and provides an Rapid population aging in the region is agenda for national action to end such dis- crimination. To date, it has been ratified by likely to have important gender-differentiated 187 countries worldwide (http://www.un.org/ effects, among other things, because older womenwatch/daw/cedaw/). women may increasingly find themselves It is important to interpret these studies with   3.  ­ l iving as widows. Along with risks from caution, given the difficulty in establishing urbanization and the breakdown of extended a causal relationship between gender equal- family support networks, these women are ity in education and growth in cross-country likely to find themselves at increased eco- studies. nomic risk, having accumulated relatively Evidence from Africa and Latin America, for   4.  few assets and mostly lacking access to for- example, suggests that ensuring equal access mal social security. In this context, designing to productive assets and technologies could old-age income security programs that can significantly raise agricultural production and household income (Goldstein and Udry 2008; protect women from destitution in old age Quisumbing 1995; Udry 1996). will have an increasingly important role. In Globally, poverty and gender often interact to   5.  addition, policy makers should consider ways compound gender inequalities (World Bank to strengthen care for the elderly to ensure 2011c). In East Asia and the Pacific, poverty that women do not bear an undue burden of does not appear to be as important a contrib- caregiving as the region’s population ages. utor to gender disadvantage in education as elsewhere, however. Survey data from several countries in the region indicate that gender Filling knowledge gaps gaps in enrollment do not vary substantially Finally, while much has been learned from or systematically across income quintiles. recent global and regional evidence on  6. For data on land holdings, by gender, in China, see de Brauw et al. (2011). Data on gender equality and development, much other countries are based on World Bank staff remains to be understood empirically to calculations, using household survey data. help inform effective public action. Con-  7. As of the end of 2011, only six countries in tinuing to close data and analytical gaps the world had not ratified CEDAW. Two of will thus be important to better understand those countries are in the Pacific: Palau and policy priorities, the effects of specific Tonga (CEDAW, http://www.un.org/women- interventions, and the costs and benefits of watch/daw/cedaw/). 2 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C References CNNIC (China Internet Network Information Center) Internet Statistics. Beijing, China. http:// Agarwal, Bina. 2010a. “Does Women’s Propor- www1.cnnic.net.cn/en/index/0O/index.htm. tional Strength Affect Their Participation? Constable, Nicole. 2009. “Migrant Workers and Governing Local Forests in South Asia.� World the Many States of Protest in Hong Kong.� Development 38 (1): 98–112. Critical Asian Studies 41 (1): 143–64. ———. 2010b. Gender and Green Governance: Cuberes, David, and Marc Teignier-Baqué. 2011. The Political Economy of Women’s Presence “Gender Inequality and Economic Growth.� Within and Beyond Community Forestry. 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The State of Gender Equality in East Asia and the Pacific 1 I n recent decades, women across the globe decades have been associated with reduced have made advances toward gender equal- gender inequalities in several dimensions. The ity. Literacy rates for young women and region grew at 7 percent on average between girls are higher than ever before, and gen- 2000 and 2008 (figure 1.1), the structure der gaps in primary education have closed in of the region’s economies has shifted away almost all countries across the world. In the from agriculture toward manufacturing and past three decades, over half a billion women services, and extreme poverty has fallen dra- have joined the world’s labor force (World matically. Indeed, the share of the region’s Bank 2011b). population living on less than US$1.25 a day Strides toward gender equality in East has declined by more than 50 percent since Asia and the Pacific have been similarly note- 1990—from the highest poverty head count worthy. Most countries in the region have rate in the world to among the lowest (fig- either reached or surpassed gender parity in ure 1.2). Growth, structural transformation, education enrollments. Health outcomes for and poverty reduction have been accompa- both women and men have improved signifi- nied by considerable progress toward gender cantly. Female labor force participation rates equality in several key areas, particularly in the region are relatively high. Yet despite education and health. Many countries in the considerable progress in this economically region have experienced closing gender gaps dynamic region, gender disparities persist in in school enrollments and declining maternal a number of important areas—particularly in and child mortality rates. access to economic opportunity and in voice But growth and development have not and influence in society. For policy makers been enough to attain gender equality in all in East Asian and Pacific countries, closing its dimensions. Women still have less access these gender gaps represents an important than men to a range of productive assets challenge to achieving more inclusive and and services, including land, financial capi- effective development. tal, agricultural extension services, and new The East Asia and Pacific region’s signifi- information technologies. Substantial employ- cant economic growth, structural transfor- ment segregation, or sorting, by gender still mation, and poverty reduction in the past few remains an issue. Women are less likely than 33 3 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 1.1  The East Asia and Pacific region has experienced in East Asian and Pacific countries still have rapid economic growth a weaker voice and less influence than men, whether in household decision making, in the average annual GDP growth rate private sector, in civil society, or in politics. 10 Moreover, women across the region remain 8 vulnerable to gender-based violence, often at the hand of an intimate partner. 6 The East Asia and Pacific region is vast 4 and diverse, with large differences in eco- nomic and social progress, including toward percent 2 gender equality. Achievements in growth and 0 development have not been uniform across the region. Although average annual gross –2 domestic product (GDP) growth during the –4 first decade of the 2000s neared 10 per- cent in China, it was close to zero in several –6 1980–84 1985–89 1990–94 1995–99 2000–04 2005–09 small Pacific Island countries. By the end of the decade, levels of GDP per capita among East Asia and Paci c Europe and Central Asia the low- and middle-income countries of the Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa region also varied widely, from US$623 in South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa Timor-Leste to US$8,373 in Malaysia (WDI database). Nor has progress toward gender Source: World Bank 2010b. equality been uniform. Despite widespread progress toward gender equality in schooling, FIGURE 1.2  Poverty reduction in the East Asia and Pacific a few (mostly low-income) countries continue region has been impressive to face challenges in closing gender gaps in basic education. In spite of broad improve- percentage of the population living below 90 $1.25 a day ments in health outcomes, China—and, to 80 a lesser extent, Vietnam—face significant 70 imbalances in the ratio of boys to girls at 60 birth, a function of prenatal sex selection stemming from the strong preference for sons percent 50 40 in those societies. As a result, the region has more than a million “missing� girls at birth 30 per year. 20 A number of Pacific Island countries 10 face particular challenges with respect to 0 promoting women’s voice, influence, and 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 2008 e mpowerment—in both the private and ­ East Asia and Paci c Europe and Central Asia public spheres. For example, although gen- Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa der-based violence remains pervasive in the region, its prevalence in the Pacific is among the highest in the world. Data from Solomon Source: PovcalNet. Islands, Kiribati, and Vanuatu indicate that more than 60 percent of adult women have men to work in formal sector jobs and more experienced physical or sexual violence dur- likely to work in poorly remunerated occupa- ing their lifetime, often at the hands of an tions and enterprises. And despite the ­ closing intimate partner (SPC, Ministry of Internal of education gaps, women continue to be and Social Affairs, and Statistics Division paid less than men for similar work. Women 2010; SPC and NSO 2009; VWC 2011). T H E S T A T E O F G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    35 Moreover, female representation in politics in in fertility and mortality are dramatically the Pacific is among the lowest in the world. changing the demographic profile of the Although female political participation is rel- region, and many countries will face rapid atively low worldwide—only 19.6 percent of population aging in the coming years. The the world’s parliamentarians were women in region also experiences rising adoption of December 2011—four of the eight countries new information and communication tech- in the world with no female parliamentarians nologies (ICTs), which are breaking down were located in the Pacific (PARLINE data- information barriers, opening up new eco- base, 2011 data). nomic opportunities, and enabling collec- A growing body of literature also suggests tive action in many contexts. that patterns of growth—not just levels—can These trends are likely to have important affect gender equality by affecting incentives gender dimensions, generating both new to invest in and to create opportunities for opportunities and new risks for gender equal- women and girls. Cross-country evidence ity. For instance, while increased economic indicates that gender gaps—in education and integration has contributed to higher demand labor force participation, for example—tend for female labor in several East Asian coun- to be smaller in countries that export more tries, it has also increased workers’ vulner- in relatively female labor–intensive sectors ability to external shocks, with different (Do, Levchenko, and Raddatz 2011). Recent effects on females and males. Similarly, while studies have found that natural resource increased migration has opened up new eco- extraction, namely oil, reduces and discour- nomic opportunities in the region, it has also ages female labor force participation, which been accompanied by new risks—among the in turn reduces their political influence (Ross most severe is the risk of human trafficking. 2008; World Bank 2012a). Such distinc- This report clarifies empirically the rela- tions in economic structure are relevant to tionship between gender equality and devel- the East Asia and Pacific context. East and opment and outlines an agenda for public Southeast Asian economies rely heavily on action to promote gender equality in East export-­ o riented manufacturing growth, Asian and Pacific countries. Written as a com- whereas economies of the Pacific Islands are panion to the World Development Report dominated by natural resource extraction, 2012: Gender Equality and Development tourism, and remittances. These differences (World Bank 2011b), the report makes sev- in economic incentives generated by distinct eral distinct contributions to policy makers’ patterns of development may help to explain, understanding of gender, development, and at least in part, differences in progress toward public policy in the region. First, the analysis gender equality in East Asian and Pacific focuses on those issues and policy challenges countries, particularly with respect to voice that are particularly relevant to East Asian and influence in society. and Pacific countries. For example, com- Several emerging trends in East Asian pared with other developing regions, female and Pacific countries will present both access to basic education is no longer a first- new opportunities and new risks to achiev- order issue in many parts of the region. At ing gender equality. Much of the region is the same time, gender stereotyping and gen- characterized by high levels of openness der “streaming� in education still represent and economic integration with the rest of critical challenges. These factors affect wom- the world. Much of the region is also char- en’s and men’s aspirations and behaviors and acterized by migration and rapid urban- contribute to persistent employment segrega- ization as the center of economic activi- tion. Second, the report examines the gender ties has moved from rural to urban areas. implications of several key emerging trends Increasing numbers of the region’s citizens in the region: increased global economic cross national boundaries in search of bet- integration, migration, urbanization, rapid ter economic opportunities. Swift declines population aging, and rising use of ICTs. 3 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C These trends have important gender dimen- as a dimension of agency, defining violence sions that are not commonly accounted for against women as the extreme deprivation of by policy makers but that will generate a dis- agency. tinct set of challenges for promoting gender equality going forward. Third, the report accounts for intraregional diversity in a way Why does gender equality matter that is not possible in a global report. Par- for development? ticular emphasis is placed, where possible, Gender equality matters intrinsically. Nobel on the challenges faced by countries in the prize–winning economist Amartya Sen trans- Pacific as distinct from those in East Asia. formed the discourse on development when Finally, the report has undertaken extensive he argued that development is not only about empirical analysis of gender equality using raising people’s incomes or reducing poverty, a newly created database of household sur- but rather involves a process of expanding veys for the region. In doing so, the report freedoms equally for all people (Sen 1999).1 has contributed significantly to the develop- Viewed from this perspective, gender equal- ment of indicators and evidence on gender, ity is intrinsically valued. The near-universal development, and public policy that were not ratification and adoption of the Convention available previously. on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimi- This chapter examines the state of gender nation against Women (CEDAW)2 —and the equality in the East Asia and Pacific region, subsequent commitment of the international highlighting both recent progress and pend- community to Millennium Development ing challenges. Following the World Devel- Goals 3 and 5—underscores a near-global opment Report 2012, the discussion focuses consensus that gender equality and women’s on gender equality in three domains: (a) empowerment are development objectives in endowments, (b) economic opportunity, their own right. and (c) agency (see box 1.1). Endowments Gender equality also matters for develop- are defined here as human capital and other ment. A growing body of empirical litera- productive assets that allow individuals to ture from around the world demonstrates live healthy and productive lives. To analyze that promoting gender equality is also good gender equality in endowments, the discus- development policy, or as stated in the World sion focuses on education and health as well Development Report 2012 (2011b, 3), “Gen- as other productive assets, such as land. Eco- der equality … is smart economics.� Indeed, nomic opportunity pertains to an individu- the literature shows that greater gender al’s ability to fully and freely participate in equality in endowments, access to economic and receive returns from their work in the opportunities, and agency can (a) contribute economy. The report focuses on a range of to higher productivity, income growth, and economic indicators, including labor force poverty reduction; (b) improve the opportu- participation, earnings, and employment nities and outcomes of the next generation; segregation, whether in the labor market or and (c) enhance development decision mak- in self-employment. Agency is defined as the ing. This section explores the evidence on ability of women and men to express them- these three pathways, in turn. selves (exercise voice) in accordance with their preferences and to take actions on their Gender equality can contribute to own behalf to influence their surroundings. higher productivity and income Since people exercise agency in all aspects of growth life, the report focuses on multiple dimen- sions: agency within a household and in sev- For households and economies to function eral aspects of the public domain, including at their full potential, resources, skills, and civil society, the private sector, and politics. talent should be put to their most produc- The report also focuses on safety and security tive use. If societies allocate resources on T H E S T A T E O F G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    37 BOX 1.1  Defining and measuring gender equality Gender refers to the social, behavioral, and cultural of outcomes measures equality of results (World attributes, expectations, and norms that distinguish Bank 2011b). Both concepts can be useful, depend- men and women. Gender equality refers to the extent ing on the domain. to which men’s and women’s opportunities and out- In some domains, such as in health and educa- comes are constrained—or enhanced—solely on the tion, where gender equality in outcomes may be basis of their gender. This book focuses on gender inherently valued, it is reasonable to focus on equal- equality in three domains: (a) endowments —human ity of outcomes. In contrast, equality of opportuni- and productive capital; (b) economic opportunity — ties may be the more relevant conception of gender participation and returns in the economy; and (c) equality in the economic sphere, where people’s pref- agency —the voice and influence of women in mul- erences may lead to different outcomes, even if their tiple dimensions in the private and public domains. opportunities are equal. Despite these distinctions, Gender equality can be conceptualized in two it is often difficult to distinguish opportunities from ways: in terms of equality of opportunities and outcomes empirically. As such, though the book will equality of outcomes. Equality of opportunities rely on both conceptions of gender equality in its measures inequalities that arise from circum- analysis, data limitations often necessitate that the stances beyond the control of individuals. Equality evidence focuses on measuring outcomes. the basis of one’s gender, as opposed to women (or men) choose fields of study on the one’s skills and abilities, this comes at a basis of their gender rather than their abili- cost. Indeed, the economic costs of gender ties, this too will exact costs not only on indi- inequalities—whether caused by the persis- viduals’ employment and earnings, but also tence of traditional norms or by overt dis- on a country’s economic productivity more crimination—can be considerable. A recent broadly. study commissioned for the World Develop- Gender inequalities in access to productive ment Report 2012 found that in the East assets also have costs in terms of productiv- Asia and Pacific region, output per worker ity and income. Microeconomic studies from could be 7 to 18 percent higher across a a number of countries across developing range of countries if female entrepreneurs regions show that female farmers and entre- and workers were to work in the same sec- preneurs are inherently no less productive tors, types of jobs, and activities as men, and than male farmers and entrepreneurs; rather, have the same access to productive resources they tend to have less access to productive (Cuberes and Teignier-Baqué 2011). inputs.4 A recent study by the Food and Agri- Evidence suggests that misallocation of culture Organization of the United Nations female skills and talent commonly begins estimates that equalizing access to productive before women enter the labor force, when resources between female and male farmers families and societies underinvest in girls’ could increase agricultural output in develop- schooling. A number of cross-country ­ studies ing countries by 2.5 to 4.0 percent (FAO/Sida have found a robust inverse relationship Partnership Cooperation 2010). between the size of the gender gap in educa- A number of studies show that gender- tion and GDP growth, controlling for ­ average based violence also imposes significant costs education levels and other factors associated on the economies of developing countries with economic growth (see, for example, through lower worker productivity and Klasen 2002; Knowles, Lorgelly, and Owen incomes, lower human capital investments, 2002). 3 Moreover, to the extent that young and weaker accumulation of social capital 3 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 1.3  Girls’ secondary school enrollments have converged violence against adult women were more to those of boys than $4 billion USD in 1995 (USCDC 2003). Reducing gender-based violence would female-to-male ratio of secondary school gross enrollment thus have significant positive effects on the region’s economies by reducing health care 1.1 costs and increasing investments in women’s 1.0 human capital, female worker productivity, 0.9 and women’s accumulation of social capital. 0.8 As the global economy becomes more ratio integrated, the productivity effects associ- 0.7 ated with greater gender equality are likely to 0.6 be increasingly important to East Asian and 0.5 Pacific countries. A recent study on the rela- tionship between gender and trade suggest 0 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 that gender inequalities have become finan- cially detrimental for countries in a world East Asia and Paci c Europe and Central Asia of open trade (Do, Levchenko, and Raddatz Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa 2011). To participate effectively in an increas- South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa ingly competitive world, countries will need to harness their resources efficiently by improv- Source: World Bank 2011c. ing opportunities for all and allocating labor based on skill rather than by gender. Gender FIGURE 1.4  Tertiary school enrollments of females have inequality, whether in endowments, economic converged to those of males in East Asia and the Pacific opportunities, or in agency (voice), reduces a country’s ability to compete in this increas- female-to-male ratio of tertiary school gross enrollment ingly globalized economic environment 1.4 (World Bank 2011b). 1.2 1.0 Promoting gender equality is also an investment in the next generation 0.8 A large body of cross-country and country- ratio 0.6 specific literature shows that healthier, bet- 0.4 ter educated mothers have healthier, better educated children, which can be expected 0.2 to positively affect children’s future pro- ductivity and economic prospects. The 0 1990 2000 2005 2007 2009 effects begin even before childbirth. In Timor-Leste, highly educated mothers and East Asia and Pacifica Europe and Central Asiaa those in the wealthiest households are more Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa likely to have their babies delivered by South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa skilled birth attendants than less educated mothers and those from poorer households Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) Data Centre, 2009, 2011 data. (NSD, Ministry of Finance, and ICF Macro a. East Asia and Pacific includes developed countries. In this figure, Mongolia is included in Europe and Central Asia, not in East Asia and the Pacific. 2010). Similarly, Demographic and Health Survey data show that Cambodian women (Morrison, Ellsberg, and Bott 2007). In addi- with little education are relatively less likely tion to indirect costs, gender-based violence to receive prenatal care and assistance from has large direct economic costs on society. trained health personnel during birth deliv- A study in the United States found that the eries than women with higher education direct health care costs of intimate partner (Johnson, Sao, and Hor 2000). A mother’s T H E S T A T E O F G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    39 health and nutrition status is also found to FIGURE 1.5  Gender gaps in secondary school enrollment vary strongly affect children’s physical health as substantially across countries well as cognitive and noncognitive abilities, which can have long-lasting developmental female-to-male ratio of secondary school and societal consequences (Nadeau et al. gross enrollment, most recent year 2011). Thailand, 2009 Higher labor force participation, greater Vanuatu, 2009 income earned, and more assets held by Philippines, 2009 women have also been shown to have positive Mongolia, 2009 effects on the next generation. In Indonesia, Malaysia, 2008 for example, women with a higher share of China, 2009 household assets before marriage tend to use more prenatal care and are more likely to Vietnam, 2008 have their births attended by skilled health Indonesia, 2009 care providers (Beegle, Frankenberg, and Timor-Leste, 2009 Thomas 2001). Similarly, in China, increas- Cambodia, 2008 ing adult female income by 10 percent of the Solomon Islands, 2007 average household income raised the fraction Lao PDR, 2008 ­ ercentage point and of surviving girls by 1 p Papua New Guinea, 1998 increased years of schooling for both boys 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 and girls. In contrast, a similar increase in ratio male income reduced survival rates and edu- cational attainment for girls with no impact Source: World Bank 2011c. on boys (Qian 2008). Studies from across developing and developed regions (for exam- ple, from places as diverse as Brazil, Ghana, South Africa, and the United States) show that income in the hands of women posi- FIGURE 1.6  Gender gaps in education have reversed in several tively affects their female children’s health countries, particularly at the tertiary level (Duflo 2003; Thomas 1995); commonly, the marginal effects of income and assets in the female-to-male ratio of tertiary school hands of mothers are larger than the effects gross enrollment, most recent year of similar income and assets in the hands of fathers. Tonga, 2004 Reductions in gender-based violence Mongolia, 2009 through greater female agency can also have Malaysia, 2008 important intergenerational benefits. Several Philippines, 2008 studies show that experiencing domestic vio- Thailand, 2009 lence between parents as a child contributes Fiji, 2005 to a higher risk of both women experienc- China, 2009 ing domestic violence as adults and of men Vietnam, 2009 perpetrating violence against their spouses Indonesia, 2009 (Fehringer and Hindin 2009). In Timor- Lao PDR, 2008 Leste, 56.4 percent of women who were vic- Timor-Leste, 2009 tims of spousal violence had a father who Vanuatu, 2004 beat their mother (NSD, Ministry of Finance, Papua New Guinea, 1999 and ICF Macro 2010). In Cambodia, women Cambodia, 2008 who reported that their mothers experienced 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 domestic violence were more likely to expe- ratio rience physical and psychological domes- tic violence as well (NIPH, NIS, and ORC Source: UIS Data Centre, 2009, 2011 data. 4 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 1.7  Minority populations in Vietnam often experience Strengthening women’s voice can lower educational enrollments enhance the quality of development decision making percentage of 15- to 17-year-olds enrolled 90 in secondary school, by ethnicity, 2008 Several studies have shown that women 80 and men have different policy preferences 70 (Edlund and Pande 2001; Lott and Kenny enrollment rate (%) 60 1999). Capturing these gender-based dif- 50 ferences in perspective can lead to not only 40 more representative but also better decision 30 making. Evidence from India indicates that 20 private firms can benefit from greater gen- 10 der equality among the ranks of senior man- 0 agement. Other evidence from South Asia Kinh/ Tay Central Hmong/ Khmer ­ s uggests the same is true with respect to Chinese ethnic Dao development policy making. As an example, majority minority a study of women elected to local government in India found that female leadership posi- male female tively affected the provision of public goods at the local level in ways that better reflected Source: World Bank 2011a. both women’s and men’s preferences (Chat- topadhyay and Duflo 2004). Similarly, stud- ies from rural India and Nepal found that FIGURE 1.8  In Indonesia, gender gaps in enrollment do not when women who were previously excluded vary substantially by household wealth from decisions about local natural resource management had greater voice and influ- percentage of 13- to 15-year-olds enrolled in school, ence, local conservation outcomes improved 100 by sex and expenditure quintile, 2009 significantly (Agarwal 2010a, 2010b). 90 Women’s collective agency can also be 80 transformative, both for individuals and for society as a whole. For example, for a group enrollment rate (%) 70 60 of ethnic minority women in rural China, 50 information sharing among them has helped 40 empower them and raise their social standing 30 in the Han-majority communities into which 20 they married (Judd 2010). Migrant domestic 10 workers in Hong Kong SAR, China, have been engaged in civic action focused on local 0 I II III IV V migrant workers’ rights as well as interna- expenditure quintile tional human rights over the last 15 years male female (Constable 2009). These efforts have contrib- uted to the enactment of laws that now pro- Source: World Bank estimates using Indonesia National Socioeconomic Survey 2009. vide migrant domestic workers in Hong Kong SAR, China, with some of the most compre- hensive legal protections in the world. Macro 2006). Efforts that increase women’s safety and security and that reduce domes- Recent progress, pending tic violence can thus lead to lower intergen- challenges erational transmission of violence within Over the past few decades, many East Asian families.5 and Pacific countries have experienced T H E S T A T E O F G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    41 considerable progress toward gender equal- FIGURE 1.9  Fertility rates have declined across the world ity, at least in some dimensions. In others, gender disparities have been more persis- fertility rate, by region tent. This section reviews recent progress 7.5 and pending challenges in achieving gender equality in endowments, economic oppor- 6.5 tunity, and agency in the region. It empha- births per woman 5.5 sizes where growth and development have contributed to advances in promoting gen- 4.5 der equality and where this has not been suf- ficient. The section also highlights the con- 3.5 siderable diversity of experience within the 2.5 region as well as within countries. The basic gender profile developed here provides the 1.5 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2008 foundation for the deeper analysis of gender, development, and public policy presented in East Asia and Paci c Europe and Central Asia subsequent chapters. Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa Endowments: Human and productive capital Source: World Bank 2010b. Economic growth and poverty reduction in the region have been associated with FIGURE 1.10  Under-five mortality rates have declined sharply rapid increases in female enrollment and for both boys and girls convergence in the rates of school enroll- ment, across both genders and at all levels under- ve mortality rate (probability of dying of ­e ducation. In 2010, the region had the 240 by age ve per 1,000 live births) h ighest female-to-male enrollment ratio of ­ 200 all developing regions at the primary level. under-five mortality rate At the secondary enrollment level, only Latin 160 America and the Caribbean had a higher ratio (figure 1.3). Although the female-to- 120 male enrollment ratio in the East Asia and 80 Pacific region is still below 1 at the tertiary level, it has been rising consistently over the 40 past two decades (figure 1.4). 0 However, both overall enrollment rates M F M F M F M F M F M F and female-to-male enrollment ratios vary China Lao PDR Papua Philippines Timor- Vietnam substantially across countries. Countries New Guinea Leste such as Cambodia, the Lao People’s Demo- cratic Republic, and Papua New Guinea still 1990 2008 have relatively low enrollment levels and low Source: World Health Organization (WHO) Global Health Observatory Data Repository. female-to-male enrollment ratios, particularly Note: M = male, F = female. The under-five mortality rate is defined as the probability of death at the secondary school level. Despite conver- derived from a life table and expressed as the rate per 1,000 live births. gence in enrollment among the young, sub- stantial gaps still remain in the educational countries such as China, Malaysia, Mongo- endowments of adult populations. At the lia, the Philippines, Thailand, Vanuatu, and same time, the gender gap in education has Vietnam (figure 1.5). Reverse gender gaps at reversed in several countries; girls’ secondary the tertiary level are sometimes even starker enrollment rates now exceed those of boys in (figure 1.6). 4 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 1.11  Maternal mortality rates have declined across the experience lower educational enrollments. In world Vietnam, school participation among 15- to 17-year-olds is substantially higher among modeled estimate of maternal mortality the Kinh and Hoa (Chinese) majorities than 1,000 among many of the 52 ethnic minority popu- lations. Among the more economically dis- deaths per 100,000 live births 800 advantaged and less well integrated Hmong, Dao, and Khmer minorities, far fewer girls 600 attend school than boys (figure 1.7, and Baulch et al. 2002). 400 Globally, poverty and gender often interact to compound gender inequalities. Data sug- 200 gest that, in East Asia and the Pacific, poverty is not as important a contributor to gender 0 disadvantage in education as elsewhere in the 1990 1995 2000 2005 2008 world, however. Household survey data from East Asia and Paci c Europe and Central Asia several countries indicate that gender gaps in enrollment do not vary substantially or Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa systematically across income quintiles. Indo- South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa nesia, for example, actually shows a slight female advantage in enrollments among 13- to Source: World Bank 2010b. 15-year-olds from poorer households, but a slight female disadvantage exists among the FIGURE 1.12  Maternal mortality rate has declined in most wealthiest households (figure 1.8). Overall, countries in the region data from the region suggest that gender gaps in enrollment tend to be smaller than enroll- modeled estimates of maternal mortality ment gaps across income or wealth groups. 1,400 Although gender disparities in enrollment 1,200 deaths per 100,000 live births have closed, education streaming persists. 1,000 Males and females differ in the types of edu- 800 cation obtained. Data from Indonesia, Thai- land, and Vietnam indicate that the fields of 600 engineering and law are dominated by males, 400 whereas the fields of education, health, and 200 business administration are dominated by 0 females.6 This “gender streaming� in edu- 1990 1995 2000 2005 2008 cation contributes to persistent inequalities Lao PDR Cambodia Timor-Leste Indonesia between women and men in access to eco- nomic opportunities. Papua New Guinea Philippines Vietnam Solomon Islands Growth and development in the region Mongolia China Malaysia during the past half century have also been Thailand Fiji associated with substantial improvements in key health indicators. Fertility rates have Source: World Bank 2010b. sharply declined, both in the region as well as across the world (figure 1.9). Under- Within countries, interactions between five mortality rates have more than halved gender and other socioeconomic charac- since 1990 for both boys and girls (figure teristics tend to exacerbate disparities in 1.10). Noteworthy gains have been made in education. For example, economically dis- birth attendance by health professionals. In advantaged and minority populations often 2006, 87 percent of births were attended by T H E S T A T E O F G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    43 physicians, compared to 47 percent in 1992. number of missing girls at birth per year in Gains of this magnitude were not witnessed China, calculated by comparing the sex ratio at in any other region. In addition, the East Asia birth in China to those in high-income coun- and Pacific region has also seen declines in tries, increased from 890,000 in 1990 to the maternal mortality rate, from approxi- 1,092,000 in 2008 (World Bank 2011b). mately 200 deaths per 100,000 births in Men face gender-specific health risks as 1990 to 100 in 2008 (figure 1.11). The region well. For example, men are more likely to has experienced consistent increases in both experience higher morbidity and premature male and female life expectancy at birth since mortality related to substance abuse, war and 1960. Female life expectancy in the region conflict, and violence. Cambodia experienced has increased from 48 to 74, and male life considerable declines in the male population expectancy has increased from 45 to 70. during the Khmer Rouge regime of Pol Pot; As with education, progress in health so did Vietnam during its war era. Moreover, has been uneven across the region. Mater- differences between men and women in the nal mortality remains high in lower-income incidence of tobacco use are higher in East countries and in parts of the Pacific, espe- Asia and the Pacific than in other regions of cially in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Papua New the world; the gender differential in heavy Guinea, and Timor-Leste (figure 1.12). In Lao episodic alcohol consumption is also par- PDR, for example, maternal mortality rates ticularly stark. Male abuse of tobacco and were approximately 580 deaths per 100,000 alcohol in the region has important effects births7 in 2008, among the highest in the on men’s health and mortality rates, which world. Indonesia’s maternal mortality rate in turn can impose significant costs on eco- remains high compared to other countries in nomic productivity and growth. the region at similar levels of development. Gender disparities still exist in access to Women in remote rural areas commonly have and control of productive resources. Gender limited access to health care, which signifi- disparities in access to and control of land or cantly raises the risks associated with preg- farm inputs are pervasive around the world nancy and childbirth. Although Vietnam has, and remain issues in the region, despite sig- on average, experienced noteworthy declines nificant growth and development. Women in maternal mortality over the past decade, remain less likely to own land (or hold for- progress has been much slower in remote and mal land titles) than men. Moreover, data ethnic minority regions (World Bank 2011a). from Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Lao Moreover, more than a million girls and PDR, Mongolia, Timor-Leste, and Vietnam women per year are “missing� in East Asia. indicate that when women—or, specifically, Despite growth and development, the prob- female-headed households—do own land, lem of missing girls remains. The term missing they typically have smaller holdings. 8 A women was first coined by Sen (1992) to refer recent study of women’s land holdings in post- to the phenomenon that many low-income ­ tsunami Aceh similarly found that women’s countries have far fewer women than men, land holdings were considerably lower than relative to what is observed in developed coun- men’s (World Bank 2010).9 Female-headed tries. Sen argued that this imbalance in sex households in the region also tend to have ratios reflected severe forms of gender bias in poorer access to other productive inputs and affected societies. At birth, biological differ- support services, including livestock holdings ences between males and females imply that and access to agricultural extension services. approximately 105 boys are born for every Despite improvements in women’s access 100 girls. Nonetheless, China, Vietnam, and, to microcredit, important challenges remain until recently, the Republic of Korea have in accessing enterprise finance. Women also experienced substantial deviations from the have traditionally had less access to capital biological norm. Moreover, the trend over time than men. This disparity has been com- in China has been alarming (figure 1.13). The pounded by their poorer access to land, an 4 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 1.13  East Asia has a highly skewed male-to-female important source of collateral. In response ratio at birth to gender disparities in access to credit, the microfinance movement has focused on ratio of the number of male to female live births, 1962–2008 increasing women’s access to capital across 1.25 the world. Of the 106.6 million poorest cli- China ents worldwide who have been reached by 1.20 microcredit initiatives by the end of 2007, 83.2 percent were women (Daley-Harris 1.15 2009). Evidence on access to credit among female and male entrepreneurs tells a more ratio nuanced story. Among micro- and small 1.10 firms in Indonesia, both female-and male- run enterprises cite access to finance as their 1.05 most significant business constraint, with the share of female-run firms ­ reporting this 1.0 constraint only slightly higher than the share 1962 1967 1972 1977 1982 1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2008 of male-run firms (30 ­ versus 25 p ­ ercent, China Europe and Central Asia respectively). Among small and medium East Asia and Paci c Middle East and North Africa enterprises in nine East Asian and Pacific countries, only in Timor-Leste and Tonga Latin America and the Caribbean Sub-Saharan Africa do a greater share of ­ female-led enterprises South Asia ­ ignificantly more report access to credit as a s important constraint than reported by their Source: HNP Stats (Health Nutrition Population Statistics) database, 2010 data. male counterparts.10 Economic opportunity: Participation and returns in the economy FIGURE 1.14  The East Asia and Pacific region has high female The East Asia and Pacific region has the labor force participation rates highest average female labor force participa- tion rate and highest ratio of female-to-male labor force participation rate labor force participation in the developing of women 15–64 years of age, 2008 (%) world. In 2008, 70.1 percent of females were participating in labor market activi- East Asia and Paci c ties (figure 1.14) and the gender gap in labor Sub-Saharan Africa force participation was approximately 15 percentage points. In comparison, the aver- Europe and Central Asia age female labor force participation rate in Latin America and the Caribbean was 55 Latin America and percent in 2008, and in Europe and Central the Caribbean Asia it was 58 percent. Gender gaps in labor South Asia force participation were 27 and 16 percent- age points, respectively. Middle East and Both the levels of female participation North Africa and their trends over time vary substantially 0 20 40 60 80 100 in the region. In Cambodia, China, Lao female labor force participation rate (%) PDR, Thailand, and Vietnam, for example, female labor force participation was over Source: World Bank 2010b. 75 percent in 1980. Between 1980 and 2008, these countries witnessed declines in female T H E S T A T E O F G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    45 participation of 5 to 10 percentage points FIGURE 1.15  Female labor force participation varies despite strong economic growth. Except for substantially across countries China, these declines were mirrored in simi- lar drops in male participation, leaving the Female labor force participation rate of ratio of female-to-male participation rates 15–64 years of age, 2008 (%) female labor force participation rate (%) unchanged. Participation rates in Korea, Indo- 90 nesia, and Malaysia were significantly lower 80 than the regional average: in 1980, only 45 70 percent of working-age females participated 60 in the labor market. Female participation 50 rates have increased over time in Korea and 40 Indonesia, while they have remained stagnant 30 in Malaysia despite strong economic growth. 20 Female labor force participation varies sub- 10 stantially in the Pacific, ranging from over 0 ilip sia Va odia Ko one s Sa Fiji re sia Tim To p. or nga on e Gu nd Vi inea m m na La atu DR M moa a N Th olia d e M Lest 75 percent in Vanuatu to 40 percent in Fiji Re na In pin Ca Chi ew aila Ph alay oP nu g b et a, - in 2008 ­ (figure 1.15). Although time series data for these countries are limited, female pu Pa participation rates appear to have risen over time in countries with lower initial rates. In Source: World Bank 2010b. Fiji, female participation rates rose from 25 percent in 1980 to 40 percent in 2008, and FIGURE 1.16  The fraction of the workforce employed in in Tonga they rose from 45 percent to 57 per- agriculture has declined in the East Asia and Pacific region cent over the same period. Structural transformation in the region’s share of total employment by sector economies has changed the type of work 100 conducted. The region has seen a signifi- 90 cant decline in the fraction of the workforce services in the agricultural sector over the past half 80 century, from approximately 60 percent in 70 1991 to just over 40 percent in 2008 (figure 60 1.16). Between 1960 and 2000, agriculture’s industry percent share of total employment declined from over 50 80 percent to under 50 percent in Thailand, 40 while in Indonesia the share declined from 70 30 percent to approximately 45 percent (Butzer, Mundlak, and Larson 2003). Nonetheless, 20 agriculture agriculture remains important: in 2008, it 10 was still the largest sector of employment in 0 the region (figure 1.16). 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 Women’s labor market responses to struc- 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 tural transformation have, in part, reflected Source: World Bank 2010b. country-specific patterns of development. Thailand, for example, moved from a heavy concentration of workers in agriculture in seen in the United States during the early 1980 to a rising employment share in the stages of the transition away from agricul- industrial and service sectors (figure 1.19). ture (Goldin 1995; Mammen and Paxson The early 1990s saw a substantial move- 2000). In I­ ndonesia, by contrast, female ment of females away from agriculture and labor force participation increased by out of the workforce. Similar patterns were 9 percentage points between 1980 and 2007, 4 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 1.17  The evolution of sectoral composition by gender with the bulk of the increase coming from varies across countries the service sector (figure 1.17). Participation in industry and agriculture was fairly simi- lar in 1980 and 2007. percentage of total employment by sector and gender Labor market “sorting�—or employment 100 segregation—along gender lines is pervasive, by industry, occupation, formality, and flex- 80 ibility of employment. Such sorting affects a 60 number of economic outcomes, by gender, percent including earnings, social security coverage, 40 the intensity of work conducted, returns to education and experience, and exposure to 20 shocks. In many countries in the region, women are more likely than men to conduct 0 unpaid family labor in agriculture and in female male female male female male female male the informal sector (Asia Foundation et al. 1980 2007 1980 2007 2006; Asian Development Bank and World Thailand Indonesia Bank 2005; World Bank 2011a). In addi- agriculture industry tion, women are more likely to be found in services not working some occupations—such as teaching and nursing—and are less likely to be found in others, such as mining. Within the manufac- Source: World Bank 2010b. turing sector, women are more likely to be found in industries such as textiles and food processing, and are also found in large and export-oriented firms. Within firms, women are more likely than men to be temporary FIGURE 1.18  Women are more likely than men to be workers (figure 1.18). temporary workers Female- and male-led enterprises also tend to have distinct characteristics. Female-led % of temporary workers among male and female employees enterprises across the region tend to be smaller 40 than male-led enterprises (figure 1.19). They are more likely to operate in the informal sector (less likely to be registered) and to be 30 home based or operate out of nonpermanent premises. In general, female-led enterprises percent 20 across the region have fewer employees and assets and command lower profits. Although 10 female-owned and -managed enterprises are not inherently less productive, they tend to be less capitalized and located in less- 0 remunerative sectors. For instance, in Indo- Nonexp Nonexp Nonexp Nonexp Exporter Exporter Exporter Non exp Exporter Exporter nesia, female-led enterprises are more likely to locate in the food and garment manufac- Cambodia China Indonesia Thailand Vietnam turing sectors. These sectors are among the least capital intensive and least productive; female male male-led enterprises are more likely to locate in sectors such as transportation and other Source: World Bank estimates using Enterprise Surveys database, 2002–06 data. Note: Nonexp = nonexporter. The percentage of temporary workers is calculated as a ratio of female services, which are among the most capital temporary workers to female total workers. The analysis includes only manufacturing firms. intensive, most productive sectors. T H E S T A T E O F G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    47 Women in East Asian and Pacific coun- FIGURE 1.19  Enterprises with female management tend to be tries continue to undertake the majority smaller of household work, in addition to market work, a function of longstanding gender percentage of small, medium, and large rms with a female manager norms regarding the division of labor within 40 households. In many contexts, this tradition 35 constrains women’s economic opportuni- ties, affecting their labor force participa- 30 tion, choice of sectors and occupations, time 25 worked, and, ultimately, earnings. Global percent 20 evidence indicates that women tend to work longer hours than men once both market 15 and nonmarket work are taken into account 10 (Ilahi 2000; World Bank 2001, 2011b). The composition of work also varies substantially 5 by gender. Men devote relatively more time 0 to market work, while women devote more m s sia ne na ne pi et time to domestic activities. Evidence from do ilip Vi In Ph East Asia is consistent with global patterns. small rm medium rm large rm Recent data from Lao PDR indicate that both gender differences in hours worked and in the Source: World Bank estimates using Enterprise Surveys database, 2006–11 data. division of labor between market and non- market work are exacerbated once families FIGURE 1.20  In Lao PDR, women—particularly those with have children (figure 1.20). young children—must balance household work commitments Cross-country evidence on wages indicates with market work that in the low- and middle-income countries of East Asia, women earn between 70 and 80 percent of what men earn for similar work 10 hours spent per day on household and market work (figure 1.21). These gender wage gaps are 9 partially attributable to differences in educa- 8 7 tion, experience, and industrial choice across 6 men and women. Differences in education hours 5 endowments, experience, and industrial and 4 occupational segregation explain up to 30 3 percent of the gender wage gap in East Asian 2 countries (Sakellariou 2011). 1 While gender wage gaps have evolved over 0 time, they have not always narrowed with without a child with a child without a child with a child growth and development. In Vietnam, the men women process of economic transition from a cen- trally planned to a market-based economy market work housework and family care has been associated with a sharp reduction in the gender pay gap among salaried employ- Source: World Bank estimates using the Lao Expenditure and Consumption Survey (LECS) (LSB Lao ees. The average gender pay gap halved PDR 2008). between 1993 and 2008, with the majority of the contraction evident by 1998 (Pham and contrast, in the Philippines, the wage gap Reilly 2007; Sakellariou 2011). Pay gaps still widened between 2000 and 2009, a change persist between men and women, however, that has been partly attributed to grow- with women earning on average 75 percent ing differences between men and women in of the male wage in 2009 (Pierre 2012). By terms of their returns to education and other 4 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C characteristics (Sakellariou 2011). In Indo- recent evidence suggests that the gender gap nesia, the average wage gap and the gap by declined between 1997 and 2009 (Sakellar- age cohorts widened between 1976 and 1999 iou 2011). This complex relationship between (Dhanani and Islam 2004), although more growth, development, and the gender wage gap reflects a number of factors at the coun- try level, including changes in the structure of FIGURE 1.21  Women in East Asia still earn less than men the economy and in labor demand; the gen- der composition of the labor force; changes ratio of female to male wages, 2007 in the relative education, skill, and experi- ence among male and female workers; and Mongolia 0.81 labor market institutions and policies, each Thailand 0.79 of which affect how remuneration is evolving by gender. Philippines 0.76 Cambodia 0.75 Agency: Women’s voice and influence East Asian and Pacific countries have expe- Vietnam 0.71 rienced progress and pending challenges Indonesia 0.70 in achieving gender equality in agency — women’s voice and influence —as with China 0.70 endowments and economic opportunity discussed above. Agency refers to the abil- Korea, Rep. 0.52 ity of women and men to take action on 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 their own behalf, in accordance with their ratio preferences, and to influence outcomes that affect them in both private and public Source: World Bank 2010b. domains (box 1.2). The ability to influence BOX 1.2  Defining and measuring agency: Women’s voice, influence, and participation All individuals in a society have ideas and prefer- within the household (the extent to which her voice ences on how to use scarce resources and live their is heard) and, potentially, her preferences. lives. The ability of women and men to express The concept of agency has multiple dimensions and act on their preferences is affected by—and that have been measured empirically. The form also affects—their ownership and control over of agency that is most frequently measured is the ­ endowments and their access to economic oppor- decision-making power of men and women (Mason tunities (Kabeer 1999). This ability to act on one’s 2005; McElroy 1990). Agency may be more explic- preferences and influence outcomes is referred to as itly measured by examining women’s mobility in the agency. Changes in individuals’ characteristics in public domain, their participation in public action, a household, community, or society will affect the and the incidence of gender-based violence (Kabeer strength of their voices relative to others, and may 1999). Finally, gender differences in bargaining also influence their preferences. This influence, in power within a household have been assessed by turn, will affect choices made at the household, com- examining the extent to which people’s choices munity, and societal levels. For example, an increase change when factors affecting their bargaining in the education of a woman will affect investments power, such as education, relative earnings, or asset in the education and health of her children through holdings, also change (Duflo 2003; Quisumbing and its effect on both her relative bargaining power Maluccio 2003; Thomas 1990, 1995). T H E S T A T E O F G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    49 one’s life by making choices and taking FIGURE 1.22  Women in East Asia and the Pacific have more action is also a key dimension of well-being control over earnings and household decisions across all wealth in and of itself (Sen 1999). This report quintiles than women from other developing regions focuses on agency in three domains: (a) agency in the household and individual visit to decisions, examined through household large purchases family/relatives owning earnings 100 decision making, control of resources, and share of women with some control reproductive decisions; (b) agency in the 90 public sphere, examined through gender- over decisions (%) based participation and representation in 80 the private sector, civil society, politics, 70 and public institutions; and (c) safety and security as an expression of agency, exam- 60 ined through the prevalence of gender- based violence. Although the East Asia and 50 Pacific region has made progress in sev- 40 eral domains of agency, progress has been Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 uneven across countries, and many chal- East Asia and Paci c Europe and Central Asia lenges still remain. Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa Women in East Asia experience relatively high levels of agency at the household level South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa compared with other developing regions. Cross-country data suggest that women Source: World Development Report 2012 team estimates based on Demographic and Health Surveys of 40 countries, 2003–09. across the wealth distribution in East Asia have a greater say in decisions regarding large household purchases and also experi- ence greater freedom to visit family and rela- tives without husbands’ permission than do women in other developing regions. Women in East Asia also have as great as or greater FIGURE 1.23  Female representation in parliament in control over their own earnings compared East Asian and Pacific countries has hardly changed since with women in other developing regions the 1990s ­ (figure 1.22). Reductions in fertility rates and unwanted fertility, defined as gaps between percentage of parliamentary actual and desired fertility, observed in most 25 seats held by women East Asian and Pacific countries suggest that 20 women may have gained greater control over their reproductive decisions. 15 percent Women’s voice in the public domain 10 remains weak despite economic development. 5 Women have relatively low levels of represen- tation in political assemblies, whether at the 0 national or local levels. For example, women c sia a ia ca an ric As ri ci be lA Af Af Pa make up only one-fifth of national parlia- h rib ra ut rth n d nt ra Ca So an No Ce ha mentarians worldwide. The share of female e ia th Sa nd nd As b- d a ta parliamentarians in East Asian and Pacific an st Su pe Ea as ica ro eE countries is just below the global average, Eu er dl Am id at approximately 18 percent in 2011 (figure M tin 1997 2002 2007 2011 La 1.23). Female representation in the region has not increased over time with economic Source: Inter-Parliamentary Union data extracted from World Bank 2011c. 5 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 1.24  Women’s representation in parliament is low, especially in the Pacific percentage of seats held by women in the lower or single house, 2011 45 40 35 30 25 percent 20 15 10 5 0 . P rea an G s  rsh an ea T ar m b ia Sin Chi a ilip re La nam P a mo P r u a N Isla u ng a Sa olia Tu a Kir alu lay i em Ko Japsia ’s . on d ga n a Vie ines rd r-L R co este wo es rld N a ts. an s Is u Th Rep. ple ep Ma ibat M y l and mo i Mo ong pu n ala No Timo o PD all uat Ind ilan e w nd od Ca es m P h po u tri S Ma V uin v eo , R d. p un t a Fe, sia ic ne lo cro So Mi ,D rea Ko Source: PARLINE database, 2011 data. FIGURE 1.25  Men, and in some cases women, believe that men growth and development; the overall share make better political leaders than women of female parliamentarians in East Asian and Pacific countries has barely changed since percentage of men and women aged over 30 who think men the late 1990s. This trend stands in contrast 80 make better political leaders to other developing regions, where levels of 70 female political representation have tended to 60 increase, at least since 2000.11 50 The share of women in national parlia- ments varies tremendously across the region. percent 40 In December 2011, the highest levels of 30 female representation were found in Timor- 20 Leste (32.3 percent), Lao PDR (25.2 per- 10 cent), Vietnam (24.4 percent), the Philippines 0 (22.9 percent), and China (21.3 percent) ­ (figure 1.24). Female parliamentary represen- a sia ia d m at d ay in an St ite ys na rw ne Ch tation in the Pacific is systematically lower. es ala ail Un et No do Th Vi M In male female Four countries in the Pacific—the Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, and Source: World Values Survey, 2006 and 2007 data. the Solomon Islands—do not have female representation in parliament (PARLINE database, 2011 data). Countries that have enacted temporary special measures to T H E S T A T E O F G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    51 promote female participation in political participation in management in the region leadership have achieved higher levels of and all other regions is lower than participa- female representation in parliament, with tion in ownership, however, indicating that an average of 27 percent in 2009, compared women have a more limited voice in running with 14 percent for those countries without a firm and making decisions, despite being temporary special measures. represented in the ownership of the firm. Barriers to political representation in the The incidence of physical, sexual, psy- region are likely to reflect perceptions held chological, and emotional violence against by both men and women that female politi- women is high throughout the region, par- cians make less competent political leaders ticularly in the Pacific, where the prevalence than their male counterparts (figure 1.25). of domestic violence is among the highest in Evidence from India suggests that people’s the world (figure 1.27). Human trafficking perceptions of women as political leaders is also a growing concern throughout the improve with exposure to elected female offi- region. An increase in female migration in the cials (Beaman et al. 2009). However, these past decade has brought about increased eco- perceptions may take time to evolve, reinforc- nomic opportunities as well as increased risk ing the case for concerted action to support of being trafficked. The ILO estimates that increased political participation on the part Asia and the Pacific account for over half of of women. Ensuring that women are repre- all trafficked victims worldwide, with an esti- sented, whether at the local or national level, mated 1.36 million victims, most of whom is a first step to ensuring that their views and are women and girls (ILO 2008). preferences are expressed in public policies. Gender-based violence and human traf- Women from East Asian and Pacific ficking of women and girls are often enabled countries have experienced improvements by the lack of and weak enforcement of rel- in their voice and ability to actively partici- evant legislation. Although the factors that pate in civil society and grassroots move- enable gender-based violence are multiple ments. Civil rights groups tackle a variety and complex, the phenomenon is exacerbated of issues to improve gender equality in their by a lack of adequate legal protections in community, country, and region. PEKKA, a many countries, most notably in the Pacific program in Indonesia, was created to address islands. A recent United Nations Develop- the needs of widows of conflict in Aceh and ment Programme study (UNDP 2010) found now provides training for village paralegals that although more than three-quarters of that focuses on domestic violence and family the countries in East Asia have strength- law. The program also holds district forums ened legislation on domestic abuse in recent to bring together judges, prosecutors, police, years, more than 60 percent of countries in nongovernmental organizations, and govern- the Pacific still lacked relevant legislation on ment officials to raise awareness of gender domestic violence. Police forces in several issues (PEKKA 2012; World Bank 2011b). countries in the region—including Indonesia, As another example, the Fiji Women’s Crisis M alaysia, and Thailand—have been criti- ­ Center lobbied for a nationally representa- cized for ­limited commitment in investigating tive quantitative survey on violence against trafficking and enforcing antitrafficking laws women, to be released in 2012. (U.S. D­ epartment of State 2011). Women’s representation in top manage- ment and participation in ownership is high relative to other developing regions and the Fostering new opportunities, world average. In the East Asia and Pacific managing emerging risks region, women are represented among the As the region continues to develop, sev- owners in over 50 percent of small, medium, eral emerging trends will present both new and large firms, higher than in any other opportunities and new risks to achieving developing region (figure 1.26). Female gender equality. As noted earlier, East Asian 5 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 1.26  More women hold top management positions in (e) rising availability and use of information East Asia and the Pacific than in other developing regions and communication technologies (ICTs). Though not commonly accounted for by policy makers, these trends are likely to have East Asia and the Paci c important gender dimensions and, thus, affect the evolution of gender equality in the region. Europe and Central Asia They will create new challenges for public policy, in terms of fostering new opportunities Latin America and the Caribbean and managing new risks to gender equality. world Greater global economic integration brings with it substantial economic opportunities Middle East and North Africa for women, but also potentially greater expo- sure to economic shocks. For example, evi- Sub-Saharan Africa dence indicates that greater global economic South Asia integration can contribute to greater access to economic opportunities for women and 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 reduce gender wage gaps by raising demand firms with female top manager (%) for female workers in export-oriented enter- firms with female participation prises (Boserup 1970; Schultz 2006). At the in ownership (%) same time, increasing global integration also increases risk and uncertainty, as shocks are Source: Enterprise Surveys database, World Bank. more quickly transmitted across integrated markets. A number of studies find that FIGURE 1.27  Violence against women is high in East Asia and although shocks do not necessarily have more the Pacific adverse effects on women than men, they do have gender-differentiated effects on outcomes percentage of ever-married women ages 15–49 who have as diverse as employment, earnings, labor force experienced sexual and/or physical intimate-partner violence participation, education investment, health, 80 70 and nutrition (see, for example, Bruni et al. 60 2011; Rodgers and Menon forthcoming). 50 Opportunities gained by migration are bal- percent 40 anced by new risks. High economic growth 30 and increased economic integration in the 20 region over the past three decades has spurred 10 0 significant migration across the region. Women make up nearly half of all migrants Thailand Cambodia Philippines Japan Kiribati Marshall Islands Kenya Peru Nepal Moldova Samoa Solomon Islands in East Asia and the Pacific and in some coun- tries represent the majority of new migrants. Migration can provide both women and men with access to new economic opportunities, East Asia Paci c other developing which commonly differ by gender because of countries employment segregation in receiving areas’ labor markets. At the same time, migration Source: Demographic and health surveys, various countries and years, and government surveys. brings with it important gender-specific risks. For example, many female migrants find and Pacific countries are at the forefront of employment as domestic workers, a sector several global trends: (a) increasing global with particularly weak worker protection economic integration, (b) increasing domes- in most countries. Female migrants are also tic and cross-border migration , (c) rapid disproportionately susceptible to risks associ- urbanization , (d) population aging, and ated with human trafficking. T H E S T A T E O F G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    53 Unprecedented levels of urbanization are Advances in ICTs are revolutionizing the affecting all aspects of life: from the nature ways in which both men and women in the of employment to the availability of services region are exposed to ideas, share knowl- to individuals’ ability to rely on extended edge, and networks. Existing evidence sug- family and community networks. Many gests, however, that women in the region still East Asian and Pacific countries are experi- have lower access to information technologies encing unprecedented levels of urbanization than men. New and emerging technologies, as migrants move to urban areas in search of if accessible, can help to empower women economic opportunity. Between 2000 and by opening new economic opportunities, 2015, Indonesia, China, and Cambodia are breaking down information barriers, help- predicted to see an increase in the percentage ing women in isolated communities engage in of the population residing in urban areas by distance learning or commerce, or enabling 17, 13, and 9 percentage points respectively women to take collective action. As in the (World Bank 2009). These changes almost case of other productive resources, such as certainly have gender-­ s pecific impacts. land, machinery, or credit, growing gender Although urban residence can open up a gaps in access to ICTs could lead to widening wide range of economic opportunities for gaps in access to economic opportunities as both men and women, women’s ability to well as in voice and influence in society. take advantage of new opportunities is likely to depend fundamentally on the nature and availability of urban services—for example, Gender equality in East Asia and whether transport systems facilitate safe the Pacific: A roadmap to the travel of women to job sites or if affordable report child care can compensate for the loss of This chapter has provided a basic profile on extended family networks. the status of gender equality in East Asia Aging populations will represent another challenge for women. The high-income economies in East Asia are experiencing FIGURE 1.28  The dependency ratio is increasing in most East rapid population aging.12 Most emerging Asian countries countries in the region have also begun this process; dependency ratios are already increasing in many middle-income coun- 0.45 old-age dependency ratio tries in East Asia and the Pacific. Old-age 0.40 dependency is expected to increase even 0.35 more quickly in the coming decades (fig- 0.30 ure 1.28). Population aging is likely to have 0.25 ratio gender-differentiated impacts at all age lev- 0.20 els. Gender differences in the time devoted 0.15 to caring for the elderly imply that in the 0.10 absence of institutionalized care services, 0.05 women are likely to bear the brunt of the 0.00 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 increased demand for elder care (Dwyer and Coward 1992; Ofstedal, Knodel, and China Fiji Indonesia Chayovan 1999). Moreover, while women Malaysia Mongolia Papua New Guinea tend to live longer than men, gender dif- Philippines Thailand Vietnam ferences in education and labor force par- ticipation imply that women are less likely to be vested in formal pension systems and Sources: World Bank 2010b (1990–2010 data); HNP Stats—Population Projection (projections for 2020–50). may have fewer assets to ensure a basic Note: Old-age dependency ratio is defined as the ratio of the population 65 years of age and older level of well-being in old age. over working-age population (15–64 years of age). 5 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C and Pacific countries, taking into account in Pacific countries experience among the several important factors that have charac- highest rates of violence against women in terized development in the region. Specifi- the world; they also have among the low- cally, the region has experienced significant est levels of female representation in poli- growth, poverty reduction, and economic tics. Within countries, gender frequently structural transformation over the past sev- interacts with other socioeconomic char- eral decades. The chapter has shown that acteristics, such as ethnicity or geographic rapid growth and development have been remoteness, resulting in specific subgroups accompanied by reduced gender inequali- of countries’ populations facing a double ties in several key dimensions, most nota- disadvantage. bly in education and several key aspects of Because many aspects of gender inequality health. In East Asian countries, women’s do not disappear automatically with growth voice and influence, whether in the home and development, and because persistent gen- or in the economy, are relatively strong. In der inequalities impose high costs on women many ways, women in the region are better and girls and on societies more broadly, a positioned than ever before to participate case can be made for public policy to promote in, contribute to, and benefit from their gender equality. In this context, an impor- economies and societies. tant contribution of this report will be to (a) At the same time, the evidence demon- clarify empirically the relationship between strates clearly that economic growth and gender equality and development, (b) ana- development alone are not enough to attain lyze the factors that contribute to or impede gender equality in all its dimensions. While gender equality in its different dimensions, gender outcomes in education and health and (c) identify effective avenues for public have been responsive to growth, other areas action to promote gender equality and, thus, have proved “stickier�; significant gender more effective development in East Asian and inequalities persist in a number of important Pacific countries. areas despite development. Women still have To achieve these objectives, the three chap- less access than men to a range of productive ters that follow focus on providing a deeper assets and services. There remains substan- understanding of the factors affecting gender tial employment segregation, by gender. And equality in endowments, economic oppor- despite closing of education gaps, women tunity, and agency. Specifically, chapter 2 continue to earn less than men. Moreover, examines in more depth the evidence on gen- women in the region still have weaker voice der dimensions of human and physical capital and influence than men, whether in house- accumulation. Chapter 3 analyzes access to hold decision making, in the private sector, in economic opportunity, including the ­ factors civil society, or in politics. And women across affecting female labor force participation, the region remain vulnerable to gender-based employment segregation across o ­ ccupations violence. and industries, and persistent gender gaps in Progress toward gender equality has wages and earnings. And chapter 4 focuses been uneven across and within countries. on factors that enhance or constrain women’s Despite widespread progress, a few, mostly voice and influence in society, both in the low-income, countries have yet to close private and public domains. In carrying out gender gaps in basic education. In China their analyses, each of these chapters seeks to (and to a lesser extent Vietnam), significant frame an agenda for effective public action imbalances occur in the sex ratio at birth, moving forward. ­ r eflecting strong son preference in those The report also analyzes the gender dimen- societies. At the same time, a number of sions of several important emerging trends Pacific island countries face particular chal- in the region. Specifically, chapter 5 exam- lenges with respect to promoting women’s ines globalization and economic integration, voice and influence. Specifically, women increasing migration, rapid urbanization, T H E S T A T E O F G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    55 population aging, and enhanced access to men are more likely to be found among math- ICTs, while identifying both the emerging ematics and computer science graduates than opportunities and the emerging risks to gen- women and have also been found to outperform der equality that these phenomena entail. women in mathematics (Schleicher 2008). The maternal mortality ratio (MMR) in Lao   7.  Building on the in-depth analyses presented PDR is a modeled estimate, to make it com- in chapters 2 through 5, chapter 6 then parable to MMR estimates in other countries. outlines directions for public policy to pro- Lao PDR’s national estimate in 2005 was mote gender equality and, thus, more effec- lower, at 405 deaths per 100,000 births (WDI tive development in East Asian and Pacific database). countries. The report concludes by framing For data on land holdings by gender in China,   8.  a forward-looking agenda for analysis and see de Brauw et al. (2011). Data on other action—to continue to fill knowledge gaps countries are based on World Bank staff cal- and strengthen public policy responses to culations, using household survey data. promoting gender equality in the region. Evidence from other parts of Indonesia sug-   9.  gests that land ownership patterns, by gender, can differ in important ways, depending on Notes local norms and customs. In the matrilineal region of West Sumatra, Indonesia, for exam-  1. Sen (1999) defines freedoms and “unfree- ple, at the time of marriage, husbands com- doms� in five categories: (a) political freedoms, monly own more forest land than their wives, (b) economic facilities, (c) social opportunities, and wives commonly own more paddy land (d) transparency guarantees, and (e) protective (Quisumbing and Maluccio 2003). security. 10. Self-reported information on credit con-  2. Adopted in 1979 by the United Nations straints, by gender, should be interpreted with General Assembly, CEDAW is often referred caution. As discussed below, female-led enter- to as the international bill of rights for prises are smaller, use less capital, and operate women. The convention defines what con- in difference sectors than male-led enterprises, stitutes discrimination against women and making direct comparisons of self-reported provides an agenda for national action to end credit constraints, by gender, difficult. such discrimination. To date, it has been rati- 11.  In the Europe and Central Asia region, female fied by 187 countries worldwide (http://www representation in national assemblies fell sub- .un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/). stantially following the dissolution of the These studies must be interpreted with caution,   3.  Soviet Union, although levels increased again given the difficulty of establishing a causal rela- between 2000 and 2008. tionship between gender equality in education 12.  For example, the share of the elderly (age 65 and growth in cross-country studies. or above) in Hong Kong SAR, China; Japan; Evidence from Africa and Latin America, for   4.  Korea; Singapore; and Taiwan, China, is example, suggests that ensuring equal access above 10 percent and is expected to increase to productive assets and technologies could substantially in the next two decades. significantly raise agricultural production and household income (Goldstein and Udry 2008; Quisumbing 1995; Udry 1996).   5.  A number of studies show that gender-based References violence itself imposes significant costs on the Agarwal, Bina. 2010a. “Does Women’s Propor­ economies of developing countries, for exam- tional Strength Affect Their Participation? ple, through lower worker productivity and Governing Local Forests in South Asia.� World incomes, lower human capital investments, Development 38 (1): 98–112. and weaker accumulation of social capital ———. 2010b. 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Gender and Endowments: Access to Human Capital and 2 Productive Assets A ccess to human capital and produc- endowments—specifically, education, health, tive assets allows individuals to live and assets—and their ties with economic healthy and productive lives. Imbal- opportunities and agency. ances between such opportunities for men Education and health are areas in which and women are costly to individual welfare, gender equality has generally been the most to society, and to development. The East responsive to growth and development in the Asia and Pacific region has experienced region. remarkable economic growth and poverty Girls’ enrollment has recently caught up •   reduction, combined with the spread of edu- with that of boys, except in several coun- cation and progress in health, from the latter tries and subpopulations experiencing half of the 20th century to the first decade of slower progress in education overall. the 21st century. Therefore, East Asian and H ealth indicators such as infant and •   Pacific countries are well placed to promote maternal mortality have also had impres- strong improvements in access to human sive gains, except in several places with capital and productive assets for many men slower economic progress. and women in those countries. However, the region has a large number •   This chapter analyzes gender differ- of “missing girls,� a persistent issue that ences in endowments—defined here as the appears not to be mitigated by growth human and productive capital that enables and development. opportunities to improve welfare—in the G ender equality in assets has been less •   region and lays the foundations for discuss- responsive to development than that in ing countries’ policy priorities in chapter 6. education and health and is constrained It examines factors underlying those gender by complex legal, social, and economic differences and identifies what drives prog- factors. ress toward gender equality or impedes it. The analysis relies on the framework of the These messages, stemming from the analy- interactions among households, markets, and sis in this chapter, help shape thinking about institutions to understand gender outcomes policies to promote gender equality in endow- in endowments. The chapter also acknowl- ments. The end of the chapter sets the stage edges the links among the different types of for that purpose, and a policy discussion 61 6 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C placing priorities in the endowment domain Recognizing the importance of educating in the broader development context will fol- girls, many East Asian and Pacific countries low in chapter 6. have made great strides toward equal enroll- ment between girls and boys, as highlighted in chapter 1. The discussion on education in Substantial progress toward this chapter will analyze these patterns in gender equality in education more depth to understand their dynamics and Closing gender gaps in education is benefi- their determinants. These gains in enroll- cial.1 Several cross-country analyses find a ment have responded to changes in both positive relationship between female educa- supply-side and demand-side factors that tion and growth in gross domestic product enable better education outcomes. Where (GDP) (Klasen and Lamanna 2009; Knowles, the education system as a whole is lagging, Lorgelly, and Owen 2002). Looking at house- progress on the gender front has also been holds within countries, an extensive litera- l imited. However, even with equal enroll- ­ ture has found clear evidence of correlation ment, quality of education and choice of between mothers’ education and children’s education streams still affect girls and boys education and health, particularly children’s differently and have strong implications for health and nutrition status (Schultz 1993; school-to-work transition. young people’s ­ Thomas and Strauss 1992).2 Women are usu- ally the primary child rearers, and a mother Closing gender gaps in enrollment with more education is likely to provide bet- ter child care. In East Asian and Pacific coun- Most countries in the East Asia and Pacific tries, analyses of national demographic and region have seen narrowing gender gaps in health surveys (DHS) show that Cambodian school enrollment and completion over the women with little education are less likely past two decades. Girls’ and boys’ enrollment than educated women to receive antenatal rates are now roughly on par at all levels, care and assistance from trained health per- including tertiary education. The female-to- sonnel during birth deliveries (Johnson, Sao, male enrollment ratio in secondary school and Hor 2000). Similarly, in Timor-Leste, has approached parity in most countries. highly educated mothers are most likely to Tertiary enrollment ratios between females have their births delivered by skilled atten- and males are more dispersed, but mostly on dants (88 percent), as are mothers in the an upward trend. The East Asia and Pacific wealthiest households (69 percent) (NSD, region has performed better than any other Ministry of Finance, and ICF Macro 2010). region at increasing both enrollment levels Gender equality in endowments can feed and the female-to-male enrollment ratio. In into development indirectly through links to 2010, the region had the highest primary gender equality in economic opportunities school female-to-male ratio of enrollment and agency. Promoting equal access to educa- among the developing regions and the second tion through investing in girls’ education can highest secondary school ratio.3 broaden girls’ economic opportunities and The narrowing of the gender gap in edu- raise their income. Better economic oppor- cation since the 1990s is observed not only tunities and higher income, in turn, have at the aggregate level, but also for the poor positive intergenerational effects: income in and nonpoor alike. Figure 2.1 shows the ratio women’s hands is likely to improve children’s of female-to-male enrollment rates in upper health (Duflo 2003; Fiszbein and Schady secondary schools for children in the poor- 2009; Thomas 1995). More education and est quintile. In most of the countries depicted, more income also empower women and female and male enrollment rates have been provide them with more bargaining power, converging among the poor. Similar patterns voice, and representation, as discussed in are also observed for primary and lower sec- chapter 4. ondary education. G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    63 Another way to see the significant prog- FIGURE 2.1  Enrollment for both genders has been converging ress in education is through the smaller gen- even among the poorest populations der gaps in youth literacy compared to gaps in adult literacy. Figure 2.2 shows Indonesia female-to-male gross upper-secondary enrollment ratios and Cambodia as illustrative examples, but in the poorest expenditure quintile the observations are similar in many East Asian and Pacific countries. Younger genera- Mongolia, 2008 tions are more likely to be literate. Although Mongolia, 2002 the gender gaps in adult literacy can be stark, Thailand, 2009 such as in the case of Cambodia, youth liter- Thailand, 2000 acy tends to be more equal across genders in Vietnam, 2006 both urban and rural areas, as well as across Vietnam, 1993 gender parity income quintiles. The gender gaps in literacy Indonesia, 2009 continue to close over time. Indonesia, 1999 Given this trend, some countries are even Lao PDR, 2008 starting to experience a reverse gender gap in Lao PDR, 2002 education: girls’ secondary enrollment exceeds Cambodia, 2008 that of boys in China, Fiji, Malaysia, Mongo- Cambodia, 2004 ­ hailand. The lia, the Philippines, Samoa, and T Timor-Leste, 2007 reverse gender gaps at the tertiary level are Timor-Leste, 2001 often even starker: in Thailand, 122 females were enrolled for every 100 males in 2008. In 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 Samoa, for example, boys underperform rela- ratio tive to girls in both enrollment and academic achievement. Secondary education enrollment Sources: World Bank estimates using country household income and expenditure surveys: Cambodia Socio-Economic Survey (CSES) (NIS Cambodia), 2004, 2008 data; Indonesia National rates have consistently been higher for girls, Socioeconomic Survey (SUSENAS) (BPS Indonesia), 1999, 2009 data; Lao Expenditure and Consump- by a large margin that is widening over time. tion Survey (LECS) (LSB Lao PDR), 2002, 2008 data; Living Standards Measurement Survey (LSMS) (NSO Mongolia), 2002, 2007–08 data; Thailand Socio-Economic Survey (SES) (NSO Thailand), 2000, In tests taken in year 4 and year 6 (the first 2009 data; Timor-Leste Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) (NSD Timor-Leste), 2001, 2007 data; year of education starts at age 5), girls sig- Vietnam Household Living Standards Surveys (VHLSS) (GSO Vietnam), 1993, 2006 data. nificantly outperform boys in all three tested subjects: English, Samoan, and numeracy. A FIGURE 2.2  Gender gaps in youth literacy are smaller than significantly higher proportion of boys than gender gaps in adult literacy girls have been at risk of not achieving mini- mum competencies in these years. In year 8, youth (ages 15–24) versus adult (ages 25+) literacy rates, girls still outshine their male counterparts in by gender all subjects, including science and mathemat- male-female adult literacy gap ics, but the gender gap is smaller than it was 100 in the earlier years (Jha and Kelleher 2006). Box 2.1 discusses the reverse gender gap in 80 literacy rate, % education in further detail. 60 40 Persistent gender gaps in some 20 countries and subpopulations 0 youth adult youth adult Despite progress in narrowing the enrollment gaps between genders, several countries and Indonesia, 2009 Cambodia, 2008 disadvantaged populations within countries female male-female gap still experience more visible gender disparities than elsewhere in the region.4 Girls’ enroll- Source: World Bank estimates using CSES (NIS Cambodia), 2008 data; SUSENAS (BPS Indonesia), ment has not caught up with that of boys in 2009 data. 6 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C BOX 2.1  Various parts of the world experience reverse gender gaps in education Although the phenomenon of reverse gender gaps in stereotyping and how masculinity values within education is relatively new in the East Asia and Pacific society are reflected in the classroom have been region, it has long been documented in parts of Europe argued to contribute to high dropout rates among and Central Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean, boys in the Caribbean (Bailey and Bernard 2003; and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Davis 2002; Figueroa 2000). Marks (2001) shows Development (OECD) countries. The range of possible that, by age 14, girls in the United Kingdom start reasons varies, including returns in the labor market, to substantially outperform boys in English. Boys’ norms and gender identity, and the school environ- lower performance in the United Kingdom has been ment itself. Interactions between households, mar- attributed to the use of more “female-oriented� kets, and institutions influence households’ decisions reading materials, with suggestions that the inclu- about education investments; therefore, explanations sion of more factual, male-oriented works could for gender gaps in education are also context-specific. increase male performance. Other authors argue Given the differential payoffs in the labor market, by that teachers have low expectations of boys’ behav- which men tend to earn more (discussed further in ior and academic effectiveness, which contributes chapter 3), men have an incentive to drop out earlier to the levels of boys’ underachievement in Latin to join the labor force. Social norms perceiving men America and the Caribbean (Davis 2002; Figueroa as the breadwinner and stressing masculinity values 2000; Martino and Berrill 2003). The experimental may reinforce this incentive. In many cases, such as literature on test grading suggests that there can be Mongolia or the Philippines, male underachievement gender bias, but it is context-specific. For example, in education is most stark among the poor. The fig- Lavy (2008) finds that male high school students ure below shows the biggest enrollment disadvantage in Israel face discrimination in teachers’ test grad- for boys in the poorest quintile. A U.K. Department ing, but Hanna and Linden (2009) do not find such for International Development study in Botswana bias in their study in India. The United Nations and Ghana also shows a similar relationship between Children’s Fund (UNICEF 2004) outlines the role economic disadvantages and boys’ underperformance that poverty has to play in boys’ underachieve- (Dunne and Leach 2005). The study identifies reasons ment in the Caribbean and Latin America, where for boys dropping out in the studied areas of Ghana governments have become increasingly aware that as related to employment opportunities. boys and young men are more likely to be alienated The school environment itself may perpetuate from school if they come from poor socioeconomic this set of norms and gendered identity. Gender backgrounds. BOX FIGURE 2.1.1  The biggest enrollment disadvantage for boys in the Phillippines is among the poor Gross enrollment rates in secondary schools, by expenditure quintile, gender, and region, Philippines, 2006 120 100 80 percent 60 40 20 0 –20 poorest richest poorest richest poorest richest 20% 20% 20% 20% 20% 20% national rural urban female male-female gap Source: World Bank estimates using Family Income and Expenditures Survey 2006 (NSCB Philippines 2006). G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    65 those places where the overall education level, school as ­Lao-Tai (ethnic majority) boys and regardless of gender, is also low. (figure 2.3). Even in Vietnam, where girls ­ Gender gaps in enrollment are still high girls do not lag boys at the aggregate level, in Papua New Guinea and low-income coun- the Hmong and Dao populations have stark tries such as Cambodia and the Lao People’s gender gaps in secondary school enrollment: Democratic Republic. Papua New Guinea’s about one girl to two boys is enrolled in sec- education enrollment rates are among the ondary school (figure 2.4). lowest in the region, although they have been rising moderately in recent years. In 2007, FIGURE 2.3  Girls in some ethnic minority groups in Lao PDR lag primary education (elementary prepara- even further in enrollment tion through grade 8) gross enrollment rates were 73 percent for males and 66 percent for gross enrollment rates in lower-secondary school, by ethnicity and females (Papua New Guinea Department of gender, Lao PDR, 2002 and 2008 Education 2009). Cambodia and Lao PDR 100 have notable gender gaps in enrollment at the secondary level, and more extreme gaps 80 at the tertiary level. The secondary educa- 60 tion enrollment ratio is about 8 females to 10 percent males in Cambodia and Lao PDR. House- 40 hold survey data from 2008 indicate that 20 although the ratio in enrollment between girls and boys is about equal up to around 0 age 14 in Cambodia, it diverges significantly above that age. In 2008, at the tertiary level, –20 40 percent of urban males in Cambodia were 2002 2008 2002 2008 2002 2008 2002 2008 Lao-Tai/Tai-Kadai Mon-Khmer Chinese-Tibet Hmong enrolled, whereas only about 20 percent of urban females were. Enrollment rates in female male-female gap these countries are relatively low regardless of gender. Cambodia’s adult literacy rates are Source: World Bank estimates using LECS (LSB Lao PDR), 2002, 2008 data. also among the lowest in the region, with the biggest gender gaps. About 60 percent of Lao FIGURE 2.4  Girls in some ethnic minority groups in Vietnam lag women are literate, as opposed to 80 percent even further in enrollment of Lao men and more than 90 percent of peo- ple in most other countries in the region. gross enrollment rates in lower-secondary school, by ethnicity and In some cases, girls in disadvantaged pop- 120 gender, Vietnam, 1993 and 2006 ulations have the lowest education outcomes 100 when gender interacts with other forms of vulnerability, such as poverty and ethnicity. 80 Household survey data indicate that girls in 60 percent the poorest quintile in rural areas in Cambo- 40 dia and Lao PDR have the lowest secondary school enrollment rates in these countries. 5 20 In Lao PDR, gender gaps in school enroll- 0 ment can be particularly stark among the –20 Hmong population. Girls in the Hmong and 1993 2006 1993 2006 1993 2006 1993 2006 1993 2006 Mon-Khmer groups have a lower chance of Kinh/ Tay/Thai/ Central Hmong/ Khmer being in school than boys of the same ethnic- Chinese Muong/Nung ethnic Dao ity, a disparity that has been slow to change female male-female gap over the past decade. They are only half as likely to be enrolled in lower-secondary Source: World Bank estimates using VHLSS (GSO Vietnam), 1993, 2006 data. 6 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C Explaining progress and pending terms of passing grades per year of schooling. challenges in education Cash transfers that alleviate households’ bud- get constraints have also been shown in many The observed gains in enrollment in East developing countries to increase children’s Asian and Pacific countries have been a result school enrollment. In the East Asia and Pacific of changes in supply-side and demand-side region, a program providing scholarships to factors that enable better education out- poor girls in lower secondary schools in Cam- comes. Explanations for progress (or lack of bodia had large effects on girls’ enrollment, progress) in reducing gender gaps in educa- an increase of 20 percentage points. A related tion are context-specific because interactions program for both boys and girls had similar between households, markets, and institu- positive impacts on enrollment and attendance tions influence households’ d ­ ecisions regard- for boys and girls (Filmer and Schady 2008, ing education investments. Responding to 2009). Economic development in the region, market returns, or payoff, to investment which brings more stable income to house- choices, household d ­ ecisions reflect individ- holds, also helps protect girls’ education. In ual preferences, constraints, and the relative times of income shocks, families with girls are bargaining power of members. The returns more likely to reduce education expenditure, to education, as determined in the labor mar- as shown, for example, in the case of Indone- ket, play a role. Costs or prices in the form sia (Cameron and Worswick 2001). of direct costs (fees and uniforms), indirect In addition, norms and preferences also costs (distance to schools), and opportunity affect households’ demand for schooling by costs (wages earned outside of school) also gender. Changing norms in some contexts matter and can be shaped by markets and have led to changing girls’ status relative to institutions. Households have preferences, boys. Qualitative research through focus which may be influenced by cultural norms. group discussions in six communities in Fiji They face budget and possible credit con- suggests that parents value girls’ education straints. With this framework in mind, the more now than in previous generations (Chat- following discusses how changing demand- tier 2011). In Indonesia today, compared to a side constraints for households (for example, few decades ago, women exhibit a stronger household income), institutional factors that preference for fewer children and stronger affect the supply side (for example, reducing emphasis on children’s health and educa- the cost/prices of education), and returns to tion. Evidence suggests that this preference educating girls each and together have led to change is associated with decreased prefer- more gender equality in school enrollment in ence for sons over daughters compared to the most East Asian and Pacific countries. past (Niehof 2003). Indonesian parents now First, factors affecting households’ demand appear to intrinsically value daughters no less for education matter. Household survey data than sons (Kevane and Levine 2003). in East Asian and Pacific countries indicate Second, changes in formal institutions, that enrollment is always higher for children such as better service delivery and easier in richer families. Poor households in devel- access to schools, have improved the supply oping countries tend to face borrowing con- of education services and lowered the cost straints, and, under limited budgets, they of education. Economic development in East tend to invest more in sons than in daughters. Asian and Pacific countries has been associ- Income gains are thus likely to raise school ated with better infrastructure and service participation relatively more for girls than delivery, either through the public or private for boys, as empirically documented in vari- sector. The massive school construction pro- ous countries (World Bank 2001). Behrman gram in Indonesia in the 1970s led to signifi- and Knowles (1999) showed that, in Vietnam, cant increases in education attainment and the income elasticity of demand for education earnings, presumably through reducing costs was 6 percent lower for boys than for girls in in terms of distance to schools (Duflo 2000). G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    67 Although expanded service delivery might FIGURE 2.5  Even girls in wealthier households in Cambodia and not specifically target girls, the benefits to Lao PDR lag behind boys them may be disproportionately high because distance and safety tend to be larger barriers gross enrollment rates in upper-secondary schools of the poorest 20% and for girls than for boys. richest 20% of population, by gender, 2008 Third, in some cases, better employment 100 opportunities and returns to education for females could have encouraged parents to 80 educate girls. Cross-country evidence shows that trade liberalization, which has led to the 60 percent expansion of nonagricultural jobs for women, is positively linked to greater human capital 40 and more gender equality in human capital 20 investment (Schultz 2006). The literature also shows that education investments do respond 0 to expected returns as long as information on poorest 20% richest 20% poorest 20% richest 20% these returns is available (Jensen 2010; Oster and Millet 2010). Longer expected durations Cambodia, 2008 Lao PDR, 2008 of receiving payoff from daughters, as a result female male-female gap of declining maternal mortality, can also Source: World Bank estimates using CSES (NIS Cambodia), 2008 data; LECS (LSB Lao PDR), 2008 data. induce parents to invest more in girls’ educa- tion (Jayachandran and Lleras-Muney 2009). However, this component might have played and become household heads. Females are a relatively small role in the East Asia and expected to submit to their husbands and be Pacific region, because the gender wage gaps caregivers and homemakers; therefore, par- and gender gaps in expected returns to educa- ents value boys’ education over girls’ (Tara- tion are still large, as discussed in chapter 3.6 ria 2011). In Lao PDR, social norms about What constrains progress? Where the gender roles within the family may mean that education system as a whole is lagging, prog- girls face higher opportunity costs of school- ress on the gender front has also been lim- ing as a result of their socially defined value ited. Although the explanations can be very in home production. Poor rural girls spend context-specific, factors related to both the ­ the fewest hours in school but spend almost supply and demand sides of education in cer- three hours a day fetching water, collecting tain places constrain progress in education out- firewood, and caring for other household comes in general as well as outcomes for girls. members (King and van der Walle 2007). Low household income coupled with high Families’ perception of lower benefits from costs of education can limit the demand educating girls is also expected to impede for schooling, but income is usually not the girls’ enrollment in Cambodia, particularly whole story. Families in Cambodia have after puberty (Velasco 2001). raised concerns about bearing the high direct The supply side of service delivery also cost of education (Velasco 2001). However, matters for the overall school enrollment as in both Cambodia and Lao PDR, gender gaps well as for girls’ enrollment. Low enrollment in secondary school enrollment exist even in rates in Papua New Guinea are the result of the top quintile, as shown in figure 2.5, even limited access and high dropout rates. Apart though gaps across quintiles are still much from demand-side factors such as affordabil- larger. Aside from income, norms also have a ity of school fees and low perceived value of strong influence on household decisions. Par- education, elementary schools have not been ticipants of focus group discussions in a quali- established in many communities. Even urban tative research exercise in Papua New Guinea areas may have inadequate capacity to admit report that males will carry the family name all children wanting to enroll. Poor learning 6 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C environments (often due to lack of educa- Asia and Pacific region, despite the closing tion materials), poor school infrastructure, of gaps in enrollment and attainment, male poor teacher attitude and attendance, lack of and female students still differ in their choice teachers in remote areas, and negative pupil of education streams. Factors that influence behavior all contribute to poor enrollment gender streaming in education are important overall (Papua New Guinea Department because such streaming affects the occupa- of Education 2009). In Cambodia and Lao tions and sectors that men and women engage PDR, distance to schools is an important bar- in and the income that they subsequently rier. The unequal provision of schools in Lao earn. The persistence of these patterns PDR makes schooling more costly for girls implies a gender-differentiated school-to- than for boys (King and van der Walle 2007). work behavior and ultimately sustains gender In Cambodia, given the long distance to inequalities in job placement and earnings. schools, boys can live in wats (temples) while Earning gaps across genders largely reflect attending secondary school, but girls have no differences across occupations and sectors of comparable system of accommodation. Anec- employment. Chapter 3 discusses further the dotal evidence suggests that the lack of toilets importance of education and labor market at school also makes it more difficult for girls streaming to labor market outcomes. than boys to attend (Velasco 2001). Evidence from the East Asia and Pacific Limitations of the education system in region shows clear patterns of specialization catering to the rural poor and ethnic minori- by field among men and women, implying ties mean that the gender disadvantage can differences in skill profiles when they enter interact with these forms of vulnerability. In the labor market. Figure 2.6 shows the frac- East Asian and Pacific countries, gender gaps tion of females in each field of study in Indo- within a subpopulation are usually smaller nesia, Thailand, and Vietnam. The fields of than the enrollment gaps across income engineering and law are heavily dominated quintiles or between major and minor eth- by males, whereas the fields of education, nicities. In Vietnam, though the ethnic- health, and business administration are dom- ity gap in primary enrollment had almost inated by females. These gender differences in closed between 1993 and 2006, enrollment the choice of field are larger than the gender at the secondary level among the Kinh/Chi- differences in enrollment or completion rate nese majorities is still substantially higher in secondary or tertiary education in these than that among ethnic minority popula- countries. The positive relationship between tions. With the exception of the Hmong and being male and choosing science, engineer- Dao, the gender gaps within an ethnicity in ing, or law is statistically significant in mul- ­ V ietnam are smaller than the gaps across tinomial logit analysis that also accounts for ethnicities (figure 2.4). In Cambodia, the characteristics such as parental education gap in secondary school enrollment across and area of residence (Sakellariou 2011). quintiles also exceeds gender gaps within Education streaming can be slow to change any given quintile. Similar patterns occur over time and is less responsive to economic in many other East Asian and Pacific coun- growth than enrollments, at least as evidence tries. These large enrollment gaps across indicates for Indonesia from 1997 to 2009. subpopulations suggest that making general Such gender streaming in education is not improvements in the education system to unique to East Asian and Pacific countries, reach v­ ulnerable subpopulations could con- but is evident in many Organisation for tribute to closing the gender gap as well. Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries as well. Flabbi (2011) documents that in many OECD countries, Gender streaming in education relatively more women enter the social sci- Education investment does not end at enroll- ences and business, whereas more men enter ment. In middle-income countries in the East the fields of engineering and architecture. G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    69 There could be multiple reasons for men FIGURE 2.6  Women are concentrated in certain fields of study, and women’s choice of education streams. such as education and health, but are underrepresented in law The relative payoff of the different streams— and engineering the expected returns from labor markets—is percentage of students who are women, by eld of study likely to influence this decision. However, evi- 90 dence shows that women do not necessarily 80 take up fields with the highest premiums in 70 60 the labor market wage. Table 2.1 shows the percent 50 estimated returns to selected fields of study in 40 Indonesia. The returns to studying engineer- 30 ing are high for females and are much higher 20 than the returns to studying education. For 10 example, among the female adults surveyed 0 n h law g n h y s a ienc ial in 2009, the premium for having studied og io alt in tio at c at er dm es m o ol he ra s uc ne hn nd ist engineering (rather than religion) was 72 per- nd ed gi in ec a ,a c en ce lt s rts cent higher earnings, whereas the premium ien ra ,a tu sc es es ul for having studied education was 17 per- iti sin ric an ag bu m cent. This phenomenon has been the case hu for over a decade, since the late 1990s. Still, Indonesia, 2009 Thailand, 2006 Vietnam, 2006 females prefer education to engineering. As Source: Sakellariou 2011. a note of caution, the data available here do not account for differences in unobservable characteristics, such as ability, among those TABLE 2.1  Labor market returns to studying engineering are high relative to studying education choosing the different fields. They capture Indonesia: Estimated return to field of study within tertiary education, % change only monetary returns, whereas nonmon- in wage etary aspects—such as values, attitudes, and social expectations about women as mothers Field of study 1997 2006 2009 (compare to and homemakers or caregivers—also play an field: Religion) Males Females Males Females Males Females important role in influencing the decisions. Nonetheless, the statistics indicate what Law 19.7 20.9 32.3 28.4 47.7 23.4 Health 39.1 10.5 32.3 20.9 56.8 39.1 appear to be persistent patterns that also Engineering 58.4 78.6 44.8 68.2 60.0 71.6 translate into patterns in the labor market, as Education 13.9 10.5 13.9 15.0 23.4 17.4 discussed in chapter 3. Source: Sakellariou 2011. An alternative explanation for the gen- Note: The estimates were based on a log wage regression, accounting for characteristics such as der pattern of subject choice might be that experience and experience squared, marital status, and urban/rural residence. All coefficients were significant at the 5 percent level. females and males have different compara- tive advantages in a particular field based on their academic performance. The avail- women in math and computer science (Schle- able evidence from the East Asia and Pacific icher 2008). Moreover, female students out- region does not support this hypothesis. perform their male counterparts in reading Female students do not systematically per- assessments, according to the Programme form worse than males in key subjects for International Student Assessment (PISA) related to male-dominant fields of study. As test scores. shown in figure 2.7, results of the Trends In addition, norms and expectations in International Mathematics and Science may influence preferences and, therefore, Study (TIMSS) indicate no evident female the choice of education streams. They can disadvantage in math and science scores in do so, for example, through shaping paren- Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and tal expectations, shaping role models in the Thailand, unlike the findings for OECD labor market, or shaping how gender roles are countries that men tend to outperform portrayed in school curricula. Social norms 7 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 2.7  Girls tend to outperform boys in several subjects in school. Gender stereotyping also appears to affect school performance of boys and female-to-male ratio of test scores, by subject 1.10 girls in key subjects (science, mathematics, 1.08 and computer science), ultimately contribut- ing to varying occupational choices (Blum- 1.06 berg 2007; Eccles and Blumenfeld 1985; 1.04 Shel 2007). This literature also explores the ratio 1.02 importance of the gender roles conveyed 1.00 through teaching materials in shaping boys’ 0.98 and girls’ aspirations. School, in particular primary school, is believed to be a key ele- 0.96 ment of socialization for children and a site 0.94 where key social values are transmitted. Indonesia Thailand Malaysia Philippines Teaching materials and teachers’ feedback math science reading are the key instruments through which ideas about what are appropriate areas of study Source: World Bank staff calculations based on TIMSS and PISA data. and acceptable professions for men and Note: Mathematics and science scales for eighth graders are from Trends in International Mathemat- ics and Science Study (TIMSS). The most recent year of data is 2003 for the Philippines and 2007 women are conveyed to children (Blumberg for all other countries. The reading scale is from the Programme for International Student 2007; Nielsen and Davies 2010). Assessment (PISA). In East Asia and the Pacific, the results of a 2008 review of the Education for All (EFA) about the role of females as “homemakers� initiative indicated that teaching materials translate into expectations about appropriate in the region included stereotypical portray- jobs for men and women. In fact, women in als of boys and girls (UNICEF 2009). The the region work more hours and devote more findings, in line with those of other regions, time to caregiving and housework activi- stress that boys appear more than girls in the ties than do men. Given these expectations, learning materials, that they are portrayed as female students may be inclined to choose a more active (and girls as more passive), and field of study that will lead to a job with suffi- that they are shown more frequently in lead- cient time flexibility, such as teaching, to bal- ership roles.7 The report also found a lack ance their home and labor market work. The of female role models in teaching materials. absence of female role models in the labor Women in the school textbooks reviewed market has also been identified as a contrib- were portrayed as secretaries, assistants, uting factor in influencing aspiration and nurses, and teachers more frequently than career choice and in limiting women’s access men, who often appeared as doctors, politi- to nontraditional careers. These topics will cians, or police officers. be explored further in chapter 3. The rest of Qualitative research involving both the this section focuses on how gender roles are review of teaching materials and classroom portrayed in school curricula, which pertains observation, which allows for an analysis of directly to the education system. teacher-student interaction, has highlighted School curricula are important in shap- how gender stereotyping frequently exists in ing choices of what to study, because the curricula in a number of East Asian countries. way in which gender roles are portrayed in Table 2.2 provides selected examples of the school curricula is believed to affect chil- types of issues typically encountered in cur- dren’s performance and aspirations. Cur- riculum analysis. Male characters tend to be riculum analysis in developed and developing portrayed as dominant in the public sphere. countries alike indicates that gender stereo- Similar stereotyping is also observed in other typing in curricula as well as differences in countries throughout the region. The depic- teacher interactions with male and female tion of women in China’s history and social students affect the probability of girls staying sciences manuals illustrates this point. Guo G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    71 TABLE 2.2  School curricula in a number of East Asian countries have gender stereotyping China Vietnam Korea, Rep. Overall The proportion of male characters In grade 4 and grade 5 texts analyzed, visibility rises from 48 percent in books for most authors mentioned and quoted of male four-year-olds to 61 percent in books were men (74 of 85 and 77 of 84, and female for six-year-olds. Female characters respectively). characters appear most commonly in reading In mathematics textbooks analyzed, or authors materials for very young children. female characters were found to in teaching appear in illustrations more often than materials men (some grade levels); however, they were associated with less challenging activities. Stereotypical Portrayal of male and female Stereotypical depictions of men/ Curricular materials presented traditional portrayals characters follows gender role boys and women/girls are present gender roles with women depicted of men and stereotypes in both mathematics and in a range of textbook illustrations doing housework versus office work for women in social sciences manuals. An analysis of and exercises. A detailed analysis men, male characters leading activities textbooks mathematics texts indicated that male of materials used in grades 1 to 5 and female characters assisting. characters were 74 percent of those highlights the following depictions of in stimulating activities, and female men and boys: (a) heroes/courageous; characters represented 70 percent (b) strong/able to do complicated of those in passive roles. Men and and physically challenging jobs; (c) boys are therefore typically portrayed knowledgeable/smart; (d) naughty; (e) as courageous, independent, and creative; and (f) leaders. ambitious, in contrast to “passive, In contrast, women and girls are obedient, neat, cooperative girls.� typical portrayed as (a) “nice and lovely�; (b) caring (as teachers, nurses); (c) clean and ordered; and (d) weak/ emotional. Interestingly, men and boys were also more frequently associated with “forbidden� or dangerous activities. Student- Teacher-pupil and peer interaction Explanations and examples reflecting teacher were observed to follow the same gender role stereotypes were used interaction stereotypes, to girls’ disadvantage. frequently, as was gender-discriminative language. Male students had more teacher-student interaction opportunities as well as more social contact with teachers. Teachers were found to discipline male students more severely than female students. Sources: Jung and Chung 2005 (Korea); Ross and Shi 2003; Shi and Ross 2002 (China); UNESCO/Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training 2011 (Vietnam). and Zhao’s (2002) analysis of elementary lan- Improvements and remaining guage textbooks highlights that only about gender issues in health a fifth of the historical characters portrayed are female. When they are depicted, they also Promoting better health is important for tend to be portrayed in stereotypical roles. For enhancing welfare. Most societies recog- example, an influential female leader of the nize that girls and boys should have equal Chinese Communist Party is depicted twice: access to the elements of a healthy life and once mending Premier Zhou Enlai’s clothes, that maternal health is important. Mothers’ and another time bringing an umbrella to a health and nutrition affect their children’s guard on a rainy day. physical health as well as cognitive abilities. 7 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C Research shows that delays in cognitive and men (Eskes and Haanen 2006). Male mortal- overall development from the time a child is ity is naturally higher than female mortality conceived up to age six, a sensitive period for the first six months of life (Waldron 1998). for brain formation, have long-lasting con- Men and women are also susceptible to dif- sequences that are difficult to compensate ferent diseases, such as different types of can- for later on in life (Naudeau et al. 2011). In cer. Aside from biological differences, health addition, improved maternal health has been outcomes are also affected by differences in shown to enable women to reconcile work behaviors and health investments that could and motherhood, playing a role in raising disadvantage one particular gender. Thus, married women’s labor force participation many unobservable factors affect morbidity in the United States (Albanesi and Olivetti and mortality for men and women. 2009). Research has also shown that with This chapter focuses on mortality risks declining maternal mortality—that is, lon- throughout the life cycle. For early child- ger life expectancy for women—parents hood and childbearing periods, most East can expect a longer duration of payoff from Asian and Pacific countries have experienced daughters. In Sri Lanka, for example, par- impressive progress in narrowing the gender ents respond with more investment in girls’ gaps in the infant mortality rate and reducing education (Jayachandran and Lleras-Muney maternal mortality. However, as discussed 2009). later, the period before birth is a concern, To explain progress or the lack thereof with male-skewed sex ratios at birth in sev- in gender equality in health in East Asian eral parts of the region. and Pacific countries, this section focuses Many East Asian and Pacific countries on several key indicators, such as fertility, have significantly improved several health child and maternal mortality, and sex ratios outcomes during the past two decades. Fertil- at birth. The chapter argues that many, ity rates went down sharply. Infant and child but not all, health outcomes for males and mortality rates for both boys and girls have females in the East Asia and Pacific region declined substantially since 1990, closing have improved with development. Fertil- the gender gaps in the infant mortality rate. ity and child and maternal mortality have The maternal mortality rate (MMR) has also had impressive gains, except in a few places been declining, and, along with the female with slower economic progress, such as infant mortality rate in most of East Asia and Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Timor-Leste. the Pacific, is now low relative to the region’s However, the region still has a large num- income level. Figures 2.8 and 2.9 illustrate ber of missing girls, a persistent issue not this point: in the cross-country graphs of easily mitigated by growth and develop- these health indicators and income measured ment. The chapter also sheds light on two in terms of purchasing power parity, most behavioral health issues associated with East Asian and Pacific countries lie below the high adult mortality risks for men in all downward-sloping curve representing this East Asian and Pacific countries: excessive relationship. smoking and drinking. As in the case of education, progress has not been uniform across the region. First, China differs from other East Asian Declines in fertility and child and and Pacific countries in having a high rate maternal mortality rates of female child mortality relative to that of Gender differences in health outcomes reflect males. Figure 2.10 graphs the ratio of female- biological differences as well as gender- to-male child mortality as well as the ratio differential behaviors, which are difficult to ­ for infant mortality against GDP per capita. separate in what we observe. As a result of Although in most countries, male infant biological factors determining life expectancy, and child mortality rates are slightly higher for example, women tend to live longer than than female rates, consistent with biological G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    73 FIGURE 2.8  Maternal mortality is lower in higher-income countries maternal mortality rate (modeled estimate, per 100,000 live births) against income levels, 2008 1,500 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births 1,000 Lao PDR 500 Timor-Leste Cambodia Indonesia Papua New Guinea Solomon Islands Philippines Thailand New Zealand Fiji Korea, Rep. Singapore 0 Vietnam Mongolia China Malaysia Japan Australia 6 8 10 12 log GDP per capita (constant 2005 internaltional $) rest of world East Asia and Paci c Source: World Bank estimates using World Development Indicators (WDI) database, 2011 data. FIGURE 2.9  Female infant mortality is lower in higher-income countries female infant mortality rate (number of deaths between birth and age one, per 1,000 live births) against income levels, 2009 150 number of deaths per 1,000 live births 100 KHM PNG 50 TMP LAO FSM KIR IDN CHN PHL SLB TON VNM MNG KOR AUS FJI 0 WSM THA NZL JPN MYS SGP 6 7 8 9 10 11 log GDP per capita (constant 2005 international $) rest of world East Asia and Paci c Source: World Bank estimates using WDI database, 2011 data. 7 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C factors, China experiences the opposite pat- Second, the maternal mortality rate is terns. Females face higher mortality risks still a serious concern in a number of places during infancy than males, and even more so in the region. As shown in figure 2.8, Lao before birth, which is related to the “missing PDR experienced more than 500 maternal girls at birth� topic, discussed later. deaths per 100,000 births in 2008, a rate FIGURE 2.10  Most East Asia and Pacific region countries do not have female-skewed under-five mortality and infant mortality, except China a. female-to-male ratio of under- ve mortality, 2009 1.5 CHN SLB VUT KOR 1.0 KIR FSM PNG TON VNM PHL NZL AUS IDN ratio KHM LAO TMP FJI THA JPN MNG MYS SGP 0.5 WSM 0 6 7 8 9 10 11 log GDP per capita (constant 2005 international $) b. female-to-male ratio of infant mortality, 2009 1.5 CHN VNM VUT 1.0 PNG SLB FSM KOR ratio KIR FJI NZL AUS KHM PHL TMP LAO IDN THA MYS SGP MNG JPN 0.5 WSM 0 6 7 8 9 10 11 log GDP per capita (constant 2005 international $) rest of world East Asia and Paci c Source: World Bank estimates using WDI database, 2011 data. G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    75 much higher than other countries of similar T hailand before 1980 has been fertility in ­ income level. The maternal mortality rate attributed to government subsidies to public remains high—above 240 maternal deaths and private family planning systems and to per 100,000 births—in several other coun- the rapid increase in female education (Schultz tries, such as Cambodia, Papua New Guinea, 1997). Breierova and Duflo (2004) showed and Timor-Leste, despite progress over the that higher education among females in Indo- past two decades. Indonesia’s maternal mor- nesia led them to have fewer children early tality rate remains high compared to other on, and the increased education of mothers countries in the region at similar levels of and fathers led to lower child mortality. As development. Even for Vietnam, a country mentioned earlier, in Indonesia today, com- that has successfully reduced this rate at the pared to a few decades ago, women exhibit a national level, maternal health outcomes still stronger preference for fewer children and for lag in rural areas and among ethnic minor- more per-child investment in health and edu- ity groups (World Bank 2011b). cation. This preference change is attributed to decreased preference for sons over daughters and to other social changes (Niehof 2003). Growth, development, and Growth and development in the East Asia improvements in health outcomes and Pacific region have contributed to the Maternal health and child health outcomes region’s progress in improving maternal and are a result of many factors, including ser- reducing child mortality through a combina- vice delivery related to the public and private tion of demand-side and supply-side factors. health systems, prices and the availability of In fact, living in a high-income country is insurance mechanisms, and the demand side generally associated with lower risk of mater- of households’ fertility and health-seeking nal death and of female infant death (as well behavior. Social norms regarding childbirth as male infant death, not shown). Figures 2.8 practices also have an important influence in and 2.9 show a negative relationship between many contexts. a country’s maternal mortality rate or female The East Asia and Pacific region has expe- infant mortality rate with its GDP per capita rienced a substantial reduction in total fertil- level. ity, and this decline has reduced the risk of For the household, rising income in the maternal health complications and death. region appears to have positive impacts on The share of women using modern contra- health outcomes. A rise in income may loosen ception, and thus are presumably more able the incentives to differentiate health invest- to control fertility, has been on the rise in ments across boys and girls. Evidence from a many East Asian and Pacific countries. Gov- large data set of developing countries shows ernment policies such as family planning that, on average, a one-unit increase in log programs and China’s one-child policy were GDP per capita is associated with a decrease expected to control fertility. Schultz and Yi in mortality of between 18 and 44 infants per (1997) argued that institutional reforms, 1,000 births. This negative relationship holds such as the replacement of the collective pro- true even when various factors—such as the duction team with the household responsi- mother’s characteristics, weather shocks, bility system starting in 1979 in China, may conflicts, and the quality of institutions— have contributed to the decline in fertility in are accounted for. Female infant mortality is the long term for a variety of reasons. For more sensitive to changes in economic condi- example, the intensified market competition tions than male mortality (Baird, Friedman, encouraged parents to educate children and and Schady 2007).8 In addition, households focus on the “quality� rather than quantity with higher income can afford more health of children. Increased mobility and migration services, such as the use of prenatal care and for better economic opportunities were also hospitals during births. Figure 2.11 shows linked to delayed childbearing. The declining that in every East Asian and Pacific country 7 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 2.11  Women in wealthier households are more likely to height of children in Mexico (Atkin 2010). have births assisted by trained medical staff In Indonesia, women with a higher share of household assets tend to use more prenatal percentage of women having birth deliveries assisted by trained and delivery care (Beegle, Frankenberg, and medical sta ; comparison of the poorest and richest 20% 120 Thomas 2001). richest 20% Improvements in health technologies as 100 95.6 99.7 well as improvements in the institutions sup- 92.3 82.0 plying health care have led to lower costs of 80 health services and better health outcomes. percent 60 60.5 58.1 Medical progress with the medicalization 56.0 and hospitalization of childbirth contributed 40 42.8 national average to the substantial decline in maternal mortal- 25.1 21.3 ity in the United States in the first half of the 20 poorest 20% 20th century (Albanesi and Olivetti 2009). 0 These technologies, when adopted in devel- Timor-Leste, Philippines, Cambodia, Indonesia, Vietnam, oping countries in the region, were likely to 2007 2003 2008 2009 2002 have similar effects. In addition, the share of Sources: World Bank staff estimates using household income and expenditure surveys of various women using modern contraception has been countries and years; World Bank Health, Nutrition, and Population Statistics (HNPStats) database. on the rise in many East Asian and Pacific countries. Contraception use allows families examined, women living in richer house- to control fertility and avoid extremely short holds are more likely to have birth deliver- periods between pregnancies, which tend to ies assisted by trained health professionals. pose higher health risks. Countries shown in In some cases, such as Cambodia, Indone- figure 2.12 with a high rate of contraceptive sia, and the Philippines, the gap between the use (for example, the high and increasing rate richest quintile and the bottom one can be in Vietnam) are also those with a low mater- fourfold. Over time, as the economy grows, nal mortality rate. the rate of professional birth attendance The functioning of the health system, increases. Lastly, the availability of insurance including infrastructure, medical facilities, mechanisms has also made health care more and equipment and staffing, is also key to affordable. The expansion of health insur- improving health outcomes. Experience in ance coverage in Vietnam, from 25 percent the United States illustrates the importance of the population in 2004 to 40 percent in of public health investments: two-thirds of 2006, and serious efforts by the government the decline in overall infant mortality and the to extend health insurance to the poor and entire decline in excess female infant mortal- ethnic minorities in recent years have had ity in the early 20th century were attribut- positive impacts on access to health services able to clean water and sanitation (Cutler and (World Bank 2011b). Miller 2005). Vietnam’s remarkable achieve- Rising women’s income, in particular, is ments in bringing down child and maternal likely to have contributed to this progress mortality have been attributed to a general in health outcomes. Many countries in the strengthening of the health system (World East Asia and Pacific region have experienced Bank 2011b). The gains in the share of births recent increases in female labor force par- attended by professionals from 2000 to 2008 ticipation. Evidence shows that income in the were very impressive in the East Asia and hands of women positively affects children’s Pacific region, larger than any other develop- health, particularly girls’ (Thomas 1995 for ing region. Bringing better services closer to Brazil, Ghana, and the United States; Duflo women can change their patterns of use, and 2003 for South Africa). Higher female labor positively affects health outcomes. Franken- force participation has been shown to improve berg and Thomas (2001) analyzed the Indo- their bargaining power and to increase the nesia Family Life Survey panel data using G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    77 community-level fixed effects to measure FIGURE 2.12  Contraceptive prevalence varies across East Asian the impacts of a major expansion in mid- and Pacific countries wifery services between 1990 and 1998 on health and pregnancy outcomes for women contraceptive prevalence (share of women ages 15–49) of reproductive age. The authors showed China, 2006 Thailand, 2006 that the addition of a village midwife to Vietnam, 2006 communities between 1993 and 1997 was Mongolia, 2006 associated with a significant increase in body Indonesia, 2007 mass index (BMI) for women of reproductive Philippines, 2008 Marshall Islands, 2007 age, as well as an increase in birthweight of Fiji, 2007 newborns. Frankenberg et al. (2009) further Cambodia, 2005 investigated the reasons behind this impact Vanuatu, 2007 Lao PDR, 2005 on outcomes. The presence of village mid- Papua New Guinea, 2006 wives appears to have increased women’s Solomon Islands, 2007 receipt of iron tablets and influenced their Tonga, 2006 Micronesia, Fed. Sts., 2004 choice of childbirth practice away from reli- Kiribati, 2004 ance on traditional birth attendants toward Timor-Leste, 2007 delivery attended by skilled professionals. 0 20 40 60 80 100 percent Ongoing challenges: Poor service Source: WDI database, Gender Statistics. delivery and social norms East Asian and Pacific countries with high FIGURE 2.13  The percentage of births attended by skilled maternal mortality rates—Cambodia, Indo- professionals varies across East Asian and Pacific countries nesia, Lao PDR, Papua New Guinea, and Timor-Leste—are precisely those with low births attended by skilled health sta (share of total) rates of contraceptive use and low rates of Mongolia, 2008 births delivered by professionals (figure 2.12 China, 2007 and figure 2.13). As shown in figure 2.12, Malaysia, 2005 Pacific Island countries tend to have low Thailand, 2006 contraceptive prevalence compared to East Vietnam, 2006 Asia. In Timor-Leste, for example, only 20 Indonesia, 2007 percent of women ages 15–49 use contracep- Philippines, 2008 tion, leading to high fertility rates and very Papua New Guinea, 2006 short periods between pregnancies. Less than Cambodia, 2005 20 percent of the births in Timor-Leste are Lao PDR, 2006 assisted by professionals. Delivery at home Timor-Leste, 2003 without professional help and without easy 0 20 40 60 80 100 access to a functioning referral center poses percent high risks, particularly in case of compli- Source: WDI database, Gender Statistics. cations. The absence of the factors that explain progress elsewhere is at play in these countries. Demand-side constraints from rural and remote areas, places women at households, including social norms about a high risk for maternal death. Rural areas pregnancy and birthing practices, and poor tend to be less well served by the health sys- supply-side provision of care explain the poor tem; figure 2.14 shows that rural residents health outcomes in these countries. The exact have substantially less access to birth deliver- reasons can vary from context to context. ies attended by trained staff than urban resi- On the supply side, poor access to quality dents. Delivery in the home is of particular obstetric health services, particularly among concern for poor, rural women because they 7 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 2.14  Women in rural areas are less likely to have births in Lao PDR for whom both distance and assisted by trained medical staff infrastructure are of concern (GRID 2005). Chine-Tibet women appear to be most at risk percentage of women that had births assisted by trained medical sta , by location during childbirth since they are very likely to 120 give birth outside of a hospital, and a large urban majority of Chine-Tibet villages (76 percent) share of women having birth, % 100 99.0 lack safe water, let alone access to other 88.9 80 85.9 82.2 sanitary measures (GRID 2005). In Cambo- 79.0 dia, low quality health care, the poor state 64.7 64.6 63.7 60 of rural roads, lack of transport, and poor 40.8 access to a clean water supply have all been 40 national average shown to impede progress in bringing down 31.0 rural 20 maternal mortality (UNIFEM, World Bank, ADB, UNDP, and DFID/UK 2004). 0 On the demand side, tight household bud- Timor-Leste, Philippines, Cambodia, Indonesia, Vietnam, gets can constrain the use of health care ser- 2007 2003 2008 2009 2002 vices. Women from poor families may not be able to afford health costs, which are the Source: World Bank estimates using household income and expenditure surveys of various countries and years, and the HNPStats database (see figure 2.1 country sources). major barrier to seeking health care in many developing countries. As shown earlier in fig- ure 2.12, in every country examined, women lack the basic sanitary conditions needed for a living in poor households are less likely safe delivery. In Lao PDR, almost 90 percent to have birth deliveries assisted by trained of rural women deliver at home, compared to health professionals. In Indonesia, the com- approximately a quarter of urban women. As munity health insurance scheme, Jamkesmas, a result, a large disparity in maternal mor- has had little effect on facility-based deliver- tality rates exists between urban and rural ies because some delivery costs such as trans- areas in Lao PDR: 170 versus 580 mater- port and costs for family members were not nal deaths per 100,000 births, respectively covered (World Bank 2010). Even in a coun- (GRID 2005). In Timor-Leste, 59 percent of try with health insurance subsidies for the urban births are assisted by skilled providers, poor, only 60 percent of Vietnamese women compared with 21 percent of births in rural in the poorest quintile had births attended by areas. This rate is 69 percent in the capital trained medical staff in 2002 (figure 2.11). city, Dili, but less than 10 percent in the Women’s access to reproductive health Oecussi region (NSD, Ministry of Finance, care could be constrained by norms. Culture and ICF Macro 2010). Moreover, the qual- and tradition play an important role in the ity of prenatal care in Timor-Leste, is limited: choice of health practices, such as the location in 2001–02, only 41 percent of those giving of childbirth, the use of birth attendants, and birth were protected against neonatal tetanus, sterilization practices. For instance, follow- a major cause of neonatal death (ADB 2005). ing a traditional practice, a number of Mon- Substantial disparities also exist across prov- Khmer women in Lao PDR deliver neither in inces in Indonesia: Jakarta has 97 percent of the home nor in a medical center, but rather births attended by a skilled provider, whereas in the forest (GRID 2005). In Cambodia, cul- Maluku has only 33 percent (World Bank tural beliefs that pregnancy and childbirth 2010). are part of the natural process lead families Long distance to the nearest health cen- to perceive that women do not need prenatal ter and the poor infrastructure available can care or delivery supported by skilled atten- both impose high costs of access. Although dants. Thus, many women continue heavy high in all rural areas, the rate of deliveries physical labor and long work hours during at home is highest among highland women pregnancy and immediately after childbirth G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    79 (UNIFEM, World Bank, ADB, UNDP, and 106.4 in 2008, now close to the biological DFID/UK 2004). ratio (figure 2.15).9 The evidence suggests that improving Sex ratios at higher order births (that is, service delivery is key to reducing gender second children or above) are usually worse disparities and improving health outcomes. than the average ratios. In China, although Given the central influence of social norms in the sex ratio at birth in the 1980s was within birthing practice, service delivery could and the normal range for the first birth, it became should be strengthened by providing services unbalanced at higher orders—1.3 for the in a culturally acceptable way. Policy implica- fourth or later child in 1989. The sex ratios tions and recommendations are discussed at for higher order births, conditional on earlier the end of this chapter and in chapter 6. female births, were even more starkly skewed toward males (Zeng et al. 1993). Chung and Das Gupta (2007) used data from Korea’s Missing girls at birth 2003 fertility survey to show that the sex One concerning issue that persists in the East ratio at birth after the first birth was 129 if all Asia and Pacific region despite tremendous the previous births were girls, and it is 112 if growth and development is the phenomenon at least one previous birth was a boy. This dif- of missing girls, particularly at birth. The ference was even starker among those women term “missing women� was first coined by who stated that having a son was imperative. Sen (1992) to refer to the phenomenon that More recently in Korea, even though the aver- many low-income countries have far fewer age sex ratio at birth is close to the normal women than men, relative to what is observed range, the ratios for the third birth and for in developed countries. At birth, the biologi- the fourth or higher births were still 116 and cal norm is approximately 105 boys born for 124, respectively, in 2008 (figure 2.15). In every 100 girls. Yet, the male-female ratio at Vietnam, the pattern is unusual in that the birth in East Asian and Pacific countries far sex ratio for the first birth is already higher exceeds that of other regions, mainly driven than that for the second birth and similar to by China’s ratio. that for the third or later births. However, The United Nations Department of according to Vietnam’s 2006 population ­ E conomic and Social Affairs, Population survey, the sex ratio at birth for third-order Division, database provides estimates of cross-country sex ratios at birth over time. FIGURE 2.15  Sex ratios at higher order births are still of concern, These estimates are based on projections from even though the overall sex ratio at birth has approached the national census data and a fertility modeling normal range in the Republic of Korea exercise. Estimates from national statistical offices can sometimes stem from more recent Korea: sex ratio at birth, by birth order data and, as a result, differ from the United 170 number of male live births per 100 female live births Nations (UN) projections. According to the 160 UN projections, over the 2005–10 period, 150 120 boys in China were born for every 100 140 girls. Outside of China, new concerns are 130 emerging regarding Vietnam’s rising sex ratio 120 at birth. According to the Vietnam General 110 Statistical Office’s Annual Population Change 100 Surveys, the sex ratio at birth increased regu- 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 larly from 2004 and crossed the 110 thresh- sex ratio the rst child old in 2005 (UNFPA 2009). Yet, trends in the second child the third child sex ratios in the East Asia and Pacific region the fourth child and higher are not all bad news. Korea has seen declin- ing sex ratios at birth, from 110.2 in 1998 to Source: Korea National Statistical Office. http://kostat.go.kr. 8 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C births decreases with the previous number of female-to-male child mortality ratio. How- sons born between 2000 and 2006: 110.3 for ever, the most worrisome period of missing no sons, 103.5 for one son, and 102.2 for two girls in China is at birth. The number of sons (UNFPA 2009). missing girls at birth increased from 890,000 As a consequence, in comparison to other in 1990 to 1,092,000 in 2008. Missing girls developing regions, the number of missing as a fraction of the total number of female girls at birth in the East Asia and Pacific births increased from 8.6 percent in 1990 to region, particularly in China, dominates the 13.3 percent in 2008. excess mortality risks for females after birth. The reason for the missing girls phenom- The World Development Report 2012 uses enon has been attributed to son preference the following methodology to calculate the (Das Gupta 2005). Parents’ preferential number of missing girls at birth and excess choices to keep and care for boys over girls female deaths in other parts of the life cycle. can depend on social norms and values, dif- The number of missing girls at birth is cal- ferent economic opportunities by gender, and culated by comparing the sex ratio at birth what benefits parents expect from a son or a in a particular country to the ratio in high- daughter. As an example of how economic income countries (105.9 boys for 100 girls). opportunities influence parental choice over Throughout the age distribution, excess the gender of their child, Qian (2008) showed female mortality is calculated by compar- that the sex ratio at birth is responsive to ing the mortality risks of females relative to returns in the labor markets for women in males in a particular age group in a coun- rural China. An increase in women’s income try with the mortality risks in a reference relative to men’s led to higher survival rates for group of high-income countries.10 Table 2.3 girls. Another example of how parental choice shows the number of missing girls at birth responds to changing economic conditions is and excess female deaths per year, calculated the rise of marriage migration—cross-border using this methodology. Excess female mor- marriages between women from Southeast tality in infancy and during the reproductive Asia and men from East Asia. Through a years have substantially decreased in China. 2007 survey of three migrant-sending com- An estimated 71,000 girls under age five munities in southern Vietnam, Bélanger and were missing in China in 2008, consistent Tran (2011) documented an enhanced status with figure 2.10, which shows China’s high of emigrating daughters sending remittances TABLE 2.3  The East Asia and Pacific region, mainly driven by China, is characterized by its large number of missing girls at birth Missing girls at birth and excess female deaths throughout the age distribution (1,000s per year) At birth Under 5 5–14 15–49 50–59 Total (under 60) 1990 2008 1990 2008 1990 2008 1990 2008 1990 2008 1990 2008 China 890 1,092 259 71 21 5 208 56 92 30 1,470 1,254 India 265 257 428 251 94 45 388 228 81 75 1,255 856 Sub-Saharan Africa 42 53 183 203 61 77 302 751 50 99 639 1,182 South Asia (excluding India) 0 1 99 72 32 20 176 161 37 51 346 305 East Asia and Pacific (excluding China) 3 4 14 7 14 9 137 113 48 46 216 179 Middle East and North Africa 5 6 13 7 4 1 43 24 15 15 80 52 East and Central Asia 7 14 3 1 0 0 12 4 4 3 27 23 Latin America and the Caribbean 0 0 11 5 3 1 20 10 17 17 51 33 Total 1,212 1,427 1,010 617 230 158 1,286 1,347 343 334 4,082 3,882 Source: World Bank 2011c. Note: Estimates are based on data from World Health Organization (WHO) 2010 and United Nations Department of Economics and Social Affairs, Population Division (UN DESA 2009). G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    81 back home, and, consequently, a change in their fetus rose from 60 percent in 2003 to families’ preference for having girls. 73 percent in 2007 (UNFPA 2009). Most societies have some mild degree of With prior knowledge of the sex of the preference for sons (Williamson 1976), but fetus, families can discriminate through less the manifestation of extreme sex ratios comes prenatal investment or even through abor- from rather extreme son preferences. The tion. In China, as well as other countries with interplay of culture, the state, and political prevalent son preference, mothers are 5 per- processes appears to generate extreme patri- cent more likely to acquire prenatal care and lineality and highly skewed child sex ratios visit an antenatal clinic 10 percent more fre- such as in the case of China, northwest India, quently when pregnant with a boy (Bharad- and Korea (Das Gupta 2009). Chung and Das waj and Nelson 2010). Bélanger and Khuat Gupta (2007) argued that son preference in (2009) examined the timing of abortion Korea is correlated with factors such as lower among 885 married women in an obstetric socioeconomic status, rural area residence, hospital in Hanoi, Vietnam, in 2003 to study higher parental control in terms of arranged sex-selective abortions, which generally hap- marriage and co-residence with the parents, pen during the second trimester of pregnancy. and lower education of the woman. They found that women with more daughters In addition, the manifestation of son and without a son were more likely to have preference is also influenced by public a second-trimester than a first-trimester abor- policies and the availability of technology. tion. Their estimates suggest that 2 percent of China’s one-child policy and Vietnam’s all abortions by women with at least one prior two-child policy, though intended to reduce child were intended to avoid a female birth. fertility, may have put additional pressure Given the factors discussed earlier, on the incentives to have a son and inten- the literature shows mixed evidence on sify the skewed sex ratios. In fact, Eben- whether development mitigates or wors- stein (2010) showed evidence of a positive ens son preference and sex ratios at birth correlation between the fines imposed by in Asia (Chung and Das Gupta 2007). China’s one-child policy and the sex ratio. Development can bring about substantial With development and the introduction normative changes within the entire society of prenatal sex determination technology together with improvements in individu- (ultrasound) in the early 1980s, male-to- als’ socioeconomic situations, as argued in female sex ratios became unnaturally very the case of Korea by Chung and Das Gupta high in a few East Asian countries. Li and (2007). However, cross-country evidence Zheng (2009) found a strong impact of the shows that modernization does not appear B-ultrasound technology on the sex ratio to bring down son preference. In South of second-order births for rural mothers in Asia, son preference is greater for women Fujian province, China, but no effect among with more education and is increasing over first-born children. The recent increase in time (Filmer, Friedman, and Schady 2008). Vietnam’s sex ratio at birth may be related Unbalanced sex ratios at birth could be to supply-side factors, that is, access to worsened by economic development, as quality sex determination technology, sometimes argued in the literature, since rather than to an increasing preference for highly educated and wealthier women tend sons. Ultrasound technology first started to to have better access to technologies. Viet- appear in major hospitals in Vietnam dur- nam’s 2006 population survey shows that ing the mid-1990s and was subsequently the sex ratio at birth is high for women who offered through the private sector (Bélanger have a graduate education (113), have high- et al. 2003), but the quality and availability est grade of 10 and above (111), work in a of medical equipment have improved during foreign organization (117), and have previ- the past 10 years. Thus, the proportion of ous knowledge of the baby’s sex (111). Of mothers with prior knowledge of the sex of women with a graduate degree, 87 percent 8 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C knew the gender of their child, whereas no suggests that active measures to influence more than 28 percent of illiterate women social norms and facilitate the spread of new had prior knowledge of the sex of their values may be very important, in addition to child. The sex ratio at birth increases with relying on raising female education and labor the level of education, rising from 103 for force participation alone (box 2.2). illiterate women to 113 for women with a graduate education (UNFPA 2009). Risky behaviors in men The collection of evidence has several impli- cations for approaches to address the unbal- Men, as well as women, experience gender- anced sex ratios at birth, and China has taken specific health risks. Men tend to bear the active measures in this direction. General pol- burden of higher morbidity and premature icies to promote economic development might mortality related to substance abuse, war and play a role, but Korea’s recent experience conflict, and violence. The latter tends to be BOX 2.2  Recent improvement in the sex ratio at birth in the Republic of Korea Since the 1970s, Korea has experienced significant in larger part to changing social norms (changes in industrialization and urbanization, coupled with son preference within all education and urban/rural increases in women’s education and labor force par- population groups) and in smaller part to increased ticipation. It is also the first Asian country to regis- urbanization and education (changes due to move- ter a decline in the proportion of missing girls, from ments between education and urban/rural popula- the most male-skewed sex ratios at birth in the mid- tion groups). Another methodological approach 1990s to ratios within the normal range by 2008. using simulations of an economic model also implies As the sex ratios at birth are usually argued to be the impact of development: as the Korean society a manifestation of son preference, Chung and Das becomes richer, households that initially selected Gupta (2007) used data from fertility surveys to boys will select girls because of increasing bride measure trends in son preference directly. They doc- price and declining marginal benefits from unmar- umented a continuous decline from 1985 to 2003 ried sons (Edlund and Lee 2009). in the fraction of Korean women who reported that Second, though the role of Korean public poli- they must have a son, from almost 50 percent to less cies in this process is a mixed story, its experience than 20 percent. Women with similar characteristics suggests that interventions to influence social norms demonstrated lower son preference over time. and facilitate the spread of new values may be very Both the process of development and public important, as opposed to reliance on raising female policies since the 1950s have influenced the fac- education and labor force participation alone. Active tors underlying son preference in Korea. First, the policies to promote rapid economic development in impacts of development were expected to work in Korea played a role early on in breaking down previ- many ways, as argued by Chung and Das Gupta ous norms of son preference as well as raising female (2007): (a) higher earning prospects increased indi- education and labor force participation. And chang- viduals’ independence of family lineage; (b) retire- ing social norms contributed relatively more to the ment savings reduced financial dependence on chil- decrease in son preference. Reforms to policies that dren in old age; (c) urban life setting reduced the directly constrain women’s status, such as the Fam- focus on traditional filial duty and promoted female- ily Law established in 1958, which stipulated male inclusive social networks; (d) females’ greater eco- family headship and inheritance only through the nomic and physical mobility enhanced the value of male line, were slow to follow. With several women’s daughters; and (e) urban life, with assets associated movements demanding greater gender equity since with nonfarm activities and less pressure from cus- the establishment of democracy in 1987, this law tomary laws, facilitated gender equity in inheritance. went through major reforms in 1990, but the system Through a decomposition exercise, the authors of male household headship was not officially abol- attributed the observed reduction in son preference ished until 2005 (Chung and Das Gupta 2007). G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    83 context-specific rather than an issue that pre- FIGURE 2.16  Men are more likely to smoke than women vails in the region. However, two behavioral health issues—smoking and drinking—are prevalence of currently smoking any tobacco product more concerning among men than women in among adults (≥15 years) (%), male vs. female, 2006 all East Asian and Pacific countries, as well 70 as globally.11 Figures 2.16 and 2.17 show the IDN LAO prevalence of smoking and drinking among 60 PRKCHN TON WSM males compared with the prevalence among MYS KOR PHL TUV VUT females. All East Asian and Pacific countries 50 VNM KHM JPN MMR lie above the 45-degree line, implying a much 40 THA MNG PLW males, % higher rate among males than females. SGP MHL FSM The gender difference in the incidence 30 of tobacco use is higher in the East Asia FJI 20 and Pacific region than in other develop- ing regions, even though male dominance 10 in smoking and drinking is a global phe- nomenon. The data for China in 2006 show 0 that tobacco use is 60 percent for men and 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 4 percent for women. Similar gender gaps females, % exist throughout the region. Indonesia (62 Source: World Health Organization (WHO) Global InfoBase. percent versus 5 percent), Korea (53 percent versus 6 percent), Lao PDR (64 percent ver- sus 15 percent), and Tonga (62 percent ver- FIGURE 2.17  Men are more likely to drink than women sus 15 percent) lead the region in the largest gender differentials in tobacco prevalence prevalence of drinking among adults (≥15 years) (%), past (figure 2.16). 12 months, male vs. female, 2002–06 KOR JPN Alcohol consumption can vary from occa- 90 sional drinking to heavy episodic drink- 80 CHN MNG ing, and the gender differential in the latter 70 is particularly stark. Although women are 60 PHL less likely to report drinking at all in many KIR LAO SGP SLB countries in the East Asia and Pacific region, 50 VNM males, % THA FSM they do come close to men in places such as WSM 40 FJI Japan and Mongolia (figure 2.17). In terms VUT 30 of heavy episodic drinking (binge drinking) TON and chronic heavy drinking, data show a 20 MMR large gender gap: overall in the region, men 10 IDN MYS are more than twice as likely to be heavy 0 episodic drinkers. According to the World 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Health Organization 2011 Global InfoBase females, % database, the countries in the region with Source: WHO Global InfoBase. the largest gender gaps in heavy drinking are Kiribati (22 percent among males versus 1 percent among females), Samoa (22 percent in Tonga (38 liters per capita consumption), versus 1 percent), Lao PDR (22 percent ver- Malaysia (32 liters), Thailand (29 liters), and sus 5 percent), Japan (18 percent versus 3 per- Korea (29 liters). cent), Mongolia (14 percent versus 0 percent), These behaviors pose substantial risks to and Micronesia (13 percent versus 1 percent). men’s health and can translate into high costs The level of annual per capita consumption for productivity and economic growth. Glob- of pure alcohol is especially high for males ally, 6 percent of all male deaths are related 8 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C to alcohol, compared to 1 percent of female factors may also play a role, such as obesity deaths (WHO 2011a). Half of today’s smok- and heart conditions, which are particularly ers are likely to die from tobacco-related high in the Pacific countries). In China, the causes. A simple cross-country relationship rising risks of noncommunicable diseases, (shown in figures 2.18 and 2.19) between partly linked to men’s smoking and drinking these behaviors and morbidity and prema- behaviors, put greater pressure on the size of ture mortality related to smoking and alcohol the working-age population, already a con- use also indicates positive correlations (other cern because of its aging population (World Bank 2011a). These behaviors are influenced by norms FIGURE 2.18  Tobacco use is positively correlated with mortality about masculinity, cultural beliefs about due to lung cancer health, and the surrounding environment, and they can be slow to change. For men, percentage of current tobacco use among smoking and drinking alcohol are commonly 80 male adults (≥15 years), 2006 viewed as masculine behaviors, and studies 70 TON LAOIDN show that men and boys feel substantial pres- 60 WSM PRK CHN sure to accept gender stereotypes that they PHL KOR VUT MYS should be strong and tough, and the opposite 50 KHM MNG VNM for women. A recent national survey in Viet- percent 40 PLW THA JPN FSM nam found that the primary reason women 30 MHL SGP did not use tobacco was the belief that women 20 FJI should not smoke. In a country where 50 per- 10 cent of men but just over 3 percent of women 0 smoke, 76 percent of the 2,020 young urban 0 20 40 60 80 age-standardized deaths, trachea, bronchus, and lung Vietnamese women surveyed said that this cancers per 100,000 inhabitants, 2008 low female prevalence could be attributed to world East Asia and Paci c linear (world) gender norms (that is, social disapproval of women who smoke). Only 20 ­ percent said Source: WHO Global InfoBase. that the low prevalence was due to health concerns (WHO 2003). In addition, these patterns of smoking behaviors stayed very FIGURE 2.19  Alcohol consumption is positively correlated with stable in Vietnam over the period from 1993 mortality due to alcohol use disorders to 2006. The poor tend to be slightly more likely to drinking prevalence in the past 12 months among report “ever smoking,� but the relationship 120 male adults (≥15 years), 1997–2009 is not strong among those countries where 100 such data is available, except in Cambodia. JPN As shown in figure 2.20, individuals ages 15 80 MNG and above in the poorest quintile in Cam- CHN bodia were almost twice as likely to engage percent 60 SLB PHL FSM LAO in smoking cigarettes or chewing tobacco as WSM VNM 40 FJI those in the richest quintile. Among those TON who smoke, the intensity can vary because 20 VUT MMR of the affordability of cigarettes. In Cam- MYS IDN bodia, particularly in rural areas, the richer 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 smokers consume more cigarettes per day age standardized deaths, males, alcohol use than the poorer smokers. However, no clear disorders per 100,000 inhabitants, 2008 world East Asia and Paci c linear (world) pattern between income and the intensity of smoking is observed in Mongolia and Source: WHO Global InfoBase. Vietnam. G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    85 Gender equality in productive FIGURE 2.20  The poor are slightly more likely to engage in assets: An unfinished agenda smoking Promoting gender equality in the control percentage of adults (ages 15+) that ever smoked cigarettes or chewed of productive assets (such as land, financial tobacco, comparing the poorest and richest 20% of population 40 capital, social capital, and information and 35 technology) is likely to enhance development, 30 through both economic and empowerment 25 percent benefits. Asset ownership can influence men’s 20 and women’s income and their voice and 15 influence within the household and within 10 5 society. This effect can happen through 0 strengthening their ability to take advantage 1993 1998 2006 2004 2002 of economic opportunities; for example, Vietnam Cambodia Mongolia evidence shows that clear land-ownership poorest 20% richest 20% rights have positive effects on agricultural productivity and access to credit (Deininger Source: World Bank estimates using household income and expenditure surveys of various countries and years. 2003). In the agricultural sector, evidence from Africa and Latin America suggests that ensuring equal access to productive assets and technologies raises agricultural produc- still persist around the world and in some tion (Goldstein and Udry 2008; Quisumbing parts of the East Asia and Pacific region. 1995; Udry 1996). As discussed throughout For example, household surveys in Bangla- this report, income in the hands of women desh, Ethiopia, Indonesia, and South Africa has been shown to positively affect chil- indicate that women bring fewer assets dren’s education and health outcomes (Duflo into marriage (Quisumbing and Maluccio 2003; Lundberg, Pollak, and Wales 1997). 2003). Evidence from the Philippines and Women’s assets prior to marriage have been other developing countries shows that the shown to have positive effects on education husband-wife asset difference at the time expenditures on children in Indonesia and of marriage has not changed over time and other countries (Quisumbing and Maluc- favors the husband, even though gaps in age cio 2003). Beegle et al. (2001) showed that, and education have been closing (Quisumb- in Indonesia, women with a higher share of ing and Hallman 2005). household assets made more use of prenatal This section focuses mainly on land care. Asset ownership can lead to women’s and credit for the following two reasons. empowerment, such as reducing vulnerabil- First, they are the major types of assets ity to domestic violence in India (Panda and that strongly influence well-being. Land Agarwal 2005). and property are usually the most valu- Gender equality in assets has been less able assets for a poor person. Aside from responsive to growth and development than itself being a productive asset, land can be has equality in education and health. Over used as collateral to acquire credit. Access time, economic growth can promote access to financing is also very important because to financing that benefits women and men it usually presents a major barrier to real- as well as improves economic opportunities izing economic opportunities in developing and women’s income. However, development countries. Second, data and rigorous quan- impacts on gender equality in this domain titative evidence on gender and assets in the are constrained by the complex legal, social, East Asia and Pacific region are very lim- and economic factors that shape the control ited, particularly for assets other than land of productive assets. Gender disparities in and credit. Individual-level data of asset access to and control of productive assets ownership are sometimes available for land 8 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C holdings but rarely for household durables, even within the same region, and data are since many are considered jointly owned. In available for only a few countries in each the face of scarce individual-level data on region. asset ownership, this section often resorts Evidence on individual land ownership to comparing female-headed households suggests different ownership rates and dif- and male-headed ones.12 This section also ferent ownership composition by gender, draws on qualitative evidence and research depending on the context. In post-tsunami from outside the region to help complement Aceh, Indonesia, women have fewer land the limited quantitative evidence from East holdings than men (Bell 2010). Vietnamese Asian and Pacific countries. men owned more agricultural land plots than women in 2008. Figure 2.23 demon- strates the gender composition of ownership Persistent gender disparities in access among the agricultural land plots with iden- to productive assets tified owners on long-term user right certifi- Analysis of the East Asian and Pacific coun- cates. Overall, and among those plots owned tries shows persistent gender disparities in by rural households, less than 17 percent of productive assets that result in women hav- the plots are owned by a woman, but more ing lower rates of ownership of and access to than 65 percent are owned by a man. Plots land, fewer agricultural inputs such as live- jointly owned by a male and a female repre- stock and less access to extension services, sent a nonnegligible share, in part because of and limited access to credit in some countries Vietnam’s recent land reform (discussed later and subregions. in the chapter). However, women are still clearly at a disadvantage in terms of having Gender-differentiated ownership of land their name on the land title. The same 2008 Female-headed households tend to own less household survey data suggest that the gen- land than male-headed households. Even der gap is even starker among ethnic minori- though the probability of owning land ties. In some contexts, the allocation of land is not substantially lower among female- assets between men and women can depend headed households (figure 2.21), figure 2.22 on the type of land. For example, in matri- indicates that male-headed households own lineal parts of West Sumatra, Indonesia, much more land in terms of land size. This wives own more paddy land, and husbands gap exists even among richer households. own more forest land (Quisumbing and Over time, there have been small improve- Maluccio 2003). ments in women’s land ownership as well as men’s, although the gender gap has not Gender disparities in agricultural inputs necessarily narrowed or disappeared except Female-headed households tend to own for the case of Vietnam in 2006. Similarly less livestock, and female-run farms tend in China, most male-headed and female- to have less access to extension services. In headed households had access to rural land many countries, at least among rural house- in 2008, but the amount of land per capita holds, livestock is one of the most valuable in female-headed households was roughly agricultural assets. It represents a source of 70 percent of that in male-headed house- income, wealth accumulation, and buffer holds (de Brauw et al. 2011). The pattern against shocks. Yet, female-headed house- that female-headed households tend to holds tend to own less livestock across own less land is similar to other developing developing regions (FAO 2011). Figure countries (Agarwal 1994; Deere and Leon 2.24 shows livestock ownership of female- 2003; FAO 2011). Exact comparisons of headed and male-headed households in five the gender gaps across regions are difficult, countries in the region, for households of however, since the incidence of land own- different wealth quintiles. The gender gap ership varies drastically across countries, in Lao PDR appears irrespective of income, G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    87 but this observation does not apply in other FIGURE 2.21  The probability of owning land is not substantially contexts. In places such as Vietnam or lower for female-headed households than for male-headed Timor-Leste, gender gaps are more visible households among poorer households. In many coun- percentage of households that own land, tries, this same pattern is observed in urban 100 by gender of the household head areas as well as rural areas. The data show 90 that gaps also persist over time. 80 70 Extension service provision remains low 60 percent in developing countries, and women tend to 50 have less access to extension services than 40 men (FAO 2011). In Cambodia, few women 30 benefit from agricultural extension services or 20 10 credit made available to rural people, despite 0 the fact that they make up the majority of 8 8 07 6 8 00 00 00 00 farmers and informal sector workers. Agricul- 20 ,2 2 ,2 ,2 a, , lia te m DR di tural research and extension efforts usually do es na go oP bo -L et on m La or Vi not consider women’s activities—seed prepa- M Ca Tim ration and planting—or take into account the female-headed households male-female gap fact that men and women tend to specialize in Source: World Bank estimates using household income and expenditure surveys of various countries different rural tasks. Distance to the point of and years. service provision, lack of female agents, and insensitivity to illiterate customers (the major- FIGURE 2.22  Female-headed households own less land in terms of ity of whom are often women) are other rea- land size sons for this lower access of female farmers to extension services (UNIFEM, World Bank, average size of land among households that own land, ADB, UNDP, and DFID/UK 2004). comparing the poorest and richest 20% 3.2 Gender gaps in access to credit 2.7 Evidence on gender differentials in access to 2.2 credit is mixed. Female-headed households 1.7 hectares are slightly less likely to borrow from finan- 1.2 cial institutions, as illustrated by figure 2.25. 0.7 In most of the East Asian and Pacific coun- 0.2 tries for which data are available, the gap –0.3 between households headed by females and males varies widely both across and within –0.8 poorest 20% richest 20% poorest 20% richest 20% poorest 20% richest 20% poorest 20% richest 20% poorest 20% richest 20% countries. The most recent data available indicate that gaps have been small except for Timor-Leste, rural Lao PDR, rural Cambo- Cambodia, Lao PDR, Mongolia, Timor- Vietnam, dia, and urban Mongolia. Using survey data 2008 2008 2008 Leste, 2007 2006 from 2000, de Brauw et al. (2011) found no female-headed households male-female gap difference between female-managed farms and male-managed farms in China in terms Source: World Bank estimates using household income and expenditure surveys of various countries and years. of access to credit. As discussed in chapter 3, female-run and female-owned firms in East Asia, at least those in the formal sector, do headed households borrowed less, had less not appear to be systematically more con- access to formal credit, and paid higher inter- strained in accessing finance than male-run est on loans than male-headed households. firms. However, a joint study by FAO/UNDP Individual-level data on access to financ- (2002) in Vietnam revealed that female- ing, by gender, suggest that the gender gap 8 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 2.23  Vietnamese men owned more agricultural land plots countries surveyed, women were as likely than did women in 2008 as men to report having an account in a formal financial institution in Cambodia percentage of land plots with identi ed owners on and Thailand; less likely to have an account the certi cates, Vietnam, 2008 in China, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, total 16.9 65.1 18.0 and Vietnam (although the difference is statistically significant only in Malaysia and Vietnam); and more likely to have an urban 19.7 61.2 19.1 account in Mongolia and the Philippines. A small-scale study of Vietnam’s rural credit market in 2002 indicated that credit ration- rural 16.8 65.3 18.0 ing depended on education and credit his- tory, but found no evidence of bias against women (Barslund and Tarp 2003). The 0 20 40 60 80 100 percent Thailand 2005 Household Socio-Economic only a female owner only a male owner joint owners Panel data show a similar rate between men and women holding a savings account in a Source: World Bank estimates using VHLSS (GSO Vietnam), 2008 data. financial institution (46 percent and 49 per- cent, respectively). Although this similarity is observed in Thailand’s urban as well as FIGURE 2.24  Female-headed households are less likely to own rural areas, the situation may vary between livestock rural and urban areas of other countries and might be very different in the Pacific, ownership of livestock by poorest and richest 20% of for which individual data are lacking. 100 population, by gender of household head share of households that own 90 80 70 Limited effects of economic growth on gender gaps in assets livestock, % 60 50 40 E conomic grow th could, in principle, 30 20 increase women’s asset holdings by increas- 10 ing income, but this factor alone is insuf- 0 –10 ficient to close the gender gap in asset hold- ings. Market transactions are an important poorest, 20% richest, 20% poorest, 20% richest, 20% poorest, 20% richest, 20% poorest, 20% richest, 20% poorest, 20% richest, 20% way to accumulate assets, and evidence from Latin America and the Caribbean sug- gests that, after inheritance, markets are the Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Timor-Leste, Vietnam, 2008 1999 2008 2007 1998 second most important channel for women female-headed households male-female gap in that region to acquire land. In that sense, income plays an important role. However, Source: World Bank estimates using household income and expenditure surveys of various countries as shown in chapter 3, substantial gender and years. gaps in income still persist in the East Asia and Pacific region, despite economic growth. Other complex legal and social factors also in access to formal finance is likely to be make it very challenging to close the gender small in East Asia. Evidence from G ­ allup gap in asset holdings with economic growth surveys conducted since 2011 suggests alone. Evidence from South Asia indicates that men and women have similar access that better employment opportunities and to formal finance in East Asian countries progressive legislation do not necessar- (Demirgüç-Kunt and Klapper 2012). As ily lead to gender equality in access to and figure 2.26 shows, of the nine East Asian control of land, because of social factors G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    89 (Agarwal 1994). Actually, wealthier house- FIGURE 2.25  Female-headed households are slightly less likely to holds with more valuable assets are not nec- borrow from a financial institution essarily willing to give women more owner- ship rights. Analysis of the Vietnam 2008 percentage of households that borrowed from a nancial institution household survey data by World Bank staff (among those that borrowed money) by gender of the household head shows that richer households are less likely 100 to have a female name in the title of their 90 agricultural land plots, accounting for fac- 80 70 tors such as land size and basic household 60 percent characteristics. 50 40 As part of the development process, the 30 expansion of microfinance coverage has 20 been argued to improve women’s access to 10 0 credit. In terms of coverage, microfinance has 8 7 09 8 8 6 greatly expanded all over the world, reach- 00 00 00 00 00 20 2 ,2 ,2 ,2 ,2 a, d, te lia ing many poor clients (Daley-Harris 2009). DR m di an es na go bo oP ail -L et on m In China, microcredit has been used in vari- or La Th Vi Ca M Tim ous instances to support women. The Tianjin female-headed households male-female gap Women’s Association for Business Develop- ment and Promotion, the Guangxi Provincial Source: World Bank estimates using household income and expenditure surveys of various countries and years. Women’s Federation, and Liuzhou Municipal Women’s Federation are examples of micro- credit schemes that target poor, laid-off, and FIGURE 2.26  Women are slightly less likely than men to report unemployed women (ADB 2006a). Not all having an account at a formal financial institution countries provide such targeted support. In Indonesia, although women are considered percentage of men and women reporting having an account, by to be an important market for microfinance, themselves or with someone else, at a nancial institution or post o ce 90 the Indonesian microfinance industry has 80 never made targeting of women a hallmark 70 of their business. The average proportion of 60 percent female clients in Indonesia served by major 50 40 microfinance institutions has remained fairly 30 constant over the past 20 years (Asia Foun- 20 dation, ADB, CIDA, NDI, and World Bank 10 0 2006). However, rapid expansion of microfinance * In dia nd es * R a lia sia ci d sia m in PD Pa an in go la ne Ca c na Ch bo ay ilip ai o ia on does not necessarily imply a de facto control do et m al La Th As Ph Vi M M st of resources. Goetz and Gupta (1996) show Ea that women’s access to microcredit has not all men women been matched by an increase in their control Sources: World Bank Global Financial Inclusion (Global Findex) database; Demirgüç-Kunt and of these funds. Microcredit facilities have Klapper 2012. been established for women in Lao PDR, * Denotes a statistically significant difference between men and women at the 1 percent level. but women’s role in decision making has not improved (GRID 2005). Although women Legal and social constraints to make up a high proportion of membership in equalizing access to assets credit schemes in Cambodia, they tend to be excluded from the decision-making processes To understand the observed gender dispari- and receive smaller amounts of credit than ties in asset holdings, one must understand men (UNIFEM, World Bank, ADB, UNDP, how assets are accumulated and the factors and DFID/UK 2004). determining asset accumulation. Individuals 9 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C can accumulate, or lose, assets in several These countries—Cambodia, China, Lao ways. First, individuals can make market PDR, Mongolia, Thailand, and Vietnam— transactions—such as buying land or live- do not have plural legal systems (for example, stock, or acquiring a bank loan. Second, customary or religious laws), which means assets are acquired through inheritance or that all citizens adhere to civil law. For exam- through allocation or acquisition by the state, ple, in China, many advances toward ensur- for example, through land redistribution. ing equal treatment and the protection of the Inheritance is one of the main mechanisms rights of women under the law occurred as for asset accumulation (Deere and Doss early as the 1950s. Women’s property and 2006), and equality in asset endowments inheritance rights were protected through the can be limited by differences in the right to enactment of the 1982 constitution, which inherit property. Third, life-cycle events such protects the right of citizens to inherit private as marriage, including marriage payments, property (Article 13),14 and the 1985 Law of or separation also alter asset holdings. Succession of the People’s Republic of China, Complex legal, social, and economic fac- which states that males and females are equal tors determine or constrain asset accumula- in their right to inheritance (Article 9).15 The tion: (a) formal institutions—particularly the 1992 Law of the People’s Republic of China legal framework for property and inheritance on the Protection of Rights and Interests of rights, family laws, and law enforcement; Women further promotes gender equality; (b) informal institutions—social norms and Article 28 declares that the state shall guar- customary laws affecting women’s prefer- antee that women enjoy the equal right, with ences and ability to acquire and accumulate men, to property.16 assets; and (c) human capital and other eco- In several of the countries examined, nomic factors, such as income and the rate of males and females are not treated equally, returns on productive assets. The impact of mostly under inheritance laws. Plural legal economic growth on promoting more equal systems exist in Indonesia, Malaysia, the asset holdings is limited, as discussed earlier, Philippines, and Singapore. Muslim laws because legal and social barriers often act as govern the majority of the populations in binding constraints. Despite positive changes Indonesia and Malaysia and a small minor- in the legal framework in the East Asia and ity of the population in the Philippines and Pacific region, the interactions between for- Singapore. For example, according to the mal and informal institutions still leave Islamic Law Compilation in Indonesia, when women at a disadvantage with respect to the a married person dies, each son is entitled to control of assets.13 The discussion below first receive a share twice as large as each daugh- describes the legal framework and then high- ter (Asia Foundation, ADB, CIDA, NDI, and lights the challenges in practice due to weak World Bank 2006). The autonomous Muslim implementation and the influence of norms region of Mindanao in the Philippines can and customary laws. independently promulgate its own legisla- tion following Islamic law (as allowed in the The legal framework constitution). Although the Philippines is a The majority of countries in East Asia no lon- community property regime,17 the Muslim ger differentiate by gender in statutory law. In family code reflects the husband having the that respect, the East Asia and Pacific region final say concerning the handling of joint differs from some other regions: inheritance property.18 Among Pacific Island countries, rights are still unequal in the Middle East and Kiribati and Tuvalu have unequal statutory North African countries and half of the coun- legislation. Equal inheritance laws exist in tries in South Asia (World Bank 2011c). As Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, the Solomon shown in table 2.4, most East Asian countries Islands, and Vanuatu; however, customary have legislation for property and inheritance law in relation to land has constitutional rights with no discrimination against women. status in these countries and may ­ lawfully G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    91 TABLE 2.4  Most East Asian and Pacific countries do not differentiate by gender in inheritance and property laws Question Country Answer Law Do sons and daughters have Cambodia Yes The Inheritance Law equal inheritance rights? China Yes Law of Succession (Article 9) Indonesia No Islamic Law Compilation, Book II Lao PDR Yes The Inheritance Law Malaysia No Constitution Mongolia Yes Civil Code (Part V) Philippines Noa Presidential Decree No. 1083 Singapore Noa Intestate Succession Act; Administration of Muslim Law Act Thailand Yes Civil and Commercial Code (Sections 1599–1710) Vietnam Yes Civil Code (Art. 635) Fiji Yesb Succession, Probate and Administration Act [Cap 60] 1970 Kiribati No Laws of Kiribati Act 1989, Schedule 4 Do men and women have equal Cambodia Yes Constitution (Arts. 31 and 45); Law on Marriage and Family (Arts. 29, 32–37) rights over property? China Yes Law on Protection of Women’s Rights (Arts. 30 and 47) Indonesia Yes Marriage Law No. 1 of 1974 Lao PDR Yes Law of Property (Arts. 20, 26) Malaysia Yes Constitution Mongolia Yes Civil Code (Ch. 12) Philippines Noa Presidential Decree No. 1083 Singapore Yes Women’s Charter (Arts. 51, 52, 56) Thailand Yes Constitution (Section 30); Civil and Commercial Code (Book IV) Vietnam Yes Land Law; Civil Code (Sec. 8) Fiji No Constitution (Amendment) Act 1997 Laws of Kiribati Act 1989, Schedule 4; Magistrates Court Act; Gilbert and Kiribati No Phoenix Islands Land Code Sources: Women, Business and the Law database; Jivan and Forster 2007. a. Implies that unequal legal systems apply only to a minority population. b. Denotes that despite equal inheritance in legislation, Fijian custom in relation to land has constitutional status and may lawfully discriminate against women. discriminate against women (Jivan and women to access loans, empowers women in Forster 2007). case of disputes, and leads to higher mutual Beyond the protection of equal inheritance decision making (World Bank 2008). rights, several countries in the region have recently adopted legal changes that actively Weak implementation and enforcement promote better gender equality in access to of the law land. Since concerns have been raised about Although women and men may be equal promoting gender equity in land titling pro- under the law, these legal rights do not always grams, places such as Indonesia, Lao PDR, translate into equal access to land in practice. and Vietnam have recently adopted gender- Progress toward gender equality in assets is sensitive reforms in land titling. Since the still limited because of weak implementation 2004 Land Law in Vietnam, all new land and enforcement of the law. tenure certificates must include the names of Implementation of the laws may be imper- both spouses, a provision intended to reduce fect and ineffective as a result of challenges gender inequality in access to land, protect in incorporating existing cultural norms and families against unilateral decisions by one practices. Even where the legal system sup- spouse, and protect women in case of divorce ports equal access to land, traditional values or disputes. Qualitative analysis of impacts and norms create difficulty with respect to in three provinces suggests that joint titling enforcing the legislation. After the 2004 Land improves procedures and opportunities for Law requiring joint titling was introduced in 9 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C Vietnam, the results have been varied across governing land ownership. They are also ethnic majority and minority groups. Analy- less likely to know about land registration sis of the Vietnam Household Living Stan- requirements (including whether the land dards Survey 2008 shows that ethnic minor- owned by their households is registered and ity households are much less likely to have a whether their names are included in land female name in the title of their agricultural ­ ocuments). Dissemination activi- titling d land plots, even when accounting for factors ties on rights and entitlements can exclude such as land size and basic household char- women, especially in rural areas.19 Even acteristics. Studies of existing kinship sys- if they have information about their legal tems in China and Vietnam show resistance land rights, women tend not to pursue for- to endowing daughters with land, as land is mal complaints in cases of land grabbing or considered lost when daughters get married disputes regarding inheritance or division of (Bélanger and Li 2009). In Northern Liaon- property. A 2008 AusAID report on land ing, China, women are more likely to become tenure in the Pacific region stresses the fol- landless at marriage because the population lowing factors constraining women’s access control and land tenure policies reinforce to the formal legal system to resolve disputes traditional forms of gender bias: a daughter regarding land ownership and use: (a) the is expected to marry out, whereas a son is system was culturally unfamiliar and based expected to reside with or near his parents on “adversarial� methods rather than on the (Chen and Summerfield 2007). Therefore, consensus building usually preferred by com- during the redistribution of farmland to munities; (b) women also faced more “prac- households based on household size, town- tical� obstacles to accessing courts (limited ship and village officials allocated a larger access to transport, lack of time, income); (c) share of land for each son in the household the “technical nature� of the procedures and than for each daughter. inadequate support from court staff were also The Lao PDR land titling program noted as important barriers (AusAID 2008). 1997–2010 offered useful implementation lessons to account for context-specific social Social norms and practices norms. An early assessment during the first In some contexts, customary practices, rather phase of the program noted that traditional than statutory laws, directly govern land own- family roles dedicated the man to handling ership and land use. Most land in the Pacific taxes and, thus, to having only his name on region is under customary authority (approxi- land-related tax documents. Mostly men mately 80 percent of total land area) (AusAID interacted with government officials and par- 2008). Although the rules vary widely within ticipated in information meetings and titling the Pacific region, usually in customary sys- activities. As a response to this assessment, tems, (a) land can only be transferred within Lao PDR introduced a stronger gender inclu- networks of social/political relationships, sion program, engaging the Lao Women’s (b) land use is governed by reciprocal rela- Union, to raise community awareness of land tions within the kinship or customary land titling, to include special training for women groups, and (c) social hierarchies and status on their rights, and to ensure their partici- are important factors determining one’s rights pation during titling. Following this active to land. In these customary systems, women engagement, a higher number of titles went have access to land primarily through their to women than to men (Lao Land Titling kinship relations with men. Women also have Project II ICR 2010). less voice in public decisions about the use Qualitative research, more broadly, has of land (AusAID 2008). For example, Fijian stressed that a lack of information about women in most parts of the Fiji Islands are legal entitlement is a key barrier to enforcing excluded from inheritance rights in custom- women’s land rights throughout the region. ary land and have no rights to land other than Women are generally less aware of the laws those permitted by their fathers or husbands. G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    93 Nor do they normally receive land rents. Most have an impact. What follows is an initial dis- Indo-Fijians with land also practice father- cussion about policy priorities for promoting to-son inheritance (ADB 2006b). gender equality in human capital: (a) closing Practices within the region and within persistent gender gaps in human develop- countries vary considerably. Inheritance ment, (b) reducing gender streaming in edu- practices based on norms can be patrilineal, cation, (c) promoting balanced sex ratios at matrilineal, or bilateral and, as such, are not birth, and (d) addressing male-specific gender always tilted against women. In the matrilin- issues. Policy approaches to close gender gaps eal society of Sumatra, Indonesia, together in assets are important for gender equality in with the shift from communal to individ- endowments, and they also enable more equal ual tenure, the inheritance system became economic opportunity and agency. These pol- more egalitarian in that sons and daughters icies are discussed within the general frame- inherit the type of land that is most inten- work of policies to promote gender equality sive in their own work effort, and gender in economic opportunity, which is discussed bias in land inheritance is either nonexistent in chapter 3 and chapter 6. A more detailed or small (Quisumbing and Otsuka 2001). In discussion will follow in chapter 6 on policies the Philippines, sons are preferred in land to promote overall gender equality and more inheritance but daughters are favored in edu- effective development. cation investments (Estudillo, Quisumbing and Otsuka 2001). In Lao PDR, land inheri- Closing persistent gender gaps in tance and ownership are important elements human development of women’s autonomy in lowland areas, with daughters customarily inheriting land. How- For countries with overall low and unequal ever, women in the midlands and highlands, gender outcomes in education and health, such as those in the Khmu and Hmong ethnic the priority remains to improve these out- groups, face important barriers to controlling comes. Actions to strengthen the education land (Ireson-Doolittle 1999). Understanding and health systems are called for to improve the specifics of a particular context is thus overall outcomes, in addition to any focus on important for designing appropriate policies gender. Interventions may be needed at the and interventions. national level and may yield high economic In summary, given the limited evidence in and social returns. For countries with local- the East Asia and Pacific region, understand- ized gender disparities among certain ethnic ing gender inequality in assets is an important groups or low-income regions, interventions research agenda. Gender disparities in access may be targeted to these groups. Though the to productive assets can hinder women’s abil- exact constraints vary by country context, ity to participate and benefit from economic the analysis in this chapter has shown that opportunities as well as constrain women’s both demand-side and supply-side factors voice and representation in the society. Fur- are responsible for these poor human capi- ther research and better data are called for tal outcomes. Policies can have an impact to disentangle the complex mechanisms influ- through improving service delivery (infra- encing men’s and women’s control of assets structure, staffing, incentives, use of infor- and to shed light on policies. mation and communication technology) and demand-side interventions (conditional cash transfers, information campaigns, account- Policies to promote gender ability). For education, policies to improve equality in endowments education outcomes in general are expected The analysis thus far has identified the fac- to also improve gender equality. For health, tors influencing or constraining gender equal- the slow improvements in health outcomes ity in endowments. This analysis also sheds in several East Asian and Pacific countries light on where policies may be used and can underscore the importance of improving 9 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C service delivery in general, including efforts hamper growth and development. First, to account for gender norms that affect ser- the initial signs of the reversed gender gap vice utilization and effectiveness. in education need to be monitored closely where applicable. Second, the excessive Reducing gender streaming in tobacco and alcohol consumption among education males in many parts of the East Asia and Pacific region deserves policy attention For many countries in the East Asia because the social costs, passed on as exter- and Pacific region, addressing education nalities to other members of the society, are ­ quality—specifically, gender streaming in usually higher than private costs. Possible education—requires policy attention. Many measures to tackle this challenge include aspects of gender issues regarding basic access providing information about the health in education and health have abated with risks of excessive tobacco and alcohol con- growth and development. However, con- sumption, taxation, regulatory measures on certed efforts in education and labor market advertisement, and restrictions on smoking policies are needed to break the traditional in public sites. patterns of females going into certain fields of study and, consequently, jobs in lower- paying occupations and sectors. Within the Notes education system, possible approaches in this   1. See Malhotra, Pande, and Grown (2003) on agenda include both curriculum reforms to impacts of investments in female education reduce gender stereotyping and active inter- on gender equality. ventions—financial and nonfinancial incen-  2. See Engendering Development (World Bank tives as well as information campaigns—to 2001) and World Development Report 2012 promote entrance into nontraditional fields. (World Bank 2011c) for similar literature. However, few studies rigorously identify the causal effects as opposed to simple Promoting balanced sex ratios at birth correlation. And female education or income In the few countries with “missing girls� at might not always have dominant, widespread birth, rooted in the prevalence of son prefer- benefits over male education as commonly ence, continuing efforts are needed. A promis- perceived. For example, controlling for household average education, Breierova and ing strategy is to adopt policy approaches that Duflo (2004) found no impact of female aim to enhance the relative value of daugh- education on infant mortality in Indonesia. ters as perceived by families. General policies Edmonds (2006) found that in South Africa, to promote economic development may play pension money going to grandmothers a role, but Korea’s recent experience suggests improved children’s health while that going to that interventions to influence social norms grandfathers improved children’s schooling. and facilitate the spread of new values may be   3. Enrollment in different types of education very important, rather than simply relying on also shows gender differences that vary raising female education and labor force par- across countries in the region. Females’ ticipation. Information campaigns, financial completion rate in vocational training has incentives, and improved social security for been increasing in Thailand and Vietnam. In recent years, this rate among females is still the elderly are worthwhile efforts. China has lower than that among males in Indonesia, been adopting many of these programs, and Thailand, Vietnam, and Mongolia, even they can be expected to reduce the imbalance though the reverse tends to be true for in the sex ratio at birth. completion of general secondary education. Cambodia experiences the opposite patterns, Addressing male-specific gender issues that is, women have lower general secondary completion rates but higher vocational Attention to male gender issues is crucial in completion rates than men (Sakellariou many country contexts since they may also 2011). G E N D E R A N D E N D O W M E N T S : A C C E S S T O H U M A N C A P I T A L A N D P R O D U C T I V E A S S E T S    95   4.  Conflict and postconflict areas also suffer Looking at gender of the household head poor education outcomes for both boys and as an approximate measure presumes that girls, for different reasons, such as the risk females in female-headed households own for boys of being taken out of school to join and control most of the assets while females the military and the risk of safety for girls at in male-headed households control and own the school. relatively few assets. This measure could   5. Girls do not always lag boys in poor rural be misleading in cases where male heads of areas. Evidence from China’s Gansu province households are temporarily absent. shows no significant gender disadvantage 13. Recent analysis of women and land in (Hannum and Adams 2002). Association of Southeast Asian Nations   6. The returns to education for women have (ASEAN) countries identifies the following not increased uniformly: the returns for supply constraints to women’s equal access women increased relative to those of men to land in the region: unfavorable legal in Vietnam but decreased in Indonesia and framework, pro-male customs, limited Thailand since the late 1990s (Sakellariou opportunities, and lack of data (ASEAN 2011). 2008).   7. See Kobia (2009) and Lloyd, Mensch, and 14. http://english.people.com.cn/constitution/ Clark (1998), for example, for analysis of constitution.html. similar gender stereotyping in Kenya. 15. http://www.chinaembassycanada.org/eng/   8. Prior empirical evidence on the extent to lsfw/Relevant%20Chinese%20Laws%20 which income causally affects health status and%20Regulations/t37737.htm. has been controversial, partly owing to 16. h t t p : / / w w w.w o m e n o f c h i n a . c n / h t m l / methodological challenges such as possible report/515-1.htm. omitted variables and the reversed feedback 17. In a community property jurisdiction, most from health to income (Deaton 2006; Filmer property acquired during the marriage and Pritchett 1999; Pritchett and Summers (except for gifts or inheritances) is owned 1996). jointly by both spouses and is divided upon   9. Das Gupta, Chung, and Shuzhuo (2009) divorce, annulment, or death. argue that the recent provincial sex ratios 18. h t t p : // w w w. l aw. e m o r y. e du / i f l / l e g a l / in China suggest an incipient turnaround philippines.htm. of the “missing girls� phenomenon in East 19.  In China, for example, it is a common Asia. However, the concern is far from over practice for new policies, regulations, and because child sex ratios in China are still programs to be discussed in village meetings high. in which heads of households (primarily 10. See World Bank 2011c, World Development men) participate. Information on changes Report 2012, chapter 3 technical annex for to land laws, for example, might reach detailed methodology. women later (or partially, as they may rely 11. Prevalence estimates of current smoking of on other household members to convey the any tobacco product result from the latest information) (Liaw 2008). 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Population and Development Review 19 (2): Human Development, East Asia and the 283–302. Pacific.� World Bank, Washington, DC. Gender and Economic Opportunity 3 I n the dynamic East Asia and Pacific division of labor within the household imply region, many countries have undergone that women work longer hours than men, structural transformations that have although fewer of those hours are devoted shifted the balance of economic opportu- to remunerated activities. nities away from rural areas and toward Reducing gender inequalities in eco- urban areas. These growth processes have nomic opportunities can improve economic opened up nonfarm economic opportunities outcomes in multiple ways. First, reducing for men and women in the region, particu- employment segregation (the unequal dis- larly among younger cohorts. The educa- tribution of male and female workers across tional attainment and health outcomes of occupations and sectors) will reduce efficiency women, particularly younger women, have losses associated with the misallocation of been catching up to those of men during this talent (Anker 1998; M ­ orrison, Raju, and period of growth, as discussed in chapter 2. Sinha 2007). Men and women often choose Along some dimensions of gender equal- occupations on the basis of norms, gender ity in economic opportunities, there has stereotypes, and sometimes prejudice, rather been substantial progress over the last two than on the basis of earnings or job match decades. For example, the evidence suggests (Klasen and Lamanna 2009). Encouraging that the labor market participation deci- workers and employers to make labor choices sions of younger women resemble those of on the basis of their skills, competencies, and their male counterparts in the region. How- inherent ability is likely to raise productivity ever, many other indicators demonstrate the and may have a positive impact on economic substantial challenges to be overcome to growth by increasing the size of the labor close the gender gap in access to economic force as well as by expanding the pool of man- opportunities. The type of work women do agerial and innovative talent in the economy remains very different from that of men, and (Esteve-Volart 2004). As noted in chapter 1, their remuneration for these tasks is lower. estimates for East Asian and Pacific countries Women of all ages are more likely than men suggest that output per worker could be 7 to to be in poorly remunerated occupations 18 percent higher if female entrepreneurs and and sectors, women are paid less than men workers were to work in the same sectors, for similar work, and gender norms in the types of jobs, and activities as men (Cuberes 103 1 0 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C and Teignier-Baqué 2011). Second, empiri- Three main messages for the East Asia and cal evidence from other developing regions Pacific region emerge in this chapter: suggests that reducing gender inequalities in access to productive inputs can increase over- I n some dimensions, such as labor force •   all production by increasing the productivity participation, gender inequalities in of female-run farms and enterprises (Gold- the economic sphere in the region have stein and Udry 2008; Quisumbing 1995; improved in recent decades and are nar- Udry 1996). rower than those in other regions; how- This chapter examines differences in pro- ever, multiple dimensions of inequalities ductive opportunities for men and women remain that will require concerted effort within and across countries in the East Asia to change, such as persistent gender wage and Pacific region and explores the eco- and productivity gaps. In several areas, nomic and institutional factors that have policies and public investment can help determined how those opportunities have to ease the constraints on women and evolved over time. Because education enroll- support them in their multiple roles as ment and attainment are growing and labor entrepreneurs, farmers, wage and salaried markets are changing, this chapter differen- workers, mothers, and caregivers. tiates between the experiences of older and T he constraints faced by women vary •   younger generations. It also uses examples across sectors of the economy and also from both high-income and low-income by country according to the institutional countries across the globe to understand environment. Some common themes these trends. emerge, however. In the agricultural sec- Gender differences in the economic tor, female farmers’ access to productive sphere manifest themselves in several indi- capital, technologies, and governmental cators, including differences in labor force services is lower than that of male farm- participation, in the time spent on produc- ers; improving access to these inputs is tive and reproductive activities, in the sec- tantamount to increasing productivity. In tors in which men and women work, in the the nonfarm sector, female-run enterprises tasks and occupations that they do within are smaller and in different sectors than those sectors, and in the types of firms that male-run enterprises. The constraints and employ them. Differences in these indica- productivity differences of female enter- tors contribute to and are themselves deter- prises are predominantly attributable to mined by gaps in the earnings of men and their small size and to the sectors in which women. Women are often paid less than they are found. Constraints in all countries men for the same work, and female-run are likely to be greatest at start-up, when enterprises and farms typically produce less access to finance and entrepreneurial skills than those of men. are likely to be important ­ determinants of Gender inequalities in economic oppor- sector and initial scale of enterprise. In the tunities are driven by multiple interacting labor market, gender-based employment factors. In this chapter we examine how segmentation—or sorting across types of gender differences in access to human and firms, industries and sectors—affects both physical capital, technologies, and gov- the wages women earn as well as produc- ernment services; gender stereotypes; and tivity in the economy, particularly when ­ gender roles explain gender inequality in men and women sort into occupations on economic opportunities. These factors are, the basis of gender rather than skill. Poli- in themselves, determined by the house- cies that encourage both men and women hold, market, and institutional environment to think outside of gender-based occupa- in which preferences and gender roles are tional norms will be productivity enhanc- learned and in which education and time ing and likely have positive repercussions allocation choices are determined. for female empowerment. G E N D E R A N D E C O N O M I C O P P O R T U N I T Y    105 A s in other parts of the world, women •   determining gender wage gaps and, indeed, in the region have multiple roles and will that these factors interact with the develop- require more support to manage com- ment process to determine the degree to peting demands for their time from pro- which growth narrows gender inequalities ductive, reproductive, and community (Meng 1996).1 ­ m anagement activities as development In high-income countries, the age profile proceeds and greater nonfarm sector of women’s economic participation and the opportunities emerge. Nearly all coun- sensitivity of their participation to life-cycle tries in the region see declines in the factors have changed with development. female labor force participation of young Between 1950 and 2010, female labor force mothers. Furthermore, to manage their participation in Hong Kong SAR, China; dual roles, women are often obliged to Japan; the Republic of Korea; and Singapore enter into different occupations and work increased substantially across all age cohorts. fewer hours than men, both of which are For example, in Korea, women’s labor force found to have negative implications on participation has increased monotonically their wages and earnings. Policies that over time (figure 3.1). Similar changes were support women in juggling the compet- seen in the United States, particularly among ing demands of home and market work married women (Juhn and Potter 2006). Fur- will be required, particularly as women thermore, the decline in labor force participa- start moving into “male� occupations tion by women in their early 30s has become that have not traditionally allowed them less severe in these high income countries. the flexibility to lead their dual lives. Rising female labor force participation with development has been attributed to a number The chapter is structured as follows. The of demographic factors, including later mar- first section explores whether growth is suf- riage and childbirth and lower fertility rates. ficient to reduce gender inequalities in pro- However, income growth in these coun- ductive activities, drawing upon evidence tries has not been enough to eliminate gender from high-income countries within and out- side the region. The second section describes the current situation with regard to gender inequalities in economic opportunities in FIGURE 3.1  Female labor force participation in the Republic of East Asian and Pacific countries. The third Korea rose for women of all ages between 1960 and 2005 section examines the determinants of the most persistent gender inequalities, and the female labor force participation rate (%) 70 fourth section concludes by briefly exam- ining policy directions, a discussion that is 60 taken up again in chapter 6. 50 40 percent Limited effects of growth 30 on gender gaps in economic opportunity 20 10 The empirical literature suggests that eco- nomic development alone is not sufficient 0 15–19 20–24 25–29 30–34 35–39 40–44 45–49 50–54 55–59 60–64 to narrow gender differences in earnings age group (Blau and Kahn 2003; Hertz et al. 2009; 1960 1970 1975 1980 1985 Tzannatos 1999). Evidence from East Asian 1990 1995 2000 2005 and Pacific countries suggests instead that social, political, and cultural factors are Source: ILO Key Indicators of the Labour Market (KILM) database: Korea Labor Force Survey and as important as economic development in Population Census. 1 0 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C inequalities in all dimensions of economic reforms to level the playing field for women opportunities. Despite a substantial increase in the labor market have been difficult to in young women’s labor force participation, enforce in Japan, however (Lam 1992; Liu sharp gender differences in employment and Boyle 2001; Miller 2003). ­ status, occupational status, and wage rates continue to exist. In Japan, women are more likely than men to be in nonregular employ- Gender differences in economic ment, including temporary work, contract activity work, and part-time work (Hill 1996; Yu Gender differences in the economic sphere 2002). Women continue to leave the work- manifest themselves in a number of indi- force in substantial numbers during their cators. This section focuses on examining childbearing years, even if only temporarily. gender differences in labor force participa- The greatest drop in female labor force par- tion, in earnings, and in the labor market ticipation rates comes for married women segregation of men and women. in their mid-20s to early 30s when they start having children and assuming greater Labor force participation family responsibilities (Hill 1996; Lee, Jang, and Sarkar 2008; Miller 1998, 2003; The East Asia and Pacific region is character- Sasaki 2002). ized by high female labor force participation Welfare, child care, and tax reforms; leg- on average, but also by substantial variation islative changes; and women’s movements across and within countries. Labor force par- have helped to narrow gender differences ticipation is defined as all productive work, in economic opportunities in high-income whether as wage workers or as unpaid family countries in the East Asia and Pacific region workers. Female labor force participation in and across the world. The United States the East Asia and Pacific region is the high- provides a good example of how the com- est in the developing world—70 percent of bination of economic forces, social changes, females were participating in labor market and legal reforms has transformed women’s activities in 2008 (see figure 1.14 in chap- labor force participation. Explanations of ter 1). The participation gap (the difference changes in female labor force participation between the participation of men and women include demand-side factors that shifted in paid or unpaid market-oriented work) women’s market wage as well as supply- was approximately 15 percentage points in side factors that reduced women’s oppor- the region. In comparison, the female labor tunity costs of working (Fang and Keane force participation rate in the Latin America 2004; Galor and Weil 1996; Greenwood, and the Caribbean region and Europe and Seshadri, and Yorukoglu 2005; Weinberg Central Asia region was 55 and 58 percent 2000). Since the 1980s, Korean labor and in 2008, respectively, and their gender gaps family law has sought to improve women’s in labor force participation were 27 and 16 status within marriage and the family and percentage points, respectively. Box 3.1 dis- to eliminate gender bias in other areas, cusses the ways in which high female labor including in labor law (Kim 2005). In addi- force participation may, or sometimes may tion, the Korean government has undertaken not, be an indicator of enhanced welfare several measures to support married women for women. with their child-care responsibilities, such The average rates of female labor force as reforming maternity and paternity leave participation vary substantially within the and expanding expenditures on child-care region (see figure 1.15 in chapter 1). Par- facilities. Women’s and labor organizations ticipation and gender gaps in some parts have played an important role in advocating of the region are among the highest in the for legislation that reduces gender discrimi- world, whereas in others they are among natory practices (Kim 2005). Legislative the lowest. For example, in Fiji, Samoa, G E N D E R A N D E C O N O M I C O P P O R T U N I T Y    107 BOX 3.1  Is higher female labor force participation always a good thing? Studies from across the world indicate that increased to be devoted to children’s education, health, and female labor force participation and control by nutrition (Thomas 1990; Thomas and Strauss 1997). women over household resources are associated with Women’s borrowing from microfinance programs their enhanced well-being and status. For example, a also appears to improve child welfare more substan- study on India shows that female mortality is lower tially than does borrowing by men, including signifi- where female labor force participation rates and cant improvements in children’s nutritional levels and earnings are higher (Murthi, Guio, and Drèze 1995). increases in the school enrollment levels of both boys At the same time, although higher household income and girls. However, labor force participation is not is associated with higher levels of welfare for house- always empowering and may be a consequence of hold members, the marginal impacts are considerably poverty, which pushes women into low-paying jobs greater when income is in the hands of the mother. with poor working conditions and job insecurity. As women gain more control over expenditure deci- Jobs may also be exploitative and may reinforce tra- sions, a larger share of household resources tends ditional gender roles (Elson and Pearson 1981). and Malaysia, participation rates in 2008 to supplement household income is neces- were an order of magnitude lower than the sary (Pierre 2011). average for the region, with approximately Even in countries with high overall partici- 55 percent of working-age females in these pation rates, female labor force participation countries participating in the labor force. rates decline during childbearing years and Female labor force participation is high- old age. Average female labor force participa- est in countries where the state has put a tion rates hide important variation over wom- priority on gender equality, for example, en’s life cycles due to factors such as marriage in socialist or formerly socialist countries, and childbearing, whereas male participa- as well as in agrarian and rural economies tion rates remain fairly constant throughout where high rates of participation may be a their life cycles. The gaps between men and consequence of poverty. women in labor force participation, earn- Substantial gender differentials in par- ings, and job composition increase after mar- ticipation have also been noted within riage and childbearing in many East Asian countries in the region. National averages and Pacific countries, as they do globally. In of labor force participation fail to cap- the United States, for example, young single ture important differences in participa- men and women have more similar labor tion across rural and urban areas, as well participation, earnings, and career profiles as regional variation within countries. In than do married men and women. In many all countries within the region, rural labor East Asian and Pacific countries, life-cycle force participation is higher than urban patterns of labor force participation by birth labor force participation, for both males cohorts reveal specific trends that are not and females (figure 3.2). Participation gaps apparent in the average rates of participation, in all countries, apart from Mongolia and especially during periods of rapid growth and the Philippines, are substantially greater structural transformation. Rapid changes in urban areas than in rural areas. In Viet- in education levels across cohorts, the avail- nam, higher levels of female participation ability of new economic opportunities in and lower gender differentials are found in growing sectors, and urbanization mean poorer and often low-productivity areas, that young women are more likely than older where female participation in employment women to participate in the labor force, and 1 0 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 3.2  Labor force participation is greater in rural areas than in urban areas for both males and females 100 labor force participation of males and females age 20–64 in rural and urban areas, by country 90 80 70 60 percent 50 40 30 20 10 0 6 08 7 8 06 8 8 09 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 ,2 ,2 ,2 ,2 ,2 d, a, s, m ste lia sia DR ne di an na go ne oP Le bo pi ail et on do ilip m or La Th Vi M Ca In Tim Ph female urban female rural male urban male rural Source: Data generated using country level household data, with the exception of Indonesia which uses labor force data. Note: The countries are sorted by the gap between females in rural and urban areas. to participate in different sectors (Mammen are older. A “single-peaked� pattern exhibits and Paxson 2000). higher rates of participation at younger ages, Female labor force participation is more which then fall after the peak. This is a more sensitive to life-cycle factors, such as mar- extreme version of the double-peaked pattern riage and childbearing, in some countries and characterizes a labor market in which than others. The birth cohort life-cycle few women return to work after marriage participation patterns of women vary sub- and childbearing. In the region, this pattern stantially within the East Asia and Pacific can be seen only in Malaysia, where it con- region and have also exhibited considerable tinues despite increases in female participa- change over time. Three patterns can be tion between 1980 and 2010 (figure 3.3). The distinguished in the region (Horton 1996). 2 plateau pattern, in contrast, describes a situ- The “plateau� pattern exhibits relatively flat ation in which female labor force participa- female labor force participation until women tion is less sensitive to life-cycle effects than reach their early 50s, and then declines into in the single- and double-peaked patterns. old age. The “double-peaked� or “M� pat- The plateau pattern can be seen in countries tern is generally observed in more industri- with political regimes that encouraged wom- alized countries: it is characterized by high en’s economic independence, such as China, participation in the labor market prior to Mongolia, and Vietnam. marriage and childbearing, with a subse- Labor force participation decisions of quent return to the labor force once children rural and urban women in many countries G E N D E R A N D E C O N O M I C O P P O R T U N I T Y    109 FIGURE 3.3  Female labor force participation rates in Malaysia have risen over time among 20- to 55-year- olds, but continue to decline during child-bearing years female labor force participation (%), by age cohort 70 60 50 40 percent 30 20 10 0 15–19 20–24 25–29 30–34 35–39 40–44 45–49 50–54 55–59 60–64 age groups 1980 1990 2000 2010 Source: LABORSTA Internet (1980, 1990, and 2000 data), CEIC Data (2010 data). display different responses to life-cycle East Asian and Pacific countries with changes, and their sensitivity to life-cycle higher rates of female labor force participa- changes may evolve differently over time. tion overall have smaller declines in partici- In Indonesia, for example, urban women pation during childbearing years, although are more likely than rural women to leave ­ p redominantly in urban settings. In all the labor force when they have children, countries in the region, women with young and they also leave the labor force for lon- children are substantially less likely to par- ger. Patterns of participation have changed ticipate in the labor market than men with substantially since 1990, however, and young children and than women without have evolved differently in rural and urban young children. In some countries, such areas. Although urban women with young as Mongolia and Vietnam, a reduction in children in 2008 are still less likely to work labor market participation is seen in either than their rural counterparts, urban women urban or rural areas alone, whereas in oth- display less sensitivity to childbearing deci- ers, such as Indonesia and the Philippines, it sions than they did in 1990. In contrast, is seen in both rural and urban areas. Data rural women in 2008 are more likely to from the 2009 Vietnam Labor Force Survey reduce their labor supply when having chil- (GSO [Vietnam]) show that rural Vietnamese dren and to leave the labor force for longer women between ages 25 and 35 with a child than rural women did in 1990. under the age of 2 are a third less likely to 1 1 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C participate in the labor market than men of the ­Philippines, in marked contrast to the the same age with a child. In comparison, the examples of M ­ ongolia and Vietnam above, participation of women between ages 25 and female-male participation gaps are substan- 35 without a child is fairly similar to that of tial even among women who do not have men in this age group (figure 3.4). In Vietnam, children, and the gaps widen with age. the effect of children on labor force participa- tion is smaller and of shorter duration than Earnings in Mongolia. In Vietnam, the participation gap disappears by the time the child reaches Gender gaps in wages and earnings are school age, whereas in Mongolia the partici- found in all countries in the region and pation gap continues to be substantial even in all sectors, with rare exceptions. Male for older children. and female wages differ in multiple sec- In countries where female labor force tors and settings across the region, with participation is low on average, it also tends female agricultural wage workers earning to be highly sensitive to marriage and child- less than male agricultural wage workers, bearing years. Indonesia, Japan, Korea, and female urban wage workers earning and Malaysia have historically displayed less than their male counterparts. 3 Female a single- or double-peaked pattern; that entrepreneurs and farmers often display is, women participate in the labor market lower revenues and profits than their male prior to marriage and childbearing and, in counterparts. the case of a double-peaked pattern, even- A substantial body of evidence has accu- tually return to the labor force once the mulated over the past three decades to sug- children are older. These countries also gest that women are paid less for similar work have lower average female labor force par- across the world as well as in the region. A ticipation than countries in the region that cross-country comparison of wages indicates exhibit a plateau pattern. In Indonesia and that women earn between 70 and 80 percent of the wages men receive for similar work (Hausmann, Tyson, and Zahidi 2010). 4 Evidence from across the world suggests FIGURE 3.4  Women in rural Vietnam with children under age 2 that economic development is not sufficient are substantially less likely to participate in the labor market than to reduce the gender earnings gaps (Blau those without young children and Khan 2003). Even in high-income coun- tries in the East Asia and Pacific region— male-female labor force participation gap 0.25 rural male-female labor force participation gap, by notably Japan and Korea—the average age cohort and child status woman earns less than half the wage of 0.2 the average man. Lower-income countries, 0.15 including ­ M ongolia, Lao People’s Demo- cratic Republic, Papua New Guinea, and 0.1 Vietnam, have lower gender wage gaps, on average, than many richer countries. 0.05 Within the agricultural, manufacturing, service, and government sectors, women 0 earn less than men on average (figure 3.5), although the ratio of male-to-female earn- –0.05 ings varies substantially across sectors as 15–19 20–24 25–29 30–34 35–39 40–44 age groups well as across countries. Female-to-male without a child under 10 with a child under 2 wage ratios tend to be lower in the agricul- with a child between 2 and 10 tural and manufacturing sectors and higher in the service sector and in government, with Source: World Bank staff estimates using Vietnam Labor Force Survey (GSO Vietnam), 2009 data. some exceptions. G E N D E R A N D E C O N O M I C O P P O R T U N I T Y    111 Gender wage gaps in the East Asia and FIGURE 3.5  Women earn less than men in the majority of East Pacific region are greatest between men and Asian and Pacific countries and in all sectors of the economy women with the lowest educational endow- ments and in the lowest paying occupations. average female-to-male hourly wage ratio, by sector Several studies have indicated that the gap is Cambodia, 2008 wider at the bottom end of the wage distribu- tion than at the top (Chi and Li 2007; Li and Thailand, 2009 Song 2011; Sakellariou 2011). In contrast, in Organisation for Economic Co-operation Philippines, 2006 and Development (OECD) countries, gen- Vietnam, 2006 der wage gaps tend to be wider at the top than at the bottom of the wage distribution Timor-Leste, 2007 (Albrecht, Björklund, and Vroman 2003; Arulampalam, Booth, and Bryan 2007; de la Lao PDR, 2008 Rica, Dolado, and Llorens 2005). Indonesia, 2009 In the nonfarm sector, the performance of male and female firms around the world 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 varies substantially, as measured by total ratio factor productivity, labor productivity, prof- government services industry agriculture itability, and capital intensity (Sabarwal, Terrell, and Bardasi 2011). In the East Asia Source: World Bank estimates using household income and expenditure surveys. Cambodia ­Socio-Economic Survey (CSES) (NIS Cambodia), 2008 data; Indonesia National Socioeconomic and Pacific region, formal sector firms with Survey (SUSENAS) (BPS Indonesia), 2009 data; Lao Expenditure and Consumption Survey (LSB at least one female owner do not have sig- [Lao PDR]), 2008 data; Philippines Family Income and Expenditures Survey (NSCB 2006); Thailand ­Socio-Economic Survey (SES) (NSO Thailand), 2009 data; Timor-Leste Survey of Living Standards nificantly lower sales than those with no (NSD Timor-Leste), 2007 data; Vietnam Household Living Standards Surveys (VHLSS) (GSO Vietnam), female owners, with the exception of firms 2006 data. in the Philippines ( ­figure 3.6). However, in the informal sector, output per worker in female-owned e ­ nterprises is substantially lower than that in male-owned enterprises. Data from Indonesia and Vietnam suggest FIGURE 3.6  Male- and female-owned firms in the formal sector do that in the informal sector, gender earnings not display substantial differences in productivity gaps are more pronounced than in the for- mal sector: female-owned enterprises with ratio of female-to-male value added per worker fewer than five employees generate only 1.4 approximately 60 to 70 percent of the out- 1.2 put per worker generated by male-owned enterprises (figure 3.7). 1.0 0.8 Labor market segregation ratio 0.6 Multiple studies find that men and women work in different sectors, industries, occu- 0.4 pations, and types of firms across the world (Anker 1998; Boserup 1970). As can be 0.2 seen in figures 3.8 and 3.9, across the region 0 women are overrepresented in unpaid fam- Lao PDR Indonesia Vietnam Philippines ily work, particularly in rural areas, and are slightly more likely to be employed in Source: World Bank estimates using Enterprise Surveys, 2006–11 data. Note: Data are for small (19 employees or less), medium (20–99 employees), and large (100 and more the informal sector. 5,6 Within the infor- employees) firms in the formal sector. Female-owned firms are defined as those with at least one mal sector, women are more likely to be female owner. Value added is measured as revenues minus material expenses. 1 1 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 3.7  In the informal sector, gender-based differences in Across the world, women in the nonagri- productivity are more pronounced than in the formal sector cultural workforce are more likely to work in social and communal services (such as ratio of female-to-male value added per worker education and health) and in commerce and 1.2 restaurants, whereas men are more likely 1.0 to work in transport, construction, public administration, and manufacturing (ILO 0.8 2010). Similar trends are found in East Asian and Pacific countries. For example, ratio 0.6 men in Cambodia and Indonesia are dispro- 0.4 portionately found in the manufacturing, 0.2 transport, construction, and public admin- istration sectors, and women are found in 0 manufacturing, education, health and social Indonesia Vietnam Indonesia Vietnam services, and commerce (figure 3.10). Esti- informal formal mates from household survey data suggest that, in Fiji and Vietnam, men are more Source: Data for informal firms are based on Indonesia Family Life Survey 2007/2008; VHLSS likely to work as professionals and man- (GSO Vietnam), 2008 data. Data on formal firms are from Enterprise Surveys. agers and as plant and machine workers, Note: Based on a sample of firms with fewer than five employees. whereas women are more likely to work as technicians, sales workers, and clerks, and in elementary occupations.7 Women also FIGURE 3.8  Women are more likely than men to work as unpaid make up a smaller fraction of the public family workers sector workforce than men in Cambodia, Thailand, Timor-Leste, and Vietnam. The percentage of employment, by gender and location Philippines, however, displays much higher 60 levels of occupational segregation and also 50 has a higher fraction of women in the public 40 sector than men, a trend that is likely to be percent 30 related to the relatively high investment in 20 education by ­ Filipino women. 10 Within the manufacturing sector, women 0 are more likely to be found in industries male female male female male female male female such as textiles and food processing, and rural urban rural urban are also found in large and export-oriented firms. Data from country enterprise surveys Cambodia, 2008 Indonesia, 2009 (2002–05) indicate that, in all developing wage and salaried worker self employed unpaid family worker regions, the fraction of full-time female workers is greater in export-oriented firms. The East Asia and Pacific region has the Source: World Bank estimates using socioeconomic surveys: CSES (NIS Cambodia), 2008 data; ­Indonesia SUSENAS (BPS Indonesia), 2009 data. second-largest fraction of full-time female workers, after Europe and Central Asia. However, within export-­ o riented firms, own-account workers (self-employed workers women are also more likely than men to be working by themselves) and subcontracted temporary workers in Cambodia, China, workers, whereas men are more likely to be and Indonesia, although in Thailand men employers or paid employees of informal are more likely to be temporary workers in enterprises (World Bank 2011g). Globally, all firms (see figure 1.18 in chapter 1). women are more likely than men to work Women are underrepresented in manage- part-time (ILO 2010). rial positions and positions of power in all G E N D E R A N D E C O N O M I C O P P O R T U N I T Y    113 sectors, from government to manufactur- FIGURE 3.9  Women are slightly more likely to be employed in the ing (Anker 1998). The East Asia and Pacific informal sector than men. Rural-urban differences in informality region performs relatively well compared are greater than gender differences within rural or urban areas to other regions in terms of the fraction of firms with a top female manager (see figure percentage of workers in the informal sector, by gender and location 1.16 in chapter 1). However, women remain 100 less likely than men to serve as managers 90 and directors. The share of female directors 80 ranges from 10 percent in the Philippines 70 and 7 percent in China and Thailand to 60 percent 50 5 percent in Indonesia and under 2 percent 40 in Korea and Japan (CWDI 2010). Globally, 30 only one country in the world has succeeded 20 in having more than 30 percent female rep- 10 resentation on corporate boards (namely, 0 Norway), and one-third of countries have rural urban rural urban rural urban rural urban female board representation over 10 percent Timor-Leste Mongolia Thailand Indonesia (CWDI 2010). male female Segregation goes beyond the wage labor market, with smaller female-owned and Source: World Bank estimates using Indonesia SUSENAS (BPS Indonesia), 2009 data; Mongolia Living Standards Measurement Survey (LSMS) (NSO Mongolia), 2007–08 data; Thailand SES (NSO Thailand), female-managed firms located in less- 2009 data; Timor-Leste Survey of Living Standards (NSD Timor-Leste), 2007 data. capital-intensive sectors than male-owned Note: The informal sector is defined using information on an individual’s occupation and sector of employment. and male-managed firms. Female-owned and female-run enterprises are, on average, smaller than male-run enterprises in terms services and trade, than in capital-intensive of the number of employees hired, sales, and sectors (Klapper and Parker 2010). For exam- profits (Aterido and Hallward-Driemeier ple, a study commissioned by this report finds 2009; Badiani and Posadas 2011; Costa and that women are more likely to be found in ­ R ijkers 2011; Sabarwal, Terrell, and Bar- manufacturing, food sales, and food prepara- dasi 2011). Among formal sector firms in tion in Indonesia and less likely to be found the East Asia and Pacific region, enterprise in transport, construction, and other services survey data suggest that small firms are (Badiani and Posadas 2011). Similar pat- more likely than medium and large firms to terns have been observed in other countries have a top female manager (see figure 1.19 in the region, including Lao PDR (Davies and in chapter 1). Evidence by ownership dis- Record 2010), Mongolia (World Bank 2011c), plays a more mixed picture. In Indonesia, and Vietnam (Bjerge and Rand 2011). Lao PDR, Mongolia, Timor-Leste, Tonga, The enterprises that women work in are and Vanuatu, this pattern still holds, but also less productive and capital intensive. In evidence from the Philippines, Samoa, and Indonesia, the sectors that women are more Vietnam suggests that female owners are likely to be employed in—food and garments not disproportionately represented among production—are among the least capital small firms (figure 3.11).8 This pattern may intensive and productive sectors (figure 3.12). be the result of more open cultural norms By contrast, the transportation and other ser- regarding women’s role in business. How- vice sectors—where male entrepreneurs are ever, the lower levels of female management most likely to be found—has higher produc- relative to ownership suggest that women tivity and capital intensity. may still have less control or representation Having a female presence in management within firms. may have positive implications for workers, Female-run enterprises are also more likely however, even if productivity per worker is to be found in labor-intensive sectors, such as lower. Female-run firms have been found to 1 1 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 3.10  Men and women work in different sectors throughout and Ramos 2011; Sakellariou 2011). Among the East Asia and Pacific region entrepreneurs, differences in industry and size of enterprise have been found to explain percentage of workers a substantial fraction of the raw performance gaps in profits and revenues among male and a. Indonesia, male b. Indonesia, female female firms.11 What determines gender inequality in economic opportunities? Men and women differ in their economic activities in a number of respects. These dif- ferences in activities may represent differ- ences in choices, but they may also represent differences in the constraints that men and c. Cambodia, male d. Cambodia, female women face in their working lives. This sec- tion explores the economic, demographic, and cultural factors that determine current gender inequalities in access to economic opportunities in the East Asia and Pacific region. Determinants of labor market participation Female labor force participation is affected by growth processes and development. As commerce manufacturing construction development occurs, changes in household transport public administration education, health and social work income, education, wages, marital, and fer- tility choices affect participation. The evolu- Source: CSES (NIS Cambodia), 2008 data; World Bank estimates using Indonesia SUSENAS (BPS ­Indonesia), 2009 data. tion of market opportunities alters the types of jobs present in the economy, as well as the relative demand for skills. The institutional influence factors beyond productivity—from framework of society affects and is affected the provision of benefits to gender-sensitive by the economic participation of women dur- policies.9 In Vietnam, workers in female-run ing the process of development; that is, gender small and medium enterprises are more likely norms, expectations, and perceptions within to receive fringe benefits in addition to wage the household and society affect female labor compensation (Rand and Tarp 2011). Female force participation and are also likely to be owners are more likely to provide health and affected by its evolution. social insurance and to allow sick, vacation, Female labor force participation and its and maternity leave with pay. determinants vary over the life cycle. Early Labor market sorting has been found in their careers, women are similar to men to contribute to the gender wage and earn- in terms of their decisions to join the labor ings gaps.10 Differences in occupational and market, but their participation begins to dif- industrial sorting explain a greater fraction fer as their domestic responsibilities increase. of gender wage gaps in the East Asia and This change is partly due to the increased Pacific region and across the world than time that women devote to household activi- differences in human capital (Ñopo, Daza, ties, such as housework and child rearing, as G E N D E R A N D E C O N O M I C O P P O R T U N I T Y    115 their marital and familial status changes, but FIGURE 3.11  The pattern of female ownership by firm size varies it is also a reflection of differences in the roles across countries of and expectations of married and single percentage of rms owned by women women. Younger women in the region are 90 investing more in education and hence have delayed their entry into the labor market, in 80 both rural and urban areas. Married women 70 appear to take substantial time out of the 60 workforce for raising children, but the same 50 percent is not true for men. Furthermore, large labor force participation gaps open up toward the 40 end of women’s careers, in part as a result 30 of labor market regulations such as gender- 20 differentiated retirement policies. 10 The stage of development of countries and 0 sia DR lia es oa ste a u m ng at their institutions na in go m ne oP Le nu To ilip Sa et on do or Va La Vi Evidence from across the world suggests that, Ph M In Tim as countries develop, female labor force par- Small Medium Large ticipation displays a U-shaped trajectory.12 Source: World Bank estimates using Enterprise Surveys (database), 2006–11 data. Female labor force participation usually Note: Survey data are for small (less than 20 employees), medium (20–99 employees), and large declines as incomes rise and opportunities (100 and more employees) firms in the formal sector. Female-owned firms are defined as those with females among the owners. in the labor market become less attractive to female workers; it then increases again when more attractive employment opportunities emerge (Bloom et al. 2009; Chaudhuri 2009; Goldin 1995; Sinha 1967, cited in ­ Mammen FIGURE 3.12  In Indonesia, female-led enterprises are clustered and Paxson 2000; Tam 2011). In poor, agri- in lower-productivity and capital-intensive industries cultural economies, female participation tends to be high because agricultural work value added (in thousand Indonesia Rupiah) 50 and family responsibilities can easily be com- 45 bined. However, in middle-income countries 40 dominated by the manufacturing and ser- 35 vice sectors, female participation declines in part because most new jobs are difficult to 30 combine with family responsibilities. Female 25 participation rates are higher in high-income 20 countries that have large service sectors and 15 a highly educated workforce. This finding 10 holds both across and within countries over 5 time (Fatima and Sultana 2009; Fuwa 2004; 0 od g ail rt es Juhn and Ureta 2003; Tansel 2001).13 rin po vic t fo re tu ns er c The stylized U-shaped relationship bet­ tra rs fa u he an ot ween female labor force participation and m economic development holds for countries in female-dominated sector male-dominated sector the East Asia and Pacific region, as well as productivity per worker assets per worker globally. Figure 3.13 depicts the relationship between economic development (as captured Source: World Bank staff estimates using Indonesia Family Life Survey 2007/2008. by income per capita) and female labor force Note: The graph shows productivity and assets per worker in five industries for firms with fewer than participation across the globe between 1980 five workers. Productivity is measured by value added. 1 1 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 3.13  Female labor force participation is high by global Gender norms and expectations standards but also varies substantially across the region An important question is why labor force participation varies so much between coun- female labor force participation rate, % tries with similar per capita income levels, 90 Lao PDR as can be seen in figure 3.13. Gender norms 80 Cambodia China strongly influence labor force participation Papua New Guinea Vietnam Australia rates and help to explain the variation in 70 Mongolia Thailand participation across countries that is not Japan Timor-Leste explained by the level of economic devel- percent 60 Tonga Singapore opment. Societal p ­ erceptions of women in Indonesia Korea Rep. 50 Philippines the workplace and gender norms strongly influence labor force participation deci- Malaysia 40 sions (Antecol 2000; Fernández 2010; Fer- Fiji nández and Fogli 2005; Fernández, Fogli, 30 and Olivetti 2004). Countries in which strong socioreligious views exist about women’s role 0 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 in the public sphere, including the workplace, log GDP per capita (2005 PPP $) have been found to have lower female labor global relationship,1980 global relationship, 2009 force participation rates (Psacharopoulos and Tzannatos 1989). Source: World Bank estimates using labor force data from the ILO KILM database and purchasing power parity (PPP)-adjusted GDP per capita from the Penn World Table. Whether a woman is entitled to make Note: GDP = gross domestic product, PPP = purchasing power parity. The data shown for each her own choices in the economic sphere, country reflect the 2009 data, and the estimated U-shaped relationships use data from across the world. such as entering the workforce or starting a business, varies substantially from coun- try to country. For example, in Vietnam, young single women are increasingly choos- and 2009. The position of the East Asian ing to migrate for employment and to com- and Pacific countries relative to the rest of mute long distances (World Bank 2011a). the world is depicted in red. Two key fea- However, in rural Morobe Province in tures emerge. First, the U-shape pattern holds Papua New Guinea, young women are not across countries for both periods of time. allowed by their families to migrate out of Second, the participation rate associated the village because of the fear of early mar- with each level of development has increased riages, which are regarded as taboo (World between 1980 and 2009, as can be seen by Bank 2011a). the upward shift in the U-shaped pattern In countries with large male-female partic- over time. In the East Asia and Pacific region, ipation gaps throughout the life cycle—such Vietnam and China have substantially higher as Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines— levels of female labor force participation than female labor force participation is considered the world average relative to their income lev- socially and culturally acceptable as long as it els, whereas participation is near the world does not interfere with women’s primary role average in countries such as Indonesia and as wives and mothers. For example, public the Philippines. The pattern of female labor gender discourse in Indonesia and Malaysia force participation seen in parts of the Pacific places particular emphasis on motherhood partly reflects economic structure, whereby and child care as a “woman’s true vocation� labor force participation is higher in agricul- (Blackburn 2001, 2004; Stivens 2006; White ture-based economies. For example, although 2006). Political and institutional ­ evolution Fiji has lower rates of participation relative to also affects the scope for women’s partici- its income level, the rates of participation in pation in education and in the workplace. Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu are substan- Women’s labor force participation is sub- tially higher. stantially higher in socialist and ex-socialist G E N D E R A N D E C O N O M I C O P P O R T U N I T Y    117 ­ ountries, such as China, Mongolia, and c Vietnam has declined from almost 89 percent Vietnam, than in others. in 1998 (similar to men) to about 81 percent in Legislation can codify social norms into 2008 (versus 84 percent for men). Most of the discriminatory labor practices. In Korea, decline occurs in rural areas and is accounted marriage bars to private and public employ- for by rising participation in education. Given ment were common until the 1980s (Hill the corresponding though smaller decline in 1996). In Mongolia, women retire approx- male participation, the overall male-female imately 10 years earlier than men; this participation gap increased from approximately practice is, in part, attributable to a lower 1.5 percentage points in 1998 to 4.5 percent- retirement age for women (World Bank age points in 2008 (Sakellariou 2011). Simi- 2011c). In Mongolia, these differences in larly, in China, the population census indicates retirement ages have contributed to the that the labor force participation of 15- to female-male participation gap rising by 22-year-old urban males and females dropped approximately 20 percentage points between from 70.6 and 72.7 percent, respectively, in the ages of 50 and 60. 1982 to 43.8 and 46.4 percent, respectively, in However, gender roles and relations 2000, largely because of an increase in educa- within households do change over time, par- tional enrollment (Hughes, Maurer-Fazio, and ticularly in evolving environments. In China, Zhang 2005). In rural areas, participation of the economic reforms of recent decades have the female population ages 15 to 22 declined increased the range of opportunities avail- from 84.3 percent to 67.3 percent between able to both men and women in paid employ- 1982 and 2000 for the same reason. Where ment, as the structure of the economy has education acquisition varies by gender, a gen- moved away from predominantly agrarian der gap in participation can be observed. with a capital-intensive heavy industry sec- Although changes in education have not tor toward labor-intensive light industry and explained a large fraction of changes in services (Hughes, Maurer-Fazio, and Zhang participation, variation in education con- 2007). However, this transition has been tributes to explaining differences in female argued to have created new obstacles for labor force participation within a country. women: the state has retreated from its for- In Indonesia, women with higher levels mer commitments to gender equality and to of education are more likely to enter the strong enforcement of workplace protections labor market, particularly in urban areas, for women, thus allowing the reemergence of which may reflect their higher wage premi- traditional patriarchal values (Entwisle and ums and higher opportunity cost of being Henderson 2000). inactive (Ogawa and Akter 2007; World Bank 2010a). Literacy in Indonesia is also Individual and household-level factors: strongly associated with both participation Income, education, marriage and children in the labor market and occupational seg- Changes in the characteristics of women and regation among women; thus, being illit- households—notably, changes in educational erate poses a double barrier to labor force attainment, changes in the demographic pro- outcomes (Gallaway and Bernasek 2004). file of the population, and growth in house- In Vietnam, women with no educational hold incomes—do not, for the most part, qualifications are more likely than their explain changes in the male-female gap in male counterparts to be inactive, those with labor force participation in many countries in primary or secondary education are slightly the East Asia and Pacific region during the less likely than their male counterparts to past decade (Sakellariou 2011). be working, and those with higher levels of Rising education levels among girls in coun- education are more likely than their male tries across the region have led to a substantial counterparts to be working (Pierre 2011). decline in girls’ workforce participation rates. Declines in fertility have been found to For example, women’s participation in rural exert a large positive effect on the labor 1 1 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C force participation rate across the world. Retirement policies The effect is strongest for women ages In nearly all countries in the region, the male- 20 to 39, with an additional child being asso- female participation gap rises after the age ciated with a reduction of approximately of 50, indicating that women retire earlier four years of paid work over a woman’s than men. These differences can be partly lifetime (Bloom et al. 2009). In Korea, the attributed to gender-differentiated retire- reduction in the total fertility rate, from 5.6 ment policies. In 4 of 12 countries studied in children per woman in 1962 to 1.2 in 2002, the region (see table 3.1), the statutory age of has been suggested to have increased per retirement for women in the private sector is capita income by approximately 36 percent five years earlier than that of men, although over the period, because of an increase in only in China is it mandatory to retire at the the size of the workforce and higher female statutory age. In China, gender differences labor force participation as well as a longer- in mandatory retirement ages influence the term increase in the capital-to-labor ratio prospective value of hiring older men and (Bloom et al. 2009). women, implying that the expected return of What will stop us from getting a job is having hiring an older man is greater than that of plenty of children and having nobody to mind hiring an otherwise identical older woman them. (Giles, Wang, and Cai 2011). Differences in Young woman, Indonesia retirement prospects across rural and urban (World Bank 2011a) areas also contribute to the explanation of differences in participation across rural and Child-care costs have a negative impact on urban areas among older workers. In urban female labor force participation, particularly areas, where most long-term residents have in families without the support of familial had formal wage employment, residents networks.14 Reductions in child-care provi- retire at a relatively young age and receive sions in China and Mongolia have had a neg- substantial pension support. In contrast, ative impact on labor force participation. In rural residents often lack pension support China, participation of women of childbear- and hence make their labor supply decisions ing age has declined in urban areas, a trend in the absence of pension availability and the that is partly attributable to higher child-care constraint of mandatory retirement (Giles, costs now that child care is no longer sub- Wang, and Cai 2011). Since women over 60 sidized by the state (Chi and Li 2007; Du in rural areas are less likely to be vested in and Dong 2010; Li and Song 2011; Maurer- formal labor markets, they are less likely Fazio et al. 2011). Similar patterns have been than other elderly to be covered by the pen- observed in Mongolia, where state-funded sion system—only 1 percent of rural women early child care and education were rolled over 60 report that pension income is their back in the 1990s (World Bank 2011c; World most significant source of financial support, Bank and ADB 2005). compared with 8 percent of rural men over The labor force participation of older 60 (World Bank 2012). women is also affected by the presence of Differences in retirement ages are likely children, since they are often responsible for to affect outcomes beyond labor force par- caring for younger household members. In ticipation, including educational invest- Mongolia and rural Vietnam, the evidence ment, the number of women in positions of suggests that a “grandmother effect� is pres- power, and the risk of poverty for elderly ent. Older women in households with chil- women. Because women anticipate having dren under the age of 10 have a 15 percentage a shorter working life than men, differences point larger participation gap than women in in retirement ages affect education and households with no children under the age of occupation choices. Gender differences in 10, a difference that may be attributable to retirement ages also imply that women are older women staying at home to look after less likely to rise to the top of occupational their grandchildren. G E N D E R A N D E C O N O M I C O P P O R T U N I T Y    119 ladders, because they have less experience TABLE 3.1  Legal retirement ages in the East Asia than men toward the end of their careers. and Pacific region Fewer women in Mongolia reach higher- Retirement age Men Women level managerial positions, despite women China 60 55 having one of the highest levels of education Hong Kong SAR, China 65 65 on average in the region. Furthermore, early Indonesia 55 55 retirement reduces pension payouts, which Lao PDR 60 60 depend on the length of tenure. This disad- Malaysia 55 50 vantage in pension receipt can increase the Mongolia 60 55 risk of poverty for low-income households Papua New Guinea 55 55 headed by females—women accounted for Philippines 65 65 approximately 70 percent of elderly single– Singapore 67 67 headed households in Mongolia in 2010 Taiwan, China 65 65 (World Bank 2011c). Thailand 55 55 Vietnam 60 55 Source: World Bank 2011f. Determinants of gender gaps in earnings contrast, in the Philippines, the wage gap wid- Earnings gaps between male ened between 2000 and 2009, a change that and female workers is partly attributable to growing differences The gender earnings and wage gap may reflect between men and women in terms of their differences between men and women in edu- returns to education and other characteristics. cation and other characteristics, as well as Indonesia has the widest earnings gap among differences in the returns to these characteris- the six countries examined, and the study tics by gender. The literature separates gender found substantial differences between rural gaps into parts that are “explained� by mea- and urban areas, in the size of the wage gap sured factors, such as education, age, experi- and the factors contributing to it. ence, and marital status, and those that are Average differences between the character- “unexplained,� often regarded as a measure of istics of men and women, such as education, discrimination against female workers. Care experience, and the sector and occupation must be taken in interpreting the remaining of employment, explain up to one-third of component of wages as discrimination, how- the male-female wage differentials across the ever, since this interpretation assumes that all region and across the world.16 Occupational relevant factors have been considered.15 and industrial sorting have been found to con- The level and changes in the gender wage tribute more to explaining the gender wage gap over time in the East Asia and Pacific gaps than do differences in human capital region vary by country and across the income across the world, and the same holds true for distribution, suggesting that the forces that the East Asia and Pacific region (Ñopo, Daza, lead to narrowing wage gaps over time are and Ramos 2011; Sakellariou 2011). idiosyncratic. A study commissioned for this The narrowing of gender wage gaps over report found that the evolution of gender time can be partially attributed to the con- wage gaps over time has followed different verging of educational attainment of men and paths in Cambodia, Indonesia, Mongolia, women. Between 1985 and 2005, the average the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam characteristics of the female wage and sala- (Sakellariou 2011). In Thailand, gender ried workforce in Thailand improved over wage gaps throughout the wage distribu- time relative to those of males. Nakavachara tion decreased substantially between 1996 (2010) finds that the substantial increase in and 2006. Changes in experience, education, the education of females between 1985 and and return to experience were found to have 2005 was the major source of the narrow- contributed significantly to this reduction. In ing of the gender earnings gap in Thailand 1 2 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C during this period. Dhanani and Islam (2004) gender wage gap attributable to returns to find that, although females earned on average characteristics is greater than the gender wage about 30 percent less than men between 1976 gap attributable to characteristics across the and 2000 in Indonesia, overall wage inequal- distribution. On average, differences in char- ity varies with industrial affiliation as well as acteristics explain just over 35 percent of the education and age. The wage gap in ­ Indonesia gross gap in 2009. Differences in labor market increases substantially with age, reflecting in experience and returns to labor market expe- part growing differences in education and rience constituted the major contributor to the experience between older men and women. characteristics component in both years. Since women have higher levels of educa- There is substantial variation in the share tion on average than men in some countries of gender wage gaps explained by differ- in the region, estimates suggest that women ences in characteristics between men and would have earned more than men had they women. In Vietnam, the fraction of the gap faced the same returns to their education and explained by differences in characteristics other characteristics as men. In the Philippines is only 11 percent in urban areas, whereas and Mongolia, women’s levels of human capi- in rural areas the characteristics of females tal are higher than those of men on average. would suggest that, on average, the wages of In Mongolia, taking into account the different women should be higher than those of men characteristics of men and women, women (Sakellariou 2011). In China, the mean gen- should have earned 22 percent more than men der pay gap increased substantially between in 2006 (Pastore 2009). Similarly, in the Phil- 1987 and 2007, from 18 percent in 1995 (Chi ippines, education and other characteristics of and Li 2007) to nearly 30 percent in 2007 (Li women would suggest that, on average, the and Song 2011). Over this period, the major- wages of women should be higher than those ity of the increase was not attributable to dif- of men (Sakellariou 2011). ferences in characteristics but rather was due The bulk of the gender wage gap within to unexplained differences in the returns to the region is due to differences in the labor male and female characteristics. market value of male and female char- Marriage and childbearing have a larger acteristics.17 In the East Asia and Pacific negative effect on the wages of females than region, the fraction of the gender wage gap on the wages of males. The trade-off for explained by differences in characteristics women between career, earnings growth, and (such as education and experience)—the family does not appear to exist for men. For explained component—is smaller than the some women, this trade-off is associated with fraction of the wage gap attributable to dif- increasingly stark choices. Anecdotal evidence ferences in returns—the unexplained com- suggests that women in richer parts of East ponent (Sakellariou 2011). Figure 3.14 shows Asia are increasingly less likely to marry and the percentage difference between male and marry later when they do, in part because of female wages at deciles of the wage distribu- the perceived incompatibility of marriage and tion in Indonesia in 2009, and the difference career (Economist 2011). The negative effect in male and female wages that is attributable of childbearing on earnings and employment to differences in characteristics and returns has been found across the world as well as on those characteristics.18 Two noteworthy within countries in the East Asia and Pacific points emerge from figure 3.14. First, the region.19 In Cebu, in the Philippines, children gender wage gap is wider at the bottom than have a strong negative effect on a woman’s at the top of the wage distribution, pointing likelihood of participating in the labor force toward the phenomenon of “sticky floors.� and, once in the labor force, on her earnings Second, differences in returns to character- over time. The negative effect of children on istics between men and women are able to women’s earnings represents both a reduc- account for a greater share of the gender wage tion in the number of hours worked and a gap at all points in the wage distribution—the shift to lower-paying and often less secure G E N D E R A N D E C O N O M I C O P P O R T U N I T Y    121 jobs that are more compatible with child- FIGURE 3.14  The fraction of the gender wage gap explained by bearing responsibilities (Adair et al. 2002). differences in characteristics is smaller than the fraction of the In China, married women have substantially wage gap attributable to differences in returns in Indonesia, 2009 larger gender wage gaps than their unmar- percentage di erence between male and female workers ried counterparts, and the wage gap between 0.45 married men and women grew between 1995 and 2007 while it closed for single men and 0.40 women (Hughes and Maurer-Fazio 2002; Li 0.35 and Song 2011). Furthermore, the proportion 0.30 of the gender wage gap unexplained by dif- 0.25 percent ferences in the productive characteristics of 0.20 men and women is greater for married than for single women, although the gap is nar- 0.15 rower in the case of more educated married 0.10 women. These results may be attributable to 0.05 the greater responsibilities borne by Chinese 0 women for household chores and child care. 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th Gender wage paths over careers may income decile reflect differences in male and female work- wage gap returns component characteristics component place behavior, as well as differences in the types of characteristics that men and women Source: Sakellariou 2011. Note: The graph uses the approach of Firpo, Fortin, and Lemieux (2009), based on Indonesia value in a job. Evidence from the organiza- National Labor Force Survey (BPS Sakernas), 1997 and 2009 data. tional and human resources literature shows females as being less competitive, more risk averse (Croson and Gneezy 2009), less likely reflecting their respective responses to these to push for pay rises (Babcock and Laschever life-cycle transitions. 2003), and more likely to be content with lower starting salaries. This tendency may Earnings gaps between male and female be due in part to women having different entrepreneurs demands for job characteristics and expecta- Female-run firms have fewer employees, tions of labor market outcomes than men. For lower sales, and lower capital stock than example, Bender, Donohue, and Heywood those run by men, as evidence from Europe (2005) find that flexibility is an important and Central Asia, Africa, and Latin America job characteristic that appeals to women and and the Caribbean has shown (Amin 2010; may play a contributing role in gender-based Bardasi, Blackden, and Guzman 2007; Bruhn labor market segregation. 2009; Costa and Rijkers 2011; Sabarwal and In sum, men earn more than women across Terell 2008). Various conditions explain why countries in the East Asia and Pacific region, female-run firms produce less per worker although the reasons for this vary from coun- than male-run firms and, in particular, why try to country. Education differences between women tend to head smaller firms in less men and women are not able to explain the capital-intensive sectors than men. The three bulk of gender gaps in labor market wages. predominant explanations examined here are In some countries, such as Mongolia and sectoral segregation, skills, and constraints to the Philippines, education differences in fact business development. imply that women should earn more than Sectoral segregation. Firm size and indus- men. The most important differences between trial and occupational sorting along gender men and women are those related to occupa- lines explain a large part of the differences tional choice and family life. Marriage and in returns to capital between firms run by childbearing are likely to affect men’s and men and those run by women. In a number women’s earnings in different ways, partly of studies comparing the productivity of 1 2 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C male- and female-run enterprises around the microenterprises make up 98.9, 98.2, and 92.3 world, productivity gaps diminish substan- percent of all micro, small, and medium enter- tially once the industry or sector of employ- prises (MSMEs), respectively, and they make ment is taken into account (Aterido and up 79.3 percent of all enterprises in Malaysia Hallward-Driemeier 2009; Bruhn 2009; (Kushnir, Mirmulstein, and Ramalho 2010). Costa and Rijkers 2011; de Mel, McKenzie, The East Asia and Pacific region has the and Woodruff 2009a, 2009b). This ­ fi nding highest ratio of MSME employment to total also holds for the East Asia and Pacific employment of all regions, mainly driven by region. In Mongolia, substantial differences China, where MSMEs account for 80 percent in capital and sales exist between male- of total employment. and female-owned firms. These are largely Skills. Evidence on whether female entre- explained by the sector of employment and preneurs have a lower level of managerial firm size (World Bank 2011c). In Lao PDR, skills than male entrepreneurs is limited in differences in the productivity between the region. However, gender differences in male- and female-owned firms in the formal both education and soft skills are likely to sector disappear once differences in sector, affect men’s and women’s respective decisions capital, size, and other factors that affect to participate in self-employment and in their productivity are considered (Davies and sector of choice (Brush 1992). Furthermore, Record 2010). In Vietnam, a study commis- differences in entrepreneurial and managerial sioned for this report found that there were skills (such as being able to identify market no gender differences in short-term revenue niches and do bookkeeping) between men growth or survival probability among in and women may explain differences in the firms in the formal sector between 1997 size of the firms that they establish and earn- and 2009 (Bjerge and Rand 2011). 20 In the ings gaps (Bruhn, Karlan, and Schoar 2010). informal sector in Indonesia, the sector of Although evidence from studies of entre- operation and the firm’s size accounts for preneurial skills in the region is limited, the almost 90 percent of the observed gender evidence from outside the region is mixed gap in productivity in rural areas (Costa with regard to whether a lack of skills is an and Rijkers 2011), although they account important constraint for entrepreneurs. A for substantially less of the gap in urban study from Peru suggests that giving busi- Indonesia (Badiani and Posadas 2011). ness training to female clients of a microcre- Informality is likely to be a greater deter- dit program did not lead to higher profits or minant of an enterprise’s success than the revenues on average, although the clients did gender of the manager or owner. Evidence adopt some of the activities taught in the pro- from Indonesia and Vietnam suggests that gram, including thinking proactively about differences in profits between female-headed new markets and profit-making opportuni- firms and male-headed firms are substantially ties (Karlan and Valdivia 2011). In Pakistan, smaller than the differences between female- business training was found to increase the headed firms in the formal sector and those survival and profitability of male-run firms in the informal sector (figure 3.15). This mir- but had no effect on female-run firms (Giné rors evidence from Africa (Aterido and Hall- and Mansuri 2011). However, in India, a ward-Driemeier 2009). two-day training program for female clients Evidence on gender constraints in informal of an Indian microfinance institution was enterprises within the East Asia and Pacific found to increase both the amount that they region is more limited than evidence from the borrowed and the likelihood of the clients’ formal sector, however. More data are urgently receiving labor income (Field, Jayachandran, needed on the informal sector, as microen- and Pande 2010). terprises constitute a substantial fraction of Within the region, female entrepreneurs enterprises and employment in the region. themselves consider that their skill limitations In Indonesia, Vietnam, and the Philippines, are a barrier to their success. In Vietnam, a G E N D E R A N D E C O N O M I C O P P O R T U N I T Y    123 survey of 500 female owners of enterprises FIGURE 3.15  Differences in productivity across informal and revealed that female entrepreneurs felt the formal firms in Vietnam are larger than differences across need to improve their skills, particularly male- and female-led enterprises in business management and leadership, through training and education (IFC and 60 productivity measured as value MPDF 2006). These findings are supported added (Dong, thousands) Female informal by another survey that indicated that females 50 rms earn have lower general training levels than men 15,268 dong per (VCCI 2006). worker less 40 than formal rms Constraints to business development. In value added the formal sector, the constraints faced by 30 female-run firms do not appear to be uni- formly greater than those faced by male-run 20 Female rms firms (Davies and Record 2010; IFC 2011; earn 5,809 IFC/NORC Indonesia 2010; World Bank 10 dong per worker 2011b). 21 In the Philippines, qualitative and less than male quantitative research has found little evi- 0 rms unlicensed licensed dence of gender differentiation in lending or female male borrowing in small and medium enterprises (IFC 2011). In Indonesia, insufficient finance Source: World Bank estimates based on Vietnam Household Living Standards Surveys (VHLSS) and financial management were found to be (GSO Vietnam), 2009 data. less of a concern for women (IFC/NORC Note: unlicensed = informal. ­Indonesia 2010). FIGURE 3.16  Self-reporting shows little difference in access to Data from enterprise surveys carried out finance between male- and female-run firms, with the exception of in five Pacific and four East and Southeast Timor-Leste and Tonga Asian countries in 2009 show that entrepre- neurs, regardless of gender, named compe- percentage of formal sector rms that reported tition, finance, and electricity as their top 35 di culty in accessing credit three constraints in five of the nine countries. Male-led and female-led firms reported the 30 same constraints as being the most important 25 in all countries, except Tonga, Vanuatu, and Vietnam. The difference between ­ self-reported 20 percent access to credit constraints for male- and 15 female-run formal sector firms is small in all 10 countries, with the exception of Timor-Leste and Tonga (figure 3.16). 5 However, credit constraints are greater 0 in the smallest firms and in the informal te u R a oa m ia s i Fij ne ng PD at es es na m sector where female-run firms are concen- nu pi To n -L Sa et o do ilip Va La or Vi In Tim trated. Constraints to female entrepreneurs Ph female male may arise in both formal and informal insti- tutional structures, for example, because of Source: World Bank estimates using Enterprise Surveys (database), 2006–11 data. difficulties interacting with male officials Note: Finance is considered to be an obstacle if it is reported as a major or severe constraint. who adhere to cultural norms of female pro- priety. In Indonesia, access to capital is the run informal firms. Female-led microen- most important constraint reported in both terprises also have lower levels of start-up male- and female-run informal firms (figure capital than male-run microenterprises. 22 3.17), and female-run informal firms appear Access to capital may be more limited—and to have substantially less capital than male- more expensive—for female entrepreneurs 1 2 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 3.17  Male- and female-led informal firms report similar Lao PDR over 70 percent of the workforce is constraints in Indonesia employed in agriculture. As the countries across the world have 35 percentage of rms reporting constraints developed, women have been playing a greater role in agricultural activities as 30 men move to the cities in search of non- 25 farm work (Deere and Leon 2003; Ganguly 2003; Mu and van de Walle 2009). This 20 percent “feminization� of agriculture can be seen in 15 multiple countries in the region. In China, the number of households in which women 10 participated in agricultural activities and 5 performed all the farm work rose from 14 percent in 1991 to just under 30 percent 0 in 2009, whereas the fraction of households capital marketing raw transport energy paying of materials wages in which men did all the work remained male female fairly stable (de Brauw et al. 2011; ­ R awski and Mead 1998). In C ­ ambodia, women Source: World Bank estimates using SUSI Integrated (Survey of Cottage and Small-Scale Firms) 2002. make up the majority of farmers—1.4 mil- lion female farmers compared to 1.2 million male farmers (UNIFEM, World Bank, ADB, because they lack collateral (World Bank UNDP, and DFID/UK 2004). In Vietnam, 2011g). According to calculations from the agriculture accounted for 64 percent of work- World Bank Enterprise Surveys database of ing women in rural areas in 2008 compared 2006–11, in all countries in the region for to 53 percent of working men (World Bank which data were available, land and build- 2011e). ings were the predominant forms of collat- Despite the important role played in agri- eral used to acquire a loan for production culture by women in the region, little evidence purposes. This practice puts female entre- is available regarding gender differences in preneurs at a disadvantage since they have productivity, access to inputs, or agricultural fewer of these assets as well as less secure services. Remedying this information gap is access to land or other immobile assets. likely to become increasingly important if the However, the most important determi- feminization of agriculture continues within nant of access to credit is the size of the the region. firm (Beck et al. 2006). Credit institutions The evidence from other regions suggests tend to regard small firms as a bigger risk that female farmers earn less than male farm- than large firms, and, since women tend ers. 23 For example, evidence from Africa to manage smaller firms, this is likely to suggests that, within a household, yields lead to female-run businesses being more on male-run plots are higher than those on constrained in the credit market than busi- female-run plots, predominantly because of nesses that are run by men (Simavi, Manuel, increased male access to fertilizer and labor and Blackden 2010). inputs (Goldstein and Udry 2008; Udry 1996). In comparison, the available evidence Earnings gaps between male and female from China suggests that female farmers are farmers just as productive and efficient as male farm- The agricultural sector continues to be the ers, despite differences in mechanization and major sector of employment in many coun- fertilizer use (de Brauw et al. 2011). Although tries in the region. In Vanuatu, 80 percent female farmers are able to produce similar of the population rely upon small-scale agri- amounts per hectare to men, they do not pro- culture (IFC 2010), and in Cambodia and duce as much overall owing to differences in G E N D E R A N D E C O N O M I C O P P O R T U N I T Y    125 land and nonland inputs between male and inputs. In Cambodia, access to agricultural female farmers. extension services was found to be substan- Agricultural production varies in part tially lower for female farmers than for male between male and female farmers because of farmers in the early 2000s, despite the fact differences in access to land. Female farmers that there were more female farmers than across the world own and operate less land, male farmers (UNIFEM, World Bank, ADB, and often have lower-quality land than male UNDP, and DFID/UK 2004). 25 Reasons for farmers (Deere and Doss 2006; Quisumbing the lower access to extension services among 1998; Quisumbing, Estudillo, and Otsuka female farmers include the extension services’ 2004). 24 Evidence from the East Asia and focus on activities normally conducted by Pacific region suggests that there are sub- men, the focus on literate farmers, and the stantial differences in access to land between need to travel several kilometers to access ser- male and female farmers, as discussed in vices (UNIFEM, World Bank, ADB, UNDP, chapter 2. In China, female-headed house- and DFID/UK 2004). Efforts to reduce these holds own 30 percent less land per capita constraints in the Cambodian context are than male-headed households (de Brauw discussed in chapter 6. et al. 2011). In Lao PDR, male-headed agri- Finally, gender-based differences in social cultural households own approximately and political capital have been found in a 16 percent more land than female-headed number of rural areas, reducing women’s households on average, although in the access to information on farming techniques north of the country men have access to and their ability to protect and regulate local 28 percent more land (FAO/Sida Partnership resources and their marketing channels. In Cooperation 2010). A World Bank study the Philippines, men and women do not differ of women’s landholdings in post-tsunami in their level of participation in local groups, Aceh found that women’s landholdings but they do differ in the types of groups that were considerably less than men’s (World they join. Men are more likely than women Bank 2010b). to be members of production-based groups, Female farmers have also been found to whereas women are more likely to be mem- have less access to technological inputs such as bers of civic groups, which include women’s fertilizers and high quality seeds ­ (Peterman, groups, village youth associations, school Behrman, and Quisumbing 2010). An impor- committees, and village officials (Godquin tant theme in the literature on the use of and Quisumbing 2008). In Indonesia, men productivity-enhancing technology is that have been found to participate in civil soci- access to inputs, not the propensity to use ety organizations related to community-level inputs or productivity once the inputs have governance, physical infrastructure, envi- been used, is the key factor for many female ronmental improvements, and neighborhood farmers. In a review of 24 studies of techno- security, whereas women participate in orga- logical input use, access, and adoption of fer- nizations that focus on family welfare, eco- tilizer, seed varieties, tools, and pesticides in nomics, and health (Beard 2005). Africa and South Asia, Peterman, Behrman, and Quisumbing (2010) found that men have Determinants of labor market greater access to technological resources in segregation the majority of cases. To know whether the same constraints are pertinent in the region The determinants of persistent gender requires further evidence on this topic. employment segregation across countries and Gender differences in access to exten- over time lie at all levels of the economy and sion services are also likely to contribute to society, from gender norms within households ­ differences in the adoption of new technolo- and ­communities to economic signals in the gies and farming practices and to perpetu- marketplace and ideological predilections at ate existing gender inequalities in access to a societal level. Factors that influence labor 1 2 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C market segregation along gender lines include only a small fraction of men and women (a) differences between men and women in continue to higher education. Therefore, the level and composition of their education the nexus of education choice and occupa- and experience, (b) differences in their pref- tional segregation is not currently a primary erences for types of work and job character- driving force for labor market segregation istics, (c) their comparative advantages due in the region. However, it is likely to play to their differences in physical endowments, a larger role among younger cohorts and (d) employers’ perceptions about male and future generations as education continues female employees (sometimes to the extent of to expand. For example, in Taiwan, China, discrimination), and (e) labor market insti- gender wage gaps declined substantially tutions that limit or restrict occupational between 1979 and 1995, a period during choices. These factors are, in themselves, which there was a rapid increase in average determined by the economic signals, institu- educational attainment and a shift from aca- tions, and norms facing individuals, house- demic general-curriculum education toward holds, and communities. vocational training. Among university gradu- This section examines the effects of three ates, differences in degree type between men key factors: (a) gender differences in educa- and women are able to explain between tion levels and labor market skills; (b) gender 20 percent and 50 percent of the gender wage differences in time-use patterns and gender gap, although the link between occupation roles within households, both of which affect and degree type is lower among women than the characteristics and types of work women men (Baraka 1999). are able to do; and (c) labor market and insti- tutional barriers to women’s choices. Time use and gender roles within households Education and skills Differences in the ways men and women Education levels and the type of education spend their time are informative in illuminat- acquired (for example, vocational versus gen- ing why they may invest differently in human eral education) affect the skills that individu- capital, how gender differences in labor mar- als bring into the labor market and hence are ket participation may arise, and what their likely to contribute to their sectoral and occu- occupational and industry choices will be. pational choices.26 As discussed in chapter 2, Time is a valuable resource that is endowed male and female education has been converg- equally across men and women—everyone ing over the past two decades in the East Asia has just 24 hours in a day. Time can be and Pacific region, and in some countries, devoted to a number of uses: labor market such as Mongolia and the Philippines, edu- work; unpaid work within the household, cation acquisition by women has overtaken such as conducting domestic chores and car- that of men. At the tertiary level of educa- ing for children and the elderly; and personal tion (universities, technical training schools, activities, including sleeping, eating, and lei- and so forth), a student’s field of specializa- sure (Becker 1965, 1981). tion was likely to be closely related to his or Women across the world work more than her subsequent sectoral choices. Any gender men. This stylized fact holds true in multiple differences in education choices are therefore low- and middle-income countries across the likely to be mirrored in sectoral dissimilarities world (Berniell and Sanchez-Páramo 2011; among men and women. If women tend to World Bank 2011g), as well as in several choose different fields than men, sectoral and OECD countries (Burda, Hamermesh, and occupational segregation is likely to increase Weil 2007; Slootmaekers-Miranda 2011). as the number of men and women continuing Gender differences in time-use patterns exists to higher and tertiary education rises. at all ages. Whereas men are able to focus pre- In the lower- and middle-income coun- dominantly on their single productive role and tries in the East Asia and Pacific region, conduct their other roles sequentially, women G E N D E R A N D E C O N O M I C O P P O R T U N I T Y    127 are more likely to play these roles simultane- FIGURE 3.18  In Cambodia, women—particularly those with young ously and have to balance competing uses of children—balance household work commitment with market work their time (Blackden and Wodon 2006). However, time differences in hours worked hours spent on activities per day 10 by men and women diminish when growth 9 in gross domestic product (GDP) is combined 8 with gender-neutral social norms. A study 7 of 25 countries across the world finds that 6 men and women did the same amount of hours 5 total work in rich northern countries (Burda, 4 Hamermesh, and Weil 2007). The gender 3 difference in total working time is close to 2 zero for countries with relatively high female 1 employment and with more gender-neutral 0 social norms. without a child with a child without a child with a child In the East Asia and Pacific region, women work more hours and devote more time to male female caregiving and housework than men, and men specialize in market-oriented activities. market work housework and caring Since women’s share of unpaid work is higher Source: World Bank estimates using CSES (NIS Cambodia), 2004 data. than that of men, this translates into shorter time in paid work. Cambodia and 1 hour extra per day in Lao Women indeed work harder. We go to the field PDR (figure 1.20 and 3.18). and return home at the same time as our hus- Third, gender differences in the time band. Afterwards, we still have to cook, do laundry and do other household chores. The devoted to household activities are smaller men after they return home from the field do in high-income households, although this not want to work anymore. represents a reduction in female working Adult woman in rural Batu Palano, time rather than an increase in male work- Indonesia (World Bank 2011a) ing time. In Timor-Leste, rural women in the highest income quintile spend more time on A number of stylized facts emerge from domestic activities than men (figure 3.19). time-use patterns by gender in the region. The difference between men and women First, women work more hours than men; this narrows with rising income. The narrow- holds true at all ages. In Lao PDR, women ing of time-use differences, however, arises work on average 2 hours extra per day than from a reduction in the time devoted by men, and in Cambodia, they work on average women to these activities, thus reflecting 1.2 hours more per day. increased access to technologies and house- Second, gender differences in time-use hold help rather than an increase in male patterns are starker during the childbearing participation. years. In Cambodia, men and women spend Finally, gender differences in the time similar amounts of time in market work until devoted to household activities start at an they are 20 years old, but after that point, early age. In the Philippines, Pörtner (2009) women devote less time to market work studied time use of children between the ages than men and more time to domestic activi- of 7 and 16 and found that, although par- ties (CSES [NIS Cambodia], 2004 data). The ticipation rates and time spent in school by greatest difference between male and female boys and girls were similar, time spent on hours worked is during childbearing years. work and household chores is closely related In households with young children, women to the gender of the child. Boys participate work on average 2 hours extra per day in in market-related activities more than twice 1 2 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 3.19  Women in Timor-Leste spend more time on domestic to be found in the formal sector, whereas activities than men, and these differences are found among richer married women with children are found as well as poorer households in the informal sector, particularly in self- employment. The evidence suggests that hours spent on domestic work per day the movement of married women with chil- 2.5 dren into self-employment is a choice rather than an effect of discrimination (Bosch and 2.0 Maloney 2011). Differences in the time-use patterns of 1.5 men and women also reflect society’s norms hours regarding gender roles and “appropriate 1.0 work.� These social norms and customs affect the ability of both men and women to par- 0.5 ticipate in the economic, social, or political domain. In China, despite strong governmen- 0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 tal support for gender equality on multiple expenditure quintile levels in the workplace, cultural norms have female male still emphasized the role of women as xianqi liangmu (a good wife and a good mother) Source: World Bank estimates using Timor-Leste Survey of Living Standards (NSD [Timor-Leste] and as the bearer of responsibility for house- 2007 data). hold work (Chen 2005; Honig 2000). These norms persist even as development progresses as often as girls, whereas from the age of 14, and women’s share of income in household girls spend on average twice as much time on economies rises. In Beijing, even when the household chores than boys. wife’s income represents a larger share of Spending greater time on household activi- the couple’s combined income, women still ties has implications for women’s labor mar- do the majority of the household work (Zuo ket outcomes. Because women do a greater and Bian 2001). Both men and women justi- proportion of household work and child care fied this in terms of their gender roles in the than men, they have less time for productive household. 27 Similar patterns are found in activities. This pattern makes them less likely Nanjing (Kim et al. 2010). to enter the labor market and implies that, Social norms may be reinforced at the when they do, they are more likely to choose level of the nation-state, if the role of women occupations that give them the flexibility to as homemakers and mothers and of men as conduct their domestic responsibilities (Anker breadwinners is underlined in political dis- 1998; Becker 1965). course. In Malaysia, the Nation of Character Women may regard the informal sec- project focused on 25 key values important tor as more compatible with childbearing for the development of good character in chil- and household responsibilities than the dren. This project very clearly put forward formal sector, since it offers greater flex- that women’s most important tasks were ibility in hours, although flexibility comes related to the home and to strengthening of at a price—less security, lower status, and the family. The division of labor between a lack of nonwage benefits such as social men and women in the public and private security, health insurance, and paid sick sphere is further emphasized from an early leave. Female entrepreneurs may similarly age in parts of the region (White 2006). prefer to keep their businesses small because In Cambodia, a book of moral codes—the doing so allows them to combine household Chba’p srey — emphasizes the “proper� responsibilities with work (Sabarwal, Ter- behavior and conduct of women, and limits rell, and Bardasi 2011). In Thailand, single their opportunities outside the household women without children are more likely (Dasgupta and Williams 2010). G E N D E R A N D E C O N O M I C O P P O R T U N I T Y    129 Labor regulations and informal more restrictions on industry choices than institutions other men and women (World Bank 2010f). Labor laws and regulations can directly These protective restrictions may increase affect the demand for female workers and the cost of employing women. For example, constrain these workers in their choice of in Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, and the occupation. In many countries, restrictions Philippines, women are not allowed to work on women’s working hours or industries the same night hours as men. In the Philip- were introduced as measures to protect the pines, the law states that women are unable health of women (particularly those who to work between 10 at night and 6 in the are pregnant or lactating) or women in morning of the following day. The restric- potentially hazardous jobs. However, with tions on women’s work have been criticized improvements in labor market conditions in as particularly restrictive by the call center dangerous industries and with the passing industry, which employs a large propor- of employment legislation designed to pro- tion of women who are required to work tect the health and safety of workers, many at night (Keitel 2009). Paid maternity leave of these restrictions may no longer be rel- also increases the cost to employers of hir- evant and could be changed. Measures that ing female workers rather than male work- limit women to work only daytime hours or ers, particularly in countries where paternity restrict their work to a subset of industries leave policies are not in place. In contexts limit their employment options and also where employers bear the burden of this drive employers to hire only men for jobs cost, this is particularly likely to raise the that women might otherwise do. cost of hiring female workers. A study on labor laws commissioned Discriminatory laws in the area of family for this report found that protective legis- and marriage also affect women’s economic lation prohibits women from working in opportunities. Laws relating to family, mar- industries and occupations in 9 of the 12 riage, and inheritance play a key role in influ- low- and ­ m iddle-income countries exam- encing women’s economic rights, including ined in the region (China, Fiji, Kiribati, access to land, housing, and other forms of Korea, M ­ alaysia, Papua New Guinea, the property (Ellis, Kirkwood, and Malhotra ­ Philippines, T­ hailand, and Vietnam) (World 2010). The law of succession in Tonga’s con- Bank 2010f). In Thailand, women are pro- stitution, for example, allows only males to hibited from working in certain occupations, inherit. In Indonesia, the civil code prevents including mining; working on a scaffold women from entering into contracts on their more than 10 meters high; and producing or own behalf, whether to sell or buy property, transporting explosives or flammable materi- which enables men to influence women’s als. In Vietnam, the Labor Code prohibits access to collateral. Access to land is depen- assigning female workers to “heavy or dan- dent on a woman’s married status, and her gerous work, or work requiring contact with control and ownership can be lost upon toxic substances, which has adverse effects divorce, widowhood, migration, or desertion on her ability to bear and raise a child.� The by her husband (IFC 2010). code also provides that women, regardless of Women also have less access to informa- age, cannot be employed in mines or in deep tion on opportunities and job networks. water. No similar provisions are applicable Personal connections are recognized as to men. In Mongolia, until 2008, extensive facilitating job search, but women’s domestic labor market regulations limited female par- responsibilities make it difficult for them to ticipation in multiple sectors of the economy, forge useful social connections (Timberlake including mining, transport, and construc- 2005). In Nanjing city, China, a case study tion (World Bank 2011c). Pregnant women suggests that women secured less-­ attractive are even more limited in their choices: in jobs through their own networks than 6 out of 10 countries in the region, they have through those of their husbands. Women 1 3 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C who have fewer social contacts also were and among genders (World Bank 2011a). See more vulnerable to redundancy and expe- box 3.2 for more detail. rienced more hardship in finding a new job after having been displaced from their old job (Hiroko, Liu, and Tamashita 2011). Policies to promote gender Finally, occupational segregation may equality in economic be related to persistent stereotypes about opportunity what are appropriate occupations for The analysis in this chapter has identified men and women. Stereotypes of women as several indicators of gender inequalities in the homemakers and men as breadwinners can productive sphere where challenges remain translate into perceptions about their skills and where policy may be able to reduce per- in the labor market and, therefore, the type sistent gender-based differences in economic of market work they do (Anker 1998). For opportunities and outcomes. A detailed dis- example, positive stereotypes of women— cussion of policy examples and their impacts having a caring nature, manual dexterity, will follow in chapter 6. skill at conducting household work, and greater honesty—could lead to the hypoth- Mitigating trade-offs between women’s esis that women would be better qualified household and market roles to work as nurses, teachers, clerks, and sales assistants, among other occupations (Anker Promoting gender equality in economic 1998). In qualitative work undertaken in opportunity requires policies and investments Fiji, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and that address the trade-offs between women’s Vietnam, gendered beliefs about appropri- household and market roles. Women often ate employment for men and women were face stark time trade-offs between house- remarkably consistent across these countries hold chores and market work, particularly in BOX 3.2  Gender-related beliefs on appropriate employment in Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, and Vietnam Gender-related beliefs about appropriate employ- a woman with a knife in her hand.� Differing skill ment for men and women were remarkably consis- levels could be conflated with conceptions of heavy tent across East Asian and Pacific countries where and light work, for example, when one young male qualitative fieldwork was undertaken (Fiji, Papua respondent said that men do heavy work such as that New Guinea, and Vietnam), and among both men of an auto mechanic, while women do light work, and women, although some change in gender norms “such as accounting.� A focus group discussion with was observed among younger cohorts. Comments adult women in the urban National Capital District largely revolved around the concept of “heavy� of Papua New Guinea revealed further gender ste- (physically demanding) versus “light� work, with reotypes and fears held by these women about what the former ascribed to men and the latter to women. they considered to be gender-specific employment. In Vietnam, an adult man from Hanoi said that “In They said that secretaries should be women (so that general, men are better with heavy jobs like taxi they are not “aggressive to their bosses�), and trad- driver. Women are better with lighter jobs like sew- ing stores should be run by men as they have the ing, and selling things. . . . Men are better with big “ideas, mindset and business knowledge� and would business because it is hard work—men are more not be “targeted by criminals.� decisive than women. Job[s] like killing pigs, in prin- ciple women can do, but it would be strange to see Source: World Bank 2011a. G E N D E R A N D E C O N O M I C O P P O R T U N I T Y    131 rural areas. In such contexts, programs and also lead by example. Even if women enter policies targeted at reducing women’s time more “male� occupations, stereotypes are on chores—for example, through investment likely to persist with respect to women as in infrastructure—are likely to increase their leaders and managers. The public sector is ability to engage in market-based, income- in a unique position to establish good prac- earning opportunities. Policies that support tice in this regard by encouraging women’s women in balancing their caregiving and professional advancement, either through market roles are also critical to strengthening direct measures such as targets or quotas, their access to economic opportunity. Access or through specialized training programs. In to affordable and accessible child care can be this context, the government of Malaysia put critical in this regard. Community child-care in place a system of quotas for female man- centers, particularly those targeted at low- agers in the public sector; the approach has income neighborhoods, have been found to recently been extended to private sector firms increase maternal employment in a number to encourage women to assume leadership of Latin American countries. roles. In Mexico, the government initiated a Parental and paternity leave can promote system of grants to firms to improve gender- greater parity between the sexes by facilitat- based employment issues in their workplace ing a more equitable division of child-rearing and also to improve the gender distribution responsibilities, thus allowing women to have in management. the same opportunities as men for advanc- ing their careers in the formal sector. Within the region, only Cambodia, Indonesia, and Eliminating resource constraints on the Philippines currently have provisions for female-led farms and enterprises paternity leave. Evidence from the OECD Despite progress, the existing evidence sug- on the take-up of paternity leave is mixed, gests that women continue to have less access however, suggesting that providing paternity to a range of productive resources than do leave alone is not sufficient to change the cur- men, as a function of their gender as opposed rent gender division of child-rearing respon- to their innate productive capabilities. Pub- sibilities within households. Rather, it needs lic policies may thus have an important to be combined with approaches to breaking role to play in promoting gender equality in down gender norms regarding household the control of productive inputs—whether caregiving roles. land, agricultural extension, technology, or financial capital. Policies aimed at promot- Breaking down gender silos in the labor ing equal access to assets, particularly land, market requires careful thought, since complex legal, social, and economic factors are at play and A critical element of breaking down gender the evidence base is thin. Levelling the legal silos in the labor market involves investing in playing field is usually a good start, but it is skills on the basis of productivity rather than even more important to work with the infor- on gender norms and perceptions of “appro- mal institutions and take into account norms priate� occupations. Beyond efforts to reduce and customary practices in order to remove gender streaming in education, discussed barriers in that domain. above, programs that encourage both women Improving women’s access to productive and men to think outside of gender stereo- assets can play an important role in rais- types in the job market will likely improve ing enterprise productivity, whether in the the allocation of talent toward jobs in a way farm or nonfarm sector, as in the following that enhances both equality of economic examples: opportunity and productivity. Breaking down social norms and percep- Several countries in the region have made •   tions is an area where the public sector can headway in recent years in increasing 1 3 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C o ­ wnership and control of land. In response Creating an enabling environment for to concerns about persistent ­ gender inequal- gender equality in employment ities in land, several countries—including Creating an enabling environment is a key Indonesia, Lao PDR, and Vietnam— component of efforts to promote gender recently adopted gender-sensitive reforms equality in economic opportunity in the in land titling. Because the reasons for long term in East Asia and the Pacific. An women’s lower access to land differ across important starting point for promoting equal the region—from unfavorable legal frame- opportunity in employment is to ensure that works to cultural norms and practices that women and men face a level legal playing deem land a male asset—effective policies field with respect to jobs and sectors. Labor to increase female landholdings need to regulations that result in asymmetries in account for context-specific constraints in the costs of hiring male and female workers developing context-specific solutions. can be found in countries across the region. I ncreasing women’s access to information •   Ostensibly protective legislation—in the form and training, extension services, and other of restrictions on women working at night, productive inputs can also play a key role working overtime, and working in so-called in enhancing the productivity of female- dangerous sectors—in practice inhibits wom- led enterprises, both within and outside en’s economic participation. Priority should agriculture. be given to reducing labor market restrictions A lthough evidence on access to finance in •   that limit women’s employment options. East Asian and Pacific countries is mixed, Where the original concerns motivating these women do face particular challenges in policies continue to be valid—for example, accessing credit, given their weaker access health and safety concerns—measures should to land, which is an important source of be taken to ensure that these concerns are collateral. addressed more directly and for both men Where evidence is thin, greater resources and women, whether through workplace should be invested in uncovering the greatest safety codes or through the provision of safe constraints. For example, investments could and reliable transport infrastructure. target the collection of information, by gen- Although formal sector employment is still der, on access to inputs in the agricultural small as a share of total employment in most sector in the region, as well as to inputs and East Asian and Pacific countries, an impor- productivity in the informal sector. tant role for public policy is to strengthen As in the case of education and health, the enabling environment for gender equal- broader systemic weaknesses—whether in the ity in economic opportunity. Active labor form of cumbersome registration procedures, market policies are one means of overcom- weak systems of financial intermediation, or ing gender differences in access for formal lack of electricity—affect both female- and employment. For example, wage subsidies male-led enterprises. Evidence suggests that may allow individuals, albeit temporarily, to such constraints may be more onerous among signal their abilities to future employers and small and informal firms than among larger make it cheaper for employers to hire female firms and, as such, may constrain female-led workers whom they may not otherwise have enterprises disproportionately. Thus, inter- considered. This approach provides the ventions that focus on improving the overall opportunity to reduce stereotypes through investment climate and, in particular, pro- directly observing their skills, and also gives moting small business development will be a women valuable labor market experience. critical part of a strategy to promote gender Skills training programs may enable women equality in access to economic opportunity. and men to move into professions outside of In sum, strategies to promote gender equality gender silos, particularly when paired with in economic opportunity should address sys- apprenticeship opportunities. Although evi- temic as well as gender-specific constraints. dence on the impact of active labor market G E N D E R A N D E C O N O M I C O P P O R T U N I T Y    133 policies in East Asia and the Pacific is limited, differences in human capital and experience, studies from Latin America and the Middle occupational and sectoral selection, underly- East suggest that well-designed active labor ing ability, selection into the labor market, and market policies can help to improve women’s discrimination. 5. Household surveys in Thailand and Vietnam employment outcomes. corroborate this. In urban areas, women Affirmative action policies have also been are approximately 10 percentage points less used to overcome gender-specific barriers to likely to receive benefits than men in Vietnam, employment, whether those barriers are due whereas they are 3 percentage points less to implicit or overt discrimination in hir- likely to do so in Thailand. In the postreform ing and promotion. Although the literature period in China, a growing number of women continues to debate the benefits and costs of and urban workers have been pushed into affirmative action, the evidence (largely from temporary, part-time, insecure, or low-paying high-income countries) suggests that carefully work in the informal sector (Yuan and Cook designed policies can help break down bar- 2010). riers to female employment with few or no 6. Notably, an individual is defined as working in the informal sector if he or she works in adverse effects on firm productivity (World agriculture or is self-employed, is working in Bank 2011g). Affirmative action hiring and the household enterprise, or is working as an promotion in the public sector can also have unpaid family worker. However, an individual important demonstration effects. For exam- is classified as working in the formal sector if ple, in 2004, the government of Malaysia he or she works as a legislator or manager, introduced a public sector gender quota of professional, technician or associate profes- 30 percent female representation across all sional, or plant machine operator or assem- decision-making levels, including positions bler, or is in the armed forces. from department head to secretary general 7. Elementary occupations consist of simple (ASEAN 2008). and routine tasks that mainly require the use of hand-held tools and often some physi- cal effort. For a more detailed explanation, please refer to the International Standard Notes Classification of Occupations (ISCO) by the 1. Using cross-country data for selected Asian International Labour Organization. economies, Meng (1996) found no significant 8. Care should be taken when interpreting the relationship between economic development data from Samoa, Timor-Leste, Tonga, and and the relative earnings of men and women. Vanuatu because of very small sample sizes. In fact, gender inequality in earnings within 9. Evidence from across the world suggests that the East Asia and Pacific region was worse firms with greater female representation in in high-income countries such as Japan and management display lower levels of gender the Republic of Korea than in the low- and inequalities, including wage gaps and inequal- middle-income countries. ities within firms (Cohen and Huffman 2007; 2. Unfortunately, data constraints prevent look- Graves and Powell 1995; Huffman, Cohen, ing at birth age-cohort patterns within the and Pearlman 2010). majority of countries in the region. 10. Occupational and industrial segregation by 3. Gender wage gaps do not capture earnings dif- gender is detrimental for labor market effi- ferences among all men and women of work- ciency and welfare for four principal reasons ing age. First, they miss a large fraction of the (Anker 1998). First, men and women are not workforce, notably those in unpaid work or working in occupations or industrial sec- self-employed workers. Second, since there tors to which they are best suited and most may be differential selection between males productive but are rather choosing their work and females into the labor force—and into based on other factors. This trend reduces wage employment rather than entrepreneur- overall incomes and aggregate productivity. ship and agriculture—gender wage gaps are Second, gender-based segregation increases also likely to reflect these selection decisions. labor market rigidity and reduces the abil- 4. Aggregate relative wage data should, however, ity of labor markets to respond to economic be treated with caution since it confounds reforms and labor market shocks, such as those 1 3 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C related to globalization. Third, segregation to explain gender earnings gaps, as well as reinforces and perpetuates negative gender other unobserved characteristics that may stereotypes, consequently reducing women’s vary between males and females, such as status, income, education, and skills. Finally, the intensity of work conducted, workplace segregation of the current generation has neg- characteristics, and unobserved measures of ative effects on future generations. ability. Furthermore, if the occupation choice 11. In Indonesia, controlling for sector of operation or tenure trajectories within a firm reflect the and firm size accounts for 17 percent of differ- impact of discrimination, then measuring dis- ences in profits in rural areas, and 50 percent in crimination as the unexplained component of urban areas (Badiani and Posades 2011), and wage gaps will underestimate its true extent. industry accounts for 9 to 14 percent of earn- 16. In the OECD, Blau and Kahn (2003) find ings among self-employed individuals in the that 38 percent of the total gender wage gap United States (Hundley 2001). is unexplained by differences in occupational 12. Several hypotheses suggest why female labor and sectoral choice, education, and experi- force participation first falls before rising with ence. In addition, women have less labor economic development. Boserup (1970) sug- market experience—in OECD countries as gests that men’s greater access to education well as developing countries (Goldin, Katz, and technologies implies that they displace and Kuziemko 2006)—in part because they women from the labor force during the early are more likely both to take time out from the stages of a country’s development. As devel- work force and to work part-time. opment continues and women gain more 17. The evidence suggests a similar pattern in the access to education and technologies, female United States. Bertrand, Goldin, and Katz labor force participation increases. Another (2010) find that female master of business well-established hypothesis for this phenom- administration (MBA) graduates earn less, even enon focuses on income and substitution if they choose similar professional paths as men. effects (Goldin 1995; Mammen and Paxson Bayard et al. (2003) find that a large portion of 2000). As development occurs, households’ the gender wage gap in the United States can unearned incomes rise, reducing the incen- be explained by pay differences between males tive of women to work outside the home. and females within narrowly defined occupa- The negative impact of rising incomes on tions and within ­establishments. women’s labor force participation is termed 18. The gender wage gap is decomposed at differ- the “income effect,� since greater household ent points in the earnings distribution using income implies that households are able to the decomposition method based on uncondi- afford more female leisure time. The substitu- tional quantile regression as outlined in Firpo, tion effect works in the opposite direction—as Fortin, and Lemieux (2009). In this method, female wages rise, more women are enticed to the estimates from the unconditional quantile enter the workforce (Goldin 1995; Mammen regression constitute average partial effects and Paxson 2000). of a small location shift of an independent 13. In the East Asia and Pacific region, evidence variable on the unconditional quantile of the of declining female labor force participation dependent variable. as incomes rise has been found in Thailand 19. Evidence from across the world suggests that (Mammen and Paxson 2000). marriage and childbearing have a large impact 14. In the OECD, a number of studies find that on the gender wage gap. In the United States, childcare costs negatively impact rates of marital status and young children account for female labor force participation and that the approximately half the gender wage gap faced provision of subsidized child care raises par- by young women. A large component of the ticipation (Anderson and Levine 1999; Blau gender gap in earnings is attributable to women and Currie 2006; Chevalier and Viitanen 2002; having more career interruptions and shorter Del Boca 2002; Gelbach 2002; Gustafsson work hours, including more work in part-time and Stafford 1992). positions and self-employment (Becker 1981; 15. For example, even if differences in average Bertrand, Goldin, and Katz 2010; Korenman human capital have been considered, the and Neumark 1992; Mincer and Polachek residual is likely to still contain differences 1974; Sasser 2005; Wood, Corcoran, and between the composition and quality of edu- Courant 1993). These estimates may, how- cation of males and females that may help ever, underestimate the effect of parenting and G E N D E R A N D E C O N O M I C O P P O R T U N I T Y    135 gender divisions of household labor on wage that women are more risk averse than men gaps, since the demands placed on women (Eckel and Grossman 2008). at home can influence education, career, and 27. Women tended to consider men’s “over engage- work choices (O’Neill 2003). ment� in household chores as “unmanly� and 20. Indeed, household survey data in Vietnam, “non ambitious.� Women often explained the which also cover microenterprises, suggest fact that they carried out most domestic work that female-run household enterprises were (while having a full-time job) as fulfilling their more likely to survive compared to male- obligation to care for their families. In addition, run enterprises between 1993 and 1998 the view was expressed that women with extreme (Vijverberg and Haughton 2004). The higher career ambitions—who did not assume much rates of female-run firms’ survival are linked household responsibilities—would be criticized to women’s predominance in certain sectors. as “selfish� or “non feminine.� Interestingly, 21. Evidence from the enterprise surveys conducted wives with higher income and “occupational in 2009 in Lao PDR suggests that female-run prestige� than their husbands often retained the firms consistently report business environment primary responsibility for taking care of domes- constraints to be less severe than male-run tic work. This was seen as a “counter balance� firms (Davies and Record 2010). Similarly, to their violation of cultural values about who in rural Indonesia, there are no differences in should be the primary b ­ readwinner. the severity of reported business constraints between female- and male-run household References enterprises (Costa and Rijkers 2011). 22. 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Aceh Land Administration System Project. Zuo, Jiping, and Yanjie Bian. 2001. “Gendered World Bank, Washington, DC. Resources, Division of Housework and ———. 2011a. Defining Gender in the XXI Perceived Firness: A Case in Urban China.� Century: Conversations with Men and Women Journal of Marriage and Family 63: 1122–33. Agency: Voice and Influence within the Home and in Society 4 I n much of the world, women have a family resources. Similarly, at the commu- more limited voice and influence than nity or societal level, the relative power of men in decision making in their homes, individuals and groups affects their abil- their communities, and society. Women are ity to act on their preferences and influ- also more likely to be victims of gender- ence outcomes in the economic, social, and based violence. The inability of women to political domains. The relative power of voice and act on their preferences negatively different members of society, which often affects their own welfare and is detrimental differs systematically by gender, reflects to development. a complex combination of one’s personal This chapter analyzes women’s agency characteristics, prevailing social norms, in East Asian and Pacific countries. The and the broader legal and institutional ­c hapter defines agency as the ability of environments. individuals or groups to give voice to and act on their preferences and to influence o utcomes that affect them and others in ­ Agency—important for gender society. Agency is affected by and also equality and development affects individuals’ ownership of and con- The ability to act on one’s preferences, trol over endowments and their access to regardless of one’s gender, and to translate economic opportunities (Kabeer 1999). those preferences into desired outcomes is a The discussion of agency in this chapter development objective in its own right. As also includes the ability of countries to discussed in chapter 1, development not only ensure the safety and security of women in involves raising incomes or reducing pov- their homes and in society, because gender- erty, but also involves a process of expand- based violence and trafficking of women ing freedoms and choices available to all reflects the extreme deprivation of women’s people (Sen 1999). Agency is a measure of a agency in society. person’s well-being, reflecting both the abil- Within a household or partnership, ity to achieve as well as actual achievements one’s relative power affects the strength (Sen 1992). of one’s voice and influence in household Women’s agency enhances development. decisions, such as how to spend or invest When women are free to make choices, that 145 1 4 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C freedom positively affects all levels of soci- sphere.1 To the extent that development is ety. Increasing women’s voice and influence accompanied by stronger legal and judicial in the home has been found to improve chil- systems, more-developed societies provide dren’s education, health, and welfare (Duflo women (and men) with better access to jus- 2003; Fiszbein and Schady 2009; Haddad, tice, which strengthens their voice and pro- Hoddinott, and Alderman 1997; Thomas tects them against the extreme deprivation 1995), as discussed in chapter 2. Increasing of agency. women’s representation in firm ownership Growth and development alone are not and management, and on corporate boards, enough to enhance women’s agency in all its also increases gender equality within firms dimensions. As shown in previous chapters, and increases the provision of nonwage women have made positive strides toward benefits to workers (Cohen and Huffman gender equality in education and health, yet 2007; Ely 1995; Hultin and Szulkin 2003; gender gaps remain in access to assets and Rand and Tarp 2011). Increasing women’s economic opportunity. Increasing women’s representation in elected office not only ability to earn and accumulate assets is criti- ensures that decisions are more representa- cal for strengthening their voice and influ- tive of the voting population, but also can ence in society and making them less vulner- lead to increased provision of public goods, able to domestic violence and other types of better natural resource management, and abuse. Moreover, the relationship between increased reporting of crimes against women economic development and women’s politi- (Agarwal 2009; Ban and Rao 2009; Bea- cal representation, an important pathway man et al. 2012; Chattopadhyay and Duflo toward agency in society, is unclear (figure 2004). Global evidence shows that violence 4.2). Although development can contribute against women has lasting negative effects to strengthening women’s agency in some on economic development in addition to dimensions, data show that improvements in causing significant social, psychological, a number of other areas are not automatic. and physical harm to those who experi- Thus, governments need to develop policies ence and witness it (Morrison and Orlando that actively raise women’s agency if they 2004; Morrison, Ellsberg, and Bott 2007). are to induce meaningful changes toward Reducing gender-based violence thus results gender equality in agency. in healthier workers and higher economic This chapter aims to strengthen under- productivity, with dynamic benefits across standing of gender and agency in East Asian generations. and Pacific countries, and to lay the foun- Economic growth and development can, dation for identifying policy priorities to in turn, contribute to strengthening wom- strengthen women’s voice and influence. The en’s agency in some areas. As discussed in analysis in the chapter focuses on agency in earlier chapters, growth and development the following three domains: result in better education and health out- comes for women—and better human capi- Agency in the household and in individual •   tal outcomes for women contribute directly decisions is examined through household to stronger voice and influence, whether in decision making, control of resources, and the home, in the economy, or in society. reproductive decisions. Economic development, as measured by Agency in the public sphere is examined •   gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, through women’s participation and repre- is also associated with higher levels of civic sentation in the private sector, civil soci- activism, including on issues related to gen- ety, politics, and public institutions. der equality (figure 4.1). Civic activism is S afety and security in expressing one’s •   a measure of “collective agency�; that is, agency are examined through the preva- it is the space for both male and female lence of gender-based violence, an extreme citizens to express their voice in the public deprivation of agency. A G E N C Y : V O I C E A N D I N F L U E N C E W I T H I N T H E H O M E A N D I N S O C I E T Y    147 The form of agency that is most frequently FIGURE 4.1  There is a positive relationship between economic measured is the decision-making power development and civic activism of men and women (Kabeer 1999; Mason levels of civic activism across the world 2005; McElroy 1990). Agency may be more 0.8 explicitly measured by examining women’s mobility in the public domain, their partici- 0.7 civic activism (index) pation in public action, and the incidence of AUS JPN gender-based violence (Kabeer 1999). Some 0.6 HKG researchers have assessed gender differences WSM KOR SGP in bargaining power within a household PHL FJI MYS TWN 0.5 IDN THA by examining the extent to which people’s VNM CHN MNG TON choices change when factors affecting their LAO SLB VUT 0.4 KHM PNG bargaining power, such as education, relative FSM earnings, or asset holdings, change (Duflo 0 4 6 8 10 12 2003; Quisumbing and Maluccio 2003; log GDP per capita (constant 2000 $) Thomas 1990, 1992). rest of world East Asia and Pacific global relationship Agency at the household level is difficult to measure, since negotiations for decision- Source: World Development Indicators (WDI) database; Indices of Social Development (ISD) m aking power often occur within private ­ ­database. Note: GDP = gross domestic product. spaces in the household. Furthermore, since indicators of agency are of relatively new ­ i nterest to the international develop- FIGURE 4.2  There is no clear relationship between economic ment community, many have not yet been development and women’s representation in parliament measured over time. Where possible, the share of parliamentary seats held by women chapter will present information on how 60 women’s agency has evolved over time in the region. When data on different dimen- sions of agency are not available over time, however, the chapter will present the most 40 recent evidence available—both qualitative percent TMP and quantitative. VNM AUS LAO PHL SGP The remainder of the chapter is struc- 20 KHM CHN tured as follows. The next section analyzes IDN THA KOR the state of agency in the region. The third WSM MYS JPN section analyzes the factors that influence KIR VUT MNG MHL PNG TUV TON agency, and the fourth section identifies key 0 SLB FSM PLW policy priorities for promoting gender equal- 4 6 8 10 12 log GDP per capita (constant 2000 $) ity in voice and influence in the region. These rest of world East Asia and Paci c directions for policy are discussed in further detail in chapter 6. Source: WDI database; ISD database. Despite the geographic proximity between Note: GDP = gross domestic product. East Asian countries and the Pacific Islands, their development experiences and paths toward gender equality have been different, The state of women’s agency in especially with respect to women’s voice and East Asia and the Pacific influence. For this reason, this chapter distin- The East Asia and Pacific region has experi- guishes, where possible, between the progress enced uneven gains in women’s agency over made and the challenges faced by East Asian the past two decades. Although women now and Pacific countries in the different domains have more household decision-making power, of agency. more influence and voice in the public sphere, 1 4 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C and new laws to protect their choices and Women in the Pacific have relatively less interests in society, progress has been uneven control over their own earnings. Between across countries, and many challenges still 13 and 15 percent of women in Marshall remain. Women in East Asia had the high- Islands, Samoa, and Tuvalu report that their est representation in national parliaments in husbands have control over their wives’ cash the developing world in the 1990s; yet, the earnings (figure 4.3). Studies in different share of women in parliaments has reached countries in the Pacific also find high levels a plateau and fallen behind other regions in of financial control by men in the house- the past decade. Women have little represen- hold. In Kiribati, for example, 19 percent tation among parliamentarians in the Pacific. of women report that their partners do not Women’s participation in the private sector allow them to make any financial decisions has increased, but women remain a minority for household expenditures, and 12 percent among firm owners and on corporate boards. of women report that they cannot e ­ xercise The sections that follow examine evidence on control of their own incomes because their women’s voice and influence in the home and partners take it away. When intimate partner in the public domain, as well as evidence on violence occurs, women have an even weaker gender-based violence in the region. voice over household financial decisions. Twenty-three percent of women who expe- rience ­intimate partner violence report that Agency in the household and in their partners do not allow them to make personal decisions any financial decisions related to household Women’s household decision-making power expenditure, and 22 percent report having no in the region is relatively high. Women from control of their own income. all wealth quintiles in East Asia and the Most women in the region have the free- Pacific are more likely to have control over dom to make other household decisions, large purchases and over decisions to visit whether related to their own health care, family and relatives than women in other household purchases, or visits to family and developing regions, and they are among the relatives. Women in the Pacific have slightly most likely to have control over their own less ability to make decisions on their own earnings. However, a higher share of women health care and household purchases, on in East Asia than in the Pacific control their average, than women in East Asia. In the own income and have a say in other house- Philippines, 94 percent of women make their hold decisions, reflecting a great intraregional own health care decisions solely or jointly variation. with their spouse, whereas only 70 percent Women in East Asia, in particular, of women in the Marshall Islands do so have high levels of autonomy. According (figure 4.4). Similar patterns occur in how to Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) much say wives have in decisions regarding data, nearly 70 percent of married women visits to her family and relatives. However, ages 15 to 49 in Cambodia and Indonesia in some areas in East Asia, women also report that they control their own earnings; have relatively little decision-making power 31 and 28 percent, respectively, report joint with regard to certain choices. For instance, control of their earnings with their h­ usbands. 18 percent of women surveyed in Indonesia Only 1 percent of women in Cambodia, and report that men have the final say in making 3 percent of women in Indonesia, report decisions on household purchases. Women in that their husbands decide how their earn- Tuvalu and the Marshall Islands report hav- ings are used (figure 4.3). Women in Cam- ing the lowest control over their own health bodia and Timor-Leste report high levels care decisions and household purchases of control not only over their own income, ­ (figure 4.4; DHS data, various years). but also over their husband’s income (DHS Where DHS data are not available, country data, various years). 2 surveys from Kiribati, the Solomon Islands, A G E N C Y : V O I C E A N D I N F L U E N C E W I T H I N T H E H O M E A N D I N S O C I E T Y    149 and Vanuatu suggests that women have rela- FIGURE 4.3  Who decides how wives’ cash earnings are used varies tively low levels of autonomy with respect to across the region household decision making. This data indi- cates a high prevalence of controlling behav- person who decides how the wife’s cash earnings are used (%) ior by husbands and male partners over 100 household, financial, and mobility decisions. Of partnered women, 58 percent and 69 per- 90 cent reported the experience of some sort of 80 controlling behavior by their partners in the 70 Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, respectively. 60 percent This sort of behavior includes preventing her 50 from seeing family, wanting to know where 40 she is at all times, forbidding contact with 30 other men, and controlling access to health 20 care. Controlling behaviors by husbands are 10 often correlated with a lack of agency in 0 other dimensions, as well as with personal a oa sia s ds lu te ne di va es an characteristics that hinder agency, such as m ne bo pi -L Tu Sa Isl do ilip m or all Ca In poor endowments and economic opportuni- Tim Ph sh ar ties, discussed in more detail below. In both M mainly wife jointly mainly husband the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, women with little to no education are more likely Source: DHS data, various years. to have partners who exhibit controlling Note: Among currently married women ages 15–49 who receive cash earnings for employment. behaviors than women with higher educa- FIGURE 4.4  A majority of wives control decisions regarding their tional attainment. Women who have expe- own health care and household purchases rienced intimate partner violence are also significantly more likely to experience con- trolling behaviors than women who have not percentage of currently married women ages 15–49 who control health care and purchasing decisions solely or with husband experienced violence (SPC and NSO 2009; 100 VWC and NSO 2011). In that sense, the fac- 90 tors that inhibit women’s agency are likely to 80 be mutually reinforcing. 70 Globally, women living in wealthier households are likely to have more decision- 60 percent making power than women living in poorer 50 households. This pattern bears out in Pacific 40 countries, but less so in East Asia. Evidence 30 from countries in other regions of the world 20 illustrates that women in wealthier house- 10 holds have a wider set of choices and face 0 a lu s te s oa sia fewer financial constraints. As a result, they ne nd di va es m ne bo pi sla -L Tu Sa do lip have more freedom to make purchasing deci- m or ll I Ca In i Tim Ph a sh sions and rarely have to forgo human capi- ar M own health care household purchases tal investments in their children or to ration their access to goods and services. Avail- Source: DHS data, various years. able data for East Asia suggest, however, that women in wealthier households do not from countries in the Pacific show a different have substantially more control over deci- picture. For instance, in Vanuatu, 50 percent sions than women in households with lower of women in households at the bottom of the income-levels (figure 4.5). Conversely, data income distribution have to ask permission 1 5 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C to visit family or others, while 41 percent of China, Thailand, and Vietnam had the low- women in wealthier households have to do so est fertility rate in the region, at less than two (VWC and NSO 2011). births per woman. The Pacific Islands (bar- Women have made advances in their abil- ring Fiji, at 2.7 births per woman) have the ity to make reproductive decisions in nearly highest fertility rates in the region, at over 3.5 all countries in the region. Reductions in births per woman. While all countries in the fertility rates and fertility gaps—defined region have experienced a decrease in female as unwanted fertility—are observed across fertility rates, Timor-Leste experienced a most countries in East Asia, suggesting that spike of 7.8 births per woman in 2003 before women have gained greater control over declining to 5.7 births per woman in 2009– their reproductive decisions. In many East 10. Despite progress, fertility remains the Asian and Pacific countries, the use of con- highest among the poorest Timorese, at 7.3 traceptive methods—whether modern or births per woman, compared to 4.2 births traditional—has become increasingly more among the wealthiest. Women with no edu- common. For example, in Cambodia, the cation have significantly more children than percentage of married women using modern women with more than a secondary educa- methods of family planning increased from tion: 6.1 versus 2.9 children per woman. The 19 percent to 35 percent between 2000 and high fertility observed in Timor-Leste can 2010. The percentage of married women be partially attributed to weakened health using traditional methods increased from 5 systems due to prolonged political conflict percent to 16 percent during the same period (World Bank 2011d). (NIS and DGH 2011). Countries with the highest fertility rates Most countries in both East Asia and the also have the highest percentages of adoles- Pacific have seen decreases in the number cent pregnancies. As can be seen in figure of births per woman (figure 4.6). In 2009, 4.6 and figure 4.7, the countries in the region with the highest fertility rates also have the highest percentage of pregnant teenagers ages FIGURE 4.5  Women in East Asia have greater control over 15 to 19. Among young women in the Pacific decisions than in other regions in this age range, a large number of pregnan- (percent) cies are unwanted or mistimed (figure 4.8). In the Marshall Islands, Solomon Islands, share of women with some control over decisions by wealth quintile and Nauru, more than half of young women visit to report having had an unwanted pregnancy large purchases family or relatives owning earnings (Kennedy et al. 2011). 100 In some countries where fertility rates have 90 decreased, women still have more children than they desire. In the past 50 years in the 80 Philippines, the average number of children percent 70 per woman decreased from 7.0 children to 3.3 children (Costello and Casterline 2002). 60 However, the fertility gap in the Philippines is 50 still high, with an average number of children per mother of 3.3 and a desired number of 40 children per mother of only 2.4 (NSO [Phil- Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 ippines] and ICF Macro 2009). This may be Latin America and more the result of norms, or weak service East Asia and Paci c Europe and Central Asia the Caribbean delivery than spousal control. In fact, 65 per- Middle East and North Africa South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa cent of women who do not use contraceptives Source: World Bank 2011b. mention health concerns, fear of side effects, Note: Country coverage for East Asia and Pacific includes Cambodia, Indonesia, and the Philippines. and inconvenience of use; 18 percent cite A G E N C Y : V O I C E A N D I N F L U E N C E W I T H I N T H E H O M E A N D I N S O C I E T Y    151 opposition by women or their partner or reli- FIGURE 4.6  Fertility rates in the region have declined over the gious factors; 23 percent cite issues of access, past three decades distance, or cost. Only 2 percent cite lack of 8 fertility rate, total (births per woman) knowledge of method or source (NSO [Phil- ippines] and ICF Macro 2009). Women who 7 number of births per woman experience violence also seem more likely to 6 have an unplanned pregnancy. In Kiribati, 5 for example, 22 percent of women who expe- 4 rienced domestic violence had an unplanned 3 pregnancy, compared to 12 percent of those 2 who did not experience domestic violence (SPC, Ministry of Internal and Social Affairs, 1 and Statistics Division 2010). ea DR na ds te ia Advancement toward gender equality ys es an in i oP Ch ala -L Gu Isl La or in agency in the household in one dimen- M on ew Tim m aN sion may not translate into progress in other lo pu So Pa dimensions. A study of 21 communities in 1980 1990 2000 2009 Thailand found that women are relatively free to make fertility-related decisions and Source: WDI database, 2011 data. participate in the labor market, but they have only moderate levels of freedom of movement FIGURE 4.7  Adolescent fertility is especially high in the Pacific and high levels of fear about disagreeing with adolescent fertility rate, 2009 their husbands on household matters (Mason 80 and Smith 2003). Other studies show even 70 more striking differences in levels of agency across dimensions in countries in the Pacific. 60 For instance, data collected for the interna- fertility rate (%) 50 tional Social Institutions and Gender Index 40 indicate that women in Papua New Guinea face a relatively high level of agency in 30 some public dimensions, such as freedom of 20 movement and freedom of dress, while they ­ 10 experience very low levels of agency in their households, for example, with respect to vio- 0 lence (SIGI, 2010 data). sia ds a ea DR te in es an in y oP Ch ala -L Gu Isl La or M on w Tim Ne m Agency in the public domain lo ua So p Pa Women in East Asia have made dynamic Source: WDI database, 2009 data. strides in participation and influence in the Note: Adolescent fertility rate is the number of births per 1,000 women ages 15-19. private sector, civil society, and political insti- tutions. Current levels are still far from equal. of women on corporate boards increased In the Pacific, women have experienced little from less than 5 percent to almost 9 percent change in many public domains and continue over the past decade (Mahtani, Vernon, and to face large challenges. Sealy 2009). East Asia has a high percentage of firms owned by women and firms with The private sector women in the top management compared to Women’s participation and leadership in the other developing regions. Mongolia, the Phil- private sector has made progress in East Asia. ippines, and Vietnam have among the high- In Hong Kong SAR, China, the percentage est levels of female participation in business 1 5 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 4.8  The rate of unwanted and mistimed pregnancies is ownership. However, owning an asset might especially high in the Pacific be significantly different from having the principal voice in managing and running an proportion of intended, mistimed, and unwanted enterprise. In the five countries in the region pregnancies in East Asian and Paci c countries 100 for which data are available—­ I ndonesia, 90 Malaysia, Mongolia, the Philippines, and 80 Vietnam—more firms have female participa- 70 tion in ownership than female top managers 60 (figure 4.9). percent 50 40 Civil society and grassroots movements 30 East Asian women have seen some improve- 20 ments in the strength of their voice and their 10 0 ability to actively participate in civil society and grassroots movements. Data show a a a alu s u Tim sia te ds oa ds m ne di ur es positive relationship between the strength of an an m ne na v bo Na pi -L Tu Sa Isl Isl do et ilip m or Vi all on civil society and gender equality. Civil soci- Ca In Ph sh m ar lo ety groups and women’s organizations and So M unwanted pregnancies pregnancies wanted later pregnancies wanted missing movements, in particular, have been impor- tant in creating broader space for women Source: Demographic and Health Surveys, various years. to have voice and influence in society. The a. Percent distribution of births to women 15–19 in the five years preceding the survey, except for Vietnam, where data refer to three years preceding the survey. size and nature of civil society have not been static over the past two decades. Figure 4.10 shows that even though wealthier countries ownership (Enterprise Surveys, 2006– 09 such as Australia and Japan still have a more data). thriving civil society than poorer countries, Still, within companies, women are over the past two decades there has been an less likely to be found in management and increase in the presence of civil society in ­ d ecision-making positions. The share of poorer countries. As a whole, civil society female directors ranges from 10 percent in has been strengthened in the region, which the Philippines and 7 percent in China and has in part been influenced by increasingly Thailand to 5 percent in Indonesia and under amicable relationships between civil society 2 percent in the Republic of Korea and Japan and governments.3 (CWDI 2010). Although 67 percent of all Although most civil society organiza- publicly traded companies in Hong Kong tions (CSOs) are focused on broad develop- SAR, China, have at least one woman on the ment issues—poverty reduction, education, board, only 15 percent of those companies and health—more organizations now focus have more than one (Mahtani, Vernon, and on a wider range of gender issues than two Sealy 2009). Globally, only one country in decades ago. Of those that currently focus on the world, Norway, has succeeded in having gender, some operate at the local level while more than 30 percent female representation others operate at the national level. In Indo- on corporate boards, while only one-third of nesia, the civil society organization PEKKA countries have female board representation (Women-Headed Household Empowerment of over 10 percent (CWDI 2010). Program) was created to address the needs of Despite the presence of women as firm widows who were victims of conflict in Aceh, owners in several countries in the region, to improve their access to legal and finan- women make up a much lower share of cial assistance, and to improve their overall female top managers and so are less likely to welfare. The program provides training for influence firm decisions. Most countries in the village paralegals who focus on domestic vio- ­ region have firms with female participation in lence and family law, and also holds district A G E N C Y : V O I C E A N D I N F L U E N C E W I T H I N T H E H O M E A N D I N S O C I E T Y    153 FIGURE 4.9  Many firms have female participation in ownership, but fewer have a female top manager a. Percentage of rms with female participation b. Percentage of rms with a female top manager vs. in ownership percentage of rms with female participation 100 70 in ownership 90 60 share of rms with a female 80 70 50 top manager (%) 60 40 Mongolia Philippines percent 50 40 30 Indonesia 30 20 Vietnam 20 10 Malaysia 10 0 0 0 20 40 60 ia M tu es DR te Va Fiji m a s. Vi lia Fe oa or ia ng St ys Tim es es na a in share of rms with female participation go es Sam oP nu ala To n d. p -L et on do ilip La in ownership (%) M In Ph ia, on icr M Source: World Bank estimates using Enterprise Surveys database, 2006–09 data. forums to bring together judges, prosecutors, FIGURE 4.10  Civic activism has grown in the low- and middle- police, nongovernmental organizations, and income countries in the region government officials to raise awareness of civic activism in East Asian and Paci c countries, 1990–2010, % by year gender issues (PEKKA 2012; World Bank 0.8 2011b). In Papua New Guinea, the number of CSOs targeting their assistance to women 0.7 and enhancing their access to services has JPN AUS expanded. For instance, some provide ser- 0.6 SGP vices such as microcredit and savings to eco- KOR 2010 IDN PHL FJI nomically empower women. Many Mother’s MYS 0.5 VNM Groups have flourished throughout this MNG SLB CHN THA VUT period to address local women’s needs such LAO PNG 0.4 KHM PRK as nutrition and health services. Through MMR their services, they enable women to engage actively in their children’s health care (Imai 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 and Eklund 2008). Examples of gender- 1990 focused activist groups include Gender and civic activism index 45 degree line Development for Cambodia, the National Council of Women in Thailand (under the Source: ISD database. patronage of the Queen), and the Liberal Women’s Brain Pool in Mongolia. Others of women, and changing laws to decrease the that operate at the international level include discrimination of women have also emerged Save the Children, Coordination of Action throughout the region. Research on AIDS, Mobility Asia (CARAM- Pacific countries have seen some progress Asia), and End Child Prostitution in Asian in the growth of gender-focused CSOs. Civil Tourism (ECPAT). CSOs interested in tack- society continues to be a vital feature of devel- ling policy issues such as eliminating human opment in the Pacific Island countries, espe- trafficking, increasing political representation cially in delivering services (Swain 2000). The 1 5 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C Pacific region has seen an increase of CSOs at in Pacific countries have made little progress the country level as well as multi-island net- in terms of political representation in parlia- work organizations in the past few decades. ment over the past decade. Currently, women Even though only a few organizations focus represent about 2.5 percent of political lead- solely on the promotion of gender equality, ership roles in the Pacific, and the Federated an increasing number of organizations are States of Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, and the recognizing the importance of taking a more Solomon Islands did not have female repre- active role in promoting gender equality by sentation in parliament as of December 2011 giving voice to women. (PARLINE database). Several countries have elected or appointed Politics female heads of state in recent years. For countries in the region that have expe- ­ Australia, Indonesia, Korea, New Zealand, rienced growth in female political represen- the Philippines, and, most recently, Thailand tation, progress has been slow, and in most have or have had a woman heading their gov- countries, levels remain below what is com- ernment since 2000. At the ministerial level, monly perceived to be an acceptable thresh- Palau and Samoa have the highest percent- old for women’s voice in the political domain: age of women ministers (at 25 percent and 30 percent of electoral seats at the national 23 percent, respectively) in the East Asia and and local levels (Agarwal 2010a, 2010b). Pacific region. These percentages are simi- When women do enter politics or public lar to those found in Australia (23 percent) administration, they tend to be in lower- and slightly below those of New Zealand (29 ranked positions and sectors and positions percent). As of 2010, Nauru, the Solomon perceived as “female,� such as government Islands, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu had no women ministries of women, health, education, or ministers appointed to a ministerial position social welfare, and not some more tradition- (PARLINE database). ally male ministries, such as finance or plan- For some countries, the level of female ning, where government resource allocations representation at the national level is not are typically made (World Bank 2011b). necessarily reflected at the local level, and The share of women in national parlia- vice versa. In Mongolia, women make up ments varies tremendously across the region. 4 percent of parliament’s members at the Data on female representation in national national level, but they represent 22 per- parliaments provide insight into the level cent at the subnational level (UNDP 2010). of agency in political decision making. As Overall, local government–level participa- shown in figure 4.11, many East Asian coun- tion in Cambodia was 15 percent in 2007, tries, including Cambodia, Lao PDR, the similar to the national estimate, but elected Philippines, and Singapore, have increased women at the commune level and people’s the share of parliamentary seats held by level was only 11 percent and only 3 per- women since 2000. In contrast, Mongolia has cent at the people’s chief level (Labani and experienced a steep decline in female repre- others 2009). sentation during the same period, from about 10 percent in 2000 to less than 4 percent Protection from gender-based violence in 2010 (figure 4.11). Figure 4.12 illustrates and loss of freedom the variation across the region with respect to parliamentary seats held by women, with Violence and the threat of violence deprive all Timor-Leste, Lao PDR, and Vietnam hav- people of their freedom and undermine their ing the highest percentage of seats held by well-being. This section discusses the persis- women and the Pacific Islands being on the tence of domestic violence against women, lower end of the spectrum. the intergenerational impacts of violence Women’s voice and participation in politics against children, and rising concerns about in the Pacific remains largely absent. Women human trafficking. A G E N C Y : V O I C E A N D I N F L U E N C E W I T H I N T H E H O M E A N D I N S O C I E T Y    155 Gender-based violence violence against women is a major concern Countries in the East Asia and Pacific region for many countries in the region, and par- have among the highest numbers of traf- ticularly in the Pacific. ficked people in the world, and the Pacific has the highest incidence of violence against women in the world. Gender-based violence FIGURE 4.11  Women’s representation in parliament has grown in is internationally recognized as “any act of much of East Asia but has experienced little change in the Pacific gender-based violence that results in, or is Islands likely to result in, physical, sexual or psycho- percentage of seats held by women logical harm or suffering to women, includ- 30 ing threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary Australia Vietnam deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in Singapore Lao PDR public or in private life� (UN 1993). Violence Cambodia Philippines against women can take the form of physi- 20 China Indonesia cal, sexual, and psychological harm and can 2010 (%) take place within the private or the public Thailand Korea, Rep. Korea, Dem. Rep. sphere, or can be in the form of the human Tuvalu, Tonga, Palau Japan 10 Malaysia trafficking of women and girls, among oth- Micronesia, Fed. Sts. Samoa ers. Violence against women is historically Vanuatu Kiribati Mongolia underresearched and underreported because Marshall Islands Papua New Guinea of a variety of factors, including the sensitiv- 0 Solomon Is. ity of the topic and concerns for the safety of 0 5 10 15 20 25 2000 respondents. Despite the lack of easily com- share of parliamentary seats held by women, % 45 degree line parable international statistics over time, the increasing availability of studies shows that Source: PARLINE database, 2012 data. FIGURE 4.12  Women’s representation in parliament is low, especially in the Pacific 45 percentage of seats held by women in the lower or single house, 2011 40 35 30 25 percent 20 15 10 5 0 Na ts. ai . un t e w s sh an a s . m sia Ph gap a ilip ore No TimLao m Sin Ch a pu mo P r u ew Isla u m Ko Ja ia ya ds eo a, n et s on a l Is tu Gu nds Sa lia Tu oa To ar Th Rep ic r-L R Ki valu d d e' p al a Ɵ ld e Vi ine ar V ine in di M ng a N n ala . P re pa rd o PD In lan co es s pl Re .S na tri nm u al ua M lan go or m Ca one ay bo rib p ed ,F M ia es Pa olo on M S icr De M a, re Ko Source: PARLINE database, 2012 data. 1 5 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C Consistent with international patterns, sexual violence. In the Pacific, however, both women in the region are at far greater risk physical and sexual violence are extremely from violence by an intimate partner or high. In the Solomon Islands, sexual violence somebody they know than from violence by by an intimate partner is more prevalent than other people. In East Asia and the Pacific, physical violence. Sexual violence by nonpart- the prevalence of violence by an intimate ners is also prevalent, as is childhood sexual partner has a wide range (figure 4.13). Some abuse (SPC and NSO 2009). areas in East Asia, including the provinces Emotional and psychological violence, of Bangkok and Nakhonsawan, Thailand, as well as harassment, are also common in have a high incidence rate (44 percent). Evi- the region. In 2005, over 30 percent of the dence from the Pacific Islands suggests that region’s women in the labor force reported violence is endemic. As shown in figure 4.13, having experienced some form of gender- 68 percent of ever-married women ages 15 based harassment—verbal, physical, or to 49 in Kiribati, 64 percent in the Solomon sexual (Haspels et al. 2001; UN 2006). Islands, and 60 percent in Vanuatu have ­ Psychological and emotional violence is also experienced physical and/or sexual violence pervasive and debilitating, but such vio- by an intimate partner (SPC and NSO 2009; lence is often underreported because it is SPC, Ministry of Internal and Social Affairs, frequently viewed as normal behavior.4 In and Statistics Division 2010; VWC and NSO Vietnam, over half of ever-married women 2011). Although no nationally representa- reported lifetime emotional abuse from their tive data exist for Papua New Guinea, recent spouse, with 25 percent reporting abuse in regional studies suggest that violence is just the past 12 months (World Bank 2011a). In as prevalent (Ganster-Breidler 2010; Lewis Cambodia, the Philippines, and Vietnam, the ­ et al. 2008). prevalence of emotional violence far exceeds Sexual violence at the hands of an intimate that of physical and/or sexual violence by an partner is a significant concern in much of the intimate partner. In Kiribati, the Solomon Pacific. In most of East Asia, barring Thailand, Islands, and Vanuatu, the high prevalence physical violence against women far exceeds of emotional violence by an intimate partner matches the high incidence of physical and/or FIGURE 4.13  Violence against women is high in the region sexual violence (World Bank 2011a; SPC and NSO 2009; SPC, Ministry of Internal and percentage of ever-partnered women aged 15–49 who have Social Affairs, and Statistics Division 2010; experienced sexual and/or physical intimate-partner violence VWC 2011). Conversely, women in Timor- 80 Leste experience a high prevalence of physical 70 violence, yet very low levels of emotional and 60 sexual violence (NSD [Timor-Leste], Minis- share of women, % 50 try of Finance, and ICF Macro 2010). 40 30 Violence against children— 20 Intergenerational impacts 10 In some societies in the Pacific there is still have violence against children. One study 0 found that sexual violence has increased, u or d al alu Ph este s n a on aƟ oa s Va s nd ne d di at n pa an m b la in part because of low access to services v bo nu pi la Ja i Tu -L ai r Sa Isl i l Is ilip m K Th Ca m and poverty faced by families and the rising sh Ti m ar lo prevalence of the logging, mining, and fish- So M East Asia Paci c ing industries, which employ large numbers of single men who seek the services of young Source: DHS reports, various years. women (UNIFEM 2010). The prevalence of Note: Data for Thailand are for Bangkok and Nakhonsawan provinces only; data for Japan are for Yokohama only. sexually related violence against girls under A G E N C Y : V O I C E A N D I N F L U E N C E W I T H I N T H E H O M E A N D I N S O C I E T Y    157 the age of 15 in Vanuatu is 30 percent; and FIGURE 4.14  The incidence of sexual intimate-partner for most of these children, assaults are repeti- violence is significantly higher in the Pacific tive and carried out by family members (54 and 55 percent, respectively) (VWC and NSO percentage of ever-partnered women aged 15–49 who have experienced physical or sexual intimate-partner violence 2011). In Vanuatu, the figure was 40 percent. 70 Child prostitution in Fiji, Papua New Guinea, 60 and the Solomon Islands is an organized ven- 50 percent ture with formal and informal brothels in 40 urban centers (UNIFEM 2010). 30 Data also show that effects of violence 20 10 are transmitted across generations. Domestic 0 violence, and its acceptance, continues to be Cambodia Philippines Timor-Leste Thailand Japan Kiribati Marshallslands Samoa Solomon Islands Tuvalu Vanuatu passed from parent to child (Fehringer and Hindin 2009). In Vanuatu, an estimated 57 percent of children whose mothers experi- enced violence either saw or heard the vio- lence when it happened. Not only did these East Asia Pacific children witness the violent episodes, but physical sexual many (17 percent) also experienced a beat- Source: DHS reports, various years. ing at the same time (VWC and NSO 2011). Note: Data for Thailand are for Bangkok and Nakhonsawan provinces only; data for Japan are for As shown in figure 4.15, children in Kiribati Yokohama only. who witnessed violence between parents FIGURE 4.15  Gender-based violence can have inter-generational while growing up are more likely to experi- consequences ence violence themselves as adults than those who did not witness violence between their parents (SPC, Ministry of Internal and Social exposure of intimate partner violence (IPV) as an adult and exposure to violence as a child, Kiribati 2010 Affairs, and Statistics Division 2010). Daugh- 90 ters of violent men have also been shown to 80 be more likely to endure violence from their 70 share of women, % husbands later in life. In Timor-Leste, women 60 whose fathers beat their mothers are more 50 than twice as likely to experience emotional, 40 physical, or sexual violence from an intimate 30 partner than women whose fathers or moth- 20 10 ers were not abusive, at 59 percent versus 24 0 percent (NSD, Ministry of Finance, and ICF mother mother-in-law partner was experienced Macro 2010). experienced experienced beaten as a childhood IPV IPV child sexual The intergenerational consequences of abuse violence also affect child development. In the share among women who never experienced IPV Solomon Islands, one study shows that chil- share among women who experienced IPV dren who witness violence are more likely to grow up very timid or withdrawn, to repeat Source: SPC, Ministry of Internal and Social Affairs, and Statistics Division 2010. a year or more in school, and, in many cases, to be aggressive and likely to run away from increased economic opportunities as well as home at an early age (SPC 2009). increased the risk of being trafficked (ILO 2009). Human trafficking encompasses Human trafficking forced labor, sex trafficking, bonded labor, Human trafficking is also a growing con- debt bondage among migrant laborers, invol- cern throughout the region. An increase untary domestic servitude, forced child labor, in female migration in the past decade has children (including bride price), child sale of ­ 1 5 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C conscription to be soldiers, and child sex domestic workers). The same study found trafficking (U.S. Department of State 2011). that the majority (89 percent) of child domes- Although estimates are difficult to gener- tic workers are female (E. Brown 2007). ate, the International Labour Organization estimates that Asian and Pacific countries account for over half of all trafficked victims Explaining progress and worldwide, at an estimated 1.36 million, most pending challenges of whom are women and girls (ILO 2008). Women’s ability to exercise voice in their Studies show that women and girls are the homes and in society has experienced progress main victims of sexual exploitation in East in some areas and challenges in others across Asia and the Pacific. Women are also more East Asia and the Pacific. A complex combi- likely than men to be trafficked for economic nation of factors that affect progress includes exploitation. Although women and children socioeconomic characteristics, social norms seem to be at higher risk for exploitation, and practices, and a country’s legal environ- men are also trafficked within and from the ment, including women’s access to justice. The region. For instance, in Thailand, women strength of civil society is an indicator of voice make up the majority of those who are traf- in itself, but it also functions as a means by ficked for commercial sexual exploitation; which individuals can collectively influence however, men, women, and children from decisions that affect gender inequality. Because neighboring countries are also trafficked for the extent of women’s agency is driven by a labor purposes, for example in fisheries and combination of factors, this section discusses fishing related industries and domestic work several influencing factors in turn. (ILO 2008; UNFPA 2006, U.S. Department of State 2011). Individual characteristics Human trafficking is pervasive through- out the region; however, the nature of the Women’s agency is affected in a fundamen- industry varies. The Greater Mekong region tal way by their endowments and economic and Indonesia are two main hubs for human opportunities. High educational attainment, trafficking. Thailand is both a destination good health, economic assets, and their own and source country. The country serves as a earnings can enable women to influence transit hub to other Asian countries, their circumstances in accordance with their Australia, the United States, and Western ­ preferences. Europe (UNFPA 2006). In two southern As a woman’s education level increases, counties in Yunnan, China, most women and it expands her knowledge and opportuni- children are trafficked for forced marriage ties and improves her ability to translate or adoption. Rural men are willing to pay her preferences into desired outcomes. substantial sums for a trafficked bride who Increases in education are positively cor- can bear children and extend the family line. related with women’s increased bargaining Families will pay traffickers for infant boys, power (Cochrane 1979; Jejeebhoy 1995). whom they will adopt as their own (ILO Education creates opportunities for women 2005). Although internal bride trafficking to connect with the world by removing bar- is frequently reported in China, systematic riers to knowledge and information. Higher empirical research does not exist. In coun- academic achievement can also facilitate tries such as Japan and Korea, the majority better economic opportunities and decrease of human trafficking reported is in the sex economic dependency on others. In Indo- trafficking industry. In Cambodia, one study nesia, women who obtain an educational found a strong link between migration from level of secondary school or higher are more domestic work into commercial sexual exploi- likely than less-educated women to partici- tation (51 percent of commercially sexually pate in decisions involving their own health exploited women and girls were previously care, make household purchases, and engage A G E N C Y : V O I C E A N D I N F L U E N C E W I T H I N T H E H O M E A N D I N S O C I E T Y    159 more regularly in social activities (DHS wife beating is legitimate (MOH [Samoa], 2002–03 data). Bureau of Statistics, and ICF Macro 2010). Higher education can also facilitate wom- More educated women have greater eco- en’s entry into politics, whereas little or no nomic opportunity, which in turn increases formal education can greatly hinder women’s their agency. Women with more education are participation in politics. In Rudong County more equipped to take on skilled occupations in China, women involved in local govern- and do better in the labor market, on aver- ment had a much higher level of education age, than those with little or no education. than average local female villagers; about Moreover, gender gaps in earnings tend to be 68 percent of them had reached senior high smaller as females move up the skills ladder. school education levels or above (Wang and Furthermore, education and skills training is Dai 2010). Where women have low levels invaluable to entrepreneurship. Low levels of of e­ ducation—overall, as well as relative to skills and inability to access information have men—they are even less likely to participate been suggested as hindering women in the in politics. As a result, their voice, which Solomon Islands from becoming viable entre- often reflects different preferences than men’s, preneurs (Haque and Greig 2011). is even less likely to be heard (UNDP 2010). Increases in women’s educational attain- In some contexts, the legal environment ment and relevant training contribute to can exacerbate this situation. In Cambodia, increasing women’s participation in leadership indigenous women’s participation in local roles in the private sector. However, despite politics remains low because they lack the advancements in educational attainment in education level and language skills neces- much of the world, qualitative evidence sug- sary to be active participants. The law in gests that the women continue to face gender- ­ C ambodia mandates that a person must specific obstacles in the workplace. Female speak, read, and write Khmer in order to run board members in Hong Kong SAR, China, for political office (Maffii and Hong 2010). for instance, argue that in order for compa- Women who are more educated are nies to appoint ­qualified—well educated and less likely to experience violence in their trained—women to their corporate boards, household and hold higher perceptions of there needs to be support for women moving self-worth with regard to violence against up the career ladder to become board mem- women. ­ Gender-based violence is more prev- bers (Mahtani, Vernon, and Sealy 2009). alent among illiterate women, partly because Women’s assets and own income can also women are more likely to be economically increase women’s agency within and outside dependent on their husbands and feel they the household in multiple ways. For exam- have to endure an abusive relationship to ple, power within the household has been survive. This situation is evidenced in some attributed to individual control over eco- countries in the Pacific where bride price, nomic resources such as individual incomes, young age of marriage, and lack of educa- assets, and wealth (Quisumbing and Maluc- tion for women perpetuate violence; leaving cio 2003; Rammohan and Johar 2009; the marriage would involve having to repay Thomas and Chen 1994). Evidence from the the bride price, and the women commonly literature on intrahousehold resource alloca- have no resources to do so (UNIFEM 2010, tion shows that increases in women’s share SPC and NSO 2009; SPC, Ministry of Inter- of earned income in the household result in nal and Social Affairs [Kiribati], and Statis- an allocation of resources that better reflects tics Division 2010; VWC and NSO 2011). In the preferences of women, and subsequently Samoa, 48 percent of women with vocational leads to improvements in women’s overall or higher education agree that a husband is status in the household and society (Ashraf, justified in hitting or beating his wife, com- Karlan, and Yin 2006; Duflo 2003; Rangel pared with the 69 percent of women with pri- 2005). Evidence also suggests that a woman’s mary or lower levels of education who believe ownership and control of her own assets and 1 6 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C income are associated with a decreased risk in violence may be transitional phenomena, of intimate partner violence, at least in the as men and women adjust to new roles. This medium term (ICRW 2006; Panda and Agar- transition can be aided by a supportive legal wal 2005; Pronyk et al. 2006; Swaminathan, and regulatory environment. Walker, and Rugadya 2008). A woman’s Male attributes, attitudes, and behaviors income can also positively affect the accu- also correlate with gender-based violence. mulation of assets, which significantly affects Studies in the Pacific Islands of Kiribati, the her ability to leave an abusive partner, to cope Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu found that the with shocks, and to invest and expand her most significant risk factors associated with earnings and economic opportunities (World women experiencing physical and/or sexual Bank 2011b). Women’s own health has been violence in their lifetime are the character- found to improve women’s relative positions istics of a woman’s husband or partner. A in households, even when households experi- woman is significantly more likely to experi- ence adverse shocks (Aizer forthcoming; Der- ence violence if her husband or partner con- con and Krishnan 2000). trols her behavior, drinks alcohol or home Economic empowerment in the form of brews, has affairs with other women, is vio- employment can also increase agency by lent with other men, or is unemployed (SPC increasing a woman’s physical mobility. The and NSO 2009; SPC, Ministry of Internal ability to move freely means greater ability of and Social Affairs, and Statistics Division women to expand their knowledge, broaden 2010; VWC and NSO 2011). In the Philip- their networks, and create outlets to exercise pines, husbands from the lowest wealth quin- collective agency through engagements in tile and with the least educational attainment unions, professional associations, women’s are the most likely to physically abuse their groups, and other types of civil society orga- wives (Philippine Commission on Women nizations. Civil society has worked to create 2012). In Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands and an environment that enables women to bet- Kiribati, a husband’s lack of employment and ter exercise their agency as well as a vehicle high alcohol consumption and drug use are through which women can exercise their col- correlated with a higher likelihood of physi- lective agency to change rules, regulations, cal and/or sexual intimate-partner violence laws, and social norms that positively affect (SPC and NSO 2009; SPC, Ministry of Inter- gender equality. nal and Social Affairs [Kiribati], and Statis- Improvements in women’s socioeconomic tics Division 2010; VWC and NSO 2011). characteristics may not be sufficient to increase their voice and influence in society, however. Social norms and practices Progress in women’s economic position can threaten preexisting social norms with regard Social norms and practices provide power- to women’s role in the household and society ful undercurrents that influence preferences, and lead to undesirable outcomes, at least in values, and the social behavior that govern the short run, including increased violence gender relations and outcomes. Social norms against women (Hjort and Villanger 2011; that perpetuate gender inequality in voice and Panda and Agarwal 2005). For instance, in influence can range from explicit to subtle. Timor-Leste, the proportion of women who They can encourage behavior that on the sur- have ever experienced physical violence from face seems to reflect choice but in fact can con- an intimate partner is highest among women strain what is possible for women, whether in with more than secondary education (46 per- the home or in society (Kabeer 1999). cent), women belonging to households in Social norms regarding women’s tradi- the highest wealth quintile (45 percent), and tional role in the household and in society women who are employed for cash (43 per- affect her social bargaining power. In most cent) (NSD, Ministry of Finance, and ICF countries in the region and in the world, Macro 2010). Evidence suggests that increases housework, child rearing, and care of the A G E N C Y : V O I C E A N D I N F L U E N C E W I T H I N T H E H O M E A N D I N S O C I E T Y    161 elderly are normally considered the respon- male family members to write the ballot for sibility of a woman, while men are consid- them at an election, or they take the opinion ered the main financial provider of the fam- of their male family members. In that region ily. Qualitative evidence from Fiji and Papua of China, many ­ people still think of women New Guinea shows that girls are expected to as less capable (disuzhi), and norms dictate work around the house from a very early age, that they should confine their activities to the while boys have fewer household responsibili- domestic settings. This belief, largely based ties and are expected to become wage earners on perceptions that have been transmitted (World Bank 2011e). As discussed in chap- across generations and people, leads people ter 3, these social norms influence the other to discourage women from voting or partici- factors that affect agency, such as earnings pating in public office (Wang and Dai 2010). capacity and asset accumulation, as well as Low female representation and participation constrain the choices an individual can make. in politics (as well as in leadership positions In other words, traditional social norms may in the private sector) can reinforce each other, strongly discourage women from pursuing so that women are less likely to enter poli- occupations traditionally dominated by men, tics and other leadership positions because as well as make it difficult for men to take on of social beliefs that men are better leaders traditionally female roles, thus affecting the than women, and women’s absence prevents agency of both genders. women from demonstrating their ability to Female expectations in the household often lead (World Bank 2011c). mean that women have less time—and thus In most countries and in the Pacific Islands fewer networks—to exercise influence out- in particular, violence against women is per- side the home. Other societal expectations, ceived as acceptable or justifiable by both such as having larger families, can increase men and women. In the Solomon Islands, women’s time spent in the household and 73 percent of women believe that a husband minimize other activities in society (Freeman is justified in beating his wife under certain 1997; Pritchett 1994). Focus group discus- sions in Fiji suggest that although men and women may agree in principle on the idea of FIGURE 4.16  Many men and women in the region believe that men equal economic opportunity for both gen- make better political leaders than women ders, in practice, men are the more feasible breadwinners, since women have household share of men and women over age 30 who think men responsibilities that family and society expect make better political leaders them to attend to first. Female youth in the 80 community of Baulevu stated that men in the 70 household can hold formal jobs more easily 60 than women because women first have the 50 responsibility to care for and feed the chil- percent dren as well as tend to other household needs 40 before leaving for work (World Bank 2011e). 30 Gender norms and societal expectations 20 about women’s ability to participate in the 10 public sphere hinder participation. Data from 0 the World Values Survey show that many men a ia ia d m es ay and women from across the region believe in an s ys na at rw ne Ch ala ail St et No do Th Vi d that men make better leaders than women M In ite Un (figure 4.16). Women’s participation in vot- ing has sometimes been compromised by male female their lack of information. One study shows that in rural areas of China, women ask their Source: World Values Survey, 2006 and 2007 data. 1 6 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C circumstances. 5 In Vietnam, 64 percent of hardship (Heise 2011). In the region, men are women ages 15 to 49 accept violent treatment subject to a substantial amount of social pres- from husbands as normal (Vietnam Multiple sure to be the main provider in the household. Indicator Cluster Survey, 2006 data). Men Therefore if a man’s wife defies traditional also perpetuate these social norms: 81 per- social norms and starts earning a higher cent of men in Timor-Leste believe that beat- income than her husband, for instance, this ing wives is socially acceptable and justifiable situation may challenge the role of the man under certain circumstances (NSD, Ministry as provider of the family, creating stress and of Finance, and ICF Macro 2010). These atti- resistance. tudes and acts of violence may be intensified Deep-seated attitudes that fuel discrimina- during times of conflict. Violence against tion and enable gender inequality continue women is believed to have reached its height to be perpetuated in society by being taught in some areas of the Papua New Guinea to children. Recent studies show that social Highlands during tribal fighting in 1995–96. attitudes held by both men and women fail During that time, gang rape of women was to foster an environment conducive to having often considered to be a normal aspect of equality between men and women. In Kiribati intervillage conflict (Brouwer, Harris, and and Vanuatu, 56 percent and 50 percent of Tanaka 1998). women, respectively, believe that a good wife Long-standing cultural practices, such as must obey her husband at all times. Women bride price, affect women’s perceptions of in these countries also believe a man should their roles within marriage, and therefore their show his wife that he is the boss (61 percent voice. In Vanuatu, about 81 percent of mar- and 40 percent, respectively) (SPC and NSO riages involve a bride price paid to the family 2009; SPC, Ministry of Internal and Social of the bride. Over half of women ages 15 to Affairs, and Statistics Division 2010). Chil- 49 in this country believe that, if a bride price dren grow up absorbing these attitudes and is paid, a wife becomes the husband’s prop- behaviors, accepting them as norms they erty (VWC and NSO 2011). In both Vanuatu must follow, and girls internalize their subor- and the Solomon Islands, bride price is signifi- dinate role in the household and lesser status cantly associated with intimate partner vio- in society (Bourdieu 1977; Kabeer 1999; see lence (SPC and NSO 2009; VWC and NSO also chapter 2). 2011). In East Asia, paying for a bride is a tradition across China, Indonesia, Myanmar, The legal and institutional environment and Thailand (Anderson 2007). Although the practice has become less important in Indo- The legal setting and access to justice form the nesia, in rural China, where the tradition is environment in which men and women can still practiced, the groom pays for the rights voice and act on their preferences. Whether to the woman’s labor and reproductive capa- women and men are equally supported under bilities (Boomgaard 2003). Similar to what is the law and whether their rights are protected found in the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, in practice are critical to women’s ability to many young girls in China grow up with have voice and influence in society directly. the belief that they will eventually become a This environment also affects voice by affect- man’s property with little control over their ing the channels through which women build lives (P. Brown 2003; Zhang 1999). their access to resources and economic oppor- Social expectations of men’s roles in soci- tunity, which, in turn, affects their voice. The ety can influence men’s actions and harm law and access to justice are shaped by, but women’s safety and overall agency. The inci- can also shape, the norms that affect wom- dence of intimate partner violence is often en’s agency in society. associated with societal expectations of men’s Equally as important is women’s equal roles in the home and in society, and can be access to the judiciary system, which can be exacerbated by male alcoholism and financial influenced by social norms or socioeconomic A G E N C Y : V O I C E A N D I N F L U E N C E W I T H I N T H E H O M E A N D I N S O C I E T Y    163 characteristics. For example, a legal court against women were aligned with the conven- may be a day and a half trip away from tion. The organizations then used this infor- home, yet social norms discourage women mation to advocate for an overhaul of existing from sleeping outside the household. Or laws or propose new ones to rectify omissions higher illiteracy rates of elderly women hinder (UNIFEM 2010). their ability to know their rights. Countries Beyond CEDAW, many countries in the in East Asia and the Pacific have made vary- region have put in place domestic laws to sup- ing degrees of progress in guaranteeing and port the advancement of women and gender enforcing equal rights for men and women. equality (UNDP 2010). In the past 10 years, As discussed in the previous section and in gender equality laws such Vietnam’s Gender chapter 2, several countries in the region have Equality Law (2006), the People’s Republic of plural legal environments, in which the inter- China Law on the Protection of Rights and action of customary or religious law and stat- Interests of Women (amended in 2005), Lao utory law means that women’s legal stature PDR’s Law on the Development and Protec- can vary substantially across ethnic groups, tion of Women (2004), and the Philippines’ even within a country. Magna Carta of Women (2009) have been adopted with the aim of providing a more International conventions, national laws, comprehensive approach to addressing gender and institutions equality. Most countries in the region have Nearly all countries in the East Asia and also adopted domestic violence legislation Pacific region have acceded to and ratified over the same period, including Cambodia, international commitments to reduce gender- China, Indonesia, Korea, Lao PDR, M ­ alaysia, based discrimination and promote agency for Mongolia, Papua New Guinea, the Philip- women as laid out by the Convention on the pines, Thailand, Timor-Leste, and Vietnam. Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Papua New Guinea, for example, reformed its Against Women (CEDAW), with a few excep- criminal code in 2002 to dramatically change tions. The ratification of CEDAW indicates a its sexual assault regime by introducing grad- public commitment by governments to abide ing of offenses according to the gravity of by a set of internationally recognized stan- harm and eliminating marital immunity. Still, dards regarding gender equality. As of the many countries (mostly Pacific Island states) end of 2011, only six countries in the world lack adequate legislation for gender equality have not ratified the CEDAW agreement, (UNDP 2010). including Palau and Tonga in the Pacific Most countries in the region have equal (CEDAW 2012). rights under inheritance laws, as discussed The signing of CEDAW has served as an in chapter 2. Evidence from India suggests instrument to open up space for people to that women who own a house or land sig- argue for legal and institutional reform to pro- nificantly reduce their risk of marital vio- mote women’s agency. In several East Asian lence (Agarwal and Panda 2007). The countries, legal and institutional reforms came majority of countries in East Asia no lon- about after the ratification of CEDAW, at the ger differentiate by gender in statutory law. behest of CSOs and government agencies argu- Cambodia, China, Lao PDR, Mongolia, ing for the fulfillment of their countries’ inter- Thailand, and Vietnam do not have p ­ lural national commitments. For instance, individ- ­ roperty legal systems and have legislation for p uals, CSOs, and government agencies tasked and inheritance rights that have no discrimi- with women’s issues in Cambodia, Indonesia, nation against women. However, plural legal the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam used systems exist in Indonesia, Malaysia, the CEDAW conventions and frameworks as the Philippines, and Singapore, and these laws basis for promoting women’s participation in discriminate against women in inheritance local government and for examining whether (see chapter 2 for more details). In the Pacific, existing laws on violence and discrimination Kiribati and Tuvalu have unequal statutory 1 6 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C legislation, and although equal inheritance Important gaps also occur in laws protect- laws exist in Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, ing against human trafficking, despite efforts the Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu, custom- by many countries to pass specific legislative ary law practices regarding land rights are provisions. Between 2005 and 2008 about 10 recognized by the constitution and may law- countries in Asia and the Pacific (including fully discriminate against women (Jivan and South Asia) introduced new laws or modified Forster 2007). Although many areas of the old ones (UNODC 2009). However, some Pacific region have traditionally had matri- countries still lack comprehensive laws to lineal land ownership—where land has his- protect men and women vulnerable to traf- torically been transmitted through mothers’ ficking. Thailand and Vietnam, for example, lines—in practice, men most often make do not have provisions on the exploitation of decisions regarding land management (Stege humans. Some progress has been made on et al. 2008). this front in Indonesia, Malaysia, and the In regard to gender-based violence, gaps in Philippines, where mandates against exploita- the law still remain across the region (UNDP tion of women were introduced in the recent 2010). As illustrated in table 4.1, several coun- past (2007, 2007, and 2003, respectively). tries in the region continue to have legal gaps In Lao PDR, trafficked humans are treated in the protection of women against gender- as victims who have legal immunity from based violence. Many of the countries where criminal prosecution for prostitution, and violence against women is the most prevalent they are provided specific services to reunite do not have legislation against it, including them with their families, namely legal, medi- Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Papua New cal, and counseling services, all imparted by Guinea, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Timor- the Lao Women’s Union (U.S. Department of Leste, and Tuvalu. State 2008). TABLE 4.1  Legislation against gender-based violence Domestic Sexual Sexual harassment CEDAW optional Region/ Country violence assault/rape at workplace CEDAW 1979 (c) protocol 1999 (d) Pacific Fiji Yes Yes No 1995 Not signed/Not ratified Kiribati No Yes No 2004 Not signed/Not ratified Palau NA NA NA NA Not signed/Not ratified Papua New Guinea No Yes No 1995 Not signed/Not ratified Marshall Islands No Yes No 2006 Not signed/Not ratified Micronesia, Fed. Sts. No No No 2004 Not signed/Not ratified Samoa No Yes Yes 1992 Not signed/Not ratified Solomon Islands No Yes No 2002 2002 Tonga NA NA NA Not signed/Not ratified Not signed/Not ratified Tuvalu No Yes No 1999 Not signed/Not ratified Vanuatu Yes Yes No 1995 2007 East Asia Cambodia Yes Yes Yes 1992 Signed China Yes Yes NA 1980 Not signed/Not ratified Indonesia Yes Yes No 1984 Signed Lao PDR Yes Yes NA 1981 Not signed/Not ratified Malaysia Yes Yes No 1995 Not signed/Not ratified Mongolia Yes Yes No 1981 2002 Philippines Yes Yes Yes 1981 2003 Thailand Yes Yes Yes 1985 2000 Timor-Leste No Yes Yes 2003 2003 Vietnam Yes Yes No 1982 Not signed/Not ratified Source: UNDP 2010. A G E N C Y : V O I C E A N D I N F L U E N C E W I T H I N T H E H O M E A N D I N S O C I E T Y    165 Even when countries have appropriate discriminatory inheritance practices that vary legislation in place, women may be unpro- substantially across subpopulations within a tected by the legal system because the laws single country (box 4.1). remain largely unenforced. A recent study States that adopt a commitment to revise highlighted that officers in the Fiji Police and develop laws and regulations that pro- Force Sexual Offences Unit, which was set up mote gender equality create more conducive in 1995, have unwelcoming attitudes when environments for women to exercise their dealing with female victims (UNFPA 2010). agency. As women’s labor force participation The same is true in some areas in C ­ ambodia, has continued to increase, especially in less where many law enforcement officials are traditional occupations, some governments either unaware of the existence of the 2005 have been proactive and adjusted their pro- Law on the Prevention of Domestic Violence tection and antidiscrimination laws. In the and the Protection of Victims, or continue to Philippines, for example, 85 percent of an believe that domestic violence is an internal estimated 2.5 million domestic workers are family problem (CAMBOW 2007). Even in women. Despite their number, until recently cases where the police or other formal insti- domestic workers were excluded from enjoy- tutions condemn these acts, they are unable ing the full range of rights guaranteed to to pursue them further because of inadequate other women in traditional occupations (in training to respond to the reports or fear of industry) under labor law. A bill is presently reprisal from the perpetrators, especially in under way to address the gap and to guaran- cases in which they are people of influence tee women’s right to decent working condi- (U.S. Department of State 2011). In Vanuatu, tions and protection from abuse, trafficking, after a long period of lobbying by various and exploitation (ADB et al. 2008).6 CSOs and by the Vanuatu Women’s Center, Over the past few decades, several coun- in 2008, the government passed the Family tries in the region have put in place temporary Protection Act, which focused on advancing special measures to promote female participa- women’s rights. Implementation and enforce- tion in political leadership. Gender quotas set ment of the law did not occur in more remote a fixed goal for having women in decision- areas, leaving women unprotected and living making positions, with the aim of at least a under the previous legal (or traditional) sys- critical minority of 30 to 40 percent (Agarwal tem (AusAID 2008). 2010a, 2010b). In the political sphere, quotas Furthermore, the interaction of custom- can be reserved seats (constitutional and legis- ary practice and statutory law means that lative), legal candidate quotas (constitutional women’s legal stature can vary substantially and legislative), and political party quotas across ethnic groups, even within a country. (voluntary). Although reservation of seats reg- Citizens in East Asian and Pacific countries ulates the number of women elected, the lat- often face a plurality of legal systems within ter two types of quotas set a minimum for the a single country. Statutory laws interact— share of women on the candidate lists, either and often compete—with customary (and as a legal requirement or as a measure written sometimes religious) laws and practices. In into the statutes of individual political par- the Pacific Islands, for example, virtually ties. In East Asia, countries including China, all constitutions state that the constitution Indonesia, Korea, the Philippines, Thailand, is the supreme law, but they simultaneously and Timor-Leste had reservation systems for recognize customary law (UNDP 2010). As a the single or lower house, for the upper house, result, inheritance practices vary substantially or at the subnational level (The Quota Proj- across the region, from matrilineal systems in ect, 2012 data). Recently, the revised Pacific most of Micronesia and in parts of Melane- Platform for Action 2005–2015 called for sia to patrilineal systems in most other Pacific governments in the Pacific subregion to put in countries. The interaction between custom- place affirmative action measures to enhance ary and statutory law can even result in women’s participation in politics. 1 6 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C BOX 4.1  Gender and land tenure in a plural legal environment: The case of the Solomon Islands Land tenure in the Solomon Islands is characterized state legal system requires that the titleholders con- by multiple, overlapping arenas, norms, and institu- sult with other landowners before dealing in the tions emanating from customary practice, the state, land, they often fail to do so, limiting women’s roles and Christianity. The intersection of customary and and participation. state legal systems allows only a small number of The state legal system also tends to recognize only individuals, predominantly men, to exert control a small number of individuals with the customary over customary land. This situation has occurred authority to speak about land inside a public arena, to the detriment of female landowners, who have thereby turning the customary “right to speak� often found themselves excluded from both decision- into effective ownership. A review of court records m aking processes and the distribution of financial ­ for West Guadalcanal suggests that the witnesses benefits from the use of land. and parties to a dispute are predominantly senior In Guadalcanal Island, customs dictate that male leaders. In addition to these individuals having women be excluded from discussions about land- greater authority to speak about the land, these rights related issues that occur in formal and state arenas are compounded by the court system being based on such as courts or land acquisition hearings. A male Western legal principles and an adversarial system. child or brother is usually appointed as spokesper- Land disputes are sometimes compared to warfare son for land-related issues. Women often have less and are matters for men. Women and children are education and, hence, are considered less able to often advised to stay away from meetings regarding understand the state legal system and manage land disputes. Hence, as hearings are generally conducted transactions. Moreover, some inhabitants of Gua- by male chiefs, clerks or judges are also likely to act dalcanal state that custom dictates that women “no as a further impediment to women’s involvement. save tok� (cannot/must not talk) about land, and Development of mechanisms for ensuring trans- that they must stand behind men when speaking parency and accountability is essential for sustained about land in the public arena. peace and security. Land programming would ben- Furthermore, women are limited in their abil- efit from being gender sensitive and from paying ity to hold land titles. Although people commonly attention to differential impacts on state legal frame- assert that “women are the real landowners,� land works and their implementation. and court records generally show names of a small number of male leaders as landowners. Though the Source: Monson 2010. Other countries, though not mandat- 2011–2020 states that women’s participation ing quotas, have taken a strong stance on should be a 30 percent female-to-male ratio female representation in government as well in village-level government committees and as in the private sector. Lao PDR’s National a 50 percent ratio in neighbor committees in Socio-Economic Development Plan (NSEDP) urban areas, with at least 10 percent of vil- 2011–2015 has stipulated a target to increase lage committee heads being women. the female staff of high-ranking positions in government, political parties, and civil soci- Access to justice ety organizations to at least 15 percent, and Providing access to the justice system—by to increase women members in the National reducing financial costs, bringing services to Assembly to more than 30 percent. Other remote areas, and helping overcome social goals include increasing the number and per- and psychological constraints—is criti- centage of women in the paid workforce and cal to helping women exercise their agency. in professional careers (Lao PDR Ministry of Legal reform should not be limited to fixing Planning and Investment 2011). China’s Out- the laws; it should also extend to ensuring line for the Development of Chinese Women access to the legal system. Women in poorer A G E N C Y : V O I C E A N D I N F L U E N C E W I T H I N T H E H O M E A N D I N S O C I E T Y    167 areas can be particularly disadvantaged in monthly per capita income (Sumner and this regard because, compared with men, Lindsey 2011). they may have lower education levels, travel outside their communities less often, have Institutional reforms and opportunities fewer resources to pay for the service, and for women face higher levels of discrimination once they reach places such as police stations and Strengthening the capacity of institutions courts. Moreover, when they do have physi- to enforce the law can improve the prob- cal access to the justice system, they often ability of the law being adopted and used. face the risk of being treated unequally. In Once legal reform comes about, institu- Indonesia, the legal system is vastly underuti- tional capacity needs to be reinforced to lized by subsets of women because courts and ­ prevent hindering implementation, access, police stations are not financially or physi- and enforcement of the law. Moreover, cally accessible. A recent study in Indonesia institutions’ role as implementers of the found, for example, that most female heads law can be hindered further by prevailing of household were unable to access courts to social norms. Evidence from many countries obtain divorce certificates. The average cost shows that government institutions charged of a case filed with the religious courts is with implementing laws related to prevent- about US$90, or four times the monthly per ing discrimination against women and capita income for those living below the pov- enforcing gender equality initiatives lack erty line. In civil court, the cost of divorce the human capacity, financial resources, with a lawyer is US$1,100, or 52 times the and influence to address gender issues. For TABLE 4.2  Political affirmative action in East Asia and the Pacific Country Year Quota Quota type Results China 2007 Legislated quotas for the single Reserved seats, 22% women 637 of 2,987 seats (21%) held or lower house by women in 2008 election Indonesia 2008 Legislated quotas for the single Quota of one in three 101 of 560 seats (18%) held or lower house candidates on a political party by women in 2009 election list to be women Korea, Rep. 2004 Legislated quotas for the single Political party quota of 50% 44 of 299 seats (15%) held or lower house; legislated quotas women on candidate lists for by women in 2008 election at the subnational level; voluntary proportional representation quotas adopted by political in elections; recommendation parties for political parties to include 30% women candidates Philippines 1991 Legislated quotas at the Women to be one of three 62 of 280 seats (22%) held subnational level; voluntary sectoral representatives that by women in 2010 election quotas adopted by political sits in every municipal, city, parties (Philippine Democratic and provincial legislative Socialist Party, 25% quota for council women) Thailand n.a. Voluntary quotas adopted by The Democratic Party has 79 of 500 of seats (16%) political parties. a target of 30% women held by women in the 2011 candidates for election elections Timor-Leste 2006 and Legislated quotas for the single Modification of the Electoral 18 of 65 seats (28%) held by 2011 or lower house Law to require that 33% of women in 2007 election the candidates of each party be female (from 25%) Source: The Quota Project, 2012 data. 1 6 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C instance, in a report to the CEDAW Com- participation in society. They mobilize mittee in 2009, the government of Papua women to be active participants in their com- New Guinea identified the lack of structures munity (and in political party–related activi- for promoting gender equality as a challenge ties) and work to protect women’s rights and to carrying out the tasks outlined in inter- interests. national commitments. Similarly, the Lao PDR National Strategy for the Advancement Collective agency: Women’s of Women in 2006 and Vietnam National organizations and the space for civic Strategy for the Advancement of Women action in 2010 cited low capacity of their national institutions as a problem, and asked for help Civil society functions both as an indicator to strengthen those institutions—through of voice and participation and as a lever to training and more resources—to make them create the conditions that enable women to more effective. To address the constraints change the legal environment, public priori- in institutional capacity, countries such as ties, and social norms. It also can facilitate the ­P hilippines and Vietnam worked on dialogue and cooperation between parties improving their institutional structures and that can influence the other determinants reinforcing mandates already in place to of agency. Collective agency through civil promote women’s agency and subsequently society does not necessarily need to focus on promote gender equality (box 4.2). women-­ specific issues, but instead, it provides Several countries use a ­ dvocacy orga- a forum in which men and women can exer- nizations that are part of government to cise voice on any issues they care about. proactively address women’s issues. The Lao ­ Civil society organizations, social move- Women’s Union and the Vietnam Women’s ments, and civic activists have helped Union are two examples of organizations expand women’s agency by magnifying formed to promote information sharing their voice in public forums and strengthen- among women, educate women at all lev- ing women’s influence. Having a collective els of society, and promote women’s active voice, through mass movements, is critical BOX 4.2  Strengthening state mechanisms for gender equality Gender equality laws in the region also focus on making 95 percent of the budget gender-responsive. the improvement of existing gender equality struc- The law will be subject to an annual audit by the tures. The Philippine Magna Carta for Women, for Commission on Audit. example, strengthened the mandate of the Philip- Vietnam’s Law on Gender Equality emphasized pine Commission on Women as the primary policy- state responsibility to promote gender equality by ­ making and coordinating body on women and g ­ ender identifying a state management agency to unify equality concerns, and emphasized the placement efforts by all of the government’s gender equal- of qualified women in all government departments ity entities as well as responsibilities of agencies to and their attached agencies. These measures include mainstream gender in their work. Moreover, Arti- bringing local government units, government-owned cles 20–22 of the law outline a process for integrat- and -controlled corporations, and other govern- ing gender into legislation. A designated National ment instrumentalities into discussions of how best Assembly Committee for Social Affairs, together to ensure a gender balance in their workforce. The with other parliamentary committees, shall verify Magna Carta for Women strengthened the gender the integration of gender equality issues in the draft and development focal points by increasing resources law and ordinances by drafting agencies. and support. The government will evaluate the increased allocation based on the law’s influence in Source: UNDP 2010. A G E N C Y : V O I C E A N D I N F L U E N C E W I T H I N T H E H O M E A N D I N S O C I E T Y    169 in the process of influencing policy, culture, In matters related to increasing women’s and social environments. Grassroots move- role in policy making, intense lobbying ments have been instrumental in chang- efforts by gender-focused CSOs and civic ing attitudes and behaviors that maintain activists have prompted changes in social gender inequalities, such as those that behavior and engaged the commitment of limit women’s participation in politics, by politicians. Institutional factors such as promoting new ideas and actively sharing parliamentary frameworks, coupled with information in the mainstream. In Indone- societal norms, continue to hinder women’s sia, in 1997, a group of women got together entrance onto the political stage (UNDP to protest policies in response to the crisis 2010). For instance, the Center for Asia- that made them unable to afford powdered Pacific Women in Politics—based in the milk for their children. The group, known Philippines with subregional offices in Fiji, as Voice of Concerned Mothers (Suara Ibu Korea, Mongolia, and Nepal—is an active Pedulu), was the first group led by women advocate for increasing the roles of women in the country since the beginning of in politics. This and other similar CSOs Suharto’s New Order (Robinson and Bes- actively lobby for expanding the capacity of sell 2002). These protests flourished and women in d ­ ecision-making roles and work- evolved into a collective voice representing ing toward gender equity in representation. mothers throughout the country. Its success In the Pacific, patterns showed decreasing prompted wider protests against the govern- participation of women in politics, prompt- ment, which contributed not only to ending ing the group Women’s Rights and Advo- the Suharto regime but also to creating new cacy in the Pacific (WRAP) to recommit space for women to participate actively in their lobbying efforts to promote women the post-Suharto period (Rinaldo 2002). in public office and political leadership C SOs and citi zen movements have (WRAP 2011). often facilitated dialogue and cooperation between ordinary women and those in public office. In Cambodia, CSOs helped Policy approaches to promote promote awareness and political education gender equality in agency among women through organizations such The analysis thus far has focused on the state as the Women’s Media Centre of C ­ ambodia. of agency in the East Asia and Pacific region Party-affiliated organizations, semigov- and identified the factors that advance or ernmental unions, as well as autonomous constrain gender equality in agency. Know- groups have served as incubators for female ing those factors can help to identify specific leaders to run for office or become appoin- policies and programs to strengthen wom- tees in key government positions. These en’s voice and influence in practice. What gender grassroots movements worked effec- follows is an initial discussion, based on the tively in promoting the participation of evidence presented, about policy priorities women in local politics through informa- for promoting gender equality in agency. tion dissemination campaigns. They con- Measures to increase women’s endowments centrated much of their efforts throughout and economic opportunity, such as those Cambodia producing written and graphic described in previous chapters, contrib- awareness materials—explaining women’s ute to strengthening their voice within the rights, responsibilities, and the process for household and in society. Educated women participating—and encouraging women to in good health, with assets and income, are play an active role in politics. Currently, better able to act on their preferences and an increasing number of women organize influence outcomes that affect themselves forums at provincial levels to champion and others in society. In addition, several gender-related causes and to pressure politi- other policy approaches can directly pro- cians into action (Singh 2009). mote women’s agency. 1 7 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C This section addresses the following fac- of the positive effects of changing the cur- tors: (a) supporting initiatives to transform riculum is available for adults in Thailand, gender norms and practices, (b) strengthen- where gender sensitivity was integrated ing the legal and institutional environment, into the curriculum in the Chulalangkorn (c) increasing women’s access to justice, medical school. Evaluation of the program (d) enabling women’s participation in poli- showed that respondents were more aware tics and policy making, (e) pursuing a multi- of gender issues and tended to apply gender pronged approach to reducing gender-based concepts and concerns to their work and violence, and (f) creating space for women’s personal lives (WHO GWH 2007). collective agency. Provisions of information through televi- sion programming can also play a critical role in changing social norms, especially with Supporting initiatives to transform respect to fertility and gender-based violence. gender norms and practices Evidence shows that people can be prompted Social norms are not static, and several fac- to rethink gender roles in society when they tors can influence them. The preferences that are exposed to new information and experi- men and women express at the individual ences that challenge existing norms. In Bra- and household level as well as in the pub- zil, despite strong traditional norms in favor lic sphere are in part determined by their of having many children, increased exposure socially constructed gender roles. Individual to the opposite behavior by popular women experiences as well as large-scale political in soap operas led to a measurable decline and economic processes are capable of bring- in fertility (Chong and La Ferrara 2009; La ing about dramatic, and often rapid, social Ferrara, Chong, and Duryea 2008). In India, change. China’s 1949 Communist Revolu- increased exposure to television contributed tion, for example, had the effect of reduc- to decreased acceptance of wife beating, ing gender inequalities to an unprecedented lower fertility rates, and noticeable shifts extent (Bian, Logan, and Shu 2000; Whyte away from son preference (Jenson and Oster and Parish 1984; Wolf 1985). Moments of 2008). social change and structural transformation Policies that promote women’s voice and create opportunities for people to rethink participation in public settings may have pos- their roles and choices. In East Asia, the pro- itive impacts for future generations. Recent cess of rapid urbanization that is currently evidence from India shows that the use of under way brings with it the possibility of political reservation policies improved not newly defined roles for men and women. As only how people view female politicians but more women participate in remunerative also how they view their own children and activities, rigid social norms are challenged. their future opportunities, as well as how The education system can be a vital source children view their own ambitions (Beaman to change gender inequality by promoting et al. 2012). social norms from a young age. The inte- gration of gender equality principles into Strengthening the legal and the school and professional curricula can institutional environment tackle the value system of children early on and challenge discriminatory social norms. As discussed earlier, although countries have In Indonesia, a recent project evaluated the made some advances, they must continue to textbooks used in various classes and found improve the legal protections of women to that they contained gender-biased mate- ensure that they have equal rights under the rial; the researchers identified messages that law. Apart from legal reforms, institutions ignored or condoned sexual harassment, must have the capacity to enforce the law gender-based violence, and gender-based and provide adequate services. This section stereotypes (Utomo et al. 2009). Evidence presents some of the policies and programs A G E N C Y : V O I C E A N D I N F L U E N C E W I T H I N T H E H O M E A N D I N S O C I E T Y    171 that countries should continue to pursue. refuses to uphold judgments in their favor These strategies have contributed to improv- largely on the basis of their gender. Govern- ing the environment for women by enabling ments must make financial and personnel them to exercise agency in their own house- investments to ensure that public sector per- hold and community, and have helped to sonnel have the administrative capacity to decrease gender-based violence in countries enforce the law and are able to follow gender and communities. equality principles. Police forces in several countries in the region—including Indonesia, Actively participate in international treaties Malaysia, and Thailand—have been criticized that promote gender equality for being too passive in investigating traffick- The ratification of international treaties such ing and enforcing antitrafficking laws (U.S. as CEDAW and the Beijing Declaration and Department of State 2011). Gender training Platform for Action signals governments’ regarding gender-related matters, including commitment to gender equality. Through human trafficking, should be mandatory active participation, governments help policy for all law enforcement personnel, including makers, CSOs, individuals, and development judges, lawyers, police officers, mediators, agencies strengthen their position, enabling and social workers. them to call for further reforms of the civil and criminal laws to make them consistent Increasing women’s access to justice with international standards. After ratifying international conventions Countries should take steps to make the judi- against the discrimination of women, the cial system more accessible to women so that government’s next step is to review the laws women can exercise their agency in the courts and the way institutions function to ensure when needed. For instance, mobile courts, that they actively promote equality between such as those in rural areas of China and the genders under the law, actively promote Indonesia, provide a solution to the problem nondiscrimination based on individual char- of accessibility and security for women who acteristics, and legally empower the state to wish to exercise their rights in the legal sys- eliminate all discrimination based on gen- tem but lack transportation. Technology can der. In cases in which overall legal reform help extend basic legal services; for instance, is not possible, governments should iden- basic legal transactions can use telephone tify priority areas. For instance, in contexts hotlines and websites. For women with few where women’s agency in the household economic resources, governments can waive is weak, reforms can focus on marriage, or subsidize the costs of legal aid to ensure divorce, maintenance laws, and the protec- access to the judicial system. tion of women from g ­ ender-based violence. Governments should also commit to under- Enabling women’s participation in taking regular assessments to make sure the politics and policy making laws are upheld, fill legal gaps, and monitor progress toward gender equality. In countries Countries may adopt affirmative action where plural ­ systems of law coexist, govern- policies if the context requires it. In both ments should continuously assess customary the private and public sectors, voluntary practices to ascertain whether they curtail or mandatory affirmative action poli- women’s agency and develop strategies to cies in many countries have increased the address them. representation of women throughout institu- ­ tions, from entry-level positions to manage- Strengthen the capacities of institutions to ­ ector rial posts. In many countries, private s enforce the law companies actively pursue these policies on The judicial system fails women when it is their own; in other countries, public sec- reluctant to pursue crimes against them and ­nstitutions take the lead in promoting tor i 1 7 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C gender-based temporary special measures to violence in their communities (Fiji Women’s signal to the rest of the labor market. In pol- Crisis Centre 2012). icies, the range of affirmative action mecha- nisms also varies. Quotas, for example, can Creating space for women’s collective be in the form of constitutional changes to agency reserve a certain number of government posts for women, both through legislative Collective action has drawn private life into and (formal or informal) political party the public arena, identifying and address- quotas. Quotas can be used informally or ing gender bias in statutory, religious, and be formally mandated at the subnational or customary law (UNRISD 2005). It has also national levels (Dahlerup 2006). Countries reduced the hold of social norms that block should evaluate the suitability of affirmative greater gender equality. During the debate in action measures well before embarking on Cambodia, which led to passage of the 2005 their implementation. Affirmative action Law on Prevention of Domestic Violence measures can open doors for women in pol- and Protection of Victims, the draft law was itics and public office and enable them to denounced for being antagonistic to Khmer move into positions of power. Affirmative culture. Parliamentarians criticized it for action measures can also help to transform “providing women with too many freedoms people’s views about the efficacy of female and rights, which will cause them to be so political leaders by increasing the number happy with their freedom that they do not of women participating in electoral politics. respect ancient Cambodian customs. . . . A However, under such measures, the percep- cake cannot be bigger than the cake pan (as tions that women are less qualified may per- cited in Frieson 2011).� The Cambodia Com- sist and, in some cases women may hesitate mittee of Women, a coalition of 32 nongov- to take such positions because of concern ernmental organizations, persistently lobbied they’ll be perceived as less capable. the government and the Ministry of Women’s Affairs to secure the legislation’s passage (World Bank 2011c) . Pursuing a multipronged approach to reducing gender-based violence Notes Reducing gender-based violence requires Civic activism is defined as the set of practices 1.  action on a number of fronts: efforts to among citizens which demand greater involve- increase women’s voice within the ­household; ment and scrutiny of public decisions and out- enactment and enforcement of appropriate comes and is often used as a proxy for agency. legislation and strengthening of women’s Examples of civic activism are memberships in access to justice; provision of adequate sup- civil society organizations, petitions, protests, port services for victims of violence; and and peaceful demonstrations. use of the media to provide information on Demographic and health survey data for the 2.  women’s rights, to increase social aware- countries studied in this chapter are available ness and to shift social norms with respect through MEASURE DHS, ICF International, to violence. The Fiji Women’s Crisis Centre, Calverton, MD. http://www.measuredhs.com/. NSD [Timor-Leste], Ministry of Finance, and for example, provides crisis counseling as ICF Macro 2010; NIS and DGH [Cambodia] well as legal, medical, and other ­support to 2011; BPS (Statistics Indonesia) and ORC women and children who have experienced Macro 2003. gender-based violence. The crisis centre How individual civil society organizations 3.  encourages male advocacy through pro- (CSOs) interact with government varies greatly grams that train men from police, military, within countries; distinct paths evolved in the community and religious agencies to more relationship over time among more developed easily recognize and prevent ­ gender-based countries in East Asia. In Korea, prior to 1990, A G E N C Y : V O I C E A N D I N F L U E N C E W I T H I N T H E H O M E A N D I N S O C I E T Y    173 the relationship between the government and ———. 2010b. Gender and Green Governance: civil society was not close in part because their The Political Economy of Women’s Presence goals did not seem to be aligned. After 1990, within and beyond Community Forestry. the relationship changed because the govern- New York: Oxford University Press. ment sought to find common ground with Agarwal, Bina, and Pradeep Panda. 2007. CSOs (Kim 1998). The role of civil society in “Toward Freedom from Domestic Violence: Japan also continues to evolve; it had a limited The Neglected Obvious.� Journal of Human role in the 1990s because of a cumbersome Development 8 (3): 359–88. regulatory framework that made entry of new Aizer, Anna. Forthcoming. “The Gender Wage CSOs and operations of existing ones diffi- Gap and Domestic Violence.� American cult (Amemiya 1999; Yamaoka 1999). A new Economic Review. legal framework was put forth in 2006, which Amemiya, Takako. 1999. “Japan.� In Philanthropy prompted some positive changes, especially in and Law in Asia: A Comparative Study of the the relationship between the government and Nonprofit Legal Systems in Ten Asia Pacific CSOs (Lowry 2008). Societies, edited by Thomas Silk, 131–62. San 4. Psychological and emotional violence is defined Francisco: Jossey-Bass. by acts or threats of acts, such as shouting, Anderson, Siwan. 2007. “The Economics of controlling, intimidating, humiliating, and Dowry and Brideprice.� Journal of Economic threatening the victim. This type of violence Perspectives 21 (4): 151–74. may include coercive tactics. Ashraf, Nava, Dean Karlan, and Wedley Yin. 5. Circumstances include if she does not do her 2006. “Tying Odysseus to the Mast: Evidence housework to his satisfaction, if she disobeys from a Commitment Savings Product in the him, if she refuses to have sex with him, if she Philippines.� Quarterly Journal of Economics asks him whether he has other girlfriends, if he 121 (2): 635–72. suspects that she is unfaithful, and if he finds AusAID. 2008. “Vanuatu Country Report.� out that she has been unfaithful. ht tp: //w w w.ausaid.gov.au / P ublications 6. The Kasambahay bill is still awaiting Senate /Documents/ResVAW_vanuatu.pdf. approval as of mid-June 2012. See http:// Ban, Radu, and Vijayendra Rao. 2009. “Is www.pia.gov.ph/news/index.php?article Deliberation Equitable? Evidence from =231339654008. Transcripts of Village Meetings in South India.� Policy Research Working Paper 4928, World Bank, Washington, DC. 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Bass. 2007. “Integrating Gender into the Curricula Zhang, Heather. 1999. “Female Migration for Health Professionals.� Meeting Report, and Urban Labour Markets in Tianjin.� December 4–6. WHO, Geneva. Development and Change 30 (1): 21–41. Gender and the Region’s Emerging Development 5 Challenges T he world is more integrated now than (a) globalization and integration, (b) migra- it has ever been in its history, bring- tion, (c) urbanization, (d) aging populations, ing regions together economically, and (e) information and communication tech- socially, and culturally. The East Asia and nology (ICT). Each of these trends involves a Pacific region is one of the most dynamic in number of gender-related challenges but also the world and has been at the forefront of presents new and encouraging prospects for the trend toward greater global integration. women. Policy makers in the region will have Over the course of two decades, many coun- to manage these challenges while simultane- tries in the region have changed the struc- ously fostering new opportunities: ture of their economies and have gradually opened to greater inflows and outflows of • Globalization. The trend toward greater people, goods, and physical capital. Techno- global economic integration, which has logical advances have changed production been particularly marked in the East processes in all sectors, from better market Asia and Pacific region, has the potential access in agriculture to mechanization in to increase economic opportunities for manufacturing. The region has seen shifts women and to narrow the gender wage in the geographic patterns of settlement and gap. However, globalization also raises work as the center of economic activities the likelihood that shocks will be trans- has moved from rural to urban areas and mitted from country to country through as international and intranational migra- integrated markets. Many studies, includ- tion has increased. Rapid declines in fertility ing those from the recent global financial and mortality are anticipated to change the crisis, have found that these shocks have a region’s demographic profile—in some coun- gender-differentiated effect along a wide tries, the proportion of the population over range of outcomes, including human capi- age 65 is already larger than the proportion tal investment, labor force participation, that are 15 and under. earnings, and mortality. This chapter examines how the follow- •  M ig ra t i o n . T he e c onom ic g row t h ing five key trends are affecting the men and ­ experienced in the region over the past women of the East Asia and Pacific region: three decades has spurred significant 179 1 8 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C m ­ ovements of p ­ eople within and across Globalization ­ c ountries in search of better economic opportunities. Women make up nearly Globalization presents opportunities as well half of these migrants in the East Asia as challenges for reducing gender inequality. and Pacific region. Migration can provide The opening up of domestic economies to women with more and better economic specialization spurred by international trade opportunities, but it can also put them at may increase economic opportunities and greater risk for exploitation, abuse, and women’s empowerment, but this trend also human trafficking. brings with it an increased risk that shocks •  U rbanization. Unprecedented increases will be transmitted from country to country in migration to urban areas have taken through increasingly integrated markets. place in recent decades as men and women move in search of jobs. Urban- Growth in trade and capital flows ization can transform women’s lives in East Asia and the Pacific through improved access to infrastruc- ture, education, and health services and Developing countries all over the world are a wider range of economic opportunities. experiencing structural change at a rapid Women’s ability to take advantage of pace. Since 1987, the share of both male and these opportunities depends on whether female employment in manufacturing and gender-sensitive infrastructure and ser- services in developing countries has grown vice delivery have been considered and faster than in developed countries, reflecting whether they are able to balance their changes in the global distribution of produc- home and work lives. tion and labor (World Bank 2011b). These •  A ging. The population of the East Asia trends have been mirrored in the East Asia and Pacific region is aging rapidly, in and Pacific region (chapter 3). many countries at a faster pace than in the Behind these changes in economic struc- rest of the world. Women, both the elderly ture lie the powerful global forces of eco- and the young, are likely to face particular nomic and social integration and economic challenges as a result of this demographic reforms. In many countries in the region, change. Although women tend to live lon- reforms during the 1990s and early 2000s ger than men, they have fewer economic laid the foundation for institutional change assets and resources and are less likely to and rapid growth. The export of goods and be covered by formal social security sys- services as a proportion of gross d ­ omestic tems. They are also more likely to be care- product (GDP) rose from 17 percent in givers to the elderly than men. 1980 to 43 percent in 2008. However, these •   I nformation and communication tech- flows are volatile. The recent financial cri- nology (ICT). Advances in information sis has caused exports to fall to 35 percent and communication technologies are of GDP in the region. Within the region, revolutionizing the ways in which men the ratio of exports to GDP varies widely. and women in the region are exposed to For example, in Vietnam, this ratio has ideas, share knowledge, and network. increased hugely over time, from 7 percent ICTs can empower women by opening in 1986 to over 70 percent in the late 2000s, new economic opportunities, break- while in Indonesia, the ratio has remained ing down information barriers, chang- between 20 and 40 percent over the past ing social norms, and enabling collective three decades.1 action. Evidence suggests that women in the region may still have less access to Globalization and gender information technology than men, reduc- ing their ability to harness their transfor- These trade and capital flows have generated mative potential. new employment and income-generation G E N D E R A N D T H E R E G I O N ’ S E M E R G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T C H A L L E N G E S    181 opportunities within the region, particularly small fraction of the female workforce. for women. 2 However, these flows have also Among female workers ages 15–34, who are been associated with greater economic vola- the most likely to be employed in the manu- tility, because global or regional macroeco- ­ ector, e facturing s ­ mployment in the garment nomic shocks—such as the Asian financial industry is substantial in some countries in crisis of 1997–98, the food and fuel crisis the region, from approximately 8 percent of 2004 and 2008, and the global financial of 15- to 34-year-old females in Indonesia crisis—can spread more rapidly throughout to over 15 percent in Vietnam ( ­figure 5.3). the world. This section explores the ways in Employment p ­ atterns have shifted over time which globalization has changed the lives of men and women in the region. FIGURE 5.1  Women are more likely to work in export-oriented firms than in non-export-oriented firms Globalization and increased economic opportunities for women a. percentage of workers that are female, by region Women have played an important role in 60 the expansion of export-oriented manu- facturing during the process of economic 50 development and structural transformation 40 (Standing 1999; Wood 1991). Increases in trade and mobile capital have expanded job percent 30 opportunities in the East Asia and Pacific region, particularly for women who make 20 up a large proportion of the labor force in the export-oriented manufacturing sector 10 in the region and around the world (World Bank 2011b). 0 Export-oriented firms are more likely to ic sia be d Af and sia ca cif ib an fri lA hA an a Pa ric nA ar ca rth st hire women than non-export-oriented firms, ra ut No Ea d e C eri nt ra an So e m Ce ha both across the world and within the region dl ia A Sa id d As tin an M b- th (figure 5.1). The East Asia and Pacific region st La Su pe Ea ro is second only to Europe and Central Asia Eu in the proportion of female workers work- ing in the export-oriented sector. Within b. percentage of workers that are female, East Asia, the fraction of female workers by country in the East Asia and Pacific region is substantially higher in export-oriented 70 firms than in non-export-oriented firms, 60 with Indonesia as a key exception in this regard (figure 5.1b). 50 Female workers predominate in certain 40 percent export-oriented sectors, such as the gar- ment sector. These sectors have grown 30 ­ substantially and quickly in recent years. 20 Figure 5.2 depicts employment in Viet- nam’s textile and apparel sectors, which 10 grew significantly bet ween 20 0 0 and 0 2008. Women are more likely to work Cambodia China Indonesia Thailand in these sectors than men in ­ C ambodia, exporter non-exporter Indonesia, the Lao People’s ­ D emocratic Republic, and Vietnam, although overall Source: Enterprise Surveys database, 2002–05 data. garments and textiles account for only a Note: The data are not available for examining similar patterns in Pacific countries. 1 8 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 5.2  Employment in textile and apparel in Vietnam grew from the East Asia and Pacific region sug- substantially between 2000 and 2008 gests that with the exception of ­ I ndonesia, electronics production does not appear to be employment, thousands an overwhelmingly female area of work. 1,000 The experience of developed countries 900 in the region shows that the demand for 800 female labor in export-oriented industries 700 declines as countries transition from labor- intensive to capital-intensive manufactur- 600 ing. In Korea, women constituted 70 per- thousands 500 cent of workers in export processing zones 400 in 1990 compared to 42 percent of employ- 300 ees in manufacturing overall (Kusago and 200 Tzannatos 1998), a substantial rise over the 28 percent of women employed in manufac- 100 turing in 1972 (Seguino 1997). However, 0 the dominance of females in the export- 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 oriented sector has declined since heavy textile apparel total chemical and manufacturing industries, Sources: Frederick and Staritz 2011. such as steel, cars, and shipbuilding, began to increasingly replace light manufacturing industries (Kong 2007). In Taiwan, China, a concerted shift toward capital- or technol- FIGURE 5.3  Women predominate in the garment sector in four ogy-intensive exports in the late 1970s and East Asian countries early 1980s was accompanied by a steady decline in the share of female wage workers percentage of the labor force in the garment sector, 18 ages 15–34, by gender in the manufacturing sector until the mid- 1990s (Berik 2000). 16 A lt hou g h wo m e n a r e e x t e n s ive ly 14 employed in the sectors that are expanding 12 as a result of increased trade opportunities 10 in many East Asian and Pacific countries, as percent sectors become more technology, skill, and 8 capital intensive, employers may ultimately 6 replace female workers with more highly 4 skilled men ( ­Gamberoni and Reis 2011; 2 Tejani and ­ M ilberg 2010). For example, 0 in Malaysia, only 40 percent of the work- Indonesia, 2009 Lao PDR, 2008 Cambodia, 2008 Vietnam, 2006 ers in the Special Economic Zones are now male female female, down from 60 percent two decades ago (IFC 2008). ­ S everal possible explana- Sources: World Bank staff estimates using Cambodia Socioeconomic Survey (CSES) (NIS Cambodia), tions for this include (a) differences in the 2008 data; Indonesia National Labor Force S­ urveys (SAKERNAS) (BPS Indonesia), 2009 data; Lao level and content of men’s and women’s edu- Expenditure and Consumption Survey (LECS) (LSB Lao PDR), 2008 data; VHLSS (GSO Vietnam), 2006 data. cation; (b) discrimination and gender segre- gation in higher skilled jobs; (c) tight female in the electronics industry. In earlier waves labor markets that can force female wages to of export-orientated growth in Japan, the rise; and (d) the view that men deserve more Republic of Korea and Taiwan, China, the secure employment and are less likely to labor force in electronics was predominantly leave paid work to fulfill domestic responsi- female. Analysis of recent household data bilities� (Seguino and Grown 2006, 8; Berik G E N D E R A N D T H E R E G I O N ’ S E M E R G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T C H A L L E N G E S    183 forthcoming; G ­ amberoni and Reis 2011; manufacturing sector in Mexico increased the Tejani and M ­ ilberg 2010). school dropout rate (Atkin 2010). The wages of men and women respond differently to trade liberalization and export- Gender-related challenges of globalization oriented growth, depending on (a) the type Despite expanding economic opportuni- of growth seen, (b) a country’s compara- ties for women, globalization poses chal- tive advantage, and (c) institutional and lenges in the form of increased exposure to policy-related factors (Berik, van der Meu- externally driven shocks and in the type and len ­Rodgers, and Zveglich 2004; Black and quality of work conducted by women in the ­ Brainerd 2002; Oostendorp 2009; Seguino export-oriented sector. Externally driven 2000). 3 During periods of export-oriented shocks have had a negative effect on women growth, gender wage gaps narrowed in in a number of outcomes related to health, Korea while they widened in Taiwan, China education, and employment. (Seguino 2000). The difference in patterns Men and women work in different occu- is attributed to increasing capital mobility pations and industries, so they tend to be in Taiwan, China, which moved capital out affected differently by economic shocks. In of labor- and female-intensive industries, addition, because crises vary in the sectors whereas regulations in Korea limited the they affect and in their propagation mecha- movement of capital (Seguino 2000). Similar nisms, the employment and wage effects on evidence from Bangladesh indicates that a men and women also vary across crises. For movement up the value chain in the Bangla- example, in the Philippines, the food and deshi garment industry had negative repercus- fuel crisis of 2008 affected employment and sions for female workers, who are less likely wages in different ways than the financial to work in the more skill-intensive occupa- crisis of 2009 (Menon and van der Meulen tions (Frederick and Staritz 2011). In Taiwan, Rodgers forthcoming). Following the food China, and in Korea, the wage gap between and fuel crisis, more unskilled workers lost men and women widened in sectors with their jobs than skilled workers, whereas strong trade competition between 1980 and skilled workers suffered more than unskilled 1999 (Berik, van der Meulen R ­ odgers, and workers during the financial crisis. Women’s Zveglich 2004). In Taiwan, China, greater likelihood of employment dropped more than export orientation adversely affected both that of men during both crises but, although men’s and women’s wages, but it reduced most of the decline for men came from fall- gender wage inequality because male employ- ing wage employment, women lost work in ees faced a greater wage penalty than female both wage employment and self-employment. workers did (Berik 2000). In Cambodia, analysis showed that the finan- The expansion of labor market opportuni- cial crisis resulted in labor market churning, ties as a result of trade liberalization may also in which high job destruction was followed encourage investment in education among by an even larger creation of low-quality young women. For example, the expansion jobs. Women accounted for the greatest share of call centers and other economic opportu- of job losses but also the largest share of jobs nities for women linked to globalization have created (Bruni et al. 2012). increased female educational investment in Across the world, as well as in the East Asia India (Munshi and Rosenzweig 2004; Oster and and Pacific region, both women’s employ- Millet 2010; Shastry 2010). The ­ evidence sug- ment and the total number of hours that gests that the relationship between ­ investment women work tend to increase during periods in education and labor market opportunities of economic crisis (Frankenburg, Smith, and depends on the skill bias of export-oriented Thomas 2000; Lim 2000; Tork and Mason growth and that growth in low-skill inten- 2009). 5 Using data from 63 developing and sive opportunities may in fact reduce educa- transition countries, ­ Bhalotra and Umana- tional investment. Growth in the unskilled Aponte (2010) found that a 10 percent drop 1 8 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C in a country’s GDP is associated with a 0.74 1 percent decline in per capita GDP being percentage point increase in women’s work associated with a 10 to 15 percent increase participation.4 Those authors also found in infant mortality on average. However, that, in the East Asia and Pacific region, the the effect on females is approximately twice employment of rural women and ­ m arried the effect on males—a 1 percent decline in women with a child under the age of five was per capita GDP increases the mortality rates more sensitive to cyclical variation than other of boys by 0.27 per thousand born, whereas women, possibly because they tend to be it raises that of girls by 0.53 per thousand. closer to their subsistence requirements. The quality and quantity of women’s and Women’s employment in the East Asia girls’ diets are also more likely to have been and Pacific region may be disproportionately disproportionately affected by the food affected by crises because of perceptions and financial crisis than those of men and that they should leave job opportunities for boys (Jones et al. 2009). In addition, ten- male workers. In Korea, more women than sions in households increase during peri- men dropped out of the labor force and ods of economic stress. During the finan- became “discouraged� workers during the cial crisis of 2009, both men and women 1997–98 crisis (Kim and Voos 2007). The reported an increase in the number of argu- increase in dropouts was concentrated among ments between husbands and wives related young, single women and outweighed the to their limited financial resources, which increased labor force participation of mar- sometimes led to violence (Turk and Mason ried women who entered the labor market to 2009).6 maintain their family’s income (Kang 1999, Evidence from macroeconomic crises sug- cited in Kim and Voos 2007). The major- gests that, although children’s school enroll- ity of employers targeted women workers ment declines in response to these shocks, for voluntary resignation, especially if those the gender differences are small relative to women were from double-income families or their overall impacts (Sabarwal, Sinha, and were married. Anecdotal evidence suggests Buvinic 2010). In Indonesia and the Philip- that women in some sectors in Korea, such pines, the 1997–98 crisis was associated as banking, were forced to resign from their with declines in children’s school enroll- permanent positions and were then rehired as ment or increases in child labor (Franken- temporary employees (Kim and Voos 2007). berg, Beard, and Saputra 1999; Lim 2000; The disproportionate dismissal of female Thomas et al. 2004). In the Philippines, employees during the crisis occurred partly the enrollment of female children declined because of employers’ perception that hiring slightly at the elementary level in 1998–99, female workers cost them more than hiring whereas male enrollment increased substan- male workers (Kong 2007) and partly because tially during that year (Lim 2000). At the employers viewed men as the main family same time, child labor among boys ages 10 to breadwinners and hence believed that women 14 increased in both urban and rural areas, should step aside (Kim and Park 2006). and labor force participation rates of girls Female health has been found to be more increased only marginally. In Indonesia, real susceptible to shocks than male health, education expenditures as well as the share both in the region and elsewhere (Strauss of the household budget spent on schooling and Thomas 2008). Females are more likely declined between 1997 and 1998 (Thomas to suffer from physical and mental health et al. 2004). Households spent more on the deteriorations during periods of crisis education of young men (ages 15–19) than (Dercon and Krishnan 2000; Frankenberg ­ young women and mobilized the money to et al. 2008; Friedman and Thomas 2007). do so by reducing their expenditures on the Data from 59 developing countries show education of younger male and female chil- a large negative association between per dren (ages 10–14) and of older females (ages capita GDP and infant mortality, with a 15–19). G E N D E R A N D T H E R E G I O N ’ S E M E R G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T C H A L L E N G E S    185 Finally, globalization poses challenges in positions and more likely to be employed the type and quality of work conducted by in temporary positions or in the informal women in the export-oriented sector. Gen- sector than men. Furthermore, experience der segregation continues to exist. Women from developed countries in the region are less likely to be employed in managerial suggests that, as economies develop and or professional positions and are more likely industries move up the value chain, female to be in part-time or informal subcontracted employment in the export-oriented sector jobs (Seguino 2000).7 Older female work- may decline as so-called male industries ers also face barriers in these industries. emerge. For example, in Shenzhen, the largest of the Policies that reduce gender gaps in eco- Special Economic Zones (SEZs) in China, nomic opportunities, and in particular in female workers under 25 years of age make labor force participation and gender based up 90 percent of workers in garment and occupational and industrial segregation, are electronics plants (Summerfield 1995, cited necessary to ensure that women are able to in Davin 2004). This bias may be because fully benefit from the economic opportu- firms in these zones often use single-sex dor- nities brought about by greater globaliza- mitories to accommodate migrant workers, tion. Since women are disproportionately a situation that is incompatible with mar- employed in the export-orientated sector riage and ­ family formation (Davin 2004; and in special economic zones, there may Ngai 2004). be scope for p­ olicy makers to promote the Many studies have suggested that employ- creation of zone-level social services that are ment in Export Processing Zones (EPZs) is sensitive to women’s needs. characterized by unsafe working conditions Greater economic integration also entails and the suppression of labor rights; however, risks, notably an increased exposure to studies do not make clear whether workers employment shocks, which will have gender- in these zones are worse off than their rural differentiated impacts. To address these and urban counterparts (Murayama and risks, policy makers need to design social Yokata 2008). Governments set the legal protection programs that adequately account framework for employment practices in for the different risks faced by female and SEZs, which may have the same labor stan- male workers. Recognizing the gender- dards as those in the country as a whole or differentiated impacts of labor market pro- may be unique to the SEZs. For example, in grams and policies enacted to mitigate crises the Philippines, all national laws officially will lead to better policy making. Evidence apply in EPZs. In practice, however, the from the region suggests that gender blind Philippines Economic Zone Authority, often policies enacted in response to shocks may allows firms in the EPZ to circumvent these have gender differentiated impacts. laws (McKay 2006). Migration Implications for policy related The movement of people, both on a national to globalization and international scale, has increased across The expansion of employment opportuni- the world in the past two decades because of ties in the East Asia and Pacific region due improvements in transportation ­ technology to globalization has been associated with and infrastructure (World Bank 2008). greater female access to income and rising Worldwide, women account for almost half empowerment, particularly among young of all international migrants, rising from rural female migrants. However, challenges below 47 percent of migrants in 1960 to remain for women working in these sectors. 49 percent in 2010 (UNPD 2008). Studies As in the rest of the economy, women are have noted a shift in the motive for migration less likely to be employed in managerial among female migrants. Previously, women 1 8 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C predominantly migrated for marriage or as the international migration from the region dependents of spouses or other male family as a whole (Guzmán 2006; UN 2001, cited members who worked abroad. Increasingly, in Hugo 2003). women are migrating independently to This section examines the following improve their economic opportunities and in the context of the East Asia and Pacific breadwinner for to fulfill the role of primary ­ region: (a) emerging migration trends and their families (Sørensen 2005). gender, (b) the socioeconomic characteris- tics of male and female migrants, (c) factors influencing female migration, (d) the mixed Migration and gender impact of migration on women’s status, and The economic growth experienced in the East (e) the mixed impact of migration on those Asia and Pacific region over the past three who stay behind. decades has spurred a significant intrare- gional movement of people. Evidence of these Gender-differentiated migration trends in flows is highly visible within the region— the East Asia and Pacific region from the 200 million people travelling across The often informal and undocumented China to be with their families for the Lunar nature of female migration in the region has New Year to the substantial cross-border resulted in significant information gaps, but migration flows seen in the Greater Mekong three salient facts have emerged in recent Subregion (World Bank 2008). Economic years. First, the numbers of women migrat- booms in East Asian cities have created labor ing are increasing . At the turn of the 21st force shortages, which have been met by a century, the number of female migrants in growing supply of migrant labor as people the region is estimated to have surpassed have moved to urban areas to improve the that of male migrants (Lee 2005). In Fiji and well-being of their families and communities. Tonga in 2005, approximately 50 percent of The flow of migrants to several cities in the migrants were female (World Bank 2006b). region has become increasingly female, and The bulk of female migrants in the region women comprise a significant proportion of come from Indonesia and the Philippines. Thai women are underrepresented among legal migrants but dominate among irregu- FIGURE 5.4  The share of international female migrants has lar migrants or those presumed to be traf- increased over time in Indonesia and Vietnam ficked. Thailand has also been an important destination for irregular migrant women, 800 flow of migrant workers per year, thousands such as M ­ yanmar and Lao women work- 700 ing as domestic workers (Piper 2009). More 600 than half of the Lao migrants and close to 500 half of the Cambodian migrants to Thailand thousands 400 are women (World Bank 2006c). 300 Second, the proportion of women in the 200 migrant population is increasing . A study 100 in China covering six provinces found that, between 1995 and 2000, the migration rates 0 for women increased twice as quickly as 2000 2002 2004 2006 2007 2000 2002 2004 2006 2007 2000 2002 2004 2006 2007 those for men (de Brauw et al. 2002). The Indonesia Philippines Vietnam annual proportion of women migrating, of Indonesian workers, reached approximately male female 80 percent in 2007, an increase from about 70 percent in 2000 (figure 5.4). In Vietnam, Source: World Bank forthcoming. Note: Figure is based on data from the Indonesia Ministry of Manpower, the Philippines Overseas women constituted 57 percent of individu- Employment Administration, and the Vietnam Ministry of Labor, Invalids and Social Affairs. als who had migrated internally or who were G E N D E R A N D T H E R E G I O N ’ S E M E R G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T C H A L L E N G E S    187 international migrants in the previous five likely than men to work in export-oriented years (Pierre 2011). industries, where employers perceive them Third, female migrants who used to to have a comparative advantage.9 China’s migrate out of the region are increasingly Pearl River Delta region is one of the most finding opportunities to migrate within the popular destinations for internal rural region . Although the most frequent destina- migrants. Young rural migrant women tion for female migrants from Indonesia is constitute 65 to 70 percent of the region’s Saudi Arabia, more and more of these women labor force because they are favored by the are finding employment in other Asian coun- region’s transnational clothing, textile, toy, tries such as Hong Kong SAR, China; Malay- electronic, and other labor-intensive manu- sia; Singapore; and Taiwan, China. This facturing and processing firms (Gaetano trend differs from those of Indonesian male and Jacka 2004). migrants. Although the majority of male A rapid increase in demand for domestic migrants find work in Malaysia, many are workers has occurred as a result of urban- now going to Saudi Arabia (Nguyen and Pur- ization and an expansion of the middle class namasari 2011). in many countries in the world. Women migrate to work abroad as domestic work- Socioeconomic factors characterizing male ers in response to gender-specific labor and female migrants demand. Female migrant workers from The socioeconomic factors that character- East Asian and Pacific countries are also ize male and female migrants in the region employed as d ­ omestic workers in other appear to be similar. Migrants, both male regions, including the Middle East, North and female, are young and relatively low- America, and Western Europe. Approxi- skilled but are not necessarily among the mately 1 m ­ illion migrant domestic work- least educated in their country of origin ers are in Saudi A ­ rabia, with the majority (Jampaklay et al. 2009; World Bank 2006c; coming from Indonesia, the Philippines, and World Bank, forthcoming).8 The exception Sri Lanka. In 2003, an estimated 200,000 to this trend is the Philippines, where both migrant domestic workers were found in male and female migrants tend to be older Hong Kong SAR, China, and 155,000 were and highly educated (Cabegin and Alba found in Malaysia. In ­ S ingapore, one of 2011). High-skilled female migration dif- every seven households employs a domestic fers from low-skilled migration: the destina- worker, the majority of whom are migrants tion countries for this type of migration are (UNFPA 2006). usually high-income developed countries in More women are moving independently for North America and Western Europe. Female educational and employment reasons. When migrants participate in all types of migra- migration is not restricted, many women tion. They can be found among both inter- choose to migrate to obtain new skills, nal and international migrants and within increase their income, and broaden their edu- temporary and permanent flows; they can cation. In Vietnam, approximately 14 per- be regular or irregular migrants. cent of male and female migrants migrate to attend school; since females are more likely Factors influencing female migration to migrate, they constitute a larger fraction of A combination of factors have influenced those migrating for schooling (Pierre 2011). the feminization of migrant flows in the Women are overrepresented in the brain region. The perceived comparative advan- drain, which may be a consequence of their tage of women in growing industries has unequal access to labor markets in developing led to an increase in female labor demand countries. Econometric estimates show that and to the expansion of labor opportunities emigration of highly skilled women is higher for women in both the formal and informal the poorer the country of origin (Dumont et sectors in urban areas. Women are more al. 2007). Although this can be beneficial to 1 8 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C the individual in terms of opportunities, the cities experience more autonomy and female brain drain can be detrimental to the ­ independence than they did at home (Zhang economic growth of source countries. 1999). Migrant women who return home The informal sectors of cities have many may act as role models to other women opportunities for women as well as men, pro- by transferring or demonstrating newly moting rural to urban migration. The infor- acquired skills, ideas, attitudes, and knowl- mal labor sector in Cambodia has absorbed edge (Hugo 2005; UNFPA 2006). Migrants female migrants from rural areas in work employed as domestic workers in Chiang such as street peddling, manual labor, domes- Mai and Mae Sot, T ­ hailand, expressed the tic service, and garbage collection (UNIFEM desire to establish businesses based on the 2005). Male migrants conduct different, new skills that they’ve learnt when they generally brawn-intensive, types of work, return home (Punpuing et al. 2005). The including construction, mining, fishing, and women of rural Anhui and Sichuan, China, logging. who participated in circular migration In recent decades, the sex and entertain- returned home having adopted the urban ment industries in Asian cities and in cross- norm of desiring only one child; they also border areas have grown substantially. experienced lower rates of domestic violence Almost all women involved in these industries than women who did not migrate. These are rural-to-urban migrants with circular, women also believe that women should be or temporary, patterns of migration (Hugo able to choose a marriage partner and that 2003). Global tourism, which has been pro- divorce is acceptable (Connelly et al. 2010). moted as a national policy in countries such Empowerment may arise in the form of as Indonesia, Malaysia, the ­ Philippines, and participation in collective organizations, Thailand for decades, is cited as the pri- including nongovernmental organizations and mary reason for the rapid growth of the sex labor associations that lobby for gender equal- and entertainment industry (Hugo 2005). ity. In the past 15 years, domestic workers in ­ Cambodia and Lao PDR also now face this Hong Kong SAR, China, have been active social challenge. in organizing and participating in political protests that concern not only local migrant The mixed impact of migration on women’s workers’ rights but also global, transnational, position in households and communities and human rights (Constable 2009). Migration can increase a woman’s empow- Migration provides women with increased erment, economic opportunity, knowledge, economic opportunities, which can improve and skills, as well as increase her participa- the standard of living of the migrants and tion as an active member of society. Through their families. For many female rural-to- these channels, a woman can contribute urban migrants in China, their migration to economic growth, increase the well- is the first time they earn wages and choose being of her family, and have an intergen- how to spend them (Connelly et al. 2010). In erational effect by acting as a role model for Cambodia, the porous border to Thailand other women and girls.10 However, female allows Khmer female migrants to sell home migrants are more likely to be at risk of and farm products in Thailand’s markets at exploitation, abuse, and human trafficking higher prices, where the per capita GDP is 12 than male migrants. times that of Cambodia. Khmer women also Many women become empowered when engage in paid and formal employment as they move from rural to urban areas and shop assistants, fruit sellers, and sweet sellers away from familial and rural community for mostly Thai employers. This largely circu- social controls. Increased autonomy, access lar and nonpermanent migration ranges from to information, and status can empower day migration to stays of two to three weeks women to create new identities for them- at a time (UNIFEM 2005). Econometric evi- selves. Rural migrant women in Chinese dence that combines a survey of Indonesian G E N D E R A N D T H E R E G I O N ’ S E M E R G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T C H A L L E N G E S    189 maids and factory workers in Malaysia with The largest segregated occupation, and data from the Indonesia Family and Life Sur- one of the most isolating, is domestic work. vey shows that these young female migrants Indonesian domestic workers employed in may gain an additional US$80 to US$130 per Malaysia typically work 16- to 18-hour month compared with their earnings if they days, seven days a week, without holi- stay in Indonesia. These income gains are as days (Human Rights Watch 2004). In the high as five times their income in Indonesia Chiang Mai and Mae Sot provinces of (Tan and Gibson 2010). Thailand, almost 98 percent of domestic Migrants contribute to the economic devel- workers worked for more than 12 hours a opment of their destination countries through day (UNESCAP 2007). Over half of these their competencies and skills. Furthermore, domestic workers were subject to verbal they contribute to the economic development abuse, 10 percent experienced physical of the sending countries through remittances abuse, and 14 percent stated that they expe- and increased experience and knowledge rienced some form of sexual harassment upon returning. Female migrants can improve (Punpuing et al. 2005).12 In addition to the well-being of family members at home these abuses, domestic workers frequently and potentially foster economic growth. had their freedom of movement and their In Indonesia, the proportion of households communication with the outside world lim- receiving remittances from female migrants ited by their employers. between 2000 and 2007 far exceeded the One of the greatest vulnerabilities women proportion receiving remittances from male and girls face is trafficking for prostitution migrants. Their contribution to their family and forced labor. A highly profitable and back home—in remittances as a percentage growing industry, human trafficking is the of per capita consumption among recipient third most lucrative illicit business in the households—also surpassed that of male world after arms and drug trafficking, and it migrants from 2000 to 2007 (Nguyen and is a substantial source of organized crime rev- Purnamasari 2011).11 enue (ILO 2008; UNFPA 2006). The Interna- In destination areas, women are particu- tional Labour Organization (ILO) estimates larly vulnerable to exploitation because of that at least 2.5 million trafficking victims their status as migrants and because they are currently being exploited worldwide and are women. Women are more likely to be that another 1.2 million are trafficked annu- found in occupations where they are subject ally, both across and within national bor- to labor exploitation and health risks, which ders. Asia and the Pacific regions account can make migration detrimental to a wom- for over half of these trafficked victims—an an’s well-being. Furthermore, women’s prog- estimated 1.36 million (ILO 2008).13 Women ress in empowerment may be negated upon often arrive in destination countries such as returning to their home community. ­ M alaysia through legal channels but with- Gender-based labor segregation channels out a job. These women become particularly migrant women into occupations that may vulnerable to trafficking because of financial subject them to physical and psychologi- hardship and limited information. cal abuse as well as labor exploitation and Male and female migrants often have human rights violations (Yamanaka and jobs that subject them to health risks. The Piper 2005). Many female migrants in the prevalence of female temporary migrants’ region, both documented and undocumented, work in the sex and entertainment indus- work as live-in maids, caregivers, entertain- tries increases their likelihood of acquiring ers, sex workers, and other service employees HIV. In China, male migrants and non- (Yamanaka and Piper 2003). Labor legisla- migrants have similar rates of casual and tion generally does not cover these occupa- commercial sex; however, female tempo- tions, leaving female migrants vulnerable to rary migrants have rates of casual and com- exploitation. mercial sex 14 and 80 times the rates for 1 9 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C female nonmigrants, respectively (Yang and taking on most of the added hours in farm Xia 2005). Male migrants, who dominate work. This additional obligation seems to be industries such as mining and construction, a persistent effect and comes at the cost of face increased health risks, including risk of fewer hours in local off-farm work, with no death, partly as a result of lax occupational signs of increased decision-making responsi- safety regulations. In China, between 2001 bilities over the household’s farming activi- and 2005, an average of 6,222 workers ties. However, men who are left behind do died in coal mining accidents each year; the not experience this reallocation (Mu and majority of the workers were migrants (IOM van de Walle 2009). 2009). Other effects of working in mines Migration affects the employment of develop over time: pneumoconiosis, a lung those left behind. In the Philippines, hav- disease caused by dust inhalation, accounts ing a migrant in the household reduces for 83 percent of all occupational disease the labor force participation and hours recorded in China (Ministry of Health fig- worked of nonmigrant relatives of both ures, Su 2005, as cited in IOM 2009). men and women, who substitute income Migrants’ gains in female empowerment for more leisure (Rodriguez and Tiongson in the destination area may not have last- 2001). In Indonesia, migration reduces ing impacts once women return to rural the working hours of remaining house- areas. Context matters in determining hold members by 33 hours per week if the empowerment outcomes, as shown in many migrant is male. This negative relationship studies. Mason and Smith (2003, 2) com- is not observed for households with female pare autonomy measures across five Asian migrants (Nguyen and ­ P urnamasari 2011). countries and argue that “community is a Furthermore, in I ­ ndonesia, female migra- far stronger predictor of women’s empow- tion may reduce the labor force participa- erment than are individual traits� (see the tion of children ages 6–18 by 17 percentage discussion in chapter 4). Evidence from points (Nguyen and Purnamasari 2011). China suggests that rural women migrants This impact is not seen with male migra- who return home experience a decrease in tion. Anecdotal evidence from the Pacific empowerment because of the existing com- Islands of Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga suggests munity patriarchal inequality factors rather a similar phenomenon. Regular remittances than individual characteristics (Connelly et from female migrants such as nurses, teach- al. 2010). ers, domestic workers, and caregivers have induced those who receive ­ r emittances The mixed impact of migration on those to increase their leisure time by resigning who stay behind from their jobs or dropping out of school. Migrants’ spouses, children, parents, and This response can be a problem because it communities are also affected by their implies a total dependence on remittances absence, and the evidence shows that the (UNESCAP 2007). impact is mixed. Women and girls who are The responsiveness of investment in left behind may face more financial hard- education tends to vary according to the ships, difficulties disciplining children, less sex of the migrant. In Indonesia, migra- access to food, as well as loneliness and isola- tion may have a slightly positive impact tion. Frequently, women who are left behind on school enrollment among households must engage more in income-generating with male migrants. By comparison, migra- activities to compensate for the income lost tion does not appear to have strong effects by the migrant relative if the latter does not on children’s schooling among households send adequate remittances or remittances on with female migrants, perhaps because the a regular basis. Women left behind in rural absence of mothers often makes it harder to China experience a substantial reallocation monitor children’s activities (Nguyen and of traditional farm labor, with older women Purnamasari 2011). G E N D E R A N D T H E R E G I O N ’ S E M E R G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T C H A L L E N G E S    191 Implications for policy related Urbanization to migration Urbanization has increased across the world The number of female migrants in the East and, for the first time in world history, the Asia and Pacific region is now estimated urban population accounts for more than to have surpassed that of male migrants. globally 50 percent of the world’s population ­ Women have benefited from being more (figure 5.5). At the global level, the Latin likely than men to be employed in growing America and Caribbean region has the high- export-oriented industries such as cloth- est rate of urbanization in the world, which ing, textile, toy, and electronics manufac- is expected to reach close to 90 percent by turing, and they are more likely to provide 2050. Since 1950, countries in the East Asia services that are in demand, such as live-in and Pacific region have experienced popula- maids or caregivers. By increasing a wom- tion shifts away from rural areas to urban an’s economic opportunities and ability to centers. Individuals in developing countries, generate income, migration can increase in search of better economic and social her empowerment, economic opportunities, opportunities, are attracted to urban areas. knowledge, and skills, thus also improv- With their concentration of population and ing the well-being of her family. It can also economic activities, cities make a major con- increase her participation as an active mem- tribution to countries’ national incomes. As ber of society and make her a role model for economic activity becomes concentrated, other women and girls. However, migrant local welfare in urban areas may improve, women are more likely than men to work although remote areas tend to lag behind in occupations where they may be subject to until development proceeds and living stan- labor exploitation and health risks, or, even dards converge (World Bank 2008). worse, physical and psychological abuse. Urbanization affects all aspects of life, These occupations are generally not covered from the family and community networks by labor legislation, leaving female migrants that people rely on to the economic activi- vulnerable to exploitation. The biggest dan- ties conducted by men and women. Access ger women migrants face, especially those with no job and little money, is trafficking FIGURE 5.5.  The urban population now accounts for more than for prostitution and forced labor, a huge and 50 percent of the world’s population growing illegal industry that exploits vul- nerable women. percentage of the population in urban areas Improved laws, safety nets, and knowledge 100 transfers can all help to mitigate the vulnera- 90 bilities experienced by migrant women. Some 80 specific policy recommendations include 70 improving the legal and social protections of 60 percent female migrants, strengthening the monitor- 50 ing and credibility of labor recruitment agen- 40 cies, and developing and providing welfare 30 and support services to assist female migrants. 20 Governments in both sending and receiving 10 countries should actively address the issue of 0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 human trafficking through prevention, pro- tection, and prosecution. Gender-sensitive East Asia and Pacific Europe and Central Asia training for people involved in the migration Latin America and Middle East and North Africa the Caribbean process will increase their ability to identify South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa and assist abused female migrants and those trafficked or at risk of being trafficked. Source: UN DESA Population Division 2010. 1 9 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 5.6  Urbanization is expected to be rapid in East Asia in rural areas, where more limited access to water, sanitation, and energy increases percentage of the population in urban areas female time spent on basic life-sustaining 100 activities, as discussed in chapter 3. 90 80 This section analyzes urbanization 70 ­ patterns and how they affect men and women 60 in the region. It then discusses the opportuni- percent 50 ties and challenges that men and women face 40 in urban settings and highlights some policy 30 20 priorities for tackling these challenges. 10 0 Trends in urbanization in the East Asia 50 60 70 80 90 00 10 20 30 40 50 and Pacific region 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 Cambodia China Indonesia Malaysia Mongolia Philippines Although the rate of urbanization differs Vietnam across countries in the region, one observa- tion remains clear: in all developing countries Source: UN DESA Population Division 2010. in the East Asia and Pacific region, the frac- tion of the population living in urban areas is FIGURE 5.7  The rates of urban growth are predicted to vary expected to grow over the next half century. substantially across countries in the Pacific Figure 5.6 illustrates trends in the propor- tion of the population living in urban areas percentage of the population in urban areas for East Asia. The growth of the urbanized 100 population is substantial: in 1950, 12 percent 90 of the Chinese population was living in urban 80 areas, and by 2000 this number had risen to 70 36 percent and is estimated to increase to 73 60 percent by 2050. Urbanization in the Pacific percent 50 40 varies substantially across countries (figure 30 5.7). In Palau, over 90 percent of the popula- 20 tion is expected to be living in urban areas 10 by 2050; in contrast, less than 30 percent are 0 expected to do so in Papua New Guinea. 50 60 70 80 90 00 10 20 30 40 50 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 Fiji Marshall Islands Urbanization and gender Micronesia, Fed. Sts. Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Urban areas provide many opportunities for Vanuatu men and women: health care, education, and financial services are better developed and Source: UN DESA Population Division 2010. easier to access, and labor markets present a broader range of employment opportunities to urban labor markets is likely to affect than in rural areas. This section discusses female participation in the formal labor mar- the opportunities and challenges of urban- ket as well as the composition of productive ization from a gender perspective in three work conducted (Moser 1993). Urbanization dimensions: economic opportunities, service is also likely to alter the time use patterns delivery, and agency. of both men and women and, in particu- lar, to reduce the time spent on housework Economic opportunities for women. Gender differences in the time Like their male counterparts, women have devoted to nonmarket activities are greater access to more economic opportunities in G E N D E R A N D T H E R E G I O N ’ S E M E R G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T C H A L L E N G E S    193 urban areas than in rural areas. Urban labor FIGURE 5.8  In most East Asian and Pacific countries, urban areas markets offer a wide variety of occupations, have better access to improved sanitation from manufacturing and services to clerical activities.14 percentage of the population with access to 100 improved sanitation, 2005 Limited access to child-care services may 90 limit women’s ability to take advantage of 80 these opportunities, however. A study on 70 gender differences in labor market behavior 60 percent 50 in Mongolia found that women spend about 40 twice as much time on household duties as 30 men, independent of whether they partici- 20 pate in the labor market, and that the num- 10 ber of young children decreases female labor 0 ia es a na sia market participation in urban areas (World s. i ds at ng d St n i ne bo rib Ch an pi To d. do ilip m Isl Bank 2011a). The economic restructuring of Ki Fe Ca In on Ph ia, m es the 1990s, in which Mongolia reduced state- lo on So icr sponsored child-care provision, may partially M explain the time burden on women. Although rural urban a set of policies was passed to increase chil- dren’s enrollment in kindergarten, only about Source: World Development Indicators (WDI) database. half of the children ages 2 to 6 were enrolled in a kindergarten in 2007, and urban areas FIGURE 5.9  Rural areas have lower access to improved water face serious constraints in available schools sources than urban areas in the majority of countries in the region (World Bank 2011a). percentage of the population with access to Service delivery improved water, 2005 100 Public services are less expensive to provide 90 in urban areas than in rural areas, because 80 of population density and economies of scale 70 (UNFPA 2007). Figures 5.8 and 5.9 show 60 percent 50 the percentage of the rural and urban popu- 40 lations with access to improved sanitation 30 facilities and water sources. In rural areas 20 in Cambodia, only 15 percent of the pop- 10 0 ulation had access to improved sanitation ia lau ea m a oa u DR in at l in 2005, in contrast to urban areas, where na go in m Pa Ch oP nu Gu et Sa on Va La Vi 60 percent had access (figure 5.8). Similarly, M ew aN in Mongolia, only 45 percent of the rural pu Pa population had access to safe water sources, rural urban whereas 94 percent of the urban population did (figure 5.9). Source: WDI database. Access to improved water and sanitation services is particularly important for women, economic opportunities by limiting access who are often responsible for the collection, to home-based income-generating activities management, and use of the domestic water such as food production and sale, livestock supply. Increasing access to improved water raising, and other service-oriented business sources is likely to reduce women’s time activities (Noel, Soussan, and Barron 2007). spent on domestic water management and Poor sanitation can cause the spread of infec- to allow more time for other activities. Inad- tious diseases such as cholera, polio, or hepa- equate access to water may reduce women’s titis. Finally, evidence from outside the region 1 9 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C shows that improving water sources increases melting pot of people and ideas, which girls’ school attendance (Koolwal and van de change traditional ways of life, structures, Walle, forthcoming). and norms. The density and diversity of Transportation is crucial for ensuring that the urban population can increase wom- urban populations are able to benefit from en’s access to networks and to information the social and economic potential of urban (World Bank 2008). Evidence from Indo- areas. Women and men have different trans- nesia indicates that urban women are more port needs and patterns. Women’s transport likely to be the sole decision makers on a needs and commuting patterns are associated number of household matters than rural with responsibilities in the household as well women (Rammohan and Johar 2009). as income-generating activities. Studies show Some dimensions of women’s agency that women in urban areas travel frequently may, however, be more restricted in urban in off-peak times and conduct multiple stops areas. Violence in urban areas may be more on a single trip. In contrast, men tend to use pronounced because traditional and cul- transport at peak times for reaching work tural norms are less likely to guide behav- (World Bank 2010b). Women’s commuting ior and neighborhood networks are less patterns also vary over their life cycle and developed (Blank 2008; UNFPA 2007). according to their reproductive and domestic Exploitative occupations such as sex work duties.15 are also more likely to be found in urban In urban areas, transport systems may areas. For instance, in the capital of Papua particularly benefit men since they are often New Guinea, a large fraction of unemployed focused on the major routes to and within young women engage in sex work to bolster the city (World Bank 2010b). Pricing struc- their incomes (Blank 2008). Although urban tures during peak times are also likely to children have better access to education in encourage longer trips relative to multiple Cambodia, security concerns for daughters short trips. Given the pricing structures of traveling to school were found to be higher urban transport, and that men use transport among parents in urban areas than in rural for income-generating activities, transporta- areas (ADB 2004). tion costs can constrain women’s mobility if the intrahousehold distribution of transport Implications for policy related expenditure is skewed toward financing trips to urbanization for those earning incomes outside the house- hold (World Bank 2010b). Growing urbanization in the East Asia Safety and cultural concerns may also and Pacific region has presented women limit women’s access to certain modes of with increased economic opportunities and transport. Evidence from Cambodia sug- greater empowerment. However, evidence gests that female garment workers experi- shows that women in urban areas continue ence security concerns, principally from to sort into sectors that yield lower incomes accidents, robberies, threats, and sexual and that are more likely to be informal, assaults, during their commute to and from despite the more extensive opportunities. work (World Bank 2006a). Cultural con- The choices of women’s economic activities cerns, such as men and women sharing a are constrained in part by limited access to single crowded vehicle, may also constrain affordable child care. Cultural concerns in women’s access to communal transport some countries in the region may also limit (World Bank 2010b). women’s access to certain modes of trans- port, thus making it more difficult for them Agency to commute. Women also face higher secu- Urbanization can contribute to changing rity risks than men do in urban areas, par- norms and may alter women’s roles within ticularly from exploitation, sexual abuse, the society and households. Cities are a and assault. G E N D E R A N D T H E R E G I O N ’ S E M E R G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T C H A L L E N G E S    195 Whether women will be able to take full already increasing in many middle income advantage of the wide range of opportunities countries in East Asia and the Pacific. For available to them in urban areas will depend example, fertility rates have dropped signifi- on whether the services and infrastructure cantly in Mongolia and Vietnam, and depen- exist in these cities to enable them to do so. dency ratios have increased dramatically in Thus, policy makers need to ensure that their middle-income countries, including China, child care, education, infrastructure, trans- Indonesia, and Thailand, and in countries portation, and water and sanitation policies in the Pacific, namely Fiji, Timor-Leste, and take into account women’s specific social Tonga.16 Dependency ratios are expected to and cultural needs. They should also adopt continue increasing and, given that women rigorous laws and policies to protect women live longer than men, female dependency in urban areas from the risk of violence and ratios will likely exceed male dependency exploitation, as discussed in the migration ratios in the future (figures 5.10). section above. Population aging and gender Aging populations Life expectancy at birth has improved for The world’s population is aging. By 2045, both men and women since the 1990s. the number of people age 60 years and older Reduced fertility and a decreased risk of will exceed the number of those under the maternal mortality have contributed to the age of 15 for the first time in history (UN improvements in life expectancy of women 2007). In Asia, this process is estimated to in many parts of the world (World Bank people be even faster; the milestone of elderly ­ 2011b). Although the gender gap in life outnumbering children will be reached five years earlier, in 2040 (UN 2007). As a group, Asians age 64 and above are expected to FIGURE 5.10  The old age dependency ratio is expected more than triple, from 207 m ­ illion in 2000 to increase for both men and women in the next two to 857 million in 2050. This demographic decades; the female ratio will exceed the male ratio change is likely to have significant repercus- in the future sions for economic development, the qual- ity of life, and the role of public policy. In dependency ratio (65 and above) by gender addition, population aging is likely to have 0.16 a gender-differentiated effect among both 0.14 older and younger cohorts. Several notewor- 0.12 dependency ratio thy challenges face the East Asia and Pacific 0.10 region in managing these rapid demographic 0.08 changes, notably how the aging popula- 0.06 tion will maintain its standard of living, 0.04 the types of formal and informal supports that are needed to do so, the impact on the 0.02 working-age population, and the impact on 0 health care and other services. 2010 2030 2010 2030 2010 2030 2010 2030 2010 2030 Papua New Lao PDR Mongolia China Thailand Guinea Trends in population aging in the East Asia and Pacific region male female The high-income economies in East Asia are Source: HNPStats (Health Nutrition and Population Statistics) database, Population Projection, experiencing rapid population aging. Most World Bank. Note: Old age dependency ratio of males and females is defined as the ratio of the male and emerging countries in the region have also female population 65 years of age and above over the working-age population (15–64 years of age) begun this process; dependency ratios are of both genders. 1 9 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 5.11  The gender gap in life expectancy at birth is lower in their different life histories (Hooyman 1999; the East Asia and Pacific region than in many other regions INSTRAW 1999). Even as gender gaps con- tinue to close for today’s youth, the gender life expectancy at birth, by region gaps of the past are embodied in today’s 90 80 adults through less schooling, different work 70 experiences, lower rates of pension coverage, 60 and less control over assets, among other 50 things. Women’s social arrangements within years 40 the family and the community are different, 30 20 and they tend to outlive their spouses. There- 10 fore, a careful examination of the implica- 0 tions of an aging society must consider the 1990 2000 2009 1990 2000 2009 1990 2000 2009 1990 2000 2009 1990 2000 2009 1990 2000 2009 perspectives of both women and men. East Asia Europe Latin Middle South Sub- The debate is open as to whether men or and the and America East and Asia Saharan women are more likely to suffer from being Pacific Central and the North Africa less vested in the labor market and in formal Asia Caribbean Africa social security mechanisms such as pensions, male female since women are more likely to be vested in familial relations. Mothers’ closer relation- Source: WDI database. ships with their children might lead to larger intrafamily transfers later in life (Aboderin FIGURE 5.12  Life expectancy at birth in the region has improved 2004). Their abilities in home production for both men and women since 1990, although gender gaps have widened in some countries might outlast men’s abilities in the workforce, and psychologically they may be better able life expectancy at birth, by country to handle old age, both because it poses a 90 smaller disruption to their previous roles and 80 70 because they tend to establish a broader and 60 deeper array of friendships than men. 50 Gender differences in consumption pov- years 40 erty and housing quality are small among 30 the elderly in many East Asian countries 20 (table 5.1) (Friedman et al. 2003; Knodel 10 0 2009; Knodel and Chayovan 2008; Masud, 1990 2009 1990 2009 1990 2009 1990 2009 1990 2009 1990 2009 Haron, and Gikonyo 2008). In countries where data at the individual level are avail- Timor- Lao PDR Mongolia Philippines China Thailand able, elderly men systematically report higher Leste levels of individual income than elderly male female women (Masud, Haron, and Gikonyo 2008; Ofstedal, Reidy, and Knodel 2004). This is Source: WDI database. consistent with women’s lower participa- tion in the workforce: women are less likely expectancy is lower in the East Asia and to earn income from work or to draw pen- Pacific region than in many other regions sions during old age. However, differences in (figure 5.11), it has widened for many individual incomes do not appear to translate countries in the past two decades. In some into significant differences in measures of countries, the widening gender gap in life material well-being at a household level; that expectancy is substantial, for example, in is, elderly women are not more likely than Mongolia (figure 5.12). elderly men to live in poor households. Older women have different access to Marital status, notably widowhood, resources than older men, in part because of tends to play a greater role than gender in G E N D E R A N D T H E R E G I O N ’ S E M E R G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T C H A L L E N G E S    197 TABLE 5.1  Evidence shows no systematic gender FIGURE 5.13  Women ages 65 and above are far more likely to differences in consumption poverty among the be widowed than men elderly, regardless of family status percentage of widowers and widows among population Percentage of elderly individuals (65 and over) living 80 age 65 and above, by gender under US$1.25 per day Marital 70 Country status Male Female Total 60 Married 29.3 33.0 30.4 Indonesia 50 Widowed 24.7 28.0 27.4 percent Married 8.2 8.5 8.3 40 Cambodia Widowed 17.6 9.8 11.1 30 Married 27.3 27.9 27.5 Lao PDR Widowed 26.4 28.8 28.3 20 Married 13.9 13.2 13.6 Philippines 10 Widowed 12.4 11.9 12.0 Married 0.1 0.1 0.1 0 Thailand Widowed 0.1 0.2 0.2 sia a DR s m te d ne di an na es ne oP bo pi 25.9 18.9 24.1 ail Married -L et do ilip m La or Vi Th Timor-Leste In Ca Tim Ph Widowed 27.9 23.1 24.6 Married 11.6 14.9 12.9 male female Vietnam Widowed 8.6 14.9 13.8 Source: World Bank staff estimates using CSES (NIS Cambodia), 2008 data; SUSENAS (BPS Indonesia), Source: World Bank estimates based on East Asia and Pacific household 2009 data; LECS (LSB Lao PDR), 2008 data; Mongolia LSMS (NSO Mongolia), 2007–08 data; Philippines poverty monitoring database. Family Income and Expenditures Survey (NSCB Philippines), 2006 data; Thailand Household Socio- Note: Bolded numbers are statistically significant differences between Economic Survey (NSO Thailand), 2009 data; Timor-Leste Survey of Living Standards (SLS) (NSD Timor- male- and female-headed households and between widowed and Leste) 2007, data; and VHLSS (GSO Vietnam), 2008 data. married households at the 10 percent level. determining the well-being of elderly men 2008; Knodel and Zimmer 2009; Ofstedal, and women. Women are far more likely than Reidy, and Knodel 2004). However, no sys- men to be widows (figure 5.13). In Cambo- tematic evidence shows that widows and dia, the percentage of women who have lost widowers are consistently likely to be poorer a spouse is more than triple that of men, and than married elderly individuals (table 5.1), women are also less likely to have living chil- although they are more likely to perceive dren than their male counterparts (Knodel income inadequacy or lower rates of satis- 2009). In ­ T hailand, 80 percent of elderly faction with their economic status in many men are living with their spouses, ­compared countries in the region, including Indonesia, to only about half of elderly women (Knodel Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam (Friedman and Chayovan 2008). In Indonesia, ­ Cambodia et al. 2003; Knodel and Chayovan 2008; and Timor Leste, the differences are dramatic. Masud, Haron, and Gikonyo 2008; Ofstedal, ­ ndonesia and Cambodia, approximately In I Reidy, and Knodel 2004). 65 percent of elderly women are widowed com- Elderly women have access to fewer per- pared to approximately 20 percent of men; in sonal income sources and less-diversified Timor-Leste, 73 percent of elderly women are income portfolios than elderly men. The lack widowed compared to 30 percent of men. of association between gender and poverty Marital status is the most important cor- in the elderly population is partly because relate of household circumstances among the women, and in particular unmarried women, elderly. Across the region, unmarried elderly are more likely to receive money from chil- are more likely than married elderly to live dren and other relatives than men and less with their children and receive support from likely to have their own sources of income their children, either directly through trans- (Masud, Haron, and Gikonyo 2008). Fur- fers or through their living arrangements thermore, men’s income is more dispersed (Friedman et al. 2003; Knodel and Chayovan across a number of sources than women’s 1 9 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C income (Ofstedal, Reidy, and Knodel 2004). their families. In Vietnam, one study showed Women’s greater reliance on transfers from that having a disabled household member informal support networks is likely to place increased the cost of living over 11 percent them in a more tenuous position, both within (Braithwaite and Mont 2009), and adjusting their families and in society. for these differences would raise the pov- As migration and urbanization continue erty rate of households with disabled mem- and fertility declines, there is concern that bers significantly.19 This is more likely to be informal safety nets may decline and that an issue for women—the rate of disability transfers and care from children will erode Vietnam is 8.5 percent for women com- in ­ (UNESCAP 2004; World NGO Forum on pared to 6.6 percent for men, with the gap Ageing 2002).17 A decline in transfers is explained to a significant measure by the dif- likely to have a gender-differentiated impact, ference in longevity (Mont and Cuong 2011). since elderly women are more likely than Finally, the elderly and, in particular, wid- elderly men to receive support from children ows might be especially vulnerable to shocks. and other family members. Evidence sug- Men and women have different capacities to gests that attitudes of respect and responsi- cope with economic shocks given differences bility toward the elderly population may also in incomes and asset endowments. However, be changing in parts of the region. Studies evidence from six provinces in Thailand have reported that children from single- and Vietnam suggests that rural households child families in China are less committed headed by widowed, divorced, or single to elder care in more recent generations than women are not more likely to be affected by in previous ones (Wang 2010; Zhan 2004). shocks than their male counterparts (Klasen, People in the baby boom generation have Lechtenfeld, and Povel 2011). been found to have more positive attitudes toward the elderly than those in more recent Caregiving and its repercussions for generations, regardless of gender (Xie, Xia, working-age women and Liu 2006).18 Older women are worse off than their Population aging may have a gender- male peers along a number of nonconsump- differentiated effect among the working-age tion dimensions, many of which are associ- population because the increasing depen- ated with their age. They are less educated, dency ratios, particularly when accompanied have fewer assets, and are more likely to by falling fertility rates, will raise the bur- be illiterate (Knodel 2009; Long and Pfau den of caregiving. Gender differences in the 2008); they also have lower access to care time spent caring for the elderly imply that (Knodel 2009; Long and Pfau 2008; Mag- women are more likely to accommodate the nani and Rammohan 2009) and more increased demand for nonmarket time. 20 health problems (Chen and Standing 2007). Within households, younger women are Some of these differences are likely to per- likely to bear a greater responsibility for car- sist without targeted reform, whereas others ing for elderly parents than younger men, are likely to narrow over time. For example, which may reduce the time they spend on since education gender gaps have declined income-generating activities.21 Data from the over time across birth cohorts, these dif- region suggests that although working age ferences are likely to be smaller among the women spend more time on housework and future elderly population. caring than men, women residing with elderly Because women live longer than men, the members do not necessarily spend more time evidence suggests that they are also more on these activities than women who do not likely to suffer from disabilities. The barriers reside with elderly members ( ­figure 5.14). to participating in social life for the elderly This may reflect a compensating grandpar- directly affect their quality of life, but such ent effect in households with children: elderly barriers also impose additional costs on household members contribute to caring for G E N D E R A N D T H E R E G I O N ’ S E M E R G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T C H A L L E N G E S    199 children, which thereby leaves the total time FIGURE 5.14  Women’s time devoted to housework and caregiving that younger women spend on housework and activities is not significantly greater in households with elderly caring unchanged or diminished. For example, members staff analysis of household data from Timor- Leste finds that living with elderly members 5 number of hours spent on housework and caring activities per day by working-age men and women (15–64) increases the time devoted to housework and 4 caring activities by 40 minutes a day among women without young children (NSD Timor- 3 hours Leste 2007). In contrast, in households with young children the presence of elderly mem- 2 bers reduces the time devoted by younger 1 women to housekeeping and caring activities, who spend 30 fewer minutes on these activi- 0 ties than women with children who do not male female male female male female live with elderly members. Cambodia, 2004 Lao PDR, 2008 Timor-Leste, 2007 households with an elderly member Implications of aging populations for households without an elderly member gender policy The population of the East Asia and Pacific Source: World Bank staff estimates using CSES (NIS Cambodia), 2004 data; LECS (LSB Lao PDR), 2008 data; and Timor-Leste SLS (NSD Timor-Leste) 2007. region is aging rapidly, in many countries at a faster pace than that in the rest of the world. This demographic change will programs can protect women from destitu- likely have significant repercussions for tion and reduce their reliance upon familial women since they live longer than men but transfers. For example, joint annuities and have access to fewer economic assets and survivor pensions are likely to be effective resources and are less vested in formal social means to compensate and secure women’s security systems. Although women are more incomes in their old age. Finally, policy mak- likely to have access to informal caregiving ers may consider ways to strengthen elder care and support systems, traditional systems of to ensure that younger women do not face the caregiving are evolving and exposing more disproportionate burden of care giving. elderly individuals to lower levels of familial support. Because older women are less likely than men to be covered by insurance or to Information and communication have accumulated assets, the burden of their technologies care is still likely to fall on younger women. The literature contains little evidence on how Policy makers can address the burden of access to and use of ICTs vary by gender. aging in several ways. Policies to close gender Therefore, this section provides predomi- gaps in access to human and physical assets nantly anecdotal or project-specific global will affect both older and younger women, evidence on the gender implications of the with implications for gender gaps among spread of ICTs. future generations of older women. Policies The exponential growth of information that focus on ensuring that health care and and communication technologies in the social security systems cover those most in developed and developing world is widely need are likely to benefit both elderly men and lauded as the defining economic and social women. The design of old-age security sys- force of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. tems becomes particularly important in the ICTs encompass a plethora of ­ technological context of the rapid demographic transition advances, including radio, cell phones, com- and cultural change occurring in many coun- puters, e-mail, social networking sites, and tries in the region. Old-age income security the Internet. Figures 5.15 and 5.16 show 2 0 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 5.15  Internet use has increased substantially in the East America and the Caribbean and Europe and Asia and Pacific region and around the developing world Central Asia in both of these indicators and since 2000 ties with the Middle East and North Africa. The spread of ICTs has increased access to 40 internet use in developing regions information by enhancing knowledge sharing 35 and gathering and by changing business prac- tices and production structures. ICTs have internet  users per 100 people 30 affected many aspects of men’s and women’s 25 lives, from economic opportunities and health 20 outcomes to women’s empowerment. 15 10 ICTs and Gender 5 The reach of technology, at the national level, 0 has been growing in parts of the East Asia 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 and Pacific region. In 2000, the majority East Asia and Pacific Europe and Central Asia of countries in the region had fewer than 2 Latin America and Internet users per 100 people, with the excep- Middle East and North Africa tion of Malaysia, where there were already the Caribbean South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa 20 Internet users per 100 people. Internet usage increased substantially in a number of Source: WDI database. countries over the 2000s. By 2009, Malay- sia had approximately 58 Internet users per FIGURE 5.16  The number of cell phone subscribers per 100 people 100 people, and China had overtaken Thai- in the East Asia and Pacific region has grown substantially since land as the country with the second great- 2000 est number of Internet users—28 per 100 people—followed very closely by Vietnam, cell phone subscribers in developing regions with 27 users per 100 people ­ (figure 5.17). 140 However, rapid growth of Internet use has cell phone subscribers per 100 people 120 not occurred in all countries. In Kiribati, 100 Lao PDR, Papua New Guinea, and the Solo- mon Islands, Internet use is still close to its 80 levels in 2000. Similar but starker patterns 60 can be seen for cell phone use. In 2000, the level was fewer than 5 cell phones per 100 40 people in many countries in the region, and 20 in the rest of the countries, with the excep- tion of Malaysia and New Caledonia, it was 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 fewer than 20 cell phones per 100 people East Asia and Pacific Europe and Central Asia ­ (figure 5.18). By 2009, the number of cell Latin America and phone subscribers had risen, along with dis- Middle East and North Africa the Caribbean parities between countries. In Kiribati and South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa the ­M arshall Islands, the number of cell phones per 100 people was still below 10, Source: WDI database. whereas in Samoa, which started from a base similar to the other Pacific countries, the rapid expansion of access to the Internet the number of cell phones per 100 people and ownership of cell phones in developing had risen to 84. countries around the world. The East Asia Where gender-disaggregated data are and Pacific region falls behind both Latin available, they indicate gender differences in G E N D E R A N D T H E R E G I O N ’ S E M E R G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T C H A L L E N G E S    201 access to ICTs in the East Asia and Pacific FIGURE 5.17  Internet use has grown quickly in many countries in region. Figure 5.19 displays the proportion of the region but has grown slowly in others male and female subscribers to mobile phones in the population. Many regions across the 65 Internet use, by country world show a gender gap in cell phone sub- 60 Internet users per 100 people 55 scriptions. Furthermore, gender differences 50 in access to technology are greater among 45 40 certain subgroups of the population. In other 35 words, gender is likely to interact with socio- 30 economic characteristics such as income, 25 20 education, location, and social and cultural 15 constraints to determine access to technology 10 5 (Huyer and Hafkin 2007). 0 In China, the number of Internet users 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 has increased from approximately 20 million China Kiribati Lao PDR Malaysia users in 2000 to over half a billion in 2011, Papua New Guinea Solomon Islands a remarkable increase over time (CNNIC Thailand Vietnam 2011). Although the fraction of female users has risen since 2000, data suggest that men Source: WDI database. were more likely than women to be Internet users in China in the early to mid-2000s (fig- FIGURE 5.18  The number of cell phone subscribers in the ure 5.20). More recent data suggest that the population has grown across most of East Asia but has remained gap between the number of men and the num- limited in some Pacific countries ber of women using the internet in China has broadened as Internet use has risen: in 2011, cell phone subscribers, by country 120 287 million men used the internet in China cell phone subscribers per compared to 226 million women (CNNIC 100 2011). In percentage terms, however, the gen- 80 100 people der gap has narrowed: in 2011, women made 60 up 44 percent of users, up from 30 percent of 40 users in 2000 (CNNIC 2011). ICTs can improve the welfare of both men 20 and women in several different ways and 0 can also have gender-differentiated effects 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 by reducing constraints, such as time and Cambodia China transportation, that influence the decisions of Kiribati Malaysia Marshall Islands New Caledonia women (Melhelm and Tandon 2009). First, Samoa Philippines ICTs can enhance women’s economic oppor- tunities by reducing the transaction costs of Source: WDI database. reaching markets. Second, the widespread dis- Note: The data points for Kiribati are closely matched by those of the Marshall Islands and show as semination of information on how men and a single line. women live their lives in other parts of the world may gradually change attitudes about may particularly benefit women, since evi- gender norms and roles. Third, access to tele- dence suggests that they face greater time and vision, radio, and the Internet enables men and transportation constraints in accessing basic women to increase their knowledge and train- public services. ing through distance learning. Finally, rural ICTs can enhance women’s economic populations can use ICTs to gain access to opportunities by increasing their access to better health care through increased access to markets through reduced information barri- medical advice. These final two opportunities ers and time and transportation constraints, 2 0 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C FIGURE 5.19  Women in the region are less likely to be mobile television programs—have been used for phone subscribers than men decades in the developing world to provide advisory services to farmers in agricultural 90 percentage of the population that are areas (Goyal 2010), and telecommunication cell phone subscribers, by gender centers and Internet kiosks allow farmers 80 to access e-learning programs and search 70 for agriculture-related information (Aker 60 2011). 23 Although reducing information 50 barriers and transaction costs is likely to percent affect the economic opportunities of both 40 men and women, it is likely to have a greater 30 effect on women, whose economic decisions 20 are more likely to be constrained by transac- tion costs because of their multiple roles in 10 households. For example, the e-Homemak- 0 ers initiative in Malaysia reduces barriers for women entering the labor market; the ic rld sia ca pe pe Af and M ribb and cif fri ro ro hA wo So ca n Pa initiative promotes home-based entrepre- nA rth st Eu Eu a ca id ea ri ut No le Ea d e C ri ra rn rn an e th Am ha neurship and reduces time constraints by te ste d ia es Sa Ea As tin W b- allowing women to work from home and to st La Su Ea females males telework using ICTs. Second, female empowerment and auton- Source: World Bank estimates using GSMA Development Fund, the Cherie Blair Foundation, and Vital Wave Consulting, 2010. omy may be raised through the representation of lifestyles, autonomy, and gender roles in other parts of the world.24 One of the earliest examples of the power of entertainment-edu- FIGURE 5.20  Internet use has grown for both men and women in cation to change behavior occurred in Mex- China, although a persistent gender gap in access remains ico in 1977. The soap opera Acompaname promoted family planning, a socially sensi- number of Internet users, by gender 90 tive topic at the time. The program is credited 80 to have increased both awareness and use of birth control among Mexicans (Singhal and 70 Internet  users (millions) Rogers 1999). In another example, approxi- 60 mately 150 million individuals gained access 50 to cable television service in India between 40 2001 and 2006 (National Readership Stud- 30 ies Council 2006, cited in Jensen and Oster 20 2009). This development had a large and swift 10 effect on attitudes toward domestic violence and women’s participation in household deci- 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 sion making (Jensen and Oster 2009). Studies female male have also found that exposure to cable televi- sion increased school enrollment for girls (but Source: CNNIC (China Internet Network Information Center) Internet Statistics. not for boys) and decreased fertility, an out- come that was associated with the increase in in particular those in rural areas. For exam- female autonomy (see chapter 4). ple, cell phones allow farmers to get better In societies in which social customs limit prices, by benefiting from market arbitrage interactions between males and females, opportunities (Aker 2010; Jensen 2007). 22 television may reduce stereotypes by increas- Traditional technologies—such as radio and ing interaction or knowledge of others. For G E N D E R A N D T H E R E G I O N ’ S E M E R G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T C H A L L E N G E S    203 example, in Rwanda, a radio program aimed Implications for policy related to ICTs at discouraging blind obedience and pro- ICTs can enhance the lives and economic moting independent thought and collective opportunities of women in many ways. The action in problem solving was found to have widespread dissemination of information increased listeners’ willingness to express in the media on how men and women live dissent and changed the ways in which com- their lives in other parts of the world may munal problems were resolved (Paluck and gradually change gender norms and roles, Green 2009). thus giving women in many countries the Technology can also be used to give chance to live less restricted, more empow- women more control over their money and ered lives. Technology can enhance women’s their actions. For example, in ­ B angladesh economic opportunities as well as give them before mobile phones were common, a more control over their money. However, for migrant husband’s relatives had greater con- this to happen, women must have access to trol over his remittances than his wife did; these technologies, and the little evidence the advent of cell phones has allowed closer that is available shows that women are lag- communication between husband and wife ging behind men in their access to and use of on how best to use the remittances (Schuler, ICTs. This gap implies that women may be Islam, and Rottach 2010). less able to reap the direct benefits of hav- Third, education programs conducted ing access to, for example, distance-learning through ICTs can help to overcome the con- opportunities and online agricultural exten- straints faced by women in higher educa- sion services. More research is needed to tion by allowing them to pursue their edu- explore whether and why women in the East cation on a more flexible basis than normal Asia and Pacific region may be failing to programs allow. It also has the potential benefit from these technologies to the same to increase access to higher education for extent as men. women living in restrictive social situations, who may not be able to travel or live away from home to engage in higher education. 25 Notes Cell phones can also be used to increase adult literacy. Because sending text messages is 1. Exports as a proportion of GDP fell to cheaper than making voice calls, cell phone 68 ­ ­ percent in Vietnam in 2009 due to the users have a financial incentive to send text global financial crisis, and in Indonesia they rose to over 50 percent during the Asian crisis messages and, thus, practice their reading in the late 1990s. and writing skills.26 2. According to neoclassical trade theory, trade Finally, ICTs can also be used to improve liberalization should encourage countries to the provision and quality of health care ser- specialize in the production of goods in which vices. In remote communities where access to they have a comparative advantage. Trade high-quality medical care is limited, women liberalization can lead to the expansion of often have less access to health care than men employment in labor-intensive industries in (see chapter 2). Therefore, increasing access to developing economies. Since women are over- health care through ICTs may diminish exist- represented in labor-intensive sectors, trade ing health care disparities, but only if women liberalization may benefit women by increas- are able to access ICTs to the same degree as ing demand for their skills more than those of men, thereby reducing pay differentials men. For example, Sehat First provides health between men and women. International trade care and pharmaceutical services across Paki- can also affect women’s relative pay by reduc- stan through telehealth centers where local ing the power of producers to discriminate clinic staff can seek advice from qualified phy- against female employees, which producers sicians and specialists to whom they would do by paying women less for the same work not normally have had access (Sehat case as men (Becker 1957; Berik, van der Meulen study, cited in Melhem and Tandon 2009). Rodgers, and Zveglich 2004; Schultz 2003). 2 0 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C 3. One cannot draw strong conclusions from 9. Within the growing export–based, large- the literature relating trade liberalization scale manufacturing and assembly activities and wage gaps because gender-differentiated in Asian cities, particularly in the garment employment impacts after trade liberalization sector, studies have suggested that employ- are also likely to directly affect productivity ers prefer women because they accept lower in the wage sector (Schultz 2003). wages, are considered more easily controlled, 4. The results of the analysis by Bhalotra and and are considered better able to undertake Umana-Aponte (2010) indicate that, in Africa, tasks that involve delicate and intricate finger women lose employment during recessions work as well as repetitive tasks (Hugo 2003). but, in South Asia, East Asia and the Pacific, 1 0. Female migration is complex and context- and Latin America and the Caribbean, wom- specific, and studies show that the effect of en’s employment increases during recessions. migration on women’s position is neither This suggests that households use female wholly positive nor wholly negative. Parrado, employment as a financial coping strategy. Flippen, and McQuiston (2005) argue that 5. Evidence shows multiple examples of women migration entails a large change in “struc- working harder during crises in East Asian tural context.� Depending on the “context and Pacific countries. In Indonesia, the 1997– of reception, the degree of labor market seg- 98 economic crisis increased employment mentation and the extent to which migrants among women, whereas male employment are isolated in the receiving society, migration rates fell. These additional female workers may mitigate or reinforce patriarchal gender were predominantly employed in the infor- inequality� (Parrado et al. 2005, page 8). mal sector (Frankenberg, Smith, and Thomas 11. This increase is in part due to the greater num- 2003). During the 1997–98 East Asian crisis, ber of female migrants than male migrants the initial difference between the total num- from Indonesia. The difference in per capita ber of hours worked by men and by women consumption between households with male widened, meaning that women were increas- migrants and female migrants at the outset ingly overworked and men underworked in is not statistically significant, indicating that the Philippines (Lim 2000). Turk and Mason the difference is not because female migrants (2009) reported that, during the 2009 finan- come from poorer households. No hard evi- cial crisis, many women worked longer dence suggests that female migrants earn more hours to maintain their household income. In than male migrants; instead, female migrants Thailand and Vietnam, women searched for from Indonesia likely earn more now than additional work to supplement their primary in the past because of high demand for their job, with child care sometimes being taken labor in the Gulf countries. over by elderly household members or older 12. The numbers may actually be higher because children. respondents are often reluctant to report this 6. Mongolia is an exception. Women reported form of abuse. an improvement in their domestic relation- 13. Human trafficking estimates may underrep- ships because men were working such long resent actual numbers because of the elusive- hours that they had little time left for fighting ness of the industry. (Turk and Mason 2009). 14. Work opportunities may, however, be low- 7. For example, in Vietnam’s apparel sector, skilled and precarious and may not be covered better jobs with higher skill levels are largely by formal labor market regulations. Many held by male workers while sewing jobs are women in urban areas are self-employed in largely done by female workers (Kabeer and the informal sector and in activities that yield Tran 2003). low incomes (UNFPA 2007). 8. In internal rural to urban migration in China, 15. In Indonesia, men and women ages 15–19 differences in socioeconomic factors by gen- were commuting in equal numbers; beyond der do seem to exist. Migrant women tend the age of 30, however, the fraction of female to be less educated than rural migrant men, commuters decreased (Rachmad, Adji, and owing to their lower average age and to gen- Handiyatmo 2010). The change in commut- der inequalities in educational attainment ing pattern implies that, during childbearing across rural China (Jacka 2009, cited in IOM years, women’s labor force participation con- 2009). centrates in or around the home. G E N D E R A N D T H E R E G I O N ’ S E M E R G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T C H A L L E N G E S    205 16. Age dependency ratio is the ratio of elderly broadcast. Svensson and Yanagizawa (2009) dependents (those older than 65) to the work- found that better-informed farmers were able ing-age population (ages 15–64). to bargain for higher farm-gate prices on their 17. However, some question this conclusion surplus production. (Aboderin 2004; Hermalin 2003). Effects 23. Within the region, three self-employment initia- may differ across countries, depending on tives demonstrate how ICT access can enhance the interplay between culture, the economy, economic opportunities, ­ particularly of women and the geography of development. A recent (Melhem and Tandon 2009). In the Philippines, study in Thailand, for example, shows that the Sharing Computer Access Locally and as children migrate to the city, they do not Abroad project has set up c ­ omputer livelihood abandon their rural elders (Knodel 2009). As centers to help give underprivileged young peo- noted earlier, some evidence from China sug- ple access to employment opportunities. The gests a generational shift in support may be ­ project is reported to have resulted in increased occurring. Internet access and greater self-esteem and self- 18. However, this divergence in views occured confidence, and 60 percent of the beneficiaries only in higher income groups. No genera- were women. In Malaysia, the e-Homemakers tional differences existed among the lower initiative aimed to boost home entrepreneur- income groups. ship by increasing the self-esteem of mothers. 19. Qualitative evidence from Cambodia also In Fiji, the Foundation for Rural Integrated illustrates how disability status increases vul- Enterprises and Development aims to increase nerability. In a 2008 World Bank participatory economic empowerment in marginalized com- poverty and gender assessment in Siem Reap munities through three programs that focus on province, of the 107 households ranked in a income generation, saving, and governance. participatory wealth ranking exercise by male The program uses the Internet to market prod- and female villagers in Dour Dantrei village, ucts developed by the participants of the pro- 5 were identified as headed by disabled men, gram, the majority of whom are women. with 4 of the 5 ranked as “poor� or “very 24. Exposure to television can also have less poor�—a poverty rate of 80 percent of dis- positive outcomes. For example, it can abled households, compared to a poverty rate increase discontent within marriages, result- of 50 percent for all households (Kuriakose ing in divorce. In Brazil, exposure to soap and Kono, 2008). operas that feature modern values such as 20. Studies in the United States have consistently female empowerment and emancipation have found that daughters play a central role in increased rates of separation and divorce the more time-intensive day-to-day care of (Chong and La Ferrara 2009). In Indonesia, elderly parents, whereas sons take on a more greater exposure to television and radio was managerial role (Dwyer and Coward 1992; found to reduce social capital, as measured Ofstedal, Knodel, and Chayovan 1999). by lower participation in social organizations 21. In China evidence shows that the effect of and lower self-reported community-level caring for elderly parents on women’s labor trust (Olken 2009). market experience depended on whether the 25. For example, in the United Kingdom, the parents being cared for were the woman’s Open University, which broadcasts lectures parents (where the effect was insignificant) over the television and Internet, enables or her in-laws (where the effect was substan- men and women to study on an individually tial), suggesting the important role of culture determined schedule. In the United States, on family relations and obligations (Liu et al. 60 percent of the students over age 25 who 2008). Cultural differences also affect cross- are engaged in distance learning are women generational support across different regions (Kramarae 2001). in Indonesia and Vietnam (Friedman et al. 26. A cell phone–based literacy and numeracy 2003; Kreager and Schroder-Butterfill 2009). program implemented in Niger was found 22. 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Promoting Gender Equality in East Asia and the Pacific: 6 Directions for Policy T he evidence presented in the preced- female labor force participation, particu- ing chapters has shown that growth larly among younger women. Progress and development cannot by them- toward gender equality in many domains selves end gender disparities in all their is not automatic. Progress in education, dimensions. The evidence has also shown health, and labor force participation has that persistent gender inequalities can exact often been uneven, both within and across costs on countries’ productivity, income countries. Several East Asian and Pacific growth, and quality of development. Thus, countries still experience the phenomenon public policy needs to play a role to reduce of “missing� girls at birth. Women continue gender gaps. East Asian and Pacific countries to work in less stable employment with will benefit from adopting appropriate poli- lower rates of remuneration. They still pos- cies to promote gender equality in endow- sess weaker voice and influence than men. ments, in access to economic opportunities, Women remain underrepresented in leader- and in agency. This chapter examines policy ship positions in business and government. approaches to addressing the most serious, In a number of countries, gender-based vio- persistent, and costly gender disparities. In lence remains prevalent. doing so, it attempts to answer the question: The collection of evidence in this report How can public policies and investments suggests the following broad outlines of a promote both gender equality and more regional strategy to promote gender equality effective development? and more effective development: To show the types of policies and invest- ments that can be most productive, this Promoting human development remains •   report has provided evidence on which a priority where gender gaps in education dimensions of gender disparity tend to remain large or where health outcomes close with growth and development in East are poor. Investments in these areas are Asian and Pacific countries and which do likely to yield high returns. not. Rapid growth and development in Taking active measures to promote gen- •   East Asian and Pacific countries have been der equality in economic opportunity can accompanied by reduced gender inequali- address the disparities that often persist ties in the areas of education, health, and with development. Such measures can 213 2 1 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C often yield positive returns to economic health services are no longer a dominant productivity, though specific policy priori- concern, special policies and programs may ties depend on the structure of the econ- be warranted to address large and persistent omy and on which specific constraints are gender gaps among specific subgroups of the most binding. population (for example, for poor, indig- I nitiating active measures to close gender •   enous, or remote communities). Similarly, gaps in agency across the region—and to current policy priorities for promoting gen- protect women from discrimination and der equality in economic opportunity will violence—will contribute to better devel- differ across countries, depending on the opmental decision making and thus to specific obstacles faced by women and on development more broadly. the structure of the economy (for example, Increasing economic integration, increased •   the fraction of the population in agriculture access to information and communica- or in the informal sector). Some aspects of tion technologies (ICTs), migration, rapid women’s agency improve with development urbanization, and population aging all in East Asian countries, but women in the bring with them new opportunities and Pacific Islands tend to experience a severe new risks with respect to gender equality. and persistent lack of agency. As a result, An important role for public policy will closing gender gaps in agency is a policy pri- be to foster the opportunities while man- ority across the region, and effective mea- aging the risks. sures will differ as a function of a number of factors, including local social norms regard- Interpretation of this proposed strategy ing women’s voice and influence, differences should consider two points: that policies can in countries’ legal systems, societies’ toler- simultaneously influence several domains— ance for violence, and so on. endowments, economic opportunity, and This chapter examines each part of the agency—and that policies should be context- proposed strategy in turn. To be most effec- specific. First, policy approaches to promote tive in reducing gender disparities, policy better outcomes with respect to endowments, makers may need to address both systemic access to economic opportunities, and agency problems and gender-specific problems. To are likely to be mutually reinforcing. Individ- the extent possible, the discussion in this ual outcomes in these areas are often interde- chapter will account for the potential costs pendent. Basic human capital, for example, as well as the benefits of policies. Such represents a critical factor in women’s (and trade-offs can be particularly important in men’s) access to economic opportunity and the context of labor market interventions. agency. Therefore, policies and investments For example, although raising the minimum that promote equality in education will also wage may close gender wage gaps among contribute to enhanced economic opportu- those employed in the formal sector, the nity and agency. Similarly, measures to close numbers of women the sector can employ gender gaps in voice and influence will enable may decline. Similarly, affirmative action women (and men) to be more effective agents policies may help to promote female employ- on their own behalf, whether in pursuit of ment, but they can also raise questions education, access to resources, or productive about worker productivity and may be nega- employment. tively perceived in the workplace. Although Second, the choice and design of poli- the evidence reviewed and generated for cies should consider national and local this report helps to answer many questions realities. The great diversity of the East Asia about gender and development in the East and Pacific region with respect to gender Asia and Pacific region, many knowledge inequalities will influence policy priorities. gaps remain. To that end, the chapter con- For example, even in countries where gender cludes by highlighting a number of areas disparities in access to basic education and that deserve additional analytical work. P R O M O T I N G G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    215 Promoting gender equality in What can be done in this group of coun- human development tries to provide equal access to education and reduce maternal mortality? Chapter 2 shows East Asian and Pacific countries vary in the that demand-side and supply-side factors are types of challenges they face with respect to responsible for these countries’ poor human gender equality in endowments, as analyzed capital outcomes. Therefore, the set of edu- in chapter 2. Where policies may be used cation and health policies can range from and can have an impact also varies. Using improving service delivery (for example, that body of evidence as a basis, this section through infrastructure, staffing, incentives, is organized around four themes: (a) closing and use of information and communication persistent gender gaps in human develop- technologies) to demand-side interventions ment, (b) reducing gender streaming in edu- (for example, cash transfers, information cation, (c) promoting balanced sex ratios at campaigns, and accountability). The exact birth, and (d) addressing male-specific gen- constraints in each country context will influ- der issues. Because basic human capital is ence the choice and sequencing of policies. an important factor for access to economic opportunity and agency, the discussion below Providing equal access to education will highlight examples where policies to pro- A few countries in the East Asia and Pacific mote equality in education also contribute to region still face overall low and gender- enhanced economic opportunity and agency. unequal access to education, particularly starting at the secondary level. This problem requires solutions to increase the demand Closing persistent gender gaps in for schooling as well as the capacity and human development incentives of the education system. Policies For the few East Asian and Pacific countries to improve education outcomes in general— with overall low and unequal gender out- that is, addressing systemic constraints—are comes in education and health (for example, expected to also improve gender ­ e quality Cambodia, the Lao People’s Democratic as the enrollment gap between genders Republic, and Papua New Guinea), promot- narrows. ing human development remains a policy Supply-side solutions can play an impor- priority. Education and health outcomes are tant role. Although primary schools are likely to improve as these countries become widely available in East Asian and Pacific wealthier, with higher household income, countries, secondary school availability better service delivery, and better expected is a problem in a few countries, including employment opportunities. However, coun- Cambodia and Lao PDR. Those countries tries must act now, because human capital should consider building more schools and itself is an important engine for growth and improve infrastructure in poor and remote can have long-term effects on well-being. areas where distance to school has been For countries with localized gender dispari- identified as a key constraint. These types ties among certain ethnic groups or low- of interventions, though usually with high income regions, growth in aggregate is not up-front costs, can have significant impacts enough to improve outcomes for all sub- on increasing education and future earnings, populations. Policy makers need to target as shown in an evaluation of Indonesia’s interventions to these groups. For example, school construction program in the 1970s the efforts that have successfully improved (Duflo 2000). Supply-side solutions need to human capital for both genders elsewhere be customized to address the context-specific in these countries can be replicated for constraints. Making special provisions for these subpopulations, in combination with girls, such as private female latrines, may complementary interventions that address be necessary to ease parents’ concern for their specific constraints. girls’ privacy and safety in school. Particular 2 1 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C excluded groups such as ethnic minorities been found to delay girls’ age of marriage and may need additional support. Teachers who increase their earning opportunities, which in speak the local language or who come from turn strengthens women’s ­ bargaining power the relevant ethnic group can serve as role within the household (Baird et al. 2009; IEG models and relate to the local social norms 2011). about educating children. Aside from affordability, school enrollment Innovative use of information and com- may be discouraged by the weak incentives munication technologies (ICTs) in delivering of service providers and lack of accountabil- services can enhance learning opportunities ity of the school systems. The 2004 World for girls and boys and improve the provision Development Report called for improving of education. The availability of distance accountability in service delivery, and fol- learning, for example, can circumvent the low-up work has demonstrated the positive constraints of travel for schooling and deliver impacts of various measures to encourage and education to youths who have no access to enable parents to hold the school and teach- formal schooling or who have left the for- ers accountable for their childrens’ schooling mal system. The Flexible Open and Distance outcomes (World Bank 2003). Evidence on Education (FODE) program in Papua New this aspect has been abundant in other devel- Guinea presents an interesting approach. It oping countries but is much needed in the helps public distance learning centers provide East Asia and Pacific region.1 upper primary- and secondary-level courses in English, mathematics, science, and social Reducing maternal mortality sciences. One key component of the project The slow improvements in maternal health aims to provide FODE centers with appropri- outcomes in several East Asian and Pacific ate information technology and to train staff countries, including Cambodia, Lao PDR, members to effectively use that technology parts of Indonesia, and Timor-Leste, suggest in administration, curriculum development, the importance of improving service delivery. materials production, and teaching and learn- Access to pre- and postnatal health facilities— ing activities. especially including sufficient infrastructure, ­ Several demand-side solutions have been in rural areas—and improved access to shown to work effectively. As discussed in sanitation and potable water are fundamen- chapter 2, parents in low-income families tal to improving maternal mortality rates. in Cambodia have difficulty covering the Therefore, this report recommends continu- direct and indirect costs of schooling. One ing efforts to ensure the basic infrastructure way to expand access is to provide financial and to provide access to safe water. The low incentives to attend school. In many develop- rate of births attended by skilled profession- ing countries worldwide, evaluation of the als, especially in poor and rural areas in these impacts of conditional and unconditional countries, calls for interventions related to ­ cash transfers indicates a significant gain staffing. Impact evaluation evidence shows in school enrollment (Fiszbein and Schady that performance-based contracting increases 2009). In Cambodia, a scholarship program staff attendance and, consequently, the use targeted to girls and a related program tar- of antenatal care, as shown in the case of geted to boys and girls from low-income Cambodia (see box 6.1). In addition, train- households led to an increase in school enroll- ing and increased allocation of midwives to ment of at least 20 percentage points for both villages in Indonesia have increased women’s genders (Filmer and Schady 2008, 2009). body mass index (BMI) and children’s birth- Cash transfers and scholarship programs weight and neonatal health (Frankenberg for school-age girls can also positively influ- and Thomas 2001). However, just having ence their long-term agency. For example, in more midwives is not enough to ensure and Malawi and Pakistan, conditional cash trans- sustain service quality. Malaysia’s experience fers and school scholarship programs have in successfully reducing maternal mortality P R O M O T I N G G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    217 BOX 6.1  Reducing maternal mortality rates through improved staffing and quality of service delivery Cambodia Basic Health Service Project. In the late and had less training than health center midwives. 1990s, Cambodia initiated a performance-based Also, midwives were found to be attracted to urban contracting scheme with three service delivery areas. In addition, Shankar et al. (2008) argued forms: contracting-out, in which the whole service that the lack of practical experience and of train- provision was allocated to the contractor; contract- ing, supervision, and guidance have limited midwife ing-in, in which an external contractor was hired to retention and, more important, service quality. improve the existing structure; and a comparison Malaysia. With a reduction of maternal mor- group in which no contracting took place (OECD tality from 1,500 per 100,000 live births in 1930 2009). Using the initial randomization of the pro- to less than 58 in 2005 (Dawson 2010), Malaysia gram over 12 districts, Bloom et al. (2006) found constitutes one of the success stories of improving that contracting-in significantly increased the like- m aternal health. Among other factors, the quality ­ lihood of 24-hour service provision. Both contract and the strict supervision of the midwives by certi- forms increased the probability of staff attendance fied nurses, support and guidelines, and training for and the existence of supplies and equipment, man- emergency situations, such as improving the com- agement quality, and use of public providers. Among munication between the rural service and hospital other positive health effects, antenatal health care staff (Dawson 2010), may explain this success. In increased by 36 percentage points for pregnant addition, traditional birth attendants were also women in contracting-in districts, and both contract trained, registered, and given tools, and midwives forms increased the use of health facilities for deliv- were briefed on the integration with traditional ery (Bloom et al. 2006). practitioners (Dawson 2010). Indonesia Village Midwife Program. Initiated in Mongolia Maternal Mortality Reduction Strat- 1989, the program aimed at allocating more mid- egy. Implemented between 2001 and 2010, this wives to villages and exempted delivery fees for poor approach is a package of incentives, staffing, and families (Makowiecka et al. 2008). Using panel data demand-side information campaigns. The pack- from 1993 and 1997, Frankenberg and Thomas age included awareness-raising campaigns, such (2001) found that the introduction of a midwife as radio and television programs about maternal increased the BMI of women in reproductive age rel- health needs, that were broadcast multiple times a ative to the comparison groups. Also, the program week (Yadamsuren et al. 2010). Initiatives such as has been found to increase birthweight (Franken- the “mother-friendly governor� aimed to strengthen berg and Thomas 2001) and reduce neonatal mor- the commitment and rewards of improving mater- tality (Shrestha 2007). Although midwife coverage nal mortality–related indicators at the local gov- increased in Indonesia, along with the number of ernment level. Several additional measures, such safe deliveries, progress in reducing maternal mor- as the provision of attractive contracts to doctors tality rates has been argued to be below expectations for relocating into remote areas, maternal wait- (Dawson 2010). Using data on midwives in Serang ing homes, partial service and transportation cost and Pandeglang districts, Makowiecka et al. (2008) coverage, and training of doctors and health prac- found that village-based midwives were more likely titioners, contributed to improving maternal health to have temporary contracts, were less experienced, provision (Yadamsuren et al. 2010). suggests that rigorous training, supervision, culturally sensitive. As described in chap- and communication support for midwives ter 2, norms about birthing practices play are also essential factors for quality (Dawson a role in birthing decisions and outcomes. 2010). Box 6.1 discusses these examples in Programs such as those in Malaysia and further detail. Tonga, which provide guidance to tradi- Service provision should also respond to tional birth attendants on hygiene prac- noneconomic factors: maternal mortality tices, diagnosis of complicated cases, and may be reduced by making service delivery the importance of prenatal care, are likely 2 1 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C to be beneficial. In Malaysia, hospital ser- in human capital persist in subgroups such vices have adapted to allow naming ritu- as ethnic minorities or low-income regions, als for Muslims (Hillier 2003). Studies in interventions such as those discussed earlier Cambodia and Lao PDR recommend build- need to address the specific constraints faced ing birth huts in the health center to allow by these subpopulations. However, visible privacy and to accommodate the presence gender streaming in education remains a of family and relatives (UNFPA 2005). direct barrier to gender equality in produc- Financial assistance, such as subsidies or tive activities, voice, and participation. cash transfers, has been shown to improve Countries can make concerted efforts the use of health services and reduce mater- in education and labor market policies to nal mortality, given the financial barriers tackle the current equilibrium of females faced by poor women. The Cambodia Health sorting into lower-paying occupations and Equity Fund (HEF) combined financial assis- lower-productivity sectors, which is partly tance to the poor and an incentive scheme for due to education streaming. The evidence service providers. In 2007, the fund launched presented in the preceding chapters shows a voucher program to provide poor pregnant that females shy away from certain fields of women with access to free prenatal and post- study, despite the high economic return, for natal health care visits and delivery, as well as reasons such as gender norms about school to cover the transportation costs. At the same and work, stereotyping in school curricula, time, the government implemented a nation- lack of role models, or lack of informa- wide incentive system that paid midwives tion. Although changing norms is very dif- and other health care staff an a ­ dditional ficult, education systems can at least limit US$12.50 and US$15.00 per live birth in the p­ erpetuating influence of gender-biased hospitals and health care ­ respectively centers, ­ norms. What follows is a discussion about (Ir et al. 2010). Using data from three promising approaches, but future research health districts between 2006 and 2008, needs to provide more rigorous evaluations Ir et al. (2010) found that deliveries in health of these policies. facilities increased by 196 percent for HEF One possible approach on this agenda is voucher beneficiaries. to reduce gender stereotyping in school cur- Policy interventions to improve account- ricula. Several countries in the region have ability in service delivery can lead to increased begun to review and revise teaching materials use of maternal care services, as indicated from a gender perspective, though additional by evidence from other parts of the world. efforts are called for to ensure that the revi- In Uganda, community-based monitoring sions introduced to promote gender-sensitive improved the quality and quantity of primary curricula are systematically applied (UNICEF health care services (Björkman and Svensson 2009). For example, in Lao PDR, supplemen- 2009). In Peru, incentives to service provid- tary learning materials, new gender-sensitive ers, coupled with a mechanism giving citi- primary education curricula, and textbooks zens a voice to reach policy makers, proved were developed following a gender review and useful: professional attendance for deliveries training of curriculum writers. In Vietnam, increased from 58 percent of births in 2000 a review of the current curricula indicated to 71 percent in 2004 (Cotlear 2006). that gender stereotyping was frequent, and isolated examples of good practice (includ- ing collaborative behavior between boys Reducing gender streaming in and girls) have been highlighted in teaching education materials for replication. Piloting and evalu- For many East Asian and Pacific countries, ation are important since empirical evidence most gender issues regarding basic access on the impacts of gender-sensitive curriculum in education and health have abated with reforms is very limited worldwide, let alone growth and development. If gender disparities in the East Asia and Pacific region.2 P R O M O T I N G G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    219 Revising school and professional training engineering schools and department. The curricula to include better female role models project expands access to training for female can enable greater agency in the h ­ ousehold engineering faculty and includes refurbish- over time. The formal education system can ments to enhance the ability of campuses to educate young children on the basic princi- serve women students. ples of gender equality by integrating these Activities to reduce traditional patterns of principles into the curricula, introducing the gender streaming in education are likely to value system early in children’s lives, and become increasingly important as economies challenging existing gender-related social move up the value chain away from labor- norms that are learned outside the classroom. intensive production. In middle- and higher- In Indonesia, a recent textbook evaluation income countries in the East Asia and Pacific shows strong gender bias starting in the sixth region, movements up the value chain have grade, with stereotypical gender roles that typically been accompanied by reductions portray men as income earners and women in the fraction of females working in Special as homemakers. The evaluation resulted in a Economic Zones (SEZs). For example, in recommendation that the government should Malaysia only 40 percent of workers in SEZs promote the incorporation of gender equality are now female, compared to 60 percent two into the curricula for primary and second- decades ago (Simavi, Manuel, and Blackden ary school to address gender-based violence 2010). Addressing the skill constraints of as well as other social norms that perpetuate workers as countries make the transition up gender inequality (Utomo et al. 2009). the value chain will require policies ranging Alternatively, policy interventions can from appropriate technical and vocational actively promote entrance into nontraditional training among school-age girls and boys to fields of study. Offering scholarships to girls training programs to help retrain workers and women to study fields such as engineering whose skills are in lower demand. or law is one option. Not enough is known about the impact of such scholarships on Promoting balanced sex ratios at birth breaking traditional patterns that are deeply rooted in norms, and small financial incen- A few countries—China and Vietnam, in tives may lead to changes only at the margin. particular—should continue their efforts to Aside from financial incentives, other inter- address the phenomenon of “missing girls� at esting approaches use female role models and birth. This problem does not have easy pol- encourage female pupils in nontraditional icy solutions since preference for sons is the careers, though evidence of their impacts is underlying cause, and certain population pol- usually not available either. 3 In the United icies or access to technology that comes with States, the Science Connections ( ­ SciCon) pro- economic growth can exacerbate the problem. gram offered monthly science workshops for Countries can enact and enforce legal clauses girls plus a summer science weekend for the against sex-selective abortion; however, those family to foster girls’ interest in science. After measures are extremely difficult to imple- the program, the retention rate from the first ment when societies have strong incentives to the second workshop rose from only 10 per- to select the preferred gender and bypass the cent to 25–50 percent for different cohorts. law. More promising policy approaches could The program reportedly also increased girls’ alter the incentives themselves by enhancing knowledge about nontraditional careers in the relative value of daughters as perceived by science, self-confidence, interest in science, families. and motivation to increase their efforts in Relying on economic growth to raise science-related courses.4 The Technical/Engi- female education and participation in the neering Education Quality Improvement Proj- labor market alone may not suffice, as the ect in India takes another approach to create Republic of Korea’s recent experience sug- a gender-friendly environment in science and gests. Chung and Das Gupta (2007) argued 2 2 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C that the impacts of development in Korea then scaled up the Chaohu pilot through the since the 1950s influenced son preference national Care for Girls campaign in 24 coun- through many factors: (a) higher earning pros- ties of 24 provinces with severe gender imbal- pects increased individuals’ independence of ances. This campaign went beyond advocacy family lineage, (b) retirement savings reduced and media publicity alone. Direct financial financial dependence on children in old age, incentives for parents to raise daughters have (c) urban life setting reduced the focus on also been introduced as part of the Care for traditional filial duty and promoted female- Girls campaign: families with elderly par- inclusive social networks, (d) women’s greater ents without sons receive an annual allow- economic and physical mobility enhanced the ance of 600 yuan; daughter-only families value of daughters, and (e) urban life, with receive preferential loans; daughters from assets associated with nonfarm activities and these families also receive bonus points in less pressure from customary laws, facilitated college entrance exams. Although the exact gender equity in inheritance. The authors attribution to the program’s effects has not attributed the observed reduction in son pref- been evaluated, the sex ratios at birth in these erence in larger part to changing social norms 24 counties fell from 133.8 in 2000 to 119.6 (changes in son preference within all educa- in 2005 (Li 2007). tion and urban and rural population groups) Improving social security for the elderly and in smaller part to increased urbanization can also affect the sex ratio, since families and education (changes due to movements might prefer to have sons in order to receive between education groups and between financial support in old age. Ebenstein and urban and rural populations). Their find- Leung (2010) assessed the impact of the ings suggest that interventions to influence introduction of a rural old-age pension pro- social norms and facilitate the spread of new gram on sex ratios at birth in China. Using values work better than relying on raising cross-sectional data, they found that the female education and labor force participa- number of sons decreases the likelihood of tion alone. Therefore, policy makers should participating in the pension program. Using a consider information campaigns, financial measure of availability of the program at the incentives, and improved social security for village level, the authors compared changes in the elderly to reduce the imbalance in the sex the sex ratios at birth for cohorts born before ratio at birth. and after the introduction of the program in China has been taking public actions to 1991. They found that counties in which the address the unbalanced sex ratio at birth pension program is available exhibit smaller with a package of approaches. Aside from increases in the sex ratio at birth. regulations outlawing sex-selective abor- tion, the nationwide Care for Girls program Addressing male-specific gender issues in China is a well-known media campaign. It started with a pilot in Chaohu from 2000 Male gender issues may also hamper coun- to 2003 (Li 2007), which combined advocacy tries’ growth and development. First, in and training, along with punishment for dis- many parts of the East Asia and Pacific crimination in the form of sex-selective abor- region (for example, China, Fiji, M­ alaysia, tions and infanticide. The program achieved Mongolia, the Philippines, Samoa, and its main objectives: the sex ratios at birth in Thailand), countries need to monitor the ini- Chaohu fell from 125 boys per 100 girls in tial signs of the reverse gender gap in edu- 1999 to 114 per 100 in 2002. Some of the cation. Second, in many countries, being program activities asked men to participate born male is the single greatest determinant in the discussion as well, and encouraged for tobacco use and a main determinant for them to help improve women’s status in the harmful alcohol use (WHO 2005, 2007). home and in society (Li 2007). The National Such use is harmful for households and soci- Population and Family Planning Commission eties and warrants the attention of sound P R O M O T I N G G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    221 public policy, since the social costs are usu- effectively target men (WHO 2007). Pro- ally higher than private costs, which are grams expected to decrease the prevalence externalized to other members of the soci- of smoking include warnings about male- ety. Costs to economic growth can be even specific health risks of smoking (including more severe when combined with the effects reduced potency and fertility), messages of an aging population. about the harmful effects of passive smok- Although this report does not exhaus- ing, and campaigns targeting men who are tively cover harmful tobacco and alco- role models to boys, such as fathers, teach- hol use, table 6.1 highlights several policy ers, and peers (WHO 2007). Research from approaches to tackle the challenge inside Cambodia, Malaysia, and Vietnam suggest and outside the region. These measures the usefulness of messages that resonate with include policies to reduce the prevalence of core social values of responsibility for family alcohol and tobacco use and other policies welfare, such as reminding the smoker that to reduce the harmful impacts of such use. smoking harms children’s health and stress- Taxation and restrictions on sales are usu- ing the role of setting a good example for ally not very effective in countries where children (Efroymson and Velasco 2007). alcohol and tobacco products are mostly sold through informal markets (W HO 2005, 2008). Taking active measures to Policies against tobacco use and exces- promote gender equality in sive alcohol use should consider gender economic opportunity dimensions, gender norms, and cultural val- ­ Gender inequalities in economic opportuni- ues. Gender-specific education and commu- ties, such as gender wage gaps and the concen- nication approaches may be used to more tration of women and female-led enterprises TABLE 6.1  Selected policy approaches to tackle excessive tobacco and alcohol use Policy approach Examples and impacts Tobacco and alcohol Analysis shows that if China transferred its 2009 tobacco tax adjustment from the producer to the smoker, the retail taxation price would have increased 3.4 percent and would have resulted in 640,000 to 2 million smokers quitting and between 210,000 and 700,000 quitters avoiding smoking-related premature death (Hu, Mao, and Shi 2010). Information The Thai Health Promotion Foundation (ThaiHealth) uses alcohol excise tax revenues to promote health. ThaiHealth’s campaigns on the activities include supporting the establishment of a surveillance center to enforce alcohol control regulations; a research related health risks center on alcohol consumption; and advertising campaigns to reduce alcohol-related traffic accidents, promote abstinence, and increase knowledge about the links between alcohol use and domestic violence. The agency also played a vital role in the successful passage of a national policy to control alcohol advertising and in launching a National Committee for Alcohol Consumption Control (WHO 2011). Sales restrictions and Restrictions on sales may include regulating the types of retail establishments that can sell these products, requiring and advertising bans enforcing licensing, and limiting the hours and days of sale. Advertising against tobacco and alcohol use may encourage changes in the perception of masculinity to break the link between masculinity and substance use (WHO 2005, 2007). In a study in Norway, youths ages 13–15 years in 1990 and 1995 that were exposed to tobacco marketing were significantly more likely to be current smokers (controlling for important social influence predictors) than those adolescents who were not exposed to tobacco marketing. Such evidence suggests that bans on advertising would be useful to limit the promotion of adolescent smoking (Braverman and Aarø 2004). Bans on smoking in China’s ban on smoking in public places became effective in May 2011, after successful trials during the 2008 Beijing public places Olympic Games and the 2010 Guangzhou Asian Games (World Bank 2011e). Appropriate drunk- Establishing maximum blood alcohol concentrations of drivers and enforcing these with sobriety checks and random driving policies breath testing can decrease alcohol-related motor vehicle crashes by roughly 20 percent and are highly cost-effective (Elder et al. 2002 and Peek-Asa 1999, cited in WHO 2011). Enforcement of the laws and severity of punishment are imperative for the success of such initiatives (WHO 2008, 2011). In Brazil, infringement of the law culminates in penalties of up to three years in prison, a hefty fine, and suspension of the drunk driver’s license for one year (WHO 2011). 2 2 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C in less-remunerative jobs and sectors, exist in Although governments cannot directly all countries in the region, although the grav- change the norms that influence gender ity of inequalities and hence policy priorities divisions of domestic responsibilities, poli- vary by country. The focus of policies in all cies can work around existing customs and countries, however, has a common theme— thereby reduce the impact that customs have to provide an enabling environment in which on women’s economic activities. Policies may women can balance their multiple roles and also indirectly influence divisions of labor flourish in their income-generating activities. within households, for example, by institut- As discussed in chapter 3, the constraints ing interventions that raise the value of wom- that infringe on women’s ability to flourish as en’s market time.5 economic actors occur in households, mar- Although household responsibilities kets, and informal and formal institutions. infringe upon women’s economic activities This section highlights what policy makers across all countries, the policy recommen- can do in these three domains to improve dations in this area vary with a country’s gender equality in economic opportunity. economic structure. In countries with pre- The following sections focus on three pri- dominantly rural populations and infra- mary areas: (a) reducing the time constraints structural constraints that limit women’s associated with women’s household roles, access to markets and energy and water (b) increasing women’s access to resources, sources, policies targeted at improving and (c) establishing a level playing field by existing infrastructure will likely have the reforming institutions. Because the most seri- greatest impact on women’s time balance. ous constraints faced by women vary across In countries with a larger urban popula- economies according to economic structure tion, governments should consider policies (see chapter 3), this section ends with a brief that increase access to affordable child care, discussion of countries’ appropriate policy particularly where informal mechanisms priorities. for child care are more limited. In coun- tries where the formal sector is increasingly important, addressing parental leave poli- Reducing trade-offs between women’s cies will help to level the playing field for household and market roles men and women and may ameliorate gender This report finds that, in all countries, wom- divisions of labor within households. en’s household roles affect their decisions as economic actors—for example, they affect Investing in basic infrastructure and the amount of time women are able to devote transportation to market-orientated activities, the types of In rural or urban areas with limited infra- occupations that they enter into, and the types structure, governments can reduce the time of enterprises they run. A key policy priority spent on domestic activities by investing in across countries is to reduce the impact of improved water, sanitation, and energy ser- household roles on women’s economic lives, a vices. These services may release time that priority that will become increasingly impor- can be spent on market work or leisure and tant as aging continues and the demands increase the income potential or well-being of caring for elderly family members rise. of women. Evidence from around the world Addressing women’s dual roles is likely to be suggests that water and electrification proj- the most important in contexts where female ects can reduce the time that women spend labor force participation is severely affected collecting water and fuel, and can increase by the competing demands for women’s time productivity by increasing the length of the (for example, in Malaysia, the Philippines, working day.6 In Lao PDR, evidence suggests and Fiji, where female labor force participa- that electricity extends the hours available for tion rates drop particularly sharply when they both productive and leisure activities, par- have children). ticularly for women and girls (World Bank P R O M O T I N G G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    223 2011d). In the Gansu and Inner Mongolia particularly for women, who were found to Poverty Reduction Project, the construc- have increased the frequency of market vis- tion of drinking water facilities was found to its and their own incomes generated from reduce the workload for women (World Bank market activities (Jusi, Asigau and Laa- 2007b). tunen 2007). Recent experience on infra- Government investment in transport structure and transportation projects also infrastructure can improve access to mar- suggests that the design of infrastructure kets by reducing travel time constraints. projects can have important gender implica- Although both women and men benefit from tions (box 6.2). better access to markets, it likely affects the well-being of women more because they Improving access to affordable child care have less time to devote to market-oriented Access to affordable and high-quality child- activities. In Papua New Guinea, evidence care options may reduce the amount of time suggests that a road maintenance and that women spend on care-related activities, rehabilitation program improved the qual- particularly among groups of women such as ity of life of remote disadvantaged com- migrants, who have limited access to alterna- munities and improved access to markets, tive child-care mechanisms.7 The evidence BOX 6.2  The design of infrastructure projects has important gender dimensions Consultations with both men and women can modate the needs of the Muslim majority, Malaysia ensure that infrastructure projects meet the needs introduced women-only trains in 2010. In a similar of both men and women, since use and access to spirit, women-only buses during peak times were infrastructure varies by gender. For example, many introduced to counteract sexual harassment and dis- rural women lack access to motorized transport, comfort among female customers. Jakarta, Indone- tend to travel on feeder roads and tracks on foot, or sia, introduced women-only train compartments on use intermediate means of transport such as donkey a busy commuter route to address sexual harassment carts and bicycles. Conventional rural transport complaints. planning has tended to focus on road networks and Because female-headed households may be sub- long-distance transport, which has led to the neglect ject to greater financial constraints than male- of the needs of women in rural areas. In Peru, for headed households, gender-blind program design example, women’s participation in economic activi- may have gender-differentiated effects. In Lao ties increased in response to a program that focused PDR, the rural electrification project did not reach on upgrading nonmotorized tracks that are pre- poor female-headed households at the initial stage. dominantly used by women and are not generally An early assessment of the project suggested that covered by traditional road-upgrading programs approximately 40 percent of rural households could (Valdivia 2010). not afford the connection fees of approximately In urban areas, integrating gender-specific needs US$100. These households were predominantly into the design of urban transport systems can poor and were disproportionately headed by women. increase access for women. Women are more likely As a response, a pilot program targeted the poorest to travel during nonpeak hours and to conduct mul- households, with a focus on female-headed house- tiple short trips, which makes using public trans- holds. A revolving loan fund provided these house- port expensive. To make public transportation more holds with interest-free loans to cover 80 percent of accessible to women, fee structures may compensate their costs, and all female-headed households were gender differences in use by providing tickets that eligible for support under this fund. Within a few allow for multiple stops on a single trip, thereby years, electrification rates in pilot areas increased reducing costs. The transportation system can also from 63 percent to 90 percent overall, and from be improved to offset social and cultural factors 79 percent to 96 percent for female-headed house- that hinder women’s access. For example, to accom- holds (Boatman and Chanthalinh 2009). 2 2 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C presented in chapter 3 suggests that having and informal child-care arrangements, and children affects women’s economic opportu- hence have a substantial need for afford- nities in all countries in the region, although able child-care assistance. In Brazil, pub- the effects are greatest in urban areas where licly provided child care lacked flexibility informal support networks are the most lim- and had limited facility hours, which lim- ited.8 A lack of child care can affect multi- ited the impact of child care on women’s ple dimensions of economic opportunities, earnings (Deutsch 1998). including labor force participation, the type Public policy may also need to tackle of job conducted, and gender wage gaps. For negative perceptions about the use of child example, in Vietnam, a lack of child care care. Location-specific social norms may has been found to be an important factor initially limit women’s use of child-care that pushes mothers from formal to informal services. Comparative analysis of wom- employment (Heymann 2004). In China and en’s labor force participation in Japan and Mongolia, reductions in the provision of sub- Taiwan, China, noted that disapproval of sidized child care led to a reduction in female mothers that rely on alternative child-care labor force participation in urban areas (Chi arrangements is frequent in Japan, with and Li 2007; World Bank 2011a). women being less reluctant to leave young Policies to promote better access to afford- children in the care of others (particularly able child care should target those women relatives) in Taiwan, China. In Korea, a whose needs are the greatest and who have lim- study suggested that three-quarters of men ited alternative access to child-care f­acilities. and women believe that a preschool-age Community child-care centers, particularly child will suffer if his or her mother works those targeted at low-income neighborhoods, (Yun-Suk and Ki-Soo 2005). have been found to increase maternal employ- ment in a number of countries across the Instituting parental leave policies world. Although evidence from the East Asia Parental leave policies may improve gen- and Pacific region is limited, evidence from der parity in economic opportunities by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation enabling and promoting a more equitable and Development (OECD) and the Latin division of child-rearing responsibilities America and Caribbean region suggests that between men and women and by allowing the impact of increasing access to child care women to have the same opportunities as on female labor force participation and hours men for advancing their careers. The suc- worked varies with, among other things, the cess of parental leave policies in achieving availability of alternative caring arrangements these goals depends on their design. Poorly and characteristics of families ( ­Attanasio designed or incomplete parental care poli- et al. 2004; Blau and Currie 2006; ­ Lefebvre, cies can make hiring women, relative to Merrigan, and Verstraete 2009; Paes de men, more expensive for employers, lead- ­ Barros et al. 2010). ing to discrimination or reduced job oppor- Targeting child care toward the needs tunities for women, while exacerbating or of mothers is likely to increase its uptake. emphasizing gender divisions of labor in the Programs that have identified and tar- household. The factors that affect the suc- geted groups with particular needs can cess of parental leave include who pays for increase women’s labor force participation the leave—the employer, the employee, or while addressing persistent inequalities. the government; whether a country has pro- In Vietnam, the Community-Based Early visions for both paternity leave and mater- ­ C hildhood Care and Development proj- nity leave, or covers only maternity leave; ect aims to improve child outcomes, with and what fraction of wages is received by a focus on ethnic minorities and migrant beneficiaries. workers (ADB 2010). Migrant workers Parental benefits in the region vary con- often have lower access to familial support siderably by the number of days given, the P R O M O T I N G G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    225 percentage of leave that is paid, who pays in many East Asian and Pacific countries for the leave, and whether paternity leave where women, despite accumulating suf- is provided for. Maternity leave is the most ficient human capital, still face barriers in commonly found component of work-and- access to productive assets. family policies internationally and in the region. A study of 13 East Asian and Pacific Promoting equal access to land countries found that provisions for mater- Policies aimed at promoting equal access nity leave have been instituted in all the to land for women and men require careful countries examined in the region (World thought because complex legal, social, and Bank 2010b, 2011g). In the majority of economic factors are at play. Although eco- countries studied, maternity leave is paid nomic growth and income can help women for by the employer; only in Mongolia, the acquire more land in some contexts, improv- Philippines, and Vietnam does the govern- ing gender equality in access to land and ment fund maternity leave. Where paternity land ownership does not automatically result leave provisions are not in place, policies from single interventions targeting economic that grant only employer-paid maternity factors. Access to land requires attention to leave likely will reduce employers’ incen- formal property rights, customary systems, tives to hire female workers because of the and the informal norms and practices that additional costs of hiring women, particu- structure access to resources at household, larly among younger age groups. community, and land agency levels. Access to Within the region, only Cambodia, Indo- land affects women’s economic opportunities, nesia, and the Philippines currently have poli- since land is an important productive asset cies for paternity leave. Besides introducing and form of collateral. As with education, differential hiring costs by gender, the pro- access to land assets and income generated vision of maternity leave policies without from land contribute to women’s voice and similar paternity leave policies will likely influence. To that extent, policies promoting reinforce gender differences in child-rearing equal access to land also affect agency. responsibilities, because the asymmetries in Leveling the legal playing field with the ability to take time off from work rein- respect to land ownership is essential. forces gender divisions of time. However, G ender-progressive legal review and reform ­ even in the presence of gender-neutral paren- should take place in all areas that legally tal leave, evidence from the OECD suggests infringe on land rights, including family that progress has been slow in encouraging code, inheritance rules, and civil legisla- fathers to take any leave, let alone equal leave tion regarding women’s rights to land, both (Gornick and Hegewisch 2010).9 The major- within a marriage or consensual union and ity of evidence suggests, however, that pro- in cases of family dissolution or divorce viding paternity leave alone is not sufficient (Giovarelli 2006). Explicit language ensur- to changing the current gender division of ing equal property rights in the law helps child-rearing responsibilities within house- avoid interpretation unfavorable to women. holds; rather, parental leave policy needs to For example, Bolivia’s 1996 land reform law be combined with other approaches to break- specifies equity criteria in all land transac- ing down gender norms regarding household tions, independent of the civil status of the caregiving roles. party involved. The reference to civil status is important because it does not require that a woman be head of household or married Increasing women’s access to resources to be eligible for land rights (World Bank Access to land and other productive resources 2010a). in agriculture and other entrepreneurial sec- In addition, countries are likely to bene- tors is important in all contexts. It becomes fit from adopting legal changes that actively an even more salient and binding constraint promote better gender equality in access to 2 2 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C land. For example, in 2003, Vietnam passed (World Bank 2010a). Training women in the Land Law, which requests certification the use of new ICT resources can give them of land under the name of both spouses if access to tools such as handheld global posi- plots are used by both spouses. Qualita- tioning system devices or mobile land regis- tive analysis of impacts in Vietnam suggests tries for help in developing land cadastres and that joint titling improves procedures and registering land transactions. The First Kyr- opportunities for women to access loans; gyz Land and Real Estate Registration Proj- empowers women in case of disputes, given ect put in place mobile registries for villages the security of land use rights; and leads to located 25 kilometers or more from the local higher mutual decision making (World Bank registry office, and the r ­ egistries traveled to 2008). Using national survey data from 2004 the village either weekly or at the request of to 2006, Trung (2008) found that joint land the village chief (Harrington 2008). Sufficient certification increased the working time and training of land agency and titling agency decreased the domestic labor burden for staff in women’s and ethnic or other minori- women belonging to the Kinh ethnic group. ties’ rights to land, as well as in local norms The study also found that joint land certifica- and practices, can help remove barriers faced tion increased education expenses for daugh- by these groups in accessing titling services ters relative to sons in rural areas. (World Bank 2010a). Experience from projects suggests several Apart from securing land titles for guiding principles to ensure that on-the- women, policy makers planning for formal ground implementation of land titling and land allocation and designing interventions land administration does not put women must understand and consider the gender at a disadvantage. These guidelines include implications of customary land tenure and ­ gender- and socially inclusive land titling use-rights regimes operating in specific com- policy, procedures, and service delivery, and munities.10 Land titling projects can support provision of complementary inputs to new the issuance of titles to all rightful heirs to landholders, particularly women (see World secure women’s legal rights, which women Bank 2010a for details). Important capacity can then transfer, gift, trade, or sell as desired building to increase women’s legal literacy in (World Bank 2010a). Education regarding relation to land may include sufficient cam- the benefits of land ownership is important paigning and outreach to women and men for potential beneficiaries. Other target audi- regarding upcoming titling programs, the ences for this kind of education include for- benefits and risks of land title, and procedures mal ­organizations—such as state institutions, for redress (Harrington 2008). The adop- labor organizations, legal aid organizations, tion of these project guidelines in, for exam- women’s organizations, and donors—and ple, the Lao Land Titling Project (LTP1 and informal, customary institutions—such as LTP2) yielded impressive results in improv- councils of elders and neighborhood commit- ing women’s access to land. The project had tees (World Bank 2010a). a special focus on women’s awareness of land Public policies should make specific efforts certificates and titling to women, including to support women’s access to justice in formal the involvement of the Lao Women’s Union and informal systems (including for individ- and a ­ significant number of female staff in ual and collective land rights), and to improve land titling ­ agencies. The projects resulted women’s position in customary, as well as col- in 38 percent of titles going to women, with lective, land negotiations. The World Bank’s a­ f urther 29 percent issued jointly to both Justice for the Poor program (J4P) aims to spouses (Bell 2011). Project procedures should improve the delivery of justice services and also ensure that women are represented in to support inclusive and fair negotiation local titling and adjudication and community processes over customary land dealings, in mapping processes, for example, through the which women usually are excluded from the use of female paralegals and parasurveyors decision-making process and receive fewer P R O M O T I N G G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    227 benefits (World Bank 2011c). In Vanuatu, for large numbers of men leave in search of example, land leasing for tourism, agricul- employment in cities. Acquiring knowledge ture, and extractive industries has excluded and skills in agriculture and other rural women during formal lease registration and livelihoods can be extremely challenging, overlooked women’s customary access to particularly when extension services are garden plots or other productive uses. The oriented around traditionally male activities J4P program used consultations and out- or when training occurs outside of rural vil- reach, including through community drama, lages, limiting female participation. Recent to bring the community together to discuss projects have sought to address these issues and debate sensitive land issues (Stefanova, (box 6.3). Nixon, and Porter 2010). Evaluations of the Consultations with female farmers can impacts of such approaches are under way. help to identify gaps in existing service deliv- ery. For example, the Integrated Agricul- Increasing women’s access to other ture Training Project in Papua New Guinea productive resources in agriculture focused especially on gender concerns. The Improving female farmers’ access to agri- project expanded the number of female agri- cultural extension and other services that cultural extension agents, incorporated wom- promote rural livelihoods will improve their en’s needs in the design of the training, and income. In rural areas, women often play a included gender monitoring in the program leading role in agricultural activities when (box 6.3).11 BOX 6.3  Leveling the playing field in access to resources: Lessons from Papua New Guinea and Mongolia In Papua New Guinea, men and women have had livelihood, credit and savings, accounting, and man- differentiated access to agricultural extension ser- agement of poultry and commercial vegetables, vices for multiple reasons. First, extension and which particularly reflected women’s interests (Cahn training activities have traditionally focused on the and Liu 2008). The program trained both male and formal commercial agriculture sector, dominated female trainers to deliver gender-sensitive modules— by men, rather than the subsistence and informal by 2005, 30 percent of all trainers were female. This agricultural sectors that women are concentrated allowed course participants to be split into different in (Cahn and Liu 2008). Second, contact between groups when discussing topics on which men and unrelated men and women is not culturally accept- women had different perspectives or when discuss- able in Papua New Guinea, further reducing wom- ing more sensitive topics, and it also represented en’s access to extension services, which are predomi- women as being capable of taking important roles nantly provided by men. Third, traveling to training in agriculture. courses can be difficult for women because of time In Mongolia, a component of the Gansu and limitations, financial constraints, and fears about Inner Mongolia Poverty Reduction Project provided safety, particularly for women in very remote vil- improved agricultural and livestock technology lages, where limited transport options are available. packages and upgraded agricultural and livestock The Integrated Agriculture Training Program support services (World Bank 2007b). Women were (IATP) provided targeted training and information consulted during the development of different farm services to men and women in rural areas. The pro- models to ensure that the gender divisions of labor gram included a focus on women’s needs. Participa- were taken into account in the choice and develop- tory workshops aimed to ensure that women’s voices ment of activities. Approximately half of the total were heard, and that the training needs highlighted project beneficiaries were women, who benefited by women were included in the selection of topics from women-specific project training and production for training modules. The training content included activities such as cropping and livestock raising. 2 2 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C ICTs have been successfully used to female-led enterprises. Microfinance is increase women’s access to agricultural tech- the most pervasive approach to increasing nologies. In Indonesia, Nokia Life Tools access to finance among entrepreneurs, and aims to bridge information gaps for farmers it has been used extensively throughout the through a text message–based interface. The region to target female entrepreneurs. program works with local agricultural boards Efforts to improve access to finance among to distribute crop and market information female entrepreneurs should consider how to and with meteorological departments to get move their financial portfolios away from climate and weather information to farmers. informal sources of credit and toward more The Kenya Farmer Helpline, introduced in formal credit institutions. Because women in 2009 by Kencell, Kenya’s largest call center, many parts of the region have more limited provides free advice to small-scale farmers. assets that could serve as collateral and also Call center operators provide expert advice often have more limited credit histories than in local languages on agricultural practices, men, they are more likely to be restricted in from controlling pests, to raising livestock and their sources of borrowing. For example, in poultry, to marketing products. Nearly half of the Pacific, family law and inheritance law the 30,000 farmers reached by the program have been identified as important constraints are women, a substantially higher fraction affecting women’s ability to acquire and har- than are reached through standard agricul- ness assets that may be used as collateral tural extension services (World Bank 2011f). (Hedditch and Manuel 2010). Customary laws, in particular, introduce discrimina- Promoting equal access to finance and skills tory practices against women with respect to for entrepreneurs access to land and property rights. Distinguishing between systemic constraints Beyond addressing financial constraints, to agricultural or entrepreneurial develop- governments could implement training pro- ment and gender-specific constraints is cru- grams to improve women’s business skills cial for identifying policies that can reduce and thereby address gender differences in gender disparities in economic opportunities. entrepreneurial capital. For example, the In chapter 3, the evidence from the formal results of a survey of 500 female enterprise sector suggested that broader constraints owners in Vietnam suggest that female entre- to business development, such as cumber- preneurs feel the need to improve their busi- some registration procedures, affect both ness skills through training and education female- and male-led enterprises. Evidence (IFC and MPDF 2006). from the informal sector is more limited but, Although greater numbers of women are again, suggests that gender differences in self- acquiring higher levels of education and busi- reported constraints are not necessarily as ness training, converting the skills acquired large as the systemic constraints facing enter- through these programs into productive prises. Because both the types of constraints outcomes has remained challenging. There- facing enterprises and the gender differences fore, training programs should address the in constraints vary substantially across coun- appropriate skill gaps in target populations. tries, policy makers should focus on gaining For example, evidence shows that improving a better understanding of the environment life skills had a greater impact on economic facing male- and female-run firms in both outcomes than improving vocational training formal and informal sectors.12 skills in the Dominican Republic (Ibarrarán, Where gender-specific constraints to Ripani, and Villa-Lora 2011). The evidence enterprise development are found, promot- also suggests that the effects of training may ing gender equality in the control of pro- vary across existing and aspiring entrepre- ductive assets—including land, financial neurs, and among existing entrepreneurs capital, and information and technology— training may be needed in combination with can help to enhance the productivity of other assistance to improve outcomes. For P R O M O T I N G G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    229 example, an impact evaluation of business Establishing an enabling environment training to female entrepreneurs in Sri Lanka for gender equality in the workplace suggests that business training alone may be Even though the formal sector in many East insufficient to raise outcomes among existing Asian and Pacific countries is small, govern- female entrepreneurs, but may be more effec- ments have a role in strengthening the formal tive for new entrepreneurs (de Mel, McKenzie, sector work environment to promote gender and Woodruff, 2012). The study finds that equality. Policy instruments available to the combining business training with grants has government include labor regulations, active a large impact on short-run business profit- labor market policies, and even affirmative ability among existing entrepreneurs, but no action policies. Governments can work with longer-term impact. Among new entrants, the private sector using promising approaches business training was found to increase prof- that include improving business procedures itability and improve business practices. or establishing firm certification for gender- Programs that improve women’s access friendly work environments. to productive resources have been shown to increase women’s self-confidence and empower them to be more actively engaged in Promoting gender-equitable labor society. In Cambodia, the Women’s Empow- institutions and practices erment Program provides poor women with Labor regulations that result in asymmetries literacy, leadership, and financial training. in the employability and costs of hiring male Apart from gains in endowments and eco- and female workers can be found through- nomic opportunities, the program reports out the region. In countries where gaps in a positive impact on increasing women’s discrimination legislation exist, closing those voice and influence. For example, several gaps should be made a priority. For example, participating women later joined leadership although the Tongan constitution guarantees posts at the local level (Rosenbloom 2004). equality, it does not contain a specific prohi- ­ Similarly, an impact assessment of a women’s bition on discrimination on the basis of gen- entrepreneurship training program in Aceh, der (Hedditch and Manuel 2010). The lack of I ndonesia, showed that business planning ­ antidiscrimination legislation raises the pos- and management training helped to promote sibility for women to be treated unfairly by greater confidence among women trainees, employers. create or strengthen new social networks, Protective legislation, though well inten- and identify ways to improve the business tioned, can restrict the employability of environment for women (ILO 2008). Other women and should be tackled more directly. examples of programs that increase women’s For example, restrictions on night work for agency include community-driven devel- women in the Philippines can reduce the opment programs and self-help groups. In attractiveness of hiring female employees. Indonesia, a community-driven development In addition, several countries in the region program named the Kecamantan Develop- restrict the industries that women can work ment Program contributed to developing the in as a means of protecting them from haz- leadership skills of local women through its ardous conditions. These protective measures activities. The program helped develop the can reduce the labor market opportunities of capacity of beneficiaries to plan, prioritize, women. and manage local community investments, as Governments should give priority to tack- well as developed various livelihood skills to ling the motivating factors behind protective make them self-reliant (World Bank 2009). In legislation more directly. Employment condi- India, self-help groups have increased wom- tions and protections in industries continu- en’s assertiveness by offering support mecha- ously evolve, thus giving policy makers the nisms and resources that develop women’s opportunity to regularly revisit limitations on confidence (Suguna 2006). women’s work in restricted industries in light 2 3 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C of current safety standards and practices, with apprenticeship opportunities. Evidence while increasing protections for both male within the East Asia and Pacific region on and female employees. Where the original these programs remains limited; however, concerns motivating these policies continue evidence from other regions suggests some to be valid, for example, where transport promising lessons (box 6.4). safety issues restrict women’s movement, Efforts to promote female participation governments can undertake measures such and gender equality in the private ­sector—by as providing safe and reliable transport infra- training women in leadership and giv- structure to ensure that women are able to ing them a space to be activists for gender overcome these concerns. equality—can also play an important role in ­ Gaps in the coverage of labor protections strengthening women’s voice. The Adolescent imply that certain groups may be at risk of Girls Initiative (AGI) in countries worldwide exploitation. Addressing the lack of labor is a public partnership with a core focus on protections covering these groups can help to leadership that helps young women transi- reduce these infringements. Female migrants tion from school to productive employment in the region tend to be segregated into infor- and active economic participation (World mal occupations such as domestic work, Bank 2011d). In Lao PDR, the AGI has led where they have few labor protections and are to the creation of career counseling offices more at risk for becoming victims of exploi- where young women can get information on tation. Improving the legal and social protec- entering the labor force and long-term career tions of female migrants working abroad will planning. better protect those women in isolating and informal positions. Approaches to improve Using affirmative action policies the well-being of migrants are discussed in Affirmative action policies, both voluntary greater detail later in this chapter. and mandatory, can be used as a mechanism to increase the representation of women at Establishing active labor market policies all levels of the hierarchy, from entry-level to Active labor market policies can be used managerial positions. Evidence on affirmative to overcome gender-based differences in action from developed countries suggests that access to job opportunities. For example, voluntary programs may have limited effects wage subsidies may allow individuals to sig- on female employment and that, to be effec- nal their abilities to future employers and tive, programs need to be mandatory and have reduce employers’ costs to hire female work- a credible enforcement mechanism (Holzer ers whom they may not otherwise have con- and Neumark 2000, World Bank 2011f). In sidered, albeit temporarily. This incentive Korea, affirmative action policies were intro- for hiring gives employers the opportunity duced to expand women’s employment and to reduce stereotypes by directly observing to reduce discriminatory practices in 2006. their female workers’ skills, and also gives They were initially implemented for public women valuable labor market experience. enterprises and private firms with more than a Promoting female participation in all sec- thousand employees, and was extended after tors and in all jobs, at management level and a two year grace period to smaller private below, is likely to increase information on firms (Jung and Sung 2012). Firms who failed the competencies of women as leaders within to meet the specified female employment or an organization, and may also be a way to female manager ratio criteria were asked to establish environments that are more attuned submit an implementation plan, with the goal to the issues faced by women. Skills training of raising female representation within the programs can be used to reduce occupa- firm. An empirical evaluation of the program tional segregation by encouraging women has found that it had no significant effect on and men to move into professions outside of female participation or on firm performance. gender stereotypes, particularly when paired The limited impact on female managerial or P R O M O T I N G G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    231 BOX 6.4  The impact of active labor market policies on female employment: Evidence from across the world The evidence on the effectiveness of training pro- ­ ocational training, the program provided its female v grams in developing countries is mixed. However, the beneficiaries with information highlighting the large effects of training programs in developing countries discrepancy between expected earnings from gradu- are greater than those in developed countries, where ates in traditionally male-dominated trades (such as benefits have been modest overall, albeit higher for electricians) versus traditionally female-dominated female workers (Betcherman, Olivas, and Dar 2004; trades (such as seamstresses). In addition, the inter- Card et al. 2011). For example, Jóvenes en Acción, a vention also used more subjective methods, includ- subsidized vocational training program, was found ing a presentation showing successful female car to have had a positive effect on paid employment and mechanics in Kenya, to encourage women to select earnings, where the effects are principally driven by training for more lucrative male-dominated trades. women (Attanasio, Kugler, and Meghir 2011). In An impact evaluation of the program suggests contrast, the first phase of the Juventud y Empleo that women given this information were almost program in the Dominican Republic, which aimed to 9 percentage points more likely to express inter- increase the employment probability of disadvantaged est in a male-dominated course (especially younger youth through basic skills training and vocational and more educated women) and 5 percentage points training, was found to have no effect on employment more likely to enroll in one (Hicks et al. 2011). rates and hours of work (Card et al. 2011). Reducing information barriers about female Broadening skills programs to include softer skills youth may also have a positive effect on labor market may have positive labor market effects. The Juven- outcomes. In Jordan, young female graduates have tud y Empleo program in the Dominican Republic a higher rate of unemployment than men, in part was modified in the second phase to include new because of perceptions that women have lower lev- life skills. A randomized evaluation of the modified els of interpersonal and decision-making skills, that program suggests that the life skills component of women are less productive than men, and that their the program plays a central role in improving the commitment to the labor market is lower, poten- employment outcomes of young women, who expe- tially because of marriage and child rearing (Groh rienced a higher likelihood of having a job, higher et al. 2012). The New Opportunities for Women wages, and higher job satisfaction approximately pilot program puts forward two policies to overcome 12 to 18 months after the program. The program these perceived constraints: short-term wage subsi- also had an important effect on reducing pregnancy dies, in the form of job vouchers equivalent to the in young women. minimum wage for six months, and employability Programs that encourage both men and women skills training, which focuses on interpersonal and to think outside of gender stereotypes are likely to professional skills. The skills component focused on increase the efficiency of allocating talent toward softer skills that had been identified as a constraint jobs. As discussed earlier in this chapter, just as of young female workers, such as communication, policies in the education system can help change the team building, presentations, and business writing. traditional gender patterns of what to study and, An impact evaluation of the program finds that the consequently, what job to do, policies to address soft-skills training had no impact on employment, occupational segmentation directly in the labor mar- but that the job vouchers had statistically signifi- ket and in the business environment can also change cant and persistent positive effects on employment outcomes for women. For example, a vocational of graduates outside the capital, where it almost and technical training voucher program in Kenya doubled the employment rates of graduates. In the noted that men almost exclusively choose male- capital, the wage subsidy was found to have a sub- dominated courses while females almost exclusively stantial employment effect in the short-term, but was choose female-dominated courses such as hairdress- unable to raise long-term employment prospects for ing. To address misconceptions about the returns to unemployment female youth. 2 3 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C female employee participation is partly attrib- the reduction in firm value is attributable to the uted to the near voluntary nature of the pro- comparatively young age and low job experi- ­ gram, which lacked an effective penalty for ence of women on ­ Norwegian boards (Pande non-compliance and had a weak incentive and Ford 2011). This finding suggests that system (Jung and Sung 2012). ­ akers may also want to keep the char- policy m In many countries, the public sector may acteristics of the existing workforce in mind take the lead in promoting gender-based when designing affirmative action policies. quotas; this support can act as a signal to the private sector of women’s productivity in Working with the private sector to foster underrepresented jobs. For example, in 2004 gender equality Malaysia introduced a public sector gender Business formalization procedures that are quota of 30 percent female representation gender blind may result in gender-differenti- across all decision-making levels, including ated outcomes. In these contexts, procedures positions such as department heads or secre- should be modified to increase women’s tary general (ASEAN 2008; Washington Post ability to operate their businesses on a for- 2011). In 2006, 25 percent of women were mal basis. A number of factors, such as the holding top positions in the public sector; by need to juggle household and market roles, 2010, this share had risen to 32 percent. The cultural restrictions on travel, and lower Malaysian government aims for 30 percent of education levels, may imply that women are key corporate board positions to be held by less able than men to maneuver complex women by 2016 (Washington Post 2011). formalization procedures and may therefore Evidence suggests that affirmative action restrict their ability to register their busi- policies, particularly at a board level, involve nesses (Simavi, Manuel, and Blackden 2010). trade-offs. Board diversity has been found Simplifying and reducing the cost of business to increase the attendance of both male and registration procedures, as well as introduc- female board members in the United States, ing flexibility in application procedures to and female board members are more likely minimize the effects of time constraints, are to participate as tougher monitors than men likely to increase the ability of both male and on corporate boards (Adams and Ferreira female entrepreneurs to comply with business 2009). However, tougher monitoring does regulations and registration procedures, but not necessarily translate into higher firm such interventions are likely to have a greater value. In the United States, board diversity impact on female entrepreneurs. has had a positive effect on firm value among Encouraging companies to promote greater firms with weaker governance, where greater transparency in recruitment and promotion monitoring may be beneficial, but has had procedures can level the playing field for a negative effect among firms with stronger women and can help to achieve greater female governance. representation, particularly at a managerial The design of affirmative action can affect level. Proactive and supportive organiza- performance, particularly in circumstances tional policies can also help women acquire where gender differences in the character- relevant competencies and move to manage- istics of the existing workforce imply that rial levels. For example, in 1996, Mongolia individuals with the appropriate skill set may Telecom adopted a human resource develop- not be available (Pande and Ford 2011). For ment plan to reduce the crowding of women ­ example, in Norway, corporate board quotas at lower levels. The two-pronged strategy of 40 ­percent were introduced in 2003 with a included measures to help women cope better short implementation horizon. The N ­ orwegian with their dual responsibilities at home and at ­ gender quota was found to decrease firm val- work, and measures to enable the professional ues, but this effect vanishes once board char- development and career growth of women. To acteristics are accounted for, suggesting that help ease the work-family conflict on female P R O M O T I N G G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    233 employees, the company gave assistance to constraining women and men in the region single mothers and financial aid for childbirth from fulfilling their potential in the eco- and education of children. As a result of these nomic sphere. Although all the policies proactive steps, women now constitute over presented here are important—reducing 20 percent of senior managers, compared with the trade-offs between women’s household just 9 percent when the plan was introduced. and market roles, addressing occupational Firm certification has been used to promote segmentation, increasing women’s access gender equality in companies and organiza- to resources and markets, and establish- tions and to encourage women to reach their ing an enabling environment for gender labor market potential. One firm certification equality in the workplace— each coun- tool, the Gender Equity Model (GEM), has try needs to consider its own appropriate proved to be successful in promoting equal policy priorities and policy mix. The guid- opportunities for men and women and in ing principles below recommend a way to overcoming cultural barriers in business prac- prioritize policy actions, depending on the tices. This public-private partnership, which country’s economic structure and, there- was designed and implemented in Mexico, fore, the types of major constraints faced has been replicated in Argentina, Chile, by women. Colombia, the Dominican Republic, and the ­ Arab Republic of Egypt (World Bank 2011b). I n predominantly agricultural economies, •   Firm certification validates and recognizes the suggested policy priorities are to focus gender equity actions in private firms. An on constraints that affect women in rural impartial and independent agency assesses areas, such as (a) reducing gender dispari- firms’ compliance in four areas: recruitment, ties in access to productive resources in career advancement, training, and sexual agriculture and (b) improving infrastruc- harassment. Findings from the GEM in tural services to increase women’s access Mexico show that participating firms have to markets. eliminated pregnancy discrimination from I n economies with a heavier focus on •   recruitment practices, and 90 percent of par- manufacturing and services, policies ticipating organizations report that workers’ should focus on reducing the constraints performance and productivity have increased faced by women in urban areas and in the (World Bank 2011b). Furthermore, organi- formal sector, such as the promotion of zations report that promotion of women to women-friendly work practices or afford- managerial positions has increased, although able child care. women at the top tier are still rare (World Bank I n all economies, policies need to focus •   2011b). Certified firms also are more likely to on reducing gender disparities in the have processes in place to deal effectively with constraints faced by enterprises, particu- harassment cases, although workers in certi- larly those in the informal sector. A key fied firms also are more likely to have been priority is to identify constraints that victims of some form of harassment. This may are systemic and those that are gender- also signal that they are more aware that some specific. Continuing to promote women’s behaviors are forms of harassment that are access to land will be important in all inappropriate in the workplace (World Bank contexts because land serves as a produc- 2010c). tive resource, as a form of collateral, and as a status-enhancing asset. In addition, identifying and closing discriminatory Identifying policy priorities to foster labor market regulations and practices equal economic opportunity to make formal ­ i nstitutions more even This discussion lays out policy recom- handed should be a policy priority at all mendations to address the major barriers stages of structural transformation. 2 3 4    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C Taking measures to strengthen they choose to the societal acceptance of women’s voice and influence domestic violence and the negative percep- tions of women leaders. Although socially The evidence presented in chapter 4 suggests constructed norms are difficult to transform that all countries in the East Asia and Pacific directly, evidence from around the world region can create opportunities to improve suggests that they can be influenced in sev- women’s agency. In the Pacific Islands, pol- eral ways, including public information cam- icy priorities include increasing female voice paigns and the promotion of role models. and participation in the public sphere, and Policy makers in many East Asia and Pacific addressing pervasive gender-based violence. countries have an opportunity to promote the East Asia must address the increased vulner- evolution of social norms where the societal abilities specific groups may face—including transformations underpinning rapid urban- those who have been trafficked and those ization and migration are likely to expose who are not protected by the law as a result men and women to different models of gen- of plural legal environments. Strengthening der relations. women’s agency on multiple fronts is likely to Approaches that harness the social and have rewards, since increasing women’s voice structural change occurring in many coun- in one domain of agency is likely to have pos- tries in the region are likely to have a greater itive repercussions on others. influence in changing social norms. Return- Measures to increase women’s endow- ing migrants are a source of new information ments and economic opportunity, such as and can be influential in changing practices those described previously, can strengthen and social gender norms. Returning rural their voice within the household and in soci- migrants are often better placed than rural ety. Educated women in good health, with residents to question practices and norms assets and income, are better able to act on that constrain people from exercising their their preferences and influence outcomes voice and influence. Countries wishing to that affect themselves and others in society. make positive change in rural areas, where In addition, several other policy approaches gender stereotypes still predominate, can can directly promote women’s agency and engage the help of returning migrants. For reduce gender-based violence. This section instance, women from Jiangxi province in takes a more detailed look at the following China who have experienced migration to the areas of policy identified in chapter 4: (a) sup- city are more aware of their rights as people porting initiatives to transform gender norms and are more knowledgeable about social and practices, (b) strengthening the legal and health practices, including access to ser- and institutional environment, (c) increasing vices and modern health care. In Cambodia women’s access to justice, (d) enabling wom- and China, a number of civil society organi- en’s participation in politics and policy mak- zations call upon the experiences and lessons ing, (e) pursuing a multipronged approach to of returning migrants to influence women’s reducing gender-based violence, and (f) creat- decision making on reproductive matters in ing space for women’s collective agency. rural areas. Providing a forum for successful women to inspire other women and girls can help Supporting initiatives to transform the evolution of gender perceptions. Women gender norms and practices in leadership roles can serve as effective role Socially constructed gender norms that limit models for other women and girls. Female women’s ability to act and make choices teachers are among the first professional for themselves are pervasive across the East women that show girls that being active out- Asia and Pacific region and affect women’s side the home is socially acceptable. These lives through diverse channels—from influ- women serve as agents of change in the encing what they study and the occupations communities they work in by educating and P R O M O T I N G G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    235 socializing children beyond gender stereo- the information provided to women through types (Kirk 2006). In Papua New Guinea, for technology ranges from dealing with domes- example, pastors are also involved in settling tic violence to promoting women entrepre- disputes between husbands and wives. They neurs in the agricultural and fishing industries are viewed as role models for youth, while (Farrell and Wachholz 2003). their wives, who typically engage in leader- ship positions, are viewed as role models for Strengthening the legal and women (World Bank 2011c). Exposure to institutional environment positive female role models from an early age can help break the cycle of gender inequali- For a country to achieve gender equal- ties across generations. ity in voice and influence, government and Policy makers can also support and civil society must make concerted efforts encourage mass media outlets such as tele- across multiple fronts. A key element of this vision, radio, and virtual outlets to promote approach includes the institution and enforce- positive messaging that will help change gen- ment of legislation to create an enabling envi- der norms. Mass media outlets are used in ronment for equality of voice and influence countries like the Philippines and Vietnam regardless of one’s gender. Countries should to regularly disseminate messages raising accede to and ratify international conventions awareness of women’s contribution in society. that promote gender equality. Although most These countries have adopted a more extreme countries in the East Asia and Pacific region approach of requiring mass media outlets to have acceded to and ratified the Convention abide by gender equality principles. In the on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimi- case of the Philippines, the requirement states nation Against Women (CEDAW), Palau and that the media must regularly disseminate Tonga have not (UNIFEM 2008). messages that raise awareness of women’s Another important element is to ensure that contribution in society and avoid portray- domestic legislation and the institutions of ing negative female stereotypes. In Vietnam, implementation and enforcement are aligned the government, with the support of donors, with countries’ commitments. For instance, is undertaking an information, education, despite the fact that CEDAW’s international and communication campaign to help curb mandates are compulsory, many countries gender-based violence by redefining male have laws that continue to discriminate against identity with respect to domestic violence. The women by limiting their human rights. Some message is: “Real men don’t hit women.� countries that have introduced legislation to Increasing access to information through reflect CEDAW mandates have made the lan- new information technology can improve guage gender-neutral or exempted some types women’s agency by increasing their knowl- of violent acts, thus making laws inconsistent edge base and exposing them to broader with international standards and leaving experiences and social practices. In Malaysia, them open to broad interpretation. For exam- women used information technology to create ple, legislation introduced in C­ ambodia and self-help cybercommunities to improve their Thailand to address domestic violence con- networking opportunities in an environment tains subjective language that must be inter- that was more suitable to their lives and social preted by the courts. In Thailand, a person gender norms. The Malaysian e-­ Homemakers must show that the perpetrator demonstrated project is one example of these self-help com- “unethical dominance�; in Cambodia, a man munities; through the e-Homemakers, women can discipline his wife as long as it is done are able to share information on how to start with compassion. and run a business, and are able to share Another critical component of a mul- their experiences in a safe space. In Japan, tipronged strategy involves strengthening the government promotes self-help and exter- enforcement institutions to create an environ- nal help through cybercommunity initiatives; ment that enables both men and women to 2 3 6    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C have voice and influence in the public sphere. village level, the program was implemented Enforcement can be particularly challeng- by trained paralegals who educated people on ing in plural legal environments, as seen in the law, in particular, family law and laws on several East Asian and Pacific countries. Pro- gender-based violence, and provided assis- grams that increase women’s knowledge of tance and advocacy. The result of this effort the law with respect to violence and human has contributed to the opening up of spaces for rights and the capacity of justice services to women to voice their rights—not only within address women’s issues contribute to greater the home, but also in local communities—and safety and security among women in soci- to demand better justice services from their ety. The Cambodian Women’s Crisis Center government. In the long term, the program is (CWCC) began a community program that expected to improve women’s livelihoods, and increases the society’s awareness of violence that of their families, through their increased against women and the rights of women, agency (World Bank 2011c). especially of the law on domestic violence and Programs can make the judicial system protection that was implemented in 2005. more accessible to women in a variety of ways. The program promotes initiatives to enforce Technology can help women access the justice the law by providing information and training system. For example, mobile courts in rural to local authorities and developing commu- areas of China and Indonesia provide a solu- nity networks. The program has sponsored tion to the problem of accessibility and security 63 community education sessions, serving a for women who wish to exercise their rights in ­ essions total of 1,638 participants; 6 training s the legal system but lack transportation to the for the police, which trained 150 officers; and courts. Courts can also be viewed as finan- 300 legal advice cases. The evaluation of the cially inaccessible and, in Indonesia, the waiv- project shows that the program’s targets were ing of court fees for poor and marginalized met or exceeded. Participants believed that, groups has increased the ability of women to as a result of the program, the severity and bring their cases to court (World Bank 2011c). rate of violence were reduced as a result of The justice system can also adapt to better the education provided on the law, human address the specific needs of women. Coun- rights, and the rights of women, and because sensitive training for tries can institute gender-­ information on the expected roles of men and officials in the system, as well as increase the women in their marriage were made clear representation of women within all institu- (Weaner 2008). tions charged with formulating, implement- ing, and enforcing the laws. For instance, in Papua New Guinea, female local magistrates Increasing women’s access to justice have helped raise awareness among their male Programs that increase women’s knowl- counterparts of the need to adopt gender- edge of the law help them to access the sensitive approaches to the cases that come formal justice system and encourage them before them (World Bank 2011c). An example to exercise agency through formal mecha- of a gender-sensitive consideration is that a nisms. In Indonesia, a civil society organiza- female victim of gender-based violence may tion supporting women heads of household find it easier to approach a female police offi- (PEKKA) helped shed light on the need to cer after an assault than a male police officer. provide women with better access to jus- tice services. Implemented by PEKKA and Enabling women’s participation in building on existing work by civil society, politics and policy making the Women’s Legal Empowerment program encouraged the poor and marginalized (many Implementation of political reservation sys- of them women-headed households) to know tems has contributed to increasing women’s and demand fulfillment of their rights while participation in electoral politics in a number it worked on increasing the capacity of legal of countries. Gender-based political reserva- and justice institutions to respond. At the tion systems seek to reduce obstacles in the P R O M O T I N G G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    237 recruitment process so that more women are controversial, as was the case in Timor-Leste, attracted to participate in politics, thus add- where quotas were not widely accepted. As ing strength to their collective voice. How with affirmative action in the labor market, these systems work varies across countries. the public has concerns about the pipeline of Quotas—one form of reservation—take the qualified candidates, along with possible per- form of constitutional changes to reserve a ceptions about the qualifications of women certain number of legislative as well as for- elected through a reservation system (inde- mal or informal political party posts for pendent of their actual qualifications). women. Such measures have been credited, at least in part, for the increased political Pursuing a multipronged approach to and administrative participation of women reducing gender-based violence seen across developing regions. For example, India has endorsed a constitutional amend- Reducing discrimination against women and ment that women should constitute one- gender-based violence requires action on a third of the heads of local governments. In number of fronts: efforts to increase women’s East Asia and the Pacific, China, Indone- voice within the household; enactment and sia, Korea, Papua New Guinea, Thailand, enforcement of appropriate legislation and ­ V ietnam, and, recently, the Cook Islands strengthening of women’s access to justice; have all adopted formal or informal measures provision of adequate support services for to promote political representation of women victims of violence; and use of the media to at the local level. For example, in Korea, the provide information on women’s rights, to Grand National Party voluntarily supports increase social awareness, and to shift social quotas of 30 percent women candidates. At norms with respect to violence. the national level, the law states that politi- Countries should enact and enforce laws cal parties must have a list with 50 percent that eliminate discrimination and violence women candidates, and at the local level, against women. By taking a strong stance on the party law of 2002 states that city coun- gender-based violence legislation and enforce- cil elections must aim to have gender parity ment, countries can make positive strides (Quota Project 2010). against gender-based violence in a short time. Countries can also consider using infor- Cambodia saw a significant decrease in the mal means of promoting women in politics incidence of domestic violence between 2000 through incentives instead of formal reserva- and 2005. This decrease was largely attrib- tion systems. This route may be more effec- uted to strong efforts by the country’s Minis- tive in countries where formal reservation try of Women’s Affairs, which introduced the systems are likely to be contentious or elicit domestic violence legislation draft in 2001. a political backlash. The argument in favor The legislation was adopted by the National of formal reservation is that they open doors Assembly four years later, in October 2005. to women in politics and provide a relatively The new law criminalized acts of domestic fast track for women to enter politics. In addi- violence, provided for the protection of vic- tion to enabling women to gain experience tims, and allowed neighbors or local organi- as office holders, such programs can help to zations to intervene if they witnessed domestic change traditional views about women as violence. As a complement to the law, wom- political leaders. Evidence from India shows en’s organizations and other nongovernmen- that public opinion about female political tal organizations carried out information and leaders improved with increased exposure dissemination campaigns to help dissemi- (Beaman et al. 2009). Similarly, evidence nate information on people’s basic rights and from Italy finds that affirmative action in gov- responsibilities under the law. ernment has been effective in breaking down Providing adequate access to services and stereotypes against women (De Paola et al. support for victims of violence can include a 2009). However, active measures to promote range of services, from police and judiciary women’s political participation can prove to health and social services. In Malaysia, the 2 3 8    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C government established integrated one-stop Specifically, these organizations can offer crisis centers in hospitals that provide easy access to contacts for sources of credit, train- access to medical care, various social services, ing in international trade issues, and men- and the opportunity to report the crime with tors, as well as access to the more basic skills specially trained police officers (World Bank of operations management and marketing. 2011f). As advocates for women’s businesses, these Reducing human trafficking also requires organizations help raise awareness among a multipronged approach of prevention, pro- broader international stakeholders about the tection, and prosecution. Preventing human importance of incorporating women into trafficking can include education, employ- ­ policy planning (for example, trade pacts). ment, and other services.13 People who are Also, their activism can help to spur laws that likely to be front-line responders in identify- provide a level playing field for businesses ing victims of human trafficking should be owned by both genders (Jalbert 2000). trained to both identify and safely support In Cambodia, the Government Private victims of such abuse, as well as prepare Sector Forum (G-PSF) was established in victims to pass evidence on to investigators 1999 to improve the business environment (UNIFEM 2005). Governments, with the in the country and promote investment. help of relevant actors, should enact and The G-PSF provides a forum for public sec- enforce antitrafficking laws.14 Enforcement tor and private sector collaboration in the includes effective legislation and policies that country. Even though the majority of small hold traffickers accountable for their crimes businesses in Cambodia are run by women, to help constrict the industry. Countries’ until recently, women had little voice in the protection policies include providing imme- dialogue on small business policy, because diate protection for potential or identified female-owned businesses were barely repre- ­ t rafficked victims. Policies should address sented in the G-PSF. In this context, the Inter- immediate needs such as shelter, medical, psy- national Finance Corporation, together with chological, and psychosocial care; food and ­ Cambodia’s Ministry of Women’s Affairs, has clothing; and longer-term care and reintegra- sponsored an initiative to increase women’s tion of the victim. For example, in Taiwan, participation in the private sector’s dialogue an antitrafficking law that went into effect in with government on how best to enable the June 2009 provides trafficking victims with growth and productivity of both male- and continued residency and temporary work female-run enterprises. Soon after the gender permits. These measures enhanced victim composition of the G-PSF was changed, new treatment and improved victim cooperation policies addressing the needs of female entre- in trafficking prosecutions (U.S. Department preneurs were incorporated in the agenda of of State 2010). the forum. As a result of women’s participa- tion in the G-PSF, import tariffs and taxes on silk yarn were cut for a period of three years, Creating space for women’s collective helping more than 20,000 silk weavers in the agency country (Simavi 2011). Partnerships with women’s business associa- tions can provide a space for women to inter- act, learn, and advocate for gender equality. Fostering new opportunities, Women’s business organizations help their managing emerging risks members be better equipped to benefit from A new and important challenge for pol- commercial opening to international markets icy makers will be to help foster emerging by providing them with access to a global ­ opportunities and, in particular, to man- network of women’s business associations, age emerging risks associated with increases information, and advocacy on their behalf. in economic integration, increased access P R O M O T I N G G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    239 migration, rapid urbanization, population that led to better enforcement of minimum aging, and increased access to ICTs. Many of wages (Narjoko and Hill 2007). Although the the emerging opportunities can be fostered minimum wage policy helped narrow gender through efforts to promote greater gender wage gaps, it decreased female employment, equality in endowments, economic opportu- without affecting male employment (Surya- nity, and agency. For example, where gen- hadi et al. 2003). der gaps in access to ICTs are emerging or growing, ensuring that women are able to Migration and trafficking benefit fully from these new technologies may require active measures similar to those Just as female migration throughout the discussed earlier to ensure equality of access region increases economic opportunities for to other types of productive resources. Man- women, it also creates new concerns about aging emerging risks, however, may require the welfare of female migrants. Protecting additional policy approaches, such as those female migrants from exploitive situations, discussed in this section. including from sex work, human trafficking, and inadequate labor protections, will require a gender-aware approach. Greater protec- Economic integration tion through improved laws, safety nets, Greater economic integration will bring with and knowledge transfers will better address it increased exposure to employment shocks, the vulnerabilities specific to women travel- which will have gender-differentiated impacts. ing abroad. Specific areas for action include Addressing the risks associated with greater improving the legal and social protections of economic integration will require designing female migrants, strengthening the monitor- social protection programs that adequately ing and credibility of recruitment agencies, account for the different risks faced by female and developing and providing welfare and and male workers. Building on the lessons support services to assist female migrants. from recent economic crises, several develop- Well-developed welfare and support services ing countries, including some within the East can provide migrants with gender-specific Asia and Pacific region, have begun to recog- assistance and safety nets. For example, nize the gender dimensions of risks and shocks the Philippines provides counseling, legal when designing their programs. In Indonesia, assistance, and liaison services to migrant for example, a conditional cash transfer pro- workers in need of assistance. Resource cen- gram, Keluarga Harapan, targets households ters with labor officers are established in with members whose outcomes are particu- countries with more than 20,000 Filipino larly vulnerable during times of crisis, such as migrant workers; they are open 24 hours a pregnant and lactating women. day, 365 days a year, and are staffed with a Labor market programs and policies minimum of four officers. Offices in coun- enacted to mitigate crises and their effects are tries with many Filipina migrants are staffed likely to have gender-differentiated impacts. with more female welfare officers and offer In Cambodia, the construction, garment, gender-specific assistance (Blokhus 2004).15 and tourism sectors were directly hit by the Governments in both labor-sending and 2008 global financial crisis. In response, the labor-receiving countries should actively government promoted short-term vocational address the issue of human trafficking training courses for 40,500 laid-off garment through prevention, protection, and pros- factory workers, who were almost entirely ecution. Female migrants are the most vul- women. Furthermore, gender-blind policies in nerable group at risk of being trafficked for response to crises may not be gender-neutral prostitution and forced labor. Policies aimed in the longer term. Indonesia’s economic crisis at prevention, protection, and prosecution, in 1997–98 awakened the pro-labor pressures as discussed earlier in policies to minimize 2 4 0    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C gender-based violence, can assist victims or care to ensure that younger women do not those at risk of human trafficking. bear an undue burden from caregiving. Rapid urbanization Filling knowledge gaps Growing urbanization in the East Asia and Although global and regional evidence on Pacific region has presented women with gender and development have provided use- increased economic opportunities but also ful lessons, much remains to be understood with challenges such as limited access to empirically to help inform effective public child care and higher security risks than men action. Continuing to close data and analyti- in urban areas. The types of policies needed cal gaps will be important to better under- in urban areas are similar to those discussed stand policy priorities, the effects of specific earlier to ensure equal access to economic interventions, and the costs and benefits of opportunity and to reduce gender-based different policy options. Additional gender- violence. Policy makers need to ensure that disaggregated data and empirical analysis, child care, education, infrastructure, trans- both on long-standing gender issues and on portation, and water and sanitation policies the gender implications of emerging trends in take into account women’s specific social the region, will enable policy makers to pro- and cultural needs. R ­ igorous laws and poli- mote both gender equality and more effective cies to protect women in urban areas from development. The following discussion high- the risk of violence and exploitation are also lights a few priority areas. warranted. First, collecting additional gender- disaggregated data, in many domains, is a key ­ first step to fill knowledge gaps. This action Population aging can take place during data collection for Rapid population aging in the region is likely administrative purposes or as part of projects, to have important gender-differentiated so that countries can monitor progress in gen- effects because older women may increas- der equality at the national and project levels ingly find themselves living as widows. as well as take corrective actions and per- Along with risks from urbanization and form impact evaluations. Many topics war- the breakdown of extended family support rant data collection by gender. For example, networks, elderly women are likely to find although land and credit have been ­ identified themselves at increased economic risk, hav- as important factors affecting productivity ing accumulated relatively few assets and and female empowerment, few sources of mostly lacking access to formal social secu- information are available on individual-level rity. Old-age income security programs can land ownership and access to credit in the protect women from destitution. Joint annu- region. Similarly, countries need more data ities and survivor pensions have been argued on gender differences in access to other pro- to be effective means to compensate and ductive inputs and services in the agricultural secure women’s incomes in old age (World sector. ­Collecting gender-disaggregated data Bank 2001).16 Also, equalizing the retire- within the household, including information ment age for men and women may increase on individual time use and consumption, pension coverage among those working in would enable researchers to assess the impact the formal sector. Simulations from Latin of policies such as electrification programs America suggest that equalizing retirement or the provision of child-care services on the ages between men and women can increase well-being and economic outcomes of men pension benefits for women and decrease the and women. Other areas for which coun- male-female pension gap (James, Edwards, tries in the region could collect information and Wong 2003).17 In addition, policy mak- include why and to what extent performance ers may consider ways to strengthen elder of male- and female-owned enterprises differ, P R O M O T I N G G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    241 and how male and female access to technolo- nation legislation pertaining to education gies varies. Although household surveys pro- (Arnot, David, and Weiner 1999; Madigan vide information on household-level access 2009; Salisbury and Riddell 2000). Several to the Internet and mobile phones, very lim- states passed laws prohibiting the use of gender-stereotyped curricula, and companies ited evidence is available to assess whether producing textbooks developed guidelines males and females have differences in access to eliminate bias. Although the literature to ICTs. Further evidence is much needed on stresses that the review of teaching materials the enforcement of antidiscrimination legisla- takes a central role in the process of promot- tion in the workplace and beyond, to monitor ing “equal opportunity education,� the causal whether legislation translates into actions. link between curriculum reforms and more Second, additional empirical analysis gender-equitable education is not straightfor- should help policy makers to understand ward. In particular, curriculum reforms in the whether and why specific policy interven- United Kingdom and the United States hap- tions work. The East Asia and Pacific region pened within the context of broader social is behind the curve on conducting impact change, in which greater numbers of women participating in the labor market challenged evaluations, and even further behind on the notion of women’s primary role being in conducting impact evaluations with gender the home. dimensions. For example, rigorous evalua-   3. For instance, the Finnish project TiNA included tions of curriculum reforms to reduce gender special day courses for girls ages 14–16 to pro- stereotyping as well as evaluations of prom- vide information about nontraditional female ising approaches to promote balanced sex occupations. The project also used female ratios at birth would guide countries in such students as role models in the visits to schools efforts. More rigorous evidence on the impact (http://tina.tkk.fi/tina_2003/tina_2004_eng/). of extension services—including providing Another initiative that was launched in the knowledge about new crop varieties and agri- late 1990s in Norway aimed at increasing the cultural technologies—for men and women number of female students in computer sci- ence at the Norwegian University of Science would inform policy makers of the extent to and Technology. The initiative included an which such services can improve farmers’ pro- information campaign for girls at all high ductivity. Other areas in which impact analy- schools in the country. Girls who were inter- sis could contribute to better understanding ested in a career in computer science were of policy effectiveness include the following: invited to the university for the day, where the long-run impact of gender quotas on firm they met students and professors and received performance and the impact women have information (http://www.ercim.eu/publication/ on corporate boards; the effects of youth Ercim_News/enw38/gjestland.html). unemployment programs on girls’ and boys’   4. OERL Under-Represented Populations Projects labor market outcomes; gender-differentiated (http://oerl.sri.com/reports/up/reportUP_ impacts of community-driven development es.html).   5. Evidence has shown that programs that raise the and public works programs in the region; and value of women’s time in the workforce affect the effects of various approaches to increasing gender divisions of labor within the house- agency, such as political quotas, role models, hold and increase the amount of time women and approaches designed to promote commu- have available for market-oriented activities. nication between spouses to reduce gender- In Ecuador, women’s increased employment in based violence. the cut flower industry led to men’s increased participation in housework (Newman 2002). In India, a project that increased the value of Notes women’s time by introducing new economic opportunities in agricultural procurement   1. For examples of previous and ongoing research, resulted in a decrease in their domestic work- see http://go.worldbank.org/78EK1G87M0. load, an increase in mobility, and enhanced  2.  In the mid-1970s, both the United Kingdom decision-making powers within the household and the United States adopted antidiscrimi- (World Bank 2007a). 2 4 2    TO WA R D G E N D E R E Q UA L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E PAC I F I C   6. Quantitative evidence from South Africa officers, who had no gender training and suggests that the expansion of electrifica- discouraged female participation. Courses tion raised female employment by nearly 10 were not held in the home village and so percentage points and increased female earn- involved travel and overnight stays, making ings, but it had no effect on male employment women’s participation particularly difficult. (Dinkelman 2008). Furthemore, the evi- Finally, educational differences between men dence suggests that electrification increased and women undermined women’s motiva- women’s market activities by releasing female ­ tion in the mixed learning groups of certain time from cooking through altered cooking modules. technologies (away from wood-based toward Self-reported constraints might not give the 12.  electricity-based cooking). full picture, because firms are likely to report   7. Child-care centers can also play a key role in constraints only when they have tried to reducing inequalities in access to nutritional access a service. For example, firms that have support and mental stimulation among disad- not applied for a loan are unlikely to report vantaged groups, including ethnic minorities the cost of finance as a constraint. and young girls. The Development and Education Programme 13.  Although child care services are found through-   8.  for Daughters and Communities (DEPCD), a out the region in a variety of forms—from nongovernmental organization in Thailand, publicly provided child-care facilities such as aims to prevent the trafficking of women the Early Childhood Development Centers in and children into the sex industry and other Thailand to child-care centers in factories in the exploitive labor situations. The organization southeast industrial zones in Vietnam (UNICEF targets at-risk youth and their families and 2004; ADB 2010)—there is clearly a greater educates them through seminars, research and unmet need for affordable child care in workshops, and awareness campaigns at many countries. community and local government levels.   9. For example, in Austria, France, and In addition to education, the organization Germany, only 2 percent of men participate offers employment alternatives through life in leave compared to 90 percent of women skills and vocational skills training programs, (De Henau et al. 2007, cited in Gornick and in addition to sports activities for children Hegewisch 2010). Evidence has shown that (Smarasinghe and Burton 2007). men are more sensitive to levels of wage In the Philippines, the Visayan Foundation 14.  replacement than women, suggesting that works in cooperation with the port authori- policies that hope to encourage men’s use of ties to set up institutions that provide protec- parental leave should consider higher wage tive services against trafficking in seaports of replacement levels. the archipelago. The foundation also pro- 10.  Individuals often “forum shop� in pressing motes information in the seaports about traf- their land cases, alternating between custom- ficking and engages in local networking to ary and formal systems, depending on which encourage actions against trafficking. is expected to decide in their favor. For men, To better ensure that women are migrating 15.  particular advantages can often be gained by through legal channels, governments should using customary systems (Giovarelli 2006). strengthen the monitoring and credibility of 11.  While acknowledging the overall positive recruitment agencies and overseas employ- effect of the program on women, Cahn and ment service providers. In Malaysia, the Liu (2008) highlighted several constraints Private Employment Agency Act of 1981 that limited the effectiveness of the project’s requires employment agencies to abide by implementation with regard to gender par- several terms in order for the government ity. Except for the credit module, in which to better monitor the recruitment process. men and women participated equally, dur- Such terms include providing the Labor ing 2002–05 female participation was below Department with the details of the migrant 20 percent in all other modules. This gap can domestic workers’ and employers’ employ- be explained by the selection process of par- ment contract, checking in on the migrant ticipants, which disadvantaged women. The workers’ welfare, and providing the migrant selection of participants was made by ward worker with the information of necessary councillors and district rural development contacts (the employment agency and the P R O M O T I N G G E N D E R E Q U A L I T Y I N E A S T A S I A A N D T H E P A C I F I C    243 Labor Department) should employment con- Aguila, Emma, Orazio Attanasio, and Costas flicts or emergencies arise (UNIFEM 2005). Meghir. 2011. “Changes in Consumption The effectiveness of the contributory pension 16.  at Retirement: Evidence from Panel Data.� system to increase the well-being of elderly Review of Economics and Statistics 93 (3): women may be limited in the East Asia and 1094–99. Pacific region since the formal labor mar- Arnot, Madeleine, Miriam David, and Gaby ket is small and predominantly found in Weiner. 1999. Closing the Gender Gap: urban areas in many countries in the region. Postwar Education and Social Change. Therefore, gaps in pension coverage between Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press. rural and urban areas are likely to be as A SE A N (A ssociation of S out heast A sia n great as or even greater than gender gaps in Nations). 20 08. “ASE A N Continues to coverage within rural and urban areas. For E mp ower Wom e n .� A S E A N B u l le t i n . example, evidence from Zhejiang and Gansu February. http://www.aseansec.org/Bulletin- provinces in China suggests that 79 percent Feb-08.htm#Article-2. and 54 percent of men and women, respec- Attanasio, Orazio, Luis Carlos Gomez, Ana tively, above age 60 have access to pensions Gomez Rojas, and Marcos Vera-Hernandez. in urban areas, whereas in rural areas only 2004. “Child Health in Rural Colombia: 5 percent and less than 1 percent of men and Determinants and Policy Interventions.� women, respectively, are covered by pensions E conomic s an d Hum an Biolog y 2 (3): (Giles, Wang, and Cai 2011). 411–38. Pensions can be crucial to safeguard incomes 17.  Attanasio, Orazio, Adriana Kugler, and Costas for the most vulnerable groups among the Meghir. 2011. “Subsidizing Vocational elderly, but they may cause adverse labor sup- Training for Disadvantaged Youth in Colombia: ply incentives. Flat non-contributory, mini- Evidence from a Randomized Trial.� American mum pensions and targeted benefits have been Economic Journal: Applied Economics 3 (3): found to be particularly beneficial for women 188–220. (James, Edwards and Wong 2003; Aguila, Baird, Sarah, Ephraim Chirwa, Craig McIntosh, Attanasio, and Meghir 2011; World Bank and Berk Ozler. 2009. “The Short-Term 2001). However, minimum guaranteed pen- Impacts of a Schooling Conditional Cash sions may reduce formal sector labor market Transfer Program on the Sexual Behavior of participation (Aguila, Attanasio, and Meghir, Young Women.� Policy Research Working 2010). Evidence from urban Zhejiang and Paper 5089, World Bank, Washington, DC. Gansu provinces suggests that pension eli- Beaman, Lori, Raghabendra Chattopadhyay, gibility of urban men and women decreases Esther Duf lo, Rohini Pande, and Petia their likelihood of working by 15.2 and Topalova. 2009. “Powerful Women: Does 18.3 percent, respectively. 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