90600 v2 APPENDIX L Challenges in Estimating the Costs of Violence against Women and Girls Data Availability The availability of data to estimate violence and its costs has evolved tremendously (Day, McKenna and Bowlus 2005). Before the availability of national surveys that included questions to establish the prevalence of at least some forms of violence against women and girls, researchers were constrained to rely on small surveys or case studies and based prevalence rates on proxy measures and extrapolated data (Blumel et al. 1993; KPMG 1994). Increasing access to representative national survey data on prevalence rates of violence has allowed researchers to approximate costs at national levels. Finally, in recent years, researchers have access to significant nationally representative datasets that allow sophisticated and comprehensive analyses. Yet, data availability remains a critical challenge for estimating costs of violence against women and girls, particularly in the developing world. Some key challenges include: 1. Inaccuracy of prevalence rates for violence: as noted in chapter 2, even the best calculations of prevalence rates are most likely underestimates, thus even with the Most cost studies are based on best data and methodology, one should estimates of costs of intimate partner assume that cost calculations are violence (IPV), probably because underestimates. Moreover, prevalence IPV is the most frequently reported rates barely exist for certain forms of type of violence, has the largest violence, such as girl child sexual abuse, amount of data and prevalence trafficking, or honor killings, making estimates, and the largest amount of costing impossible in these cases. Thus costing information. Yet, it is costs of violence likely reflect only certain inaccurate to describe the monetary – but not all – types of violence that girls and women suffer through their lives. costs of intimate partner violence as 2. The use of current versus lifetime violence the ‘costs of violence’ since it prevalence to estimate costs: Duvvury, excludes the costs of all the other Grown and Redner (2004) note that types of violence that women and lifetime prevalence rates are flawed girls face throughout their lives. because of recall problems. Thus, where survey data are available, estimates for recent (typically 12 months prior to the survey) violence should be used. Where surveys are not available, however, researchers have attempted several data collection methods to get estimates of current or recent experiences of violence. For example, Stanko et al. (1998) conducted a postal survey, records searches, a waiting room survey of women, case studies, and meetings with service providers. However, such estimates of violence – and the estimates of associated costs – are typically not comparable across studies. 3. Separating out service costs between violence survivors or sufferers and others who seek the same services: Another challenge is that of disentangling costs incurred for services to violence survivors versus by the population in general, for a range of institutional or formal services such as health care, court system services, police services, or housing. For example, a recent costing exercise in Bangladesh found that in the court system, information related to violence against women is not separately maintained and thus data on court-related expenses to redress violence cases is impossible to separate out from court-related expenses to address other concerns brought to a court (Siddique 2011). 1 4. Inability to take into account the quality of service provision: In many estimates of service provision costs, individual women who suffer violence form the unit of analysis. As Yodanis and Godenzi (1999) point out, this assumes that women actually receive satisfactory services, or that all women using a service receive an equivalent level of service, even though many studies report inadequacies and inefficiencies in service provision. 5. Large informal sector: Many developing countries, including large parts of South Asian countries, have large informal sectors with limited data on labor and wages. Thus, estimating the costs of violence in terms of labor participation and productivity loss is not always possible. Rather, such estimates may be biased towards the costs incurred by urban women working in the formal sector who have suffered violence, and not represent costs incurred by violence survivors in urban non-formal and rural, unpaid agricultural or household labor. Methodological Challenges DEFINING DIRECT AND INDIRECT COSTS Direct costs are defined in slightly varying ways by different researchers. According to KPMG (1994), direct costs of violence are “the costs associated with the provision of a range of facilities, resources, and services to a woman as a result of her being subject to (domestic) violence.” The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2003) define direct costs as “the actual dollar expenditure related to violence against women.” Buvinic, Morrison, and Shifter (1999) define direct costs as “the value of goods and services used in treating or preventing domestic violence.” Indirect costs cover the gamut of all other ‘costs’, such as the emotional, physical and intergenerational consequences of violence for women, their children, their families and communities. Definitions vary possibly more than is the case for direct costs because of the larger range of such ‘costs’ (Duvvury, Grown and Redner 2004; Laing 2001; Laurence and Spalter-Roth 1996). Duvvury, Grown and Redner (2004) argue that indirect costs are larger and more important than direct costs, yet very few studies have attempted to estimate indirect costs, since these types of costs are “notoriously difficult” to calculate (Duvvury, Grown and Redner 2004: 16). Day, McKenna and Bowlus (2005) propose the division of costs into two main groups: tangible versus intangible costs and direct versus indirect costs. A violence survivor is aware of tangible costs, but does not directly perceive intangible costs. Both tangible and intangible costs can be divided into direct costs, which are realized costs with a monetary value, and indirect costs, which are opportunity costs or the loss of potential,1 where the monetary values must be estimated. Examples of direct tangible costs include out-of-pocket expenses, such as a survivor’s medical bills or legal fees; direct intangible costs include services provided by the government or NGOs. Examples of indirect tangible costs include a survivor’s income loss due to missed workdays. Examples of indirect intangible costs include a firm’s loss of profit because of the low performance of employees who are violence survivors, or the impact of violence on the children of survivors. 1 According to KPMG (1994), opportunity costs are “the costs of opportunities which the participant has lost as a result of being in or leaving the violent relationship. An opportunity cost is the cost of the opportunity forgone when the woman’s options are limited by the circumstances in which she finds herself.” 2 Table L.1 provides examples of some of the most commonly measured categories of direct and indirect costs for women and their families, their communities, and incurred by service providers. Table L.1: Illustrative direct and indirect costs of violence: women, community, providers Direct costs Indirect costs triggered by violence Individual  Out-of-pocket expenses  Value of goods and services forgone in the form of and family for services income lost through job loss or increased  Income loss due to absenteeism, decreased productivity in the missing workdays workplace, and decreased labor force participation  Loss of household  Increased mortality and morbidity work  Pain, suffering, and lost quality of life  Increased drug and alcohol use  Intergenerational transmission of violence  Behavioral problems of children  Reduced educational performance  Other measures of children’s social health Community Costs of providing Increased demand for public services, which may services to survivors mean additional costs for other users Businesses Costs of provision for: Loss of output and profit due to:  Medical services  Reduced productivity and/or lower earnings  Criminal justice  Increased absenteeism  Housing  Withdrawal from the labor market  Legal services  Social services Sources: Duvvury, Grown and Redner 2004; Buvinic, Morrison and Shifter 1999. CALCULATING DIRECT COSTS According to Laurence and Spalter-Roth (1996), calculations of the direct cost of domestic violence require data on the number of affected people (prevalence rate), how many are using services as a result of domestic violence, how much of each service is used (service utilization rate), and the unit cost of these services. They propose the following general model of direct cost estimation: where the cost of service i ( ) is multiplied by the proportion of those who use service i because of violence ( ). The accuracy of this estimation model depends on the correct specification of both and . For example, if only those who have suffered violence request a service, then the whole cost of that service should be considered as ; otherwise, only the difference between what sufferers and non-sufferers pay for that service should be included. Alternatively, when the unit cost of services is not available, estimates can use the actual budget that an institution or organization spends on violence-related services. In this method, the challenge is to estimate the ratio of sufferers of violence relative to non-sufferers who use a particular service, which is problematic, as most institutions do not maintain such data. 3 Where data for prevalence or cost estimates are particularly poor or not available, the direct unit cost of services for violence is calculated based on expert opinions, which creates obvious problems in terms of accuracy and bias. In such situations, even for direct cost estimates, where non-monetary consequences do not have to be assigned or imputed monetary values, it remains challenging to estimate costs, such that researchers often rely on “assumptions based on extrapolated data or the use of proxy data” (Duvvury, Grown, and Redner 2004: 17). Examples of such extrapolation in cost studies across countries include studies by Siddique (2011) and Center for Policy Dialogue (2009) in Bangladesh, Ghaus and Kazi (2012) in Pakistan, and ICRW and UNFPA (2009) in Bangladesh, Morocco and Uganda. CALCULATING INDIRECT COSTS The estimation of indirect costs is even more challenging than direct cost estimation because indirect costs do not have monetary values, which thus have to be imputed. Box L.1 below summarizes some approaches that have been used to estimate indirect costs of violence, each with strengths and weaknesses depending on the type of data required and elements included or excluded from definitions of the costs. BOX L.1 Examples of estimating indirect costs of violence against women and girls  Mean daily value of earnings approach: The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2003) estimates the loss of income as a result of intimate partner violence as equal to the mean daily value of earnings multiplied by the total days of earnings lost, where the mean annual earnings of the mean age group of women estimated to suffer a particular kind of violence is calculated, and then divided by the number of paid workdays per year.  Human capital approach: this approach, used by Cohen, Miller and Rossman (1994) to estimate the lifetime loss of earnings due to mortality, morbidity, mental health distress, and the incarceration of violence perpetrators, uses a discount rate of 3 percent to calculate the discounted present value of lifetime loss. In addition to the somewhat arbitrary nature of this rate and its questionable applicability across contexts, this approach focuses on the monetary costs of death due to violence while ignoring the costs of the pain, suffering and lost enjoyment of life caused by violence. As such, the authors note that it is appropriate if one is interested solely in the effect of deaths on economic activity, as measured by the gross national product, and on household production.  Econometric methods to estimate the economic impact of violence: Morrison and Orlando (1999) estimate the impact of violence on women’s labor force participation and earnings through multivariate analysis, where labor force participation and earnings, as dependent variables, are regressed on a violence proxy, such as physical abuse in childhood, or the number of times a husband arrives home drunk, plus a vector of control variables such as age, education, and hours worked. The coefficient of the violence regressor is a measure of the impact of violence on labor force participation, and earnings. However, endogeneity and data issues make the accuracy of this model questionable.  Propensity score matching: Morrison and Orlando (2004) attempt to use propensity score matching between women who have suffered violence and those who have not (a ‘control’ group) to estimate the impacts of violence on women’s health outcomes, use of health services, and labor force participation, as well as its impact on children’s health outcomes and educational performance. They conclude that, even though “…the propensity score matching adds rigor in the specification of control groups, [it] does not solve simultaneity issues which existed in the econometric method.” 4 Duvvury, Grown and Redner (2004) suggest that the range of methodologies used to impute indirect costs, including – but not limited to – the examples described above, can be categorized into three broad ‘types’: (a) proportional methodology, which includes proportioning operational budgets of different service providers between users who have suffered violence and those who have not; (b) accounting methodology, which aggregates costs across sectors using prevalence rates, service utilization rates, and average unit costs within each sector; and (c) econometric methods imputing monetary values, which are mainly used to estimate indirect costs such as income loss and productivity loss. Regardless of the method used, Duvvury, Grown and Redner (2004) recommend that the following steps be taken to create an appropriate framework for cost estimation: i. Define clear objectives for the cost estimation; ii. Identify the appropriate level of aggregation; iii. Develop an operational definition of the type(s) of violence that covers the experience of the largest number of women; iv. Map help-seeking behavior of those who suffer violence against the services available to them so as to accurately assess service utilization; and v. Determine the most appropriate method and the data required for conducting the analysis. References Day, Tanis, Katherine McKenna, and Audra Bowlus. 2005. “The Economic Costs of Violence Against Women: An Evaluation of the Literature.” Expert brief prepared for the UN Secretary-General’s in-depth study on all forms of violence against women, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada. Blumel, Debra K..1993. Who Pays? The Economic Costs of Violence Against Women. Brisbane, Queensland: Queensland Office of the Cabinet Women's Policy Unit, and Sunshine Coast Interagency Research Group, Women’s Policy Unit, Office of the Cabinet. Buvinic, Mayra, Morrison, Andrew R and Shifter, Michael. 1999. “Violence in the Americas: A Framework for Action.” In Too Close to Home: Domestic Violence in the Americas, A. Morrison and M. L. Biehl. Washington, D.C.: Inter-American Development Bank. CPD (Center for Policy Dialogue. 2009). Domestic Violence in Bangladesh - Cost Estimates and Measures to Address the Attendant Problems. Dhaka: CPD, Report No. 97. Cohen, Mark, Miller, Ted R and Rossman, Shelli B. 1994. “The costs and consequences of violent behavior in the United States.” In Understanding and preventing violence: consequences and control of violence, ed, Albert J Reiss Jr. and Jeffrey A Roth. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Duvvury, Nata, Grown, Caren and Render, Jennifer. 2004. “Costs of Intimate Partner Violence at the Household and Community Levels: An Operational Framework for Developing Countries.” Washington, D.C.: ICRW (International Center for Research on Women). 5 Ghaus, Khalida, and Aasiya Kazi. 2012. The Socio-Economic Cost of Violence Against Women: A Case Study of Karachi. Karachi, Pakistan: Social Policy and Development Center (SPDC). ICRW (International Center for Research on Women) and UNFPA (United Nations Population Fund). 2009. Intimate Partner Violence: High Costs to Households and Communities. Washington, DC: ICRW. KPMG Management Consulting. 1994. Economic costs of domestic violence in Tasmania. Hobart, Tasmania: Office of the Status of Women. Laing, Leslie. 2001. Australian Studies of the Economic Costs of Domestic Violence. Australian Domestic and Family Violence Clearinghouse Topics Paper. http://www.adfvc.unsw.edu.au/PDF%20files/eco_costs_final.pdf Laurence, L and Spalter-Roth, R. 1996. Measuring the Costs of Domestic Violence Against Women and Cost-Effectiveness of Interventions: An initial assessment and proposals for further research. Washington, D.C.: Institute for Women's Policy Research. Morrison, A.R. and Orlando, M.B. 1999. “Social and Economic Costs of Domestic Violence: Chile and Nicaragua.” In, Too Close to Home. Washington, DC. IDB (Inter- American Development Bank). Morrison, A.R. and Orlando, M.B. 2004. The costs and impacts of gender-based violence in developing countries: Methodological considerations and new evidence. Washington, D. C.: World Bank. Siddique, Kaniz. 2011. “Domestic Violence Against Women: Cost to the Nation.” CARE, Bangladesh. Stanko, Elizabeth A. Debbie Crisp, Chris Hale, and Hebe Lucraft. 1998. Counting the Costs: Estimating the Impact of Domestic Violence in the London Borough of Hackney. London.: Crime Concern. http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/daphnetoolkit/files/projects/1998_064/the_costs_of_do mestic_violence_uk_1998.pdf CDC (United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). 2003. Costs of Intimate Partner Violence against Women in the United States. Atlanta, GA.: CDC. Yodanis, C and Godenzi, A. 1999. Report on the economic costs of violence against women. Fribourg.Switzerland. University of Fribourg. 6 APPENDIX M Literature Review Methodology The literature review was conducted largely through a systematic on-line search process. To begin with, the authors created the guidelines below to search for literature on each type of violence listed in figure 1.1 of the report, based on certain key questions. Base search terms were used by themselves, and then in combination with various qualifiers. For those forms of violence for which cross-country prevalence data were not available through any of the data sources listed in Appendix A, we included searches of studies that might describe prevalence and patterns in non-South Asian countries. Type of violence Key questions Search terms (base search terms in italics) Female infanticide and excess What is the prevalence in each Female infanticide female child mortality South Asian country? Sex ratios AND children AND Who are the main girls perpetrators? Child mortality AND girls What are the underlying Discrimination AND girls motivations? Neglect AND girls What are the risk and protective factors? Son preference Each of the above AND ‘South Asia’ OR specific South Asian countries Child abuse against girls What are the patterns and Abuse AND girls prevalence in each country? Sexual abuse AND girls (sexual, physical or emotional) Physical abuse AND girls Who are the main Emotional abuse AND girls perpetrators? Corporal punishment AND Where does abuse occur? girls (home, school, other) What are the risk and Each of the above AND protective factors? school Each of the above AND home Son preference Each of the above AND ‘South Asia’ OR specific South Asian countries Child marriage and forced What are the patterns and Age at marriage marriage prevalence in each country? Child marriage Are there any particular caste- Early marriage based, ethnic or religious Forced marriage patterns? Dowry What are the patterns and prevalence of forced Each of the above AND girls marriage? Each of the above AND Type of violence Key questions Search terms (base search terms in italics) What are the underlying adolescents reasons? Each of the above AND What are the risk and violence protective factors? What is the role, patterns and Marriage AND value of girls prevalence of dowry? Each of the above AND ‘South Asia’ OR specific South Asian countries Intimate partner or domestic What are the patterns and Domestic violence OR violence prevalence in each country? intimate partner violence (by life stage: adolescents, unmarried young women, Each of the above AND girls married women) Each of the above AND How rigorous is the research? adolescents Who are the perpetrators? Each of the above AND (partners, mothers-in-law, married women other family members) Each of the above AND never- What are the underlying married women reasons? What are the risk and Violence AND husband protective factors? Violence AND partner What is the role, patterns and Violence AND mother-in-law prevalence of dowry? Violence AND family Violence AND dowry Each of the above AND ‘South Asia’ OR specific South Asian countries Violence AND methodology Violence against divorced What are the prevalence and Divorce AND women AND women patterns? violence What are the types of violence? (sexual, economic, The above AND emotional physical, emotional) violence Who are the main The above AND economic perpetrators? violence What are the attitudes towards The above AND sexual divorced women that influence violence their vulnerability to violence? The above AND physical How does violence against violence divorced women in South Asia compare to other developing The above AND family countries? The above AND community The above AND stigma Type of violence Key questions Search terms (base search terms in italics) The above AND attitudes Each of the above AND ‘South Asia’ OR specific South Asian countries Each of the above AND international Maltreatment of widows What are the prevalence and Widows OR widowhood AND patterns? violence What are the types of violence? (sexual, economic, The above AND emotional physical, emotional) violence Who are the main The above AND economic perpetrators? (in-laws; other violence family members; community The above AND sexual members; other) violence What are the attitudes towards The above AND physical widows that influence their violence vulnerability to violence? What reasons and The above AND family justifications are given for The above AND community violence against widows? How does violence against The above AND stigma widows in South Asia The above AND attitudes compare to other developing countries? Each of the above AND ‘South Asia’ OR specific South Asian countries Each of the above AND international Trafficking What is the prevalence? Trafficking AND women Who are the women and girls Trafficking AND girls who are trafficked? Who trafficks them: parents? Each of the above AND Other relatives? Who else? violence What are the patterns? (sending and receiving areas; Each of the above AND average age of girls; particular ‘South Asia’ OR specific castes or ethnic groups or South Asian countries religious groups; particular geographic areas) What are the underlying reasons? What are the risk and protective factors? Honor crimes (search using What are the types of issues Honor crime Type of violence Key questions Search terms (base search terms in italics) both US and British spelling: that result in violence against Honor killings ‘honor’ and ‘honour’ as women in the name of publications in non-US ‘honor’? Each of the above AND journals will typically use the What are the patterns? women British spelling) To what extent are ‘honor’ crimes seen as ‘justice’ and Each of the above AND who dispenses this ‘justice’? women AND violence Who are the main perpetrators? (husbands; Each of the above AND parents; in-laws; other) women AND violence AND What is the range of attitudes adultery towards honor crimes against women (in favor of and Each of the above AND cross- against) caste AND marriage AND What is the extent of honor violence crimes in South Asia compared to other regions, for Each of the above AND example, the Middle East? ‘South Asia’ OR specific South Asian countries Each of the above AND international Each of the above AND Middle East Sexual harassment in public What are the patterns and Sexual harassment places prevalence of sexual Sexual violence harassment by men other than Rape intimate partners? Who are the main Each of the above AND street perpetrators? Each of the above AND What are the prevalence, school patterns and perpetrators for Each of the above AND rape? workplace Where does sexual harassment Each of the above AND occur? (street, school, work, community public transport, etc.) Each of the above AND ‘South Asia’ OR specific South Asian countries Custodial violence What is the prevalence? Custodial violence AND (overall, street-based, women custodial or other violence by Police violence AND women police) Military violence AND women What are key characteristics of War AND violence AND women targeted and of women perpetrators? Ethnic conflict AND violence What are the main AND women Type of violence Key questions Search terms (base search terms in italics) justifications given for Conflict AND violence And custodial violence? women How does custodial violence in South Asian countries Each of the above AND compare to other parts of the ‘South Asia’ OR specific developing world? South Asian countries The above-listed search terms for each type of violence were entered in Google Scholar, select academic search engines, and individual websites of select journals. Specific disciplinary search engine suggestions included (but were not limited to) sociology search engines, PubMed, PopLine, anthropological search engines, and JStor. Suggested specific journals included (but were not limited to) the Journal of Interpersonal Violence, Violence Against Women, Economic and Political Weekly, Journal of Gender Studies, World Development, The Lancet, and, The Bulletin of the World Health Organization. To gain access to non-peer reviewed articles such as working papers, unpublished articles or organizational reports, the search terms for each form of violence were also entered into Google, and on organizational websites such as for the UN, WHO, websites of civil society organizations, and various government agency websites, including the United States Department of State (e.g., for statistics and information on trafficking), and crime and statistics departments in South Asian countries, where available (e.g., India’s National Crime and Records Bureau). For any articles whose title contained multiple key search words, researchers were instructed to click on and links for ‘similar articles’ and/or ‘cited by’ to get other similar articles. Researchers made a list of all initial results that were promising, with a separate document for each theme. Each reference’s description included the full citation, any abstract provided on-line, the search words used and search engine where the item was found, and the URL, where relevant. The authors then short-listed articles and modified the search terms as needed for the next round of searching. This was an iterative procedure with close communication and interaction between those conducting the searches and the authors. Several rounds of such searches and short-listing were conducted. To obtain information on honor violence, for which literature is widely known to be sparse and statistics are limited or unreliable, an additional Google search was conducted to gather data from online news reports of particular incidents of honor crimes (usually honor killing). A search was conducted for each of the South Asian countries, except for Pakistan, as the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan already has gathered data on honor killings through its own search of news reports. Details were recorded on any news item (from local, national or international news sources) that reported an honor killing or honor violence against a girl or woman from 2006 to the present. Finally, the team collected documents not available on-line from several of the South Asian countries under study for this book. These documents included copies of organizational reports, conference proceedings, and working papers or other unpublished work not available on-line. APPENDIX N Mapping Methodology and Key Informant Interview Guidelines for Case Studies Mapping Methodology The mapping of organizations and interventions addressing violence against women and girls (VAWG) in South Asia recognizes the multi-sectoral and multilevel character of many of these efforts as well as the diverse variety of actors involved at different levels. For instance, some efforts included government schemes and programs; regional, national and local campaigns, organizations or programs, while actors mapped ranged from international donor and implementation bodies, community based organizations; private sector companies and CSR (corporate sector responsibility) initiatives. This mapping also pays attention to the more organic structures such as networks and movements in South Asia that address the issue of violence against women and girls in the region, but that may not be ‘programs’ in the conventional definition of that term. Mapping Exercise Three consultants, based in Nepal, India and Thailand, and covering the whole South Asia region, conducted the mapping exercise. This mapping exercise comprised three main elements. First, the team mapped out the broad landscape of organizations in each country and regionally that addressed any form of violence against women and girls. Next, evaluated efforts were identified. Finally, the team identified four particularly innovative programs, which are highlighted as case studies in the report. MAPPING OF ORGANIZATIONS ADDRESSING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS IN SOUTH ASIA The objective of this task was to identify organizations and their efforts addressing violence against women and girls in the South Asian region. The resulting list is presented in Appendix S. Efforts include programs, advocacy and campaigns, networks, policies and laws, among others. To find organizations addressing VAWG, we conducted desk reviews of published and unpublished relevant literature and supplemented this review by a scan of journal articles, publications, project documents including program evaluations and a review of relevant policy documents and programmatic websites. The team also held phone, email and Skype consultations with experts, development practitioners and scholars in the region and elsewhere, from various research institutions, networks and organizations working in the field of VAWG prevention and response, to validate and add to this list. Additional information on organizations addressing VAWG in South Asia was gathered through fact-finding missions to Bhutan, the Maldives and Bangladesh. In all countries, we made special efforts to identify grassroots organizations outside of urban areas. Following the search results, the profile of the organizations, their area of work and expertise, type of violence addressed and geographic coverage were categorized in a list, which was then organized by the following sectors (see Appendix legend for details):  Health  Youth and Education 1  Women’s Empowerment  Governance and Democracy,  Crisis/Conflict, Disaster Relief and infrastructure  Multi-Sectoral Efforts Feedback on the relevance and completion of these lists was solicited between September and October 2013 during in-country consultation meetings with relevant stakeholders, government officials, local NGOs/CBOs, country-based VAW/GBV experts, and the country staff of the World Bank. In-person consultations were organized in Dhaka, Bangladesh, New Delhi, India and Kathmandu, Nepal; and audio-conferences were organized in Colombo, Sri Lanka, Kabul, Afghanistan and Karachi, Pakistan. MAPPING OF EVALUATED INTERVENTIONS ADDRESSING VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS IN SOUTH ASIA From the lists generated, the next goal was to identify existing evaluated efforts. Firstly, building on the matrix and reviews of the first list of organizations, the mapping team contacted staff of mapped organizations to obtain information about existing evaluated VAWG interventions, and to obtain relevant project reports and evaluation documentation. We contacted over 100 organizations in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. We used email, phone, and Skype to contact independent country-based VAWG experts, networks and relevant research institutions in order to obtain further information about any evaluated efforts addressing VAW, and in some cases, to request relevant evaluation documentation. Project documentation and final reports were also solicited in cases where formal evaluation was unavailable. We conducted follow up calls or emails to clarify any remaining questions about identified evaluations and their documentation. The lists and brief descriptions of evaluated efforts are described by form of violence across the life cycle in Appendices C through K for South Asia specific efforts, and Appendix T for evaluated efforts identified from outside the region that might be instructive to programming in South Asia. IDENTIFYING AND DOCUMENTING CASE STUDIES The final part of this field exercise was to identify four innovative programs that provided an opportunity for significant learning through their programmatic experience. These programs are highlighted in case studies in chapter 4. These interventions were selected from the wealth of evaluated programs to gain an in-depth understanding of implementation strategies, opportunities and challenges, including reaching outcomes but also elaborating on promising or problematic processes. The case studies were based on analyses of program evaluations and reports, supplemented by in-depth interviews with program implementers (see interview guide in below) and, in the case of the One Stop Crisis Center program in Nepal, site visits and observations. Limitations This mapping exercise is not intended as a comprehensive list of every organization and intervention addressing every form of violence across the South Asia region. Such an exercise is too vast for one effort. As with any such effort, we were limited by time, resources and of course the evolving nature of programs and the rapidly changing political and cultural contexts in each of these eight countries. We were also hampered, to some extent, by the limited scope of the existing mapping and databases. Additionally, although a good number of informants were contacted, a number of them could not be reached and a lack of time prevented additional follow- 2 up. In some cases, permission to access and review implementation or evaluation documentation was not granted to the mapping team. Another limitation of the process was that the research team did not have consultants based in some of the countries. While we attempted to minimize this constraint by reaching out to development actors from different levels, (international organizations, local organizations, network coordinators and activists) from the countries other than those in which consultants were physically based, it is likely we did not capture the local nuances in some of these countries. Methodological Strengths The key methodological strength of this exercise was its deliberate consultative nature. At each step of information gathering and analysis, the team in the field ensured ongoing and active collaboration and consultation with as many organizations as could be reached. This was especially true of the case studies. Second, the mapping was undertaken in a very methodical way, starting from the widest sweep of the landscape of programming and narrowing down to evaluated programs and finally, from within those evaluated-identifying innovative interventions. Finally, the analysis defined ‘evaluation’ in ways that crossed the boundaries between academic rigor and field reality: while on the one hand, the attempt was to search for rigor, at the same time the realities of complex programs, field capacity, NGO goals, and peer considerations were taken into account when deciding whether to consider a program “evaluated.” As such, this methodology lends itself to be replicated for gathering information on interventions for a wide range of social and gender issues. Key Informant Interview Guidelines for Case Studies PROGRAM POLICIES AND DESIGN 1. What are the mission, vision, goal and specific objectives? 2. How did the concept of the program originate? In response to what problems or issues was the program designed? How did the concept evolve? 3. Where is the program implemented? How were the locations selected? 4. Who are that target groups? 5. What are the activities? 6. What is the profile of the implementing team? IMPLEMENTATION 1. How many beneficiaries? (If possible obtain disaggregated data by gender and location, where there are multiple working areas) 2. What are the enabling factors? 3. What are the challenges? 4. Were there any unintended consequences (positive or negative) of the program on the direct beneficiaries and the community? 5. Can this intervention be scaled up? If yes, what do you envision the process to scale up or replicate to look like? 6. Are you planning to scale up or replicate, as of now? If not, why not? 7. Did your organization collaborate with any other organization, network or self-help group? Did you collaborate with local government bodies? To what extent was collaboration effective for this particular intervention? BUDGETING 1. What is the total budget of the program? 3 2. Who are the donors/funders? 3. What is the duration of funds? Do you think this is long enough for you to achieve what your effort intends to achieve? If not, why not? MONITORING 1. What are the monitoring mechanisms in place? 2. Who set them up and when? 3. Do you think the monitoring mechanisms you have in place work well? What are some challenges and good experiences? 4. If you could design the monitoring all over again, what would you do differently and why? If not, why? EVALUATION 1. Who does the evaluation? When was the evaluation structure set up? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the process? 2. If there is no evaluation, what are the reasons? 3. Do you think the organization's efforts have ‘succeeded’? (Probe for (i) the evidence on which their response is based, especially if no formal evaluation exists; (ii) if didn’t succeed, why not? (iii) if don’t know yet, what plans to figure out whether succeeded or not?) DONOR/FUNDING 1. Who funded the project? 2. Did the donors follow a process e.g.: requesting financial reports, quarterly reports, evaluation framework etc.? If yes, describe and elaborate to what extent this process was useful or counter-productive to the intervention? SUSTAINABILITY 1. What are your opinions on the sustainability of this intervention? What do you think about donor support for such interventions? BROADER OPINION ON VIOLENCE BEING ADDRESSED 1. What do you think are the main underlying circumstances, risk factors, norms that perpetuate the kind of violence that their effort is trying to address? In their opinion and experience, how can these longer-term dynamics be changed? 4 APPENDIX O Illustrative Estimates of Domestic and Intimate Partner Violence in South Asia Country Reported Author(s)/study Source of estimates prevalence (%) Prevalence of physical intimate partner abuse in the 12 months prior to the survey Afghanistan 39.3 Nijhowne and Oates 2008 national survey Bangladesh* 37 Johnson and Das 2008, Silverman national BDHS 2004 et al 2013 Bangladesh 35 Bates et al 2013 own cross-sectional survey in 6 villages Bangladesh 19 Naved et al 2006 cross-sectional survey in 1 urban area Bangladesh 15.8 Naved et al 2006 cross-sectional survey in 1 rural area India* 40 ICRW 2000b multi-site survey India 27 Raj et al 2010 national NFHS-3 India 27 Rocca et al 2009 cross-sectional survey in Bangalore city slums India 25.3 Hasan et al 2004 survey in Uttar Pradesh state India* 25.1 Koenig et al 2006 Male Re- productive Health Survey (MHRS) in 5 districts of Uttar Pradesh state India 19.6 Hasan et al 2004 survey in Kerala state India 16.2 Hasan et al 2004 survey in Tamil Nadu state India 9.3 Ackerson et al 2008 national NFHS-2 Nepal 31.3 Lamichhane et al 2011 survey in 4 districts Pakistan 56.3 Ali et al 2011 own survey in Karachi Sri Lanka 22 Subramanian and Sivayogan 2001 survey in Trincomalee Prevalence of physical intimate partner abuse ever Afghanistan 25.0 UNIFEM 2006 1327 women reporting incidents of violence Bangladesh* 74 Johnson and Das 2008 national BDHS 2004 Bangladesh 67 Schuler and Islam 2008 cross-sectional survey in 6 villages Bangladesh 41.7 Naved et al 2006 cross-sectional survey in 1 rural area Bangladesh 39.7 Naved et al 2006 cross-sectional survey in 1 urban area Bhutan 77 RENEW 2007 survey in Thimpu Bhutan 14.5 Choda 2012 national survey India 56 Rocca et al 2009 cross-sectional survey in Bangalore city slums India 43.1 Hasan et al 2004 survey in Kerala state India 40.3 ICRW 2000a multi-site survey India 34.9 Raj et al 2010 national NFHS-3 India 34.6 Hasan et al 2004 survey in Uttar Pradesh state India* 34.1 Koenig et al 2006 Male Re- productive Health Survey (MHRS) in 5 districts of Uttar Pradesh state India* 31 Population Council 2009 survey in Tamil Nadu state India 31 Hasan et al 2004 survey in Tamil Nadu state India 25 Population Council 2009 survey in Tamil Nadu state India 16.1 Ackerson et al 2008 national NFHS-2 Maldives* 18 Fulu 2007 national survey Nepal 25.3 Lamichhane et al 2011 survey in 4 districts Pakistan 57.6 Ali et al 2011 survey in Karachi Pakistan* 49.4 Fikree et al 2005 survey in Karachi Sri Lanka 34 Jayasuriya et al 2011 survey in western province Sri Lanka 30 Subramanian and Sivayogan 2001 survey in Trincomalee Prevalence of sexual intimate partner abuse ever Afghanistan 17.2 Nijhowne and Oates 2008 national survey Bhutan 23 RENEW 2007 survey in Thimpu India* 31.8 Koenig et al 2006 Male Re- productive Health Survey (MHRS) in Uttar Pradesh state Maldives* 6.7 Fulu 2007 national survey Nepal 58.3 Adhikari and Tamang 2010 national survey Nepal 46.2 Lamichhane et al 2011 survey in 4 districts Pakistan 54.5 Ali et al 2011 survey in Karachi Pakistan 53.4 Ali et al 2011 survey in Karachi Pakistan 46.9 Shaikh 2003 survey in Rawalpindi and Islamabad Pakistan 21 Kapadia et al 2009 survey in Karachi Sri Lanka 5 Jayasuriya et al 2011 survey in western province Prevalence of sexual intimate partner abuse in the 12 months prior to the survey India* 50 ICRW 2000b multi-site survey India 44 Santhya et al 2007 multi-site survey India* 30.1 Koenig et al 2006 Male Re- productive Health Survey (MHRS) in Uttar Pradesh state India 15 ICRW 2000a multi-site survey Nepal 17.4 Lamichhane et al 2011 survey in 4 districts Prevalence of emotional/psychological intimate partner abuse, ever & in the 12 months prior to the survey Afghanistan 73.9 Nijhowne and Oates 2008 national survey Bangladesh 79 Koenig et al 2003 survey in 2 villages Bangladesh 65 Parvin et al. 2012 survey in Dhaka slums Bhutan 54 RENEW 2007 survey in Thimpu India 43.5 ICRW 2000a multi-site survey India 29 ICRW 2000a, 2000b multi-site survey Maldives* 29.2 Fulu 2007 national survey Pakistan 83.6 Ali et al 2011 survey in Karachi Pakistan 81.8 Ali et al 2011 survey in Karachi Sri Lanka 19 Jayasuriya et al 2011 survey in western province Prevalence of physical, sexual or emotional violence during pregnancy Bangladesh 17.7 Bates et al 2013 surveys in 6 villages Bangladesh 12 Naved et al 2006 cross-sectional survey in 1 rural area Bangladesh 10 Naved et al 2006 cross-sectional survey in 1 urban area India 28.4 Khosla et al 2005 survey in Chandigarh town India 12.9 Peedicayil et al 2004 multi-site survey India 13 to 28 Varma et al 2007 review of studies Maldives 6.3 Fulu 2007 national survey Pakistan 23 Fikree et al 2006 survey in Karachi Pakistan 15 Fikree and Bhatti 1999 survey in Karachi * Responses given by husbands or (for Maldives) intimate partners References Ackerson, L. K., I. Kawachi, E. M. Barbeau and S. V. Subramanian. 2008. “Effects of Individual and Proximate Educational Context on Intimate Partner Violence: A Population-Based Study of Women in India.” American Journal of Public Health 98(3): 507-514. Adhikari, R., and J. Tamang. 2010. “Sexual Coercion of Married Women in Nepal.” 2010. BMC Women’s Health 10 (1): 31. doi: 10.1186/1472-6874-10-31. Ali, T. S., N. Asad, I. Mogren and G. Krantz. 2011. “Intimate partner violence in urban Pakistan: prevalence, frequency, and risk factors.” International Journal of Women’s Health 3: 105–115 Bates, L. M., S. R. Schuler, F. Islam and M. K. Islam. 2013. “Socioeconomic Factors and Processes Associated with Domestic Violence in Rural Bangladesh.” International Family Planning Perspectives 30(4): 190-199. Choda, J. 2012. “Factors Associated with Violence against Women in Bhutan.” Proceedings of the 2nd National Seminar on Gender and Reproductive Health, Sherubtse College, Kanglung, Bhutan, October 1-2, 2011. 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International Center for Research on Women (ICRW). 2000b. Domestic Violence in India: Men, Masculinity and Domestic Violence in India. Washington, D.C.: International Center for Research on Women and Center for Development and Population Activities. Jayasuriya, V., K. Wijewardena and P. Axemo. 2011. “Intimate Partner Violence against Women in the Capital Province of Sri Lanka: Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Help Seeking.” Violence against Women 17(8): 1086–1102. Johnson, K.B. and M. Bordia Das. 2008. “Spousal Violence in Bangladesh as Reported by Men: Prevalence and Risk Factors.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 24(6): 977– 995. Kapadia, M. G., S. Saleem and M. S. Kareem. 2009. “The hidden figure: sexual intimate partner violence among Pakistani women.” European Journal of Public Health 20(2): 164–168. Khosla, A. H., D. Dua, L. Devi and S. S. Sud. 2005. “Domestic Violence in Pregnancy in North Indian Women.” Indian Journal of Medical Sciences 59(5): 195-199. Koenig, M.A., S. Ahmed, M.B. Hossain and A.B.M.K.A. Mozumder. 2003. "Women's Status and Domestic Violence in Rural Bangladesh: Individual- and Community-Level Effects." Demography 40(2): 269-288. Koenig, M., R. Stephenson, S. Ahmed, S.J. Jejeebhoy and J. Campbell. 2006. “Individual and Contextual Determinants of Domestic Violence in North India.” American Journal of Public Health 96(1): 132–138. Lamichhane, P., M. Puri, J. Tamang and B. Dulal. 2011. “Women’s Status and Violence against Young Married Women in Rural Nepal” BMC Women’s Health 11:19 Naved, R.T., S. Azim, A. Bhuiya and L.A. Persson. 2006. “Physical Violence by Husbands: Magnitude, Disclosure and Help-Seeking Behavior of Women in Bangladesh.” Social Science & Medicine 62(12): 2917–2929. Nijhowne, D. and L Oates. 2008. Living with Violence: A National Report on Domestic Abuse in Afghanistan. Global Rights: Partners for Justice. Parvin, K., N. Sultana, and R. T. Naved. 2012. “Spousal violence against women and help seeking behaviour,” in R.T. Naved & S. Amin (Eds.) Growing up safe and healthy (SAFE): Baseline report on sexual and reproductive health and rights and violence against women and girls in Dhaka slums. Dhaka: icddr,b. Peedicayil, A., L. S. Sadowski, L. Jeyaseelan, V. Shankar, D. Jain, S. Suresh, S. I. Bangdiwala and the IndiaSAFE Group. 2004. “Spousal physical violence against women during pregnancy.” BJOG: an International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 111: 682–687. Population Council. 2009. Violence within marriage among young people in Tamil Nadu. Youth in India: Situation and Needs, Policy Brief Number 12. New Delhi: Population Council. Raj, A., N. Saggurti, D. Lawrence, D. Balaiah and J. G. Silverman. 2010. “Association between adolescent marriage and marital violence among young adult women in India.” International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 110: 35-39. RENEW. 2007. Violence Against Women. Thimpu, Bhutan: Bhutan National Commission for Women and Child. http://www.ncwc.org.bt/wp- content/uploads/2010/08/VAW-14th-april.pdf Rocca, C. H., S. Rathod, T. Falle, R. P. Pande and S. Krishnan. 2008. “Challenging assumptions about women’s empowerment: social and economic resources and domestic violence among young married women in urban South India.” International Journal of Epidemiology 38:577–585. Shaikh, M. 2003. “Is Domestic Violence Endemic In Pakistan: Perspective from Pakistani Wives.” Pakistan Journal of Medical Science 19(1): 23–28. Santhya, K.G., N. Haberland, F. Ram, R.K. Sinha, S.K. Mohanty and K.G. Santhya. 2007. “Consent and Coercion : Examining Unwanted Sex among Married Young Women in India.” International Family Planning Perspectives 33(3): 124–132. Silverman, J.G., M.R. Decker, N.A. Kapur, J. Gupta and A.nita Raj. 2013. “Violence against Wives, Sexual Risk and Sexually Transmitted Infection among Bangladeshi Men.” Sexually Transmitted Infections 83(3): 211–5. Subramanian, P. and S. Sivayogan. 2001. "The prevalence and pattern of wife beating in the Trincomalee district in eastern Sri Lanka." Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health 32(1): 186-195. UNIFEM. 2006. Uncounted and Discounted: A Secondary Data Research Project on Violence against Women in Afghanistan. www.crin.org/docs/unifem_af_women.pdf Varma, D., P. S. Chandra and T. Thomas. 2007. “Intimate Partner Violence and Sexual Coercion among Pregnant Women in India: Relationship with Depression and Post- Traumatic Stress Disorder.” Journal of Affective Disorders 102(1-3): 227–235. APPENDIX P Country Gender Profiles The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Population: 29.82 Million; Gender Inequality Index: 0.712 BACKGROUND Women in Afghanistan have witnessed significant shifts in their status over time. Historically, there have been a number of attempts by previous governments to improve the role of women in society, including those of King Amanullah Khan, who sought to abolish the practice of purdah (the ritual seclusion of women) and implement the co-education of men and women. The attempted imposition of such progressive reforms by Khan contributed to his eventual exile; the result of a tribal uprising. Additionally, the later Prime Minister Mohammad Daoud also opposed the practice of purdah (World Bank, 2005). For a decade following 1963, Afghanistan was governed by a constitutional monarchy, subsequently replaced by various Soviet-aligned governments. As the result of a continually weakening political situation, the Soviet Union began a military invasion in 1979, which resulted in a decade long conflict. In the wake of the collapse of the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan in 1992, the Taliban rose to power in 1995, and implemented many highly oppressive restrictions on women, including full observance of purdah (World Bank, 2005). Under this regime, women were typically not allowed to attend educational institutions or to participate in the workforce. While the Taliban regime was later ousted by U.S. and coalition forces in 2001, women in Afghanistan continue to face significant restrictions on their mobility and social freedoms, thus hindering their access to education and employment opportunities. HEALTH As of 2011, the total fertility rate in Afghanistan was 5.4 births per woman. The nation’s maternal mortality ratio is 460 deaths per 100,000 live births (2010), and the corresponding infant mortality rate is 103 deaths per 1,000 live births (2010). Such figures are indicative of the larger conflict situation present in the country, as well as the difficulty of accessing health care services, particularly in the country’s vast rural regions. EDUCATION While the adult total literacy rate for Afghanistan has yet to be recently established, the ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education is 66% (2011). Although modest, such a figure marks significant gains from the Taliban era. Continued restrictions on women’s mobility, presence in public spaces, and ongoing conflict are continual obstacles to accessing educational facilities. WORK AND EMPLOYMENT While the labor force participation rate for men is 80.3% (2011), the labor force participation rate of women is a meager 15.7% (2011), reflecting continued restrictions on the mobility of women, as well as traditional norms which confine women to domestic roles. REPRESENTATION Women are actively represented in 27.6% of the Wolesi Jirga (2012), the lower house of the Afghan parliament. The People’s Republic of Bangladesh Population: 154.7 Million; Gender Inequality Index: 0.518 BACKGROUND Following the partition of the former British Raj, Bangladesh initially emerged as East Pakistan, prior to gaining independence in 1971. As it is often the case during periods of war and conflict, during the Liberation War, women were disproportionately subject to sexual violence, as well as other atrocities and hardships. Following independence, the country subsequently faced large-scale famine in 1974, of which policy responses resulted in several positive outcomes for women. Among these, in an effort to increase food security, the national government invested in rural infrastructure- namely roads- which largely increased women’s access to education and economic opportunities, as well as to health services (World Bank, 2008). During the 1970s, due to a pervasive fear of overpopulation, access to contraception was also greatly expanded, effectively decreasing the country’s fertility rate (World Bank, 2008). With the advent of the Multi-Fiber Trade Agreement in 1974, Bangladesh was able to vastly expand its presence in the global garment industry, providing an avenue for the economic empowerment of women, many of whom already possessed sewing skills (World Bank, 2008). Today, women continue to benefit from economic opportunities in the manufacturing sector, but often must contend with unsafe working environments. HEALTH In 2011, the total fertility rate was 2.2 births per woman, reflecting an increased use of contraception from the 1970’s onward. Bangladesh’s maternal mortality ratio is 240 deaths per 100,000 live births (2010), and the infant mortality rate is 38 deaths per 1,000 live births (2010). The maternal mortality rate is particularly high, as approximately 90% of women give birth within the home, with only 14% receiving assistance from a skilled birth attendant (World Bank, 2008). EDUCATION As of 2011, the adult total literacy rate in Bangladesh was 58%. Nationally, the adult literacy rate for men is 62% and 53% for women (2011). The ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education is 110% (2011), reflecting great strides in increasing access to education for women. Bangladesh’s total sanitation campaign has contributed to improving education rates for women, as more schools now provide proper access to toilets (World Bank, 2008). With proper access to toilets, parents are more inclined to send girls to school, as socio-cultural norms regarding female modesty may be more easily maintained. WORK AND EMPLOYMENT The labor force participation rate for men was 84.3% in 2011, while the corresponding rate for women was 57.2%. While Bangladeshi women have increased access to revenue generating activities as a result of the proliferation of the textile industry, many women continue to fulfill duties in the domestic sphere, or work in agricultural or non-agricultural labor without receiving formal remuneration. REPRESENTATION As of 2012, women were represented in 19.7% of the parliament of Bangladesh. The Kingdom of Bhutan Population: 741,800; Gender Inequality Index: 0.464 BACKGROUND Having historically existed as an independent nation, Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal facilitated the unification of Bhutan in the 17th century (UN CEDAW, 2003). Formerly a monarchy, the country transitioned to a multi-party democracy in 2008. Bhutan’s largely Buddhist population resides predominantly in rural areas, where they largely engage in agricultural labor. The nation has typically afforded women a greater degree of equality than in other areas of the South Asia Region, and while great strides have been made in terms of development in Bhutan, several significant challenges persist. There exists a gender gap in tertiary education, unemployment amongst female youth, and a notable gender gap in employment quality for women (World Bank, 2013). HEALTH The total fertility rate was 2.3 births per woman in 2011, which may be linked to the use of modern contraception, which increased sharply from 28% in 2003, to 65% in 2010 (World Bank, 2013). For Bhutanese women, the maternal mortality ratio is 180 deaths per 100,000 live births (2010), and the infant mortality rate is 44 deaths per 1,000 live births (2010). The high maternal mortality ratio is attributed to the prevalence of poor infrastructure in the country’s largely rugged geographical area (UN CEDAW, 2003). EDUCATION Although an estimate of the total adult literacy rate is currently unavailable, it is estimated that the total female literacy rate is half that of men (UN CEDAW, 2003). Such a statistic stands in contrast to the ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education (103%, as of 2012), which is inherently indicative of the nation’s more gender equitable environment. The vast distance which must be traveled in order to access schools is often cited as a main cause for non-enrollment by parents in Bhutan (UN CEDAW, 2003). WORK AND EMPLOYMENT The gap between labor force participation rates for Bhutanese men and women is strikingly minimal: 75.6% for men, and 65.8% for women (2011). The majority of Bhutanese women are engaged in the agricultural sector (UN CEDAW, 2003). However, while there is a perceived wider degree of equality in the division of labor in rural Bhutan, the status of urban women seems roughly to mirror that observed in other parts of the South Asia Region (UN CEDAW, 2003). REPRESENTATION As of 2012, 13.9% of seats in Bhutanese national parliament were held by women. The Republic of India Population: 1.2 Billion; Gender Inequality Index: 0.610 BACKGROUND Prior to acquiring independence in 1947, much of the nation was subject to a significant degree of colonial intervention, by British, Portuguese and French powers. Specifically within the context of the British Raj, a number of contentious debates occurred over the status of women in society. Child marriage was a particularly contentious issue, and the Child Marriage Restraint Act (1929) was seen as an incursion on the private matters of the home and family, which were typically thought to be free of colonial regulation. Other discourses and debates circulated regarding the practice of purdah, or the ritual seclusion of women, as well as sati, the self-immolation of widows. Following the partition of the former British Raj, India was granted independence and became a republic in 1950, with the ratification of the Indian Constitution. In recent decades, significant strides have been made towards improving the overall condition of women, including their rights as guaranteed under the rule of law, as well as increased political representation. In spite of such progress, significant issues exist. Numerous socio-cultural norms and customs, including the giving of dowry, continue to impede upon the well-being of women. HEALTH India’s total fertility rate was 2.5 births per woman as of 2011. The maternal mortality ratio is 200 deaths per 100,000 live births (2010), and the infant mortality rate corresponds to 48 deaths per 1,000 live births (2010). Poor access to proper water supply and sanitation services, as well as high rates of malnutrition are contributing factors to such outcomes. EDUCATION The ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education is 98% (2011), implying increased equality in the area of education. In spite of such a figure, in 2001, the female literacy rate was 53.7%, as opposed to 75.3% for males, which is reflected in the national literacy rate of 64.8% (GOI, n.d.). Such figures indicate persistent gaps in access to education (GOI, n.d.). WORK AND EMPLOYMENT As of 2011, the labor force participation rate for men was 80.7% and 29.0% for women. The latter figure is at least partially explained by the fact that Indian women are typically more represented in the informal sector, where they often work without proper remuneration. REPRESENTATION Women are currently represented in 10.9% of parliament (2012). India has undertaken a number of reforms in recent years, aimed at increasing the representation of women in governance, including the 73rd Amendment Act of 1993, which reserved seats in panchayati raj institutions for women (World Bank, 2013). The Government of India has also increased the percentage of reserved seats for women in local governments and state assemblies to 50% (World Bank, 2013). The Republic of Maldives Population: 300,000; Gender Inequality Index: 0.357 BACKGROUND Formerly a British protectorate, Maldives became a republic in 1968, and was successively governed by President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom for six terms before a number of recent reforms were implemented, including the legalization of political parties (CIA, 2013). Women in the Maldives have typically served as caretakers of children and the home, but they also experience high degrees of household leadership, heading nearly half of all households in the country (ADB, 2007). Such a phenomenon results from the fact that men often migrate for work, as well as due to widowhood and divorce (ADB, 2007). The social environment of Maldives is particularly unique in South Asia, as divorce is generally considered acceptable (ADB, 2001). The legal system of Maldives, based on a combination of English common law, as well as Sharia law of the Hanafi school, has garnered significant attention from the international community, as harsh punishments, including public flogging, are often prescribed to women for committing crimes related to zina, or extra-marital sexual activity. HEALTH As of 2011, the total fertility rate was 2.3 births per woman. The maternal mortality ratio stands at 60 deaths per 100,000 live births (2010), with a corresponding infant mortality rate of 14 deaths per 1,000 births (2010). Although it is indicated that there is universal access to health services in Maldives, access to modern contraception, malnutrition and affordable transportation to atoll referral hospitals and medical facilities in the capital are outstanding issues which impact health outcomes for women and girls (ADB, 2007). EDUCATION The total adult literacy rate for Maldives has yet to be recently established. As of 2012, the ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education was 97%. Maldivian women are typically not allowed to live away from home, per cultural expectations; hence they are often restricted from studying abroad, impacting the number of women obtaining tertiary education (ADB, 2007). WORK AND EMPLOYMENT As of 2011, the labor force participation rate for men was 76.8% and 55.7% for women. Between 1978 and 1995, the female employment rate declined from 60% to 21%, reflecting the rapid mechanization of the fishing industry, which began in the 1970s (ADB, 2007). This process largely benefited men, but displaced women from their common roles in drying, processing and marketing excess fish and fish products (ADB, 2007). REPRESENTATION As of 2012, women are represented in 6.5% of the People’s Majlis (parliament). In spite of numerous reforms, women continue to be under-represented in local and national governments (ADB, 2007). The Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal Population: 27.47 Million; Gender Inequality Index: 0.485 BACKGROUND Historically a monarchy, the country adopted a democratic system of governance (within the framework of a constitutional monarchy) in 1990, and following a decade long civil war which began in 1996, the monarchy was subsequently abolished in 2008 (CIA, 2013). Changing economic trends, as well as conflict, have contributed to an ongoing transformation of the role of women in society. It was during the decade long Nepali civil war that women and girls were not only disproportionately impacted, but also assumed new leadership roles- both in the household and within the community- as men often migrated for military service (ADB, 2010). Today, as men continue to migrate to different areas of the country in search of economic opportunities, women are increasingly becoming the chief maintainers of farms and households (Aiken, 2003). HEALTH As of 2011, the total fertility rate in Nepal was 2.5 births per woman (2011). The maternal mortality ratio is 170 deaths per 100,000 live births (2010), and the infant mortality rate stands at 41 deaths per 1,000 live births (2010). While access to proper health care for women is typically hindered by poor infrastructure, women in Nepal also face sociocultural limitations which prevent them from addressing specific reproductive health issues, including uterine prolapse (ADB, 2010). EDUCATION The adult total literacy rate in Nepal is estimated at 57% (2011), 71% for adult males (2011), and 47% for adult females (2011). The ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education is 106% (2012). Despite improvements in the education sector, significant disparities exist amongst castes, ethnic groups and regions (ADB, 2010). Challenges with regard to accessing education in Nepal include geographic distances, poor infrastructure, improperly trained teachers, socio-cultural norms which prohibit attendance, and linguistic barriers (ADB, 2010). WORK AND EMPLOYMENT The men’s labor force participation rate in Nepal is 87.6%, with a comparable figure for women: 80.4% (2011). Nepal’s female labor force participation rate is rather high in comparison to other parts of South Asia, owing to the fact the wide spread nature of subsistence farming in the country, male migration, as well as government efforts to recognize work which is done by women (ADB, 2010). REPRESENTAION As of 2012, women are represented in approximately a third of parliament (33.2%). A number of policy actions taken by the Government of Nepal in 2007 have sought to increase the number of women in political institutions and within the civil service (ADB, 2010). The Islamic Republic of Pakistan Population: 179.2 Million; Gender Inequality Index: 0.567 BACKGROUND As a constituent component of the former British Raj, as it was the case in India, Pakistan was a site of contentious debate regarding the status of women in society. Following the partition of the British Raj, Pakistan gained independence as an Islamic republic in 1947, and was initially comprised of East and West Pakistan. East Pakistan later gained independence as the People’s Republic of Bangladesh in 1971. Within the context of the new nation state of Pakistan, numerous legal reforms were implemented to the benefit of the Sunni Muslim majority, although the rights of individuals drawing from minority religious groups were largely unimproved. In 1978, General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq rose to power as the sixth President of Pakistan, and during his eleven years of leadership, numerous political and legal measures proved significantly harmful to women. Among such measures, the Hudood Ordinances (1979) enabled prosecution for zina crimes. Women in Pakistan continue to face harmful socio-cultural norms, which often relegate their duties to the sphere of the home, and limit their mobility in public. Acts of violence committed in the name of honor are also pervasive. In light of the increasing presence of Islamic militant groups, particularly in regions along the nation’s shared border with Afghanistan, access to education for women, as well as to the public sphere more broadly, is becoming increasingly constrained. HEALTH The total fertility rate in Pakistan was 3.3 births per woman in 2011. The maternal mortality ratio has been established at 260 deaths per 100,000 live births (2010), and the infant mortality rate is 70 deaths per 1,000 live births (2010). Women’s access to proper health care and services is significantly constrained by longstanding sociocultural constraints (ADB, 2008). EDUCATION While the total adult literacy rate in Pakistan is 55% (2009), literacy for adult males is 69% (2009), and 40% for adult women (2009). The ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education is 82% (2012), reflecting a persistent education gap. While a number of structural deficiencies exist, such as a lack of schools for girls in rural areas, access to education for girls is also hindered by the fact that families are hesitant to invest in their daughters’ education due to anticipated low returns (ADB, 2008). Education is also viewed as diminishing the amount of time available for girls to fulfill household responsibilities (ADB, 2008). WORK AND EMPLOYMENT In Pakistan, the labor force participation rate for men is 83.3% and 22.7% for women (2011). While women in are typically represented in subsistence and commercial agricultural production, they are less represented in other sectors, due to low levels of educational attainment, as well as discrimination in the labor market, derived from traditional gender roles and stereotypes (ADB, 2008). REPRESENTATION Pakistani women are represented in 21.1% of parliament (2012). In recent years, the Government of Pakistan has made significant strides towards increasing the representation of women in government bodies, including the implementation of the Local Government Ordinance of 2001, which reserves 33% of seats for women at the local government level, in addition to those women whom are directly elected (ADB, 2008). The later Legal Framework Order (2002) also reserves seats for women in 17% of national and provincial assemblies (ADB, 2008). The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka Population: 20.33 Million; Gender Inequality Index: 0.402 BACKGROUND Sri Lanka gained independence in 1948, ending successive waves of colonial intervention by the Portuguese, Dutch, and lastly the British- who united the country in 1815 as Ceylon (CIA, 2013). From 1983 to 2009, Sri Lanka was engulfed in civil conflict between the Sinhalese majority and Tamil separatist groups- namely the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), for which it continues to rebuild and reconcile from. It was within this context that women not only disproportionately experienced the burdens war, including innumerable instances of sexual abuse and violence, but also where they took on new responsibilities as men engaged in military activities. The tsunami which struck the island nation in 2004 further exacerbated the pre-existing displacement of people due to the conflict, and had detrimental effects on the livelihoods of women. Despite recent conflict and instability, women in Sri Lanka enjoy a more gender-progressive environment in comparison to the wider South Asia Region. Women benefit from increasing economic empowerment, greater degrees of access to education and healthcare, as well as low incidence of various forms of violence, such as dowry deaths, feticide, infanticide, and the general neglect of girls (ADB, 2008). HEALTH As of 2011, the total fertility rate was 2.3 births per woman. The maternal mortality ratio is 35 deaths per 100,000 live births (2010), and the infant mortality rate is 14 deaths per 1,000 live births (2010). Healthcare is widely available to Sri Lankan women, including antenatal and postnatal care (ADB, 2008). In spite of this, health programs in Sri Lanka have been cited for traditionally focusing on the wellbeing of mothers and children, ignoring other facets of the health of women and girls, including adolescent and occupational health, geriatric care, mental health, and the effects of gender based violence (ADB, 2008). EDUCATION The adult total literacy rate for Sri Lanka is 91% (2010). Total adult literacy rates for men and women are 93% and 90%, respectively (2010). The ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education is 101% (2011). Education policy in Sri Lanka has made significant strides in recent decades towards reducing gender inequality, and in 1998, compulsory education was mandated for children between the ages of 5 and 14 years (ADB, 2008). Unfortunately, poor implementation has meant that universal education has yet to be fully realized (ADB, 2008). WORK AND EMPLOYMENT The labor force participation rate for men in Sri Lanka is 76.3% (2011), with a much lower participation rate for women, 34.7% (2011). Women are becoming increasingly engaged in the garment industry and in overseas domestic labor, as a result of low productivity and incomes in the agricultural sector (ADB, 2008). REPRESENTATION Sri Lankan women are currently represented in 5.8% of parliament (2012). As described by the Asian Development Bank in 2008, studies have indicated that four major factors serve as constraints to the active participation of Sri Lankan women in politics, as well as to their broader entry into the political sphere: the gendered norm of male leadership; time constraints on women who already combine jobs, domestic tasks, and child care; a lack of money; and the prevailing climate of political violence (ADB, 2008, Pg. 7). References ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2001. “Country Briefing Paper: Women in the Republic of Maldives.” ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2007. “Maldives: Gender and Development Assessment.” ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2008. "Country Gender Assessment: Sri Lanka." Mandaluyong City, Phil.: Asian Development Bank. ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2008. “Releasing Women’s Potential Contribution to Inclusive Economic Growth. Country Gender Assessment: Pakistan.” Mandaluyong City, Phil.: Asian Development Bank. ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2010. “Overview of Gender Equality and Social Inclusion in Nepal.” Mandaluyong City, Phil.: Asian Development Bank. Aiken, J. 2003. Lessons from Nepal: Partnership, Privilege, and Potential. Wash. U. Global Stud. L. Rev., 2, 391. CIA (Central Intelligence Agency). 2014. The World Factbook, Maldives. Accessible: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mv.htm CIA (Central Intelligence Agency). 2014. The World Factbook, Nepal. Accessible: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/np.html CIA (Central Intelligence Agency). 2014. The World Factbook, Sri Lanka. Accessible: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ce.html GOI (Government of India). n.d. “Literacy and Level of Education.” Ministry of Home Affairs., Office of the Registrar & Census Commissioner, India. Accessible: http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_And_You/literacy_and_level_of_education.aspx UN CEDAW (United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women). 2003. “Consideration of reports submitted by States parties under article 18 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women - Combined initial, second and third reports of States parties, Bhutan.” UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 2013. Human Development Report 2013, The Rise of the South: Human Progress in a Diverse World. New York: UNDP. World Bank. 2005. “Afghanistan: National Reconstruction and Poverty Reduction — the Role of Women in Afghanistan’s Future.” Washington, D.C.: World Bank. World Bank. 2008. Whispers to Voices: Gender and Social Transformation in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Development Series, Paper No. 22. World Bank, 2013. Country Partnership Strategy for India, for the Period FY2013-2017. World Bank, 2013. Country Partnership Strategy Progress Report (CPSPR) for the Kingdom of Bhutan, for the Period FY11-14. Data Sources Population: World Bank Data Site Gender Inequality Index: UNDP Human Development Report, 2013 Total Fertility Rate: World Bank Data Site Maternal Mortality Ratio: UNDP Human Development Report, 2013 Infant Mortality Rate: UNDP Human Development Report, 2013 Adult Total Literacy Rate: World Bank Data Site Adult Male Literacy Rate: World Bank Data Site Adult Female Literacy Rate: World Bank Data Site Ratio of Girls to Boys in Primary and Secondary Education: World Bank Data Site Labor Force Participation Rate, Men: UNDP Human Development Report, 2013 Labor Force Participation Rate, Women: UNDP Human Development Report, 2013 Percentage of Women in Parliament: UNDP Human Development Report, 2013 APPENDIX Q Status of Laws on Particular Forms of Violence against Women and Girls in Each South Asian Country State-Sanctioned Legal Protections for VAW Across South Asia Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka Female Penal Code Penal Code Penal Code Penal Code Penal Code Civil Code Penal Code Penal Code Infanticide Excess Female n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Child Mortality Protection of Children from Sexual Offenses Act (2012), Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act Penal Code; (1976); Immoral Suppression of Traffic Prevention Act Vagrants Violence against (1986); Indecent Ordinance Women and Representation of Civil Code; Suppression of (1842); Brothels Children Act Women (Prohibition) Children's Act Prostitution Ordinance (2000, as Act (1986); the (1991); Ordinance (1889); amended, Information Penal Code; Kamaiya Labor (1961); Offence Penal Code; Civil Code (1977); 2003); Children Penal Code, Technology Act Child Sex (Prohibition of Zina Tsunami Special Juvenile Code Act (2013); Criminal (2000); the Juvenile Abuse Act Act) (2002); (Enforcement Provision Act (2005) Human Code Justice (Care and (2009) Child Labor of Hudood) (2005); Trafficking Protection of Regulation and Ordinance Employment of Deterrence and Children) Act (2000) Control Act (1979); Penal Women, Young Suppression Act [revised by the (2000) Code Persons and (2012); Juvenile Justice (Care Children Act Pornography and Protection of (No. 47) (1956) Control Act Children) Amendment (2012) Act (2006)]; The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (2009); Child Abuse Penal Code Penal Code; Kandyan Marriage and Child Marriage Child Marriage Divorce Act Elimination of Restraint Act (1929); Restraint Act (1952); Child Marriage Marriage Act Violence Against Prohibition of Child Law on the (1929);The Marriage Restraint Act of Bhutan, Women (EVAW) Marriage Act (2006); Protection Dissolution of Registration (1929); 1980 Law (2009); Civil Hindu Marriage Act of the Muslim Ordinance Dissolution of (Amended by Civil Code Code (1977); Shiite (1955); Parsi Marriage Rights of Marriages Act (1907); Muslim Muslim Marriage Personal Status and Divorce Act the Child (1939); Marriages and Marriages Act Amendment Law, Amended (1936); Dissolution of (1991) Christian Divorce Act (1939); Act of 1996) (2009) Muslim Marriages Act Marriage Act (1951); Age of (1939) (1872) Majority Ordinance (1865, amended Child Marriage 1989); Prevention and Penal Code; Control of Kandyan Law; Human General Law; Suppression of Trafficking Civil Code; Employment of Violence Ordinance Human Women, Young Against Women (2002); the Trafficking and Persons and and Children Penal Code; Pakistan Law Countering Anti- Transportation Children Act Act,(2000 as Child Care Suppression of Abduction and Immoral Traffic Human (Control) Act (2003); amended, and Prostitution Human Trafficking Prevention Act (1986) Trafficking (2007); Foreign Convention on 2003); Human Protection Ordinance (2008) Act (2013) Employment Preventing and Trafficking Act of 2011 (1961); Act (1985); Combating Deterrence and Prevention of Labor Act Trafficking in Suppression Act Anti-Women (1991) Women and (2012) Practices Children for (Criminal Law Prostitution Act Amendment) (2005) Trafficking Act 2011 Criminal Law n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a Amendment n/a Honor Crimes Act (2004) Penal Code; Suppression of Violence Against Women Elimination of and Children Penal Code Penal Code; Criminal Violence Against Act (2000, as (amended in Law Amendment Act Penal Code Civil Code Penal Code Penal Code Women (EVAW) amended 2003); 2004) (2013) Law (2009) Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Act Non-partner (2010) Sexual Violence Protection Suppression of Sexual Harassment of Against Violence Labor and Women at Workplace Gender Equality Harassment of Against Women n/a Employment (Prevention n/a Act (2006); Women at the Penal Code and Children Act (2007) Prohibition and Civil Code Workplace Act Act (2000, as Sexual Redressal) Act (2013) (2010); Penal amended 2003) Harassment Code Penal Code; Code of Criminal Procedure; Suppression of Violence Penal Code Against Women *Specific n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a and Children provisions on Act (2000, as custodial rape. amended 2003); Torture and Custodial Death (Prohibition) Act, 2013 Custodial Violence (Sindh) Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Act (2013) *Only Domestic applicable to Prevention of Elimination of Domestic Domestic Violence Protection of Women Domestic Sindh province; Domestic Violence Against Violence Violence (Crime (Prevention and from Domestic Violence (Baluchistan) Violence Act Women (EVAW) Prevention & Punishment Protection) Act Violence Act (2005) Act (2012) Domestic (2005); Penal Law (2009) Bill (2013) Act) (2009) (2010) Violence Code (Prevention and Protection) Bill (2014) *Only applicable to Intimate Partner Baluchistan Violence province. Hindu Married Divorce Act of 1869 Women's Right Dissolution of (amended by Divorce to Separate Muslim Amendment Act, Residence and Marriages Act 2001); Muslim Maintenance Marriage Act (1939); Muslim Women (Protection of Act (1946); of Bhutan, Christian Marriage and Rights on Divorce) Married 1980 Divorce Act Divorce Act Act (1986); Hindu Family Act Civil Code (1977) Women's (Amended by Civil Code (1869); (1951); Marriage Act (1955); (2000) Property Act Marriage Prevention of Maintenance Hindu Adoption and (1874); Amendment Anti-Women Act, No. 37 Maintenance Act Domestic Act of 1996) Practices (1999) (1956); Special Violence (Criminal Law Marriage Act (1954); (Prevention and Amendment) Commission of Sati Protection) Act Act (2011) Maltreatment of Prevention Act (1987) (2010) widows/Divorced Protection of the Rights of the Maintenance and Elders Act (No. Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 9 of 2000); Senior Citizens Act Act (2006) Maintenance (2007) Act, No. 37 Elderly Abuse (1999) APPENDIX R Legal Systems in South Asian Countries The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is an extremely diverse nation-state within South Asia, and has endured successive waves of changing governance, war and conflict over the past several decades. Rule of law in Afghanistan is certainly reflective of this recent history, having been previously described by the United States Institute for Peace as “…a patchwork of differing and overlapping laws, elements of different types of legal systems, and an incoherent collection of law enforcement and military structures (USIP, 2004, Pg. 1).” Three distinct, but overlapping sources of law are prevalent in Afghanistan: state- sanctioned law, Sharia (Islamic law), and customary law. STATE-SANCTIONED LAW Following the successive removal of the Taliban government in 2001, the Afghan Constitution (2004) was ratified, which inherently stipulates gender equality for all citizens. The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is also a signatory party to CEDAW, which was signed under previous governance, on August 14, 1980, without reservations. The Civil Code of 1977 governs matters related to divorce and child custody, and allows for men to easily divorce women (HRW, 2012 ). The Penal Code of 1976, while applicable to all citizens, is particularly problematic in that Articles 426 and 427 cover matters related to ‘zina’ crimes. Zina, referring to adultery, or more broadly, extramarital sexual activity, is a punishable offense under the Penal Code. Zina crimes serve as a significant impeding factor for women seeking justice in light of sexual violence (HRW, 2012). The Juvenile Code (2005) specifically aims to provide protections for children, although it does not contain any articles regarding sexual abuse, exploitation or forced marriage (UNICEF, 2008). While current issues exist in Afghan law, as described with regard to the Civil and Penal Codes, the Elimination of Violence Against Women (EVAW) Law (2009) was a monumental step, as it prescribes criminal penalties for a plethora of crimes against women, including child and forced marriages, as well as domestic violence. Unfortunately, the law is inadequately enforced (HRW, 2013). Standing in sharp contrast to the gains envisioned under EVAW, the Shiite Personal Status Law (2009) contains a number of provisions which are harmful to women, including stipulations which allow husbands to end financial support to wives who do not fulfill sexual “duties,” and provides child custody to fathers (International Crisis Group, 2013). Matters regarding human trafficking are chiefly governed by the Law Countering Abduction and Human Trafficking (2008). SHARIA LAW Sharia law, of the Hanafi school, is generally applicable to the country’s Sunni Muslim majority, as well as the Shia minority, and may be deferred to in civil courts and within customary law mechanisms. Article 130 of the Afghan Constitution (2004) officially defers to Hanafi jurisprudence when no law can be found which is applicable to a matter in court. Additionally Article 131 of the constitution stipulates that for personal matters, when no applicable law may be found, Shia law and jurisprudence may be applied. It must also be noted that the aforementioned Civil Code of 1977 is understood to have effectively codified Hanafi law. CUSTOMARY LAW Outside of urban spaces in Afghanistan, disputes (including those related to land, property, family and crime) are regularly settled through local councils, known in Pashto as jirga, or in Dari, shura (World Bank, 2005). In Pashtun, as well as in many other communities in Afghanistan, justice is based on a restorative model, rather than a retributive model as utilized in Western legal models (ILF, 2004). Within the context of these customary systems, due to long standing patriarchal values which contribute to the low status of women and their commodification, women may be exchanged amongst families to settle outlying disputes (World Bank, 2005). These practices are often categorized respectively as baad (the giving of a girl to another family) and baadal (intermarriage of daughters between two families) (HRW, 2012). ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Women victims of violence in Afghanistan often do not bring forward their cases, due to “cultural restraints social norms and taboos, customary and religious beliefs relegating women to subordinate position, fear of social stigma, exclusion and, at times, even threat to life (UNAMA, 2012, Pg. 24).” Assuming women have access to state judicial mechanisms; access to justice for women in Afghanistan is also significantly hindered by (1) the politicization and gender-bias of the judiciary, (2) the weakness of the formal legal system, and (3) a lack of clarity surrounding applicable law (Choudhury, 2008). Compounding such issues, women are strongly underrepresented in the Afghan judiciary system (Choudhury, 2008). The Government of Afghanistan maintains a number of institutions to assist women facing violence, including public prosecutors, Family Response Units with the Afghan National Police, the Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission, and the Department of Women’s Affairs. UNAMA (2012) has indicated that comprehensive official statistics on the number of reported and registered incidents and cases of VAW were not available, although UNAMA/OHCHR recorded 1,211 complaints of VAW which were registered with police, in the calendar year of March 21, 2010 to March 20, 2011 (UNAMA/OHCHR, 2011). The People’s Republic of Bangladesh Bangladeshi women are subject to significant inequalities as a result of the current legal system. Following the partition of British India and formation of Pakistan in 1947, Bangladesh inherited a colonial legal framework, which features a personal law system, affording different rights to individuals based on their religious affiliation. Numerous recent legal provisions seek to strengthen the position of women under formal law. Outside of formal judiciary systems, many disputes are handled through traditional mechanisms of dispute resolution (shalish). Those social-cultural norms which are generally cross-cutting across the South Asia region are applicable in Bangladesh, particularly themes of personal and familial honor. As a requirement under Muslim law, Mahr is commonly exchanged as a part of marriage practice in Bangladesh, which carries additional significance for women, as it may serve as a form of financial protection for women following divorce or widowhood. STATE-SANCTIONED LAW Women in Bangladesh enjoy protections for gender equality under the Constitution of 1972, as well as under CEDAW, which was signed with a reservation, stating that the government is not bound to implement provisions which conflict with religious law: "The Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh does not consider as binding upon itself the provisions of article 2, [... and ...] 16 (1) (c) as they conflict with Sharia law based on Holy Quran and Sunna (UN, 2013).” While the Penal Code, 1860 (amended to Penal Code [Amendment] Act, 2004) contains provisions for rape (Section 375), it is particularly problematic in that it provides an exception for marital rape: “sexual intercourse by a man with his own wife, the wife not being under thirteen years of age, is not rape.” Bangladesh observes a system of personal laws which regulate marriage, divorce, and various aspects of family law. Specific provisions, originally codified under British India, exist for Hindus, Christians and Muslims. With specific regard to Hindu Personal Law, most law is uncodified, and very little reform has been implemented (standing in stark contrast to Muslim Personal Law, applicable to the majority of citizens) (HRW, 2012). While Hindu women cannot officially file for divorce under law, under the Hindu Married Women’s Right to Separate Residence and Maintenance Act of 1946 they may be entitled to separate residence and maintenance (HRW, 2012). The more recent Hindu Marriage Registration Bill, 2012 officially allows for the registration of Hindu marriages, thereby granting additional protections under law. For Christian citizens, the Christian Marriage Act of 1872 chiefly governs matters related to marriage, including registration. Under the Divorce Act of 1869, Christians may file for divorce, primarily based upon the grounds of adultery: men can divorce their wife based on adultery, and women may divorce their spouse based on adultery as well as another act, such as incest, rape or cruelty (HRW, 2012). The Married Women’s Property Act (1874) defines a woman’s earnings as being separate from matrimonial property (Pereira, 2002 Pg. 51). Additionally the act requires men to provide alimony to their separated or divorced wife if she is deemed “chaste” (Pereira 2002 Pg. 51). For the majority of Bangladeshis, Muslim Personal Law applies. Similar to other countries in the region which have a Sunni majority, much of the law has effectively codified Sharia drawn from the Hanafi school. The Muslim Family Laws Ordinance (1961) places stipulations on the practice of polygamy, and prescribes procedure for the execution of divorce (HRW, 2011; BLAST, 2009). In the area of marriage and divorce, several additional laws are applicable. The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act (1939) enables women to seek divorce through courts (HRW, 2011). The Muslim Marriages and Divorces (Registration) Act of 1974 requires marriages and divorces to be registered. A number of other key acts apply to all citizens, regardless of religious affiliation, which aim to protect the rights and livelihoods of women and girls:  Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929: Sets minimum age of marriage to 21 for men, and 18 for women.  Dowry Prohibition Act, 1980: Prohibits the practice of dowry.  Suppression of Violence Against Women and Children Act 2000 (as amended, 2003): Includes severe punishments for acts of violence against women (the death penalty is prescribed for incidents of dowry-related violence), which are critiqued as being so severe that they prevent women from filing cases, or inversely, women are incentivized to file wrongful suits (Ali, 2009). The act was amended in 2003 to include provisions regarding sexual abuse and dowry, amongst other forms of violence (Ali, 2009).  Acid Control Act 2002; Acid Crime Prevention Acts 2002: Restricts the sale of acid, prescribes punishments for offenders, and aid for victims.  Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Act, 2010: Includes a holistic definition of domestic violence, including economic aspects (HRW, 2011).  Human Trafficking Deterrence and Suppression Act, 2012: Supersedes components of the Women and Children Repression Prevention (Amendment) Act 2000 related to trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation or involuntary servitude (Department of State, 2012). Expressly prohibits all forms of human trafficking and prescribes punishments (Department of State, 2012).  Pornography Control Act, 2012: Restricts the production and distribution of pornographic materials. Prescribes specific punishments for the possession and production of child pornography.  Children Act, 2013: Legally defines childhood as being under the age of 18, and provides protections for children from various forms of labor exploitation (ILO, 2013).  Torture and Custodial Death (Prohibition) Act, 2013: Prohibits the torture of detainees by custodial staff. INFORMAL JUSTICE Informal village-based justice systems, known as shalish, are prevalent in Bangladesh. Shalish are advantageous in that they are more easily accessible than formal justice mechanisms, but disadvantage women in that they are typically comprised of male elders, and similar to other informal justice mechanisms, lack government oversight and codified standards (HRW, 2012). It has been noted that women often utilize the shalish to settle disputes regarding mahr, or maintenance payments (HRW, 2012). Overall, many facets of VAW are handled through the shalish system, making it increasingly difficult to monitor enforcement (BLAST, 2009). ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Limited data on officially recorded crimes of VAW is available from the Bangladesh Police, although it is not particularly descriptive.1 The Kingdom of Bhutan The Kingdom of Bhutan’s legal system has been progressively developed since the 1600s, and is heavily based upon traditional Buddhist principles. Overall, the status of women is outwardly perceived as being more progressive than other countries in South Asia, and more recent general acts of law serve to continue to improve the status of women. While there is a perceived wider degree of equality in the division of labor in rural Bhutan, the status of urban women seems roughly to mirror that observed in other parts of the South Asia region (CEDAW, 2003). With regard to inheritance, land is most often transferred in a matrilineal fashion, particularly in western and central Bhutan, and amongst some ethnic groups in the eastern part of the country (CEDAW, 2003). Inversely, land is observed to be transferred in a patrilineal fashion in the southern, as well as various eastern regions of the country (CEDAW, 2003). Unlike in many parts of the region, dowry is not customary in Bhutan (U.S. Dept. of State, 2010). STATE-SANCTIONED LAW Women are provided with key protections under state sanctioned law, and gender equality is enshrined in Provision OM of Thimzhung Chhenpo (the Supreme Laws of Bhutan) and Section 3 of the Civil and Criminal Procedure Code, 2001. Bhutan has also signed CEDAW, without reservations. A number of key legislative acts over the last few decades have sought to improve the status of women. The Marriage Act of Bhutan, 1980 covers marriage, separation, adultery, divorce and child custody (CEDAW, 2003). The act also protects an individual’s right to select their own partner, and per the Marriage Amendment Act of 1996, sets the minimum age of marriage to 18 for both men and women (CEDAW, 2003). The Rape Act (1996) amends sections of the Marriage Act of Bhutan (1980) relating to rape, defining the offense as “sexual intercourse with a person under any of the following circumstances: without his/her consent; use of any force; or with his/her consent when the consent is obtained by putting him/her in fear of death or of hurt (Ba 2.1.1),” and prescribes punishment for the offender, as well as compensation for victims (CEDAW, 2003). The Child Care and Protection Act (2011) provides protections for children from sexual exploitation, and defines the legal age of consent as 16 years for boys and girls (U.S. Dept. of State, 2013). Prior to 1985, women who married non-Bhutanese nationals were not able to bestow citizenship upon their children. The Bhutan Citizenship Act (1985) amends the previous matter, and provides men and women the equal right to “acquire, change or retain their nationality (CEDAW, 2003).” 1 See publicly available data from the Bangladesh Police: ‘Comparative Crime Statistics, 2002 -2012,’ http://www.police.gov.bd/Crime-Statistics-comparative.php?id=208). Regarding inheritance, the Inheritance Act (1980) ensures equality for men and women to inherit property; the Land Act of 1979 enables land to be registered in the name of women and prevents a spouse from selling land without ownership, while the Loan Act of 1981 enables women to obtain loans and mortgages (not including minors) (CEDAW, 2002). Additionally, the Labor Employment Act (2007) addresses sexual harassment in the workplace (U.S. Dept. of State, 2010). The recent Domestic Violence Prevention Bill (2013) defines domestic abuse as “…any unlawful act, omission or behavior which results in physical, sexual, emotional, verbal, psychological or economic abuse,” prescribes procedures for managing instances of domestic violence, and stipulates that a Women and Child Protection Unit/desk must be maintained at all police stations (Bhutan, 2013). These desks must be staffed by at least one police staff with expertise in the area of domestic violence (Bhutan, 2013). ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Within the area of law enforcement, the Police Act (1980) affirms the recruitment of women in the police forces, and the Prison Act (1982) provides protections for, and provisions with regard to the treatment of women and girls when imprisoned (CEDAW, 2003). Official crime statistics on violence against women are available from the National Statistics Bureau of Bhutan.2 The Republic of India As a result of British colonialism, India possesses an inherited system of Personal Laws. Protections for women are specifically provided under the Penal Code, as well as under numerous other special acts. Due to recent high profile incidents, violence against women has been brought to the forefront of discussion and debate within Indian society and the judiciary system. Owing to the vast level of diversity present in India, there are observable variations in socio-cultural norms, such as the perceived presence of matrilineal culture in South India (Kerala and Karnataka) and the Northeastern States. Many contextual themes are cross-cutting throughout the country, such as understandings of personal, familial, and community honor. STATE-SANCTIONED LAW The Constitution of India came into effect on January 26, 1950, and confirms equality for all citizens, regardless of gender. India has ratified the CEDAW convention, although it maintains several declarations, as well as a reservation.3 Most notably, the Government of India holds the position that it is not practical to mandate the compulsory registration of marriages in such a vast country, which features 2 Please see the Bhutan Statistical Yearbook (2012): http://www.nsb.gov.bt/publication/files/pub10pp3748yo.pdf 3 India holds the following declarations pertaining to CEDAW: "i) With regard to articles 5 (a) and 16 (1) of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, the Government of the Republic of India declares that it shall abide by and ensure these provisions in conformity with its policy of non-interference in the personal affairs of any Community without its initiative and consent.” ii) With regard to article 16 (2) of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, the Government of the Republic of India declares that though in principle it fully supports the principle of compulsory registration of marriages, it is not practical in a vast country like India with its variety of customs, religions and level of literacy (UN, 2013).” Additionally, India holds one reservation: "With regard to article 29 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, the Government of the Republic of India declares that it does not consider itself bound by paragraph 1 of this article (UN, 2013).” significant diversity of customs and religions, as well as varying degrees of literacy amongst the population.4 The Indian Penal Code of 1860 covers most forms of violence against women, although Section 375 inherently excludes marital rape from the penal code.5As previously indicated, a system of personal law, covering most matters of family law, is maintained for Indian citizens. As such, separate legal protections exist for Hindu, Christian, and Muslim citizens. For Christians, matters pertaining to marriage and divorce are generally covered by the Indian Christian Marriage Act (1872) and the Divorce Act (1869). Later amendments to the Divorce Act, via the Divorce Amendment Act (2001) remove some of the discriminatory provisions which increase the difficulty for Christian women to obtain a divorce. Per the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act (1937), Sharia law of the Hanafi school is applicable to Muslim citizens. The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act (1939) stipulates the requirements for women to seek divorce, and the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act (1986) dictates that a husband is only obliged to return mahr, and provide maintenance during the period of iddat (Cossman and Kapur, 1993). As such, under Muslim Personal law, women are not guaranteed maintenance after this period. A plethora acts govern matters of family law for India’s Hindu majority, as well as Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs, who also fall under the purview of Hindu Personal Law. The Hindu Marriage Act (1955) provides grounds for divorce, and the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act (1956), later amended by the Personal Laws (Amendment) Act of 2010, grants married women equal rights of adoption (UNFPA, 2013). The law also provides grounds on which women may seek maintenance, and provides guidelines for determining the appropriate amount of maintenance. The Hindu Succession Act (1956) formalized procedures for inheritance and ensured a right to inheritance for women, but did not provide them with coparcener6 status (Deininger et. al 2010). The law has been subsequently amended in a number of states to ensure that daughters receive coparcener status (Deininger et. al 2010). Outside of the sphere of personal law, numerous other key acts apply to all citizens, regardless of religious affiliation, which aim to protect the rights and livelihoods of women:  The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929: Sets the minimum age of marriage to 21 for men, and 18 for women.  The Special Marriage Act, 1954: Regulates marriages (and the registration thereof), divorces, and maintenance taking place outside the sphere of personal law.  Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956: Main legislative piece for addressing human trafficking, although it focuses on the trafficking of women and girls with regard to prostitution ‘as an organized means of living (NHRC).’  Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961: Effectively prohibits the practice of dowry.  Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986: Prohibits the indecent representation of women “through advertisements or in publications, writings, paintings, figures or in any other manner and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.”  Commission of Sati Prevention Act, 1987: The law serves to prohibit the act of sati, or the ritual self-immolation of widows. 4 Ibid. 5 Indian Penal Code, 1860 covers the following offenses: Rape (Sec. 376); Kidnapping & abduction for specified purposes (Sec. 363 - 373); Homicide for dowry, dowry deaths or their attempts (Sec. 302/304-B); Torture - both mental and physical (Sec. 498-A); Assault on women with intent to outrage her modesty (Sec. 354); Insult to the modesty of women (Sec. 509); Importation of girl from foreign country (up to 21 years of age) (Sec. 366-B); Section 376A: Prohibits rape of a woman by her separated husband (NCRB, 2012). 6 A coparcener refers to “A person to whom an estate descends jointly, and who holds it as an entire estate; a person who has become a concurrent owner as a result of descent (Garner, 2009).”  Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: Provides protections against the sexual exploitation of members of scheduled castes and tribes.  The Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Act, 1994 (Amended to the Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Amendment Act, 2002): Prohibits sex selection, before and after conception, and regulates pre- natal diagnostic techniques for the prevention of female feticide.  Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005: Defines domestic violence and civil reliefs (Lawyers Collective, 2012). Extends protections to all individuals in domestic relationships- not simply those in marital relationships (Lawyers Collective, 2012). Additionally, the act contains a stipulation intended to prohibit women from being forced out of their home (Lawyers Collective, 2012).  Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012: Punishes “penetrative and non- penetrative sexual assault and aggravated forms of both of these types of sexual assaults” against minors (UNFPA, 2013 Pg. 122). The law is considered problematic in that a child is defined as being under 18 years of age, thus technically criminalizing consensual sexual activity amongst minors (UNFPA, 2013).  Criminal Law Amendment Act, 2013: Amongst other significant improvements, the law mandates punishment for public servants who fail to record information on sexual harassment or rape, prescribes medical examination procedures for victims of sexual assault, and criminalizes acid attacks, voyeurism and stalking (Kapur, 2013). In addition to other shortcomings, the law specifically does not prohibit marital rape (Kapur, 2013)  The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013: Defines sexual harassment, prescribes protections and outlines structures for the redress of complaints. The act has yet to come into force (Kapur, 2013). INFORMAL JUSTICE Various forms of non-state dispute justice mechanisms exist, particularly in rural parts of Northern India, at the panchayat level: Khap panchayats are prevalent in rural areas of Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh, and Jaati panchayats are also ubiquitous in the region (AALI, 2012). These institutions punish community members for digressing from accepted socio-cultural norms, such as romantically engaging with, or marrying unapproved partners (such as from another caste group). Khap panchayats, the extra- legal mediation bodies of the Jat communities, are often highlighted for their diktats, which have “ordered murders, public rapes, and other criminal acts against people who have exercised their constitutional rights against the will or traditions of the Jat community (AALI, 2012 Pg. 116).” Similarly, the Jaati panchayats, organized around caste or village, have committed similar acts (AALI, 2012). ADDITIONAL INFORMATION The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) of the Ministry of Home Affairs maintains statistics on crime against women. These crimes are officially categorized into two main groups: those crimes which are subject to statutory law of the Penal Code, and those which are subject to the special & local laws (NCRB Report, 2012, Chapter 5). Across all 28 states and 7 union territories, India maintains 85,462 female civil police (including district armed police), with Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu maintaining the highest numbers (NCRB Crime in India Statistics, 2012). As such, female officers constitute 6.5% of India’s total police force (1,298,944 personnel) (NCRB Crime in India Statistics, 2012). The Republic of Maldives The Maldives maintain a state-sanctioned system of law which observes compliance with Shariah in most aspects of family law, personal relations, and criminal justice, while common law is observed in areas of business and civil matters. The use of flogging as a punishment for those convicted of zina crimes have led to calls for legal reform by the international community. Emerging challenges in Maldives’ legal system include provisions which regulate children’s care, equitable right to property, and marital laws- particularly in light of increasing divorce rates (ADB, 2001). While women in the Maldives experience many of the other social norms observed throughout the region, the country is thought to be unique in that son preference is believed to be almost non-existent, and divorce is indicated to be a more acceptable practice than in neighboring countries (ADB, 2001). Although Maldivians tend to marry at young age (often as young as 15 years), most select their own marriage partners- although parental consent must be obtained (ADB, 2001). STATE-SANCTIONED LAW The Constitution of the Republic of Maldives (2008) inherently affords protection for women, although the observed Sharia law in its current form, disadvantages women in several ways. Maldives has also ratified CEDAW, with one reservation, which indicates that Sharia ultimately governs all marital and family relations in the country.7 In Maldives, it is prescribed that women will have a legal guardian at all stages of life, as stipulated by the laws of Islam (ADB, 2001). Per Family Law and other regulations, the male guardian has the right to provide permission for their daughter to marry, although in instances where this is denied, a judge may hear the case and provide permission when there are no substantial objections. In spite of progressive marriage practices, marriage between Maldivian women and non-Muslim men is prohibited. Children resulting from such relationships are considered illegitimate, thus having implications for rights to inheritance. Polygamy is permitted under Family Law, per the Family Act (2000), which limits a man to four wives. Family Law also includes provisions which enable women to file for judicial divorce. The process of divorce is considered to be simple, although men are more easily able to obtain divorce (ADB, 2001). Maldivian women (married and unmarried) possess a right to their own property, although in accordance with Shariah, men inherit twice that of a woman (ADB, 2001). While discriminatory laws exist, it is noted that in practice that property is typically divided equally amongst female and male heirs, unless requested otherwise. State owned land belonging to individuals is divided equally among heirs. Premarital sex is prohibited in Maldives (ADB, 2001). Comparable to other nations in South Asia which utilize Sharia law, such as Afghanistan and Pakistan, premarital sex is punishable as a zina offense. Those convicted as having committed a zina crime, almost always a woman, are typically subject to public 7 “... 2. The Government of the Republic of Maldives reserves its right to apply article 16 of the Convention concerning the equality of men and women in all matters relating to marriage and family relations without prejudice to the provisions of the Islamic Sharia, which govern all marital and family relations of the 100 percent Muslim population of the Maldives (UN, 2013).” lashings. While the official age limit for receiving adult punishments is 18, one exception to this stipulation is if a woman has a child; a young victim of sexual violence who is pregnant may subsequently subject to public lashings (Alder & Polk, 2004). For individuals convicted of punishments under the age of 18, punishments are typically delayed until they reach the age. As it is unusual to procure four witnesses, convictions of zina cases are typically confession based. In Maldives, rape is understood to constitute “forced zina,” also requiring four male wit nesses or a confession for proof of evidence. If a woman seeks recourse for rape or sexual violence, her accusations must be corroborated by either two men or four women; hence prosecution is unlikely (Alder & Polk, 2004). Women are unlikely to seek resource for these crimes in the first place, as the legal process may allow them to be victimized again by the culprit (Alder & Polk, 2004). It must also be noted that marital rape is not prohibited under Maldivian law. Births outside of wedlock are not considered proof of committing a zina crime, so unless the evidentiary requirements for conviction of zina are met (four male witnesses or a confession), the woman will be sentenced to one year of house arrest, and the child will be considered illegitimate under law. Men generally go unpunished for extra-nuptial births, as “the man involved can only be punished if he confesses and claims paternity or if there are four witnesses (which is highly unlikely) (ADB, 2001).” In instances of births outside of wedlock as a result of rape, a woman is not required to present witnesses. Paternity tests are not utilized as evidence, and thus only women are convicted for zina. While sexual activity outside of marriage may bring shame to one’s family, women convicted of such cri mes are typically not ostracized by their families, or larger society (ADB, 2001). The Republic of Maldives has recently passed significant laws which aim to mitigate violence against women: the Child Sex Abuse Act (2009), the Domestic Violence Act (2012), and the Anti-Human Trafficking Act (2013). While the earlier Law on the Protection of the Rights of Children (1991) prohibits the exploitation of children, including sexual offenses, and discourages child marriage, the Child Sex Abuse Act (2009) effectively codified child sex offenses and outlined significant criminal punishments (Department of State, 2010). Unfortunately, Article 14 of the law specifies that if an individual is legally married to a minor per Sharia law, offenses outlined in the law are not applicable (Department of State, 2010). The Domestic Violence Act (2012) is notable in that it defines domestic violence in a holistic fashion (encompassing physical, emotional, economic and other forms of violence) and provides various protection mechanisms. Unfortunately, acts of domestic violence, as defined in this piece of legislation, are not criminal offenses; nor is marital rape criminalized. Additionally problematic, necessary protection services and oversight mechanisms are hindered by a deficit of capacity and resources, hindering the overall implementation of the law (Hope for Women, 2012). The Anti-Human Trafficking Act (2013) effectively criminalizes human trafficking and prescribes punishments for those convicted, with longer prison sentences in cases where children are trafficked (Bosley, 2013). ADDITIONAL INFORMATION The Department of Judicial Administration of Maldives maintains official statistics from the justice sector, including various acts of violence against women.8 The Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal As a predominantly Hindu country which did not directly experience colonization, Nepal’s legal system features aspects of common law, as well as traditional Hindu law (Urscheler, 2012). The status of women in Nepal should also be observed against the backdrop of the Nepalese Civil War, which as in other conflict areas, served to shift to some extent the roles and responsibilities of women in society. Many of the key norms and contextual themes observed more broadly in South Asia may be observed in Nepal, although owing to the country’s rich cultural diversity, variations in social norms may be found across the largely rural nation. Observance of the caste system is pervasive, and in addition to influencing one’s choice of partner, it presents constraints to economic and social mobility (Aiken, 2003). As the majority of Nepalese citizens are reliant on subsistence farming, men often migrate for further economic opportunities, leaving women in charge of maintaining agricultural lands and households (Aiken, 2003). Additionally, although abortion is legal in Nepal as of 2002, the practice carries a significant social stigma in the country. STATE-SANCTIONED LAW Protections are provided for women under the Interim Constitution of Nepal (2007) and CEDAW, which was signed without reservations. Most areas of family law affecting women are covered under the Country Code (Muluki Ain), 1963, of which four core sections pertain to family law: (1) On Marriage, (2) On Husbands and Wives, (3) On Ancestral Property Division, and (4) On Women's Wealth and Personal Property (World Bank/DFID, 2006). Additionally, protections are provided under the Civil Rights Act (1955), which prohibits discrimination based on sex, and the 11th Amendment in the Civil Code-2020, which regulates inheritance, divorce, polygamy, abortion. Several recent legal measures have sought to improve the condition of women under Nepali law. The Kamaiya Labor (Prohibition Act) of 2002 outlaws bonded labor, and the more recent Domestic Violence (Crime & Punishment Act) of 2009 acknowledges both physical and psychological violence as being within the scope of domestic violence. Numerous protections are provided for women and girls under the Human Trafficking and Transportation (Control) Act (2007); Foreign Employment Act (1985); the Labor Act (1991); the Children's Act (1991) (which also provides numerous protections against various forms of child abuse); and the Child Labor Regulation and Control Act (2000). More recently, the Gender Equality Act (2006) repealed and amended discriminatory provisions in numerous pre-existing laws, and most namely, it strengthened property rights for women and establishes 8 Please see Maldives Justice Sector Statistics, 2009 and 2010: http://justice.gov.mv/jwe/index.php?option=com_joomdoc&view=documents&path=Downloads&Itemid=499 sexual violence as a punishable crime (Asia Foundation, 2010). With regard to elderly abuse, the Senior Citizens Act (2006) ensures maintenance for the elderly from family members and other designated care takers, and additionally ensures access to basic services. INFORMAL JUSTICE Systems of customary law and justice mechanisms are found in Janajati (indigenous), Muslim and other communities in Nepal. In the Yadav and Tharu communities, the Pancheti system is practiced, whereby villagers gather to solve community issues (International Alert, 2012). In Muslim communities, the Mulabi and Hazi mediate disputes in accordance with Sharia (International Alert, 2012).Comparable to other non-state justice mechanisms in South Asia, these systems provide some advantages (namely, they are low-cost and more accessible than state justice mechanisms), but may exclude women from adjudication processes. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION The Asia Foundation, in a 2010 report, indicates that women are often reluctant in reporting incidents of gender-based violence, due to ‘financial dependency, lack of education and fear of social exclusion,’ amongst other reasons (The Asia Foundation, 2010, Pg. 13). There often is also a dearth of proper facilities and services available for victims (including psychosocial counseling, legal mechanisms) (Asia Foundation, 2010). The Government of Nepal’s The Three Year Plan (2010-2013) includes objectives pertaining to the elimination of gender-based violence, and the National Plan of Action Against Gender Violence (2010) provides a framework for responding to, as well as preventing gender-based violence. Official police statistics are available, and the national Police Force also prescribes internal measures and inclusive policies for women in the national police force.9 The Islamic Republic of Pakistan Comparable to India and Bangladesh, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan possesses a legal structure inherited from the British colonial period, and thus features a system of Personal Law which contains specific legal provisions for several religious groups. While many legal protections exist for women, acts such as the Hudood Ordinances and Qisas and Diyat have historically posed significant harm. In Pakistan’s less densely populated tribal regions, customary judicial systems, similar to those found throughout neighboring Afghanistan, are a common form of dispute resolution. Cultural norms and religious rules are prominently influential in Pakistani society. As stated by Shaheen Sardar Ali, “Cultural norms and religious rules are just as potent a force, if not more, as legislative 9 See document, “Nepal Police, Gender Policy 2069,” for policies regarding gender in the police force (including staffing and operational policy). Available: http://www.nepalpolice.gov.np/images/documents/general_documents/en_gender_policy_2069.pdf See, “Nepal 16 Years Crime Data related to Women,” for official police statistics. Available: http://www.nepalpolice.gov.np/women-children-service-directorate.html enactment (Ali, 2000).” Many of the cross-regional norms in South Asia, including conceptions of familial honor and son preference, are observed within Pakistan, with some existing variation in rural and tribal areas, where an imbalance in gender relations is most prominent (ADB, 2000). Pakistan also features two unique forms of marriage practice, namely watta satta (‘an exchange marriage whereby a woman and her brother [or some other male relative] from one family wed a sister and brother from another family, usually around the same time’) and “two-sister” marriages (‘two sisters marrying two brothers (or other male relatives) from another household’) (World Bank, 2005 Pg. 27). STATE-SANCTIONED LAW Gender equality is enshrined in the Constitution of Pakistan (1973), where Article 25 stipulates that “There shall be no discrimination on the basis of sex.” Pakistan has also signed CEDAW, with a declaration indicating that the Government of Pakistan is ultimately subject to the provisions provided in the constitution.10 Protections for women and girls are also provided under the Penal Code of Pakistan. As noted, Pakistan observes a system of personal law, which is well developed for the Muslim majority, but for minority religious groups, such as Christians, few substantive changes have been implemented since the British colonial period, and Hindu personal law is wholly uncodified (Mahmood, 1990). Uncodified Muslim personal law governs most matters of family relations and inheritance (Mahmood, 1990). Under statutory law, which is based upon the principles of Sharia, women are not granted equal inheritance rights to men, but rather, they are entitled to inherit one-half of what is to be granted to men in similar relationships, and additional stipulations exist for widows and children (World Bank, 2005). Significant legislation under the purview of Muslim Personal Law includes the Muslim Family Law Ordinance (1961), which penalizes marriages for women under the age of 16 years, mandates the registration of marriages, and requires consent from both marrying parties (World Bank, 2005). The Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act (1939) is also significant, in that it provides provisions for the dissolution of marriages by women, protects a wife’s right to dower in instances of dissolution of marriage, and provides women the ‘option of puberty’ to repudiate marriages contracted for minors (World Bank, 2005). Sharia not only forms the basis for many of the laws applicable to Muslim citizens, but it is also applicable in federal Sharia courts, as maintained by the government of Pakistan. Personal Laws applicable to Christians, regarding matters of marriage, inheritance, and child custody, have not undergone review (Aurat Foundation, 2012). Amongst the laws applicable to Christians in Pakistan, the Christian Marriages Act (1872) covers matters regarding marriage (including registration), and the Christian Divorce Act (1869) regulates divorce. The latter act is particularly problematic in that it enables men to more easily divorce their spouse than women; men may divorce simply on the grounds of adultery (Aurat Foundation, 2012). While women are able to apply for divorce on the grounds of adultery, they must additionally prove another offense. 10 Pakistan included the following declaration with its accession to CEDAW: “The accession b y [the] Government of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan to the [said Convention] is subject to the provisions of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (UN, 2013).” Outside of the realm of personal law, a number of laws harmful to women have been enacted in recent decades. Under General Zia-ul Haq, the Hudood Ordinances (1979) were enacted, which effectively enabled prosecution for zina crimes (covering adultery and other extramarital sexual relations), punishable on account of a confession or four male adult witnesses. The later Protection of Women Act (2006) repealed many of the most oppressive aspects of the Hudood Ordinances with regard to zina. Amongst the changes, the act mandates the offenses of rape and fornication to be regulated by the Penal Code (Shirkat Gah, 2013). In spite of reform, the law is still problematic in that it defines adulthood as 16 years of age for girls, providing judges with the ability to declare the validity of under-age marriages (Shirkat Gah, 2013). The punishment of stoning also has not been removed from the Hudood Ordinances (Shirkat Gah, 2013). The Law of Evidence (Qanun-e-Shahadat) Order (1984) provides stipulations and a framework with regard to the competence of, and number of witnesses needed in a court case (per Article 17), and effectively discriminates against women with regard to financial and future obligations, as men are required to witness these forms of agreements. Also problematic, the Qisas and Diyat Ordinance (1990) allows for violent crimes (including murder) to be settled by affected families outside of court, thereby providing less protection to women in cases of honor-related crimes (Amnesty International, 1999). A number of general acts, applicable to all citizens, have improved the status of women throughout Pakistan:  Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929: Sets the legal age of marriage to 18 for men and 16 for women.  Suppression of Prostitution Ordinance (1961): Places restrictions on prostitution and punishes individuals for facilitating prostitution. Only applicable in the Punjab Province.  Dowry and Bridal Gifts (Restriction) Act of 1976 (Amended in 1980 by the Dowry and Bridal Gifts (Restriction) Amendment Ordinance): Makes dowry an offence and “imposed ceilings on permissible expenses of marriages and on the cost of marital gifts (Mahmood, 1990 Pg. 579).”  Prevention and Control of Human Trafficking Ordinance (2002): Prescribes penalties for the offense of trafficking women and children, compensation for victims and care for impacted individuals (ADB, 2008 Releasing Women’s Potential).  The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2004: The so-called ‘Honour Killings Act’ amended the Penal Code (primarily with regard to aspects of Qisas and Diyat) and Criminal Procedure to define honor killings as murder with penal punishments (Lari, 2011).  Protection of Women Act, 2006: Amends many of the most harmful provisions of the Hudood Ordinances with regard to zina (Butt and Zia, 2012). Also significant in that it defines rape as sexual intercourse with a woman under the age of 16, with or without consent (Shirkat Gah, 2013).  Protection Against Harassment of Women at the Workplace Act, 2010: Defines sexual harassment and prescribes procedures for addressing incidents.  Anti-Women Practices (Criminal Law) Amendment Act, 2011: Prohibits depriving a woman of her inheritance, marrying women to the Quran, forced marriages, and provides stipulations regarding the exchange of women for the settlement of disputes (Aurat Foundation, 2012).  Acid Control and Acid Crime Prevention Bill, 2011: Criminalizes acid crimes and prescribes financial aid for victims.  Criminal Law Amendment Act, 2011: Introduces more strict punishments for acid crime offenders than the previous bill.  Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Act, 2013: Defines domestic violence as being wholly inclusive of physical and psychological abuse, and prescribes punishments (CEDAW, 2013). This act is only applicable to the Sindh province.  Child Marriage Restraint Act, 2013: Prescribes punishments for underage marriages.This act is only applicable to the Sindh province (Hafeez, 2014).  Domestic Violence (Prevention and Protection) Act, 2014: Defines domestic violence as being inclusive of physical and economic abuse, and extends protections for this form of violence to domestic servants (Dawn, 2014). The act is critiqued for not prescribing penalties for abuses which do not full under the purview of the Pakistan Penal Code (Dawn, 2014). This act is only applicable to the Balochistan province. INFORMAL JUSTICE Particularly in the tribal areas, akin to much of rural Afghanistan, there exist a number of informal or customary judiciary systems, which while they may be seen as more accessible and cost-effective means of justice, tend to disadvantage women in many ways. Such informal justice mechanisms include the jirga, panchayat, and vadera/zamindar (landlords) (Lari, 2011). Such institutions are primarily staffed by men, and thus decisions tend to reflect a pro-male bias (Lari, 2011). Similarly, as in the customary legal institutions of Afghanistan, a decision may require that a woman be given in order to settle disputes (Lari, 2011). ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Although some officially recorded police statistics are available from the Gender Crimes Bureau, as it is common throughout the region, VAW cases in Pakistan are unlikely to be reported, and when reported, may not be handled seriously by police forces for treatment in official judiciary systems. Police may advise victims to reconcile with husbands and families in order to avoid shaming their families (Amnesty International, 1999). Regarding instances of karo-kari (honor killing), police often do not treat such matters with appropriate seriousness, and may improperly record or document such acts of violence (Lari, 2011). Additionally, women face a significant gender-bias within the courtroom, as well as a pervasive belief on behalf of the judiciary that defying traditional patriarchal structures is disruptive to society (Amnesty International, 1999). A significant issue in Pakistan with regard to the law is that there is very little awareness of applicable laws, both amongst legal professionals and average citizens. Regarding the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2004 and the Protection of Women (Criminal Law Amendment) Act 2006, two NCSW studies revealed low rates of legal literacy across society, including the public (particularly women), as well as the police and judiciary (Aurat Foundation, 2012). Additionally problematic is the fact that laws are not accessible to the majority of citizens, due to pre-existing high rates of illiteracy in the nation, as well as the fact that laws are most often in English (Aurat Foundation, 2012). The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka In a fashion similar to India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, Sri Lanka features a colonially derived legal system, stemming from successive periods of intervention by the Dutch and British. As such, the country utilizes a system of personal law, whereby different rights and privileges are delegated to citizens based on religious, ethnic, and geographic affiliation. Sri Lankan women are believed to inhabit a more gender-progressive environment than their regional counterparts. As a result of the increasing economic empowerment of women, gender relations within individual families, as well as in larger communities, are perceived to have become more equitable: “Families appear to have less control over the selection of spouses by daughters. Dowries have been overshadowed by income from employment. Sri Lanka is virtually free of dowry deaths, feticide, infanticide, and neglect of the girl child (ADB, 2008 Pg. 38).” Despite the increasing economic empowerment of women, they are still underrepresented in the Sri Lankan labor force, where they often work in tea production, garment making, and various forms of migrant labor. The situation of women in Sri Lanka must also be viewed against the backdrop of recent conflict. It is often the case in conflict-affected areas that gender relations shift; as men become engaged in military activities, women assume different responsibilities and opportunities, both within and outside the household. While this has certainly been the case in Sri Lanka, legal and policy changes have not been updated to reflect this (Abeysekera, 2003). For those women who experienced sexual abuse or violence during the Sri Lankan Civil War, their cases are often perceived “from the point of view of the ‘victimhood’ of women,” and social attitudes towards victims of the conflict “remain locked within traditional patriarchal moral codes (Abeysekera, 2003, Pg. 537).” As in many conflict-affected regions, the war in Sri Lanka fueled the sex-industry, and created numerous problems surrounding widowhood (Tambiah, 2004). STATE-SANCTIONED LAW Sri Lanka guarantees equality and protections for women, including affirmative action, under the Constitution of Sri Lanka (1978), as well as under CEDAW, which was signed without reservation. The Penal Code of Sri Lanka covers matters including rape (including custodial), sexual abuse, and sexual harassment, although marital rape is not illegal, barring instances where a married couple has been judicially separated. While General Law in Sri Lanka generally provides more gender equitable provisions for individuals, the personal laws, particularly in the area of family law, contain provisions which are harmful to women (ADB, 2008). Three main branches of personal law exist in Sri Lanka, namely Muslim Personal Law, Kandyan Law and Thesavalamai Law. For Muslims, the Muslim Marriage and Divorce Act, 1951 covers stipulations regarding child marriage, consent, dowry, polygamy, religious conversion for second marriage, maintenance during marriage and after divorce, and custody of children. For Muslim marriages in Sri Lanka, mahr (dowry) is typically given by the groom to the bride, and three modes of divorce exist: Fasah, Khula, and Mubarat. For individuals who fall under the purview of Kandyan Law, the Kandyan Marriage and Divorce Act (1952, amended 1995) defines the legal age of marriage to 18 years (Goonesekere, 2004). A number of recent acts exist to provide protections for women. The Prevention of Domestic Violence Act (2005) includes emotional abuse in defining violence against women, and provides the option of protection orders for victims. The Civil Procedure Amendment Act (2002, amending s. 495) enables women to serve as guardians for minor children in litigation matters (ADB, 2008). The Tsunami Special Provision Act (2005) includes provisions for preventing sexual exploitation, abuse and violence against girls (ADB, 2008). With regard to trafficking, the Employment of Women, Young Persons and Children Act (2003) prohibits the employment of individuals below the age of 14 (ADB, 2008). The Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution Act (2005) outlines trafficking of women and children for prostitution as a criminal offense, although the law has been criticized for inherently being more concerned with trafficking in the context of prostitution and associated matters, rather than firmly addressing the issues of internal trafficking and trafficking for overseas migrant work (ADB, 2008). A number of other laws provide specific protections for women and girls in Sri Lanka, at various stages in the lifecycle:  Vagrants Ordinance (1842): Classifies street prostitution as an offense (Women and Media Collective, 2010). This particular ordinance has been cited as being used by police to intimidate sex workers (Women and Media Collective, 2010).  Age of Majority Ordinance (1865, amended 1989): Establishes the age of majority – the age at which an individually is legally considered an adult – at 18 years.  Brothels Ordinance (1889): Criminalizes brothel keeping and related activities (Women and Media Collective, 2010).  Marriage Registration Ordinance (1907, amended 1995): Both parties must be of 18 years of age for a marriage to be considered valid (Skanthakumar, 2003).  Maintenance Act, No. 37 (1999): Ensures maintenance for children, adult offspring, disabled offspring, and spouses unable to maintain themselves.  Protection of the Rights of the Elders Act (No. 9 of 2000): Protects the rights of elders, including maintenance, and ensures access to services. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION It is generally believed that many barriers to justice exist for women in Sri Lanka, including a lack of seriousness on the part of public institutions to address individual VAW cases. Likewise, support services for victims face a dearth of resources. It is common for officials to improperly record incidences of domestic violence as ‘accidents,’ rather than appropriately categorizing them as punishable offenses (Wijayatilake and Guneratne, 2002). The Government of Sri Lanka maintains numerous initiatives to address violence against women, including the provision legal aid through the State Legal Aid Commission and the Ministry of Child Development and Women’s Empowerment, which operates counseling centers (ADB, 2008). It is also noted that essential support service providers, such as the Special Women’s Bureau and Women and Children’s Desks (located in police stations) as well as various NGO-sponsored crisis centers, face a serious dearth of resources (ADB, 2008). State-sanctioned mediation boards also deal with a number of disputes related to violence against women, including domestic violence (Kodikara et. al 2012). Such boards are often problematic in that the mediators (often well-respected individuals in a given village community) “lack understanding of the root causes of domestic violence and force a settlement which reinforces cultural attitudes towards domestic violence by either trivializing or dismissing such violence as common place and minor (Kodikara et. al 2012 Pg. 43).” Comprehensive sex-disaggregated data on the incidence of violence within the Sri Lankan context is not available (ADB, 2008). Such sex-disaggregated data is not maintained by hospitals, police stations, or courts (Wijayatilake and Guneratne, 2002). In spite of this, limited statistics are available from the Sri Lanka Police.11 11 Official Police statistics are available from Sri Lanka for 2011 and 2012: http://www.police.lk/index.php/crime-trends References Abeysekera, S. 2003. “Maximizing the Achievement of Women's Human Rights in Conflict- Transformation: The Case of Sri Lanka.” Colum. J. Transnat'l L., 41, 523. AALI (Association for Advocacy and Legal Initiatives). 2012. “Making Our Own Bed, and Then Lying in it – Decisive Women, Adamant Communities, Complicit State.” Negotiating Spaces – Legal Domains, Gender Concerns, and Community Constructs. Eds. Agnes, Flavia; Ghosh, Shoba Venkatesh; in association with Majlis Legal Center. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 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APPENDIX S List of Select Identified Organizations in South Asia Working on Violence against Women and Girls, by Country Organizations Sector Afghanistan 1 Action Contre La Faim Crisis and Disaster Settings 2 ActionAid Multi-sectoral 3 Afghan Women social and services organization (AWSSO ) Health, Youth and Education 4 Afghan Civil Society Forum-organization Multi-sectoral 5 Afghan friendship& cooperation Organization ( AFCO ) Crisis and Disaster Settings 6 Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission (Women's Rights Support Unit) Governance/Democracy 7 Afghan Women Training and Development Organization (AWTDO) Women's Economic Empowerment 8 Afghan Women and Children Rights Law Organization Legal/Governance 9 Afghan Women Association for Rehabilitation & Development AWARD Health, Youth and Education, Women's Economic Empowerment 10 Afghan Women Leaders Connect Multi-sectoral 11 Afghan Women Services and Education Organization (AWSE) Multi-sectoral 12 Afghan Women Skill Development Centre Multi-sectoral 13 Afghan Women Welfare & Development Organization Multi-sectoral 14 Afghan Women’s Resource Center Multi-sectoral 15 Afghan Women's Educational Center Multi-sectoral 16 Afghan Women's Mission Multi-sectoral 17 Afghan Women's Network Governance/Democracy 18 Afghanistan Capacity Development and Educational Organization Governance/Democracy 19 Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission Governance/democracy 20 Afghanistan Women 50% Campaign Governance/Democracy 21 Afghanistan Women Council Health, Youth and Education, Women's Economic Empowerment, 22 Afghanistan Women's Political Committee Governance/Democracy 23 Aga Khan Foundation Youth and Education, Governance/Democracy, 24 All Afghan women Union Women's Economic Empowerment 25 American Society for Muslim Advancement Multi-sectoral 26 Aria Services and Rehabilitation Organization for Afghanistan Multi-sectoral 27 AUS AID Multi-sectoral 28 AWRSA Afghan Women rehabilitation and Skill Building Association Youth and Education 29 AWWD Afghan women welfare department Multi-sectoral 30 BANO Women's Economic Empowerment 31 BVO Badakhshan Volunteer women organization Health, Women's Economic Empowerment 32 Cooperation and Coordination Commission Governance/Democracy 33 Cooperation Center for Afghanistan Multi-sectoral 34 Cordaid (Catholic Organisation for Relief & Development Aid) Crisis and Disaster Settings 35 Culture, Services and Development Organization Multi-sectoral 36 DFID Multi-sectoral 37 Educational Center for Women (ECW) Youth and Education 38 EVAW Comission Governance/Democracy 39 EWAO Empowering Women of Afghanistan Organization Multi-sectoral 40 Fayaz Foundation Governance/Democracy 41 Female Rehabilitation and Development Organization Governance/Democracy 42 Feminist Majority Foundation Youth and Education, Governence and Democracy, Womens Economic Empowerment 43 Flora Family Foundation Health, Education 44 Gateway Afghanistan Multi-sectoral 45 Gender Budgeting Unit, Ministry of Finance Governance/Democracy 46 Hagar International Youth and Education, Women's Economic Empowerment 47 HODA organization for development of Afghanistan Health, Youth and Education, Women's Economic Empowerment 48 Humanitarian Assistance for the Women and Children of Afghanistan (HAWCA) Multi-sectoral 49 International Development Law Organization (IDLO) Multi-sectoral 50 International Legal Foundation Crisis and Disaster Settings 51 International Medical Corps Multi-sectoral 52 International Organization for Migration (IOM) Governance/democracy 53 IWSAO Health, Youth and Education 54 Judiciary Governance/Democracy 55 Khorasan Legal Services Organization (KLSO) Governance/Democracy 56 Legal Aid Organization of Afghanistan Governance/Democracy 57 Legal and cultural services for Afghan women and Children LCSAWC Governance/Democracy 58 Madica Afghanistan women support organization Health, Governance/Democracy 59 Medica Afghanistan Multi-sectoral 60 Medica for Afghanistan Multi-sectoral 61 Ministry of Education Governance/Democracy 62 Ministry of Interior Governance/Democracy 63 Ministry of Public Health, Gender Department Health 64 Ministry of Religious Affairs (Ministry of Hajj and Awqaf) Governance/Democracy 65 Mnistry of Women Affairs - Department of Women Affairs Governance/Democracy 66 Noor Educational And Capacity Building Organisation (NECDO) Youth and Education 67 Open Society Governance/Democracy 68 Peace Windows Women Rehabilitation Organization for Afghanistan (PWWROA) Multi-sectoral 69 RAWA(Revolutionary Association of the women of Afganisthan) Crisis and Disaster Settings 70 Research and Cultural Center of Imam Shaibani (RCCIS) Multi-sectoral 71 Revival of professional skills for Afghanistan ROPSFA Health, Youth and Education, Women's Economic Empowerment 72 Roqia Center for Women's Rights, Studies and Education Youth and Education 73 RSSO Roshanee Social Service Organization Health, Youth and Education, Women's Economic Empowerment 74 Sayara Media and Communication Governance/Democracy, 75 Service education and capacity building organization for youth (SECOY) Women's Economic Empowerment 76 Shams Women’s Need and help Organization Multi-sectoral 77 Shuhada Organization Governance/Democracy 78 Skill Training And Rehabitation Society STRARS Health, Youth and Education 79 Suboot News Agency Media 80 supportive Organization For Poor Women Children Multi-sectoral 81 Swedish Committee for Afghanistan (SCA) Multi-sectoral 82 Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency Multi-sectoral 83 Takhar province women’s skills and handicrafts Association TPWSHA Women's Economic Empowerment 84 The Advocates for Human Rights Youth and Education 85 The Asia Foundation Multi-sectoral 86 Training Human Rights Association for Afghan women Multi-sectoral 87 UN Women Multi-sectoral 88 UNAMA/UNOPS Governance/Democracy 89 UNDP Multi-sectoral 90 UNFPA Health, Youth and Education, Governance/Democracy 91 Voice of Women Organization (VWO) Health, Women's Economic Empowerment 92 Wise Muslim Women Governance/Democracy 93 Wolesi Jirga Commission on Women and Human Rights Committee Governance/Democracy, 94 Womankind worldwide Youth and Education, Governance/Democracy 95 Women &Children Legal Research Foundation Multi-sectoral 96 women activity development program Multi-sectoral 97 Women and Children Legal Research Foundation Governance/Democracy 98 Women and Youths for Peace and Development Organization ( WAYPADO) Multi-sectoral 99 Women for Afghan Women Multi-sectoral 100 Women for Women International Health, Women's Economic Empowerment, 101 Women Health Service and Right Organization Health, Governance/Democracy 102 Women’s Unity for Rehabilitation Multi-sectoral Bangladesh 1 Academy for Educational Health, Youth and Education, Development (AED) Women's Economic Empowerment 2 Acid Foundation Bangladesh Health 3 Action Aid International - Bangladesh Multi-sectoral 4 Adrasha Samaj Seba Samiti Multi-sectoral 5 Ain-O-Salish Kendra Multi-sectoral 6 Association for Community Development (ACD) Crisis and Disaster Settings 7 ATSEC (Action against Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation of Children) Crisis and Disaster Settings;Media 8 Bangladesh Human Rights Advocacy Program (BHRAP) Governance/Democracy 9 Bangladesh Legal Aid Services Trust Governance/Democracy 10 Bangladesh Mahila Parishad Multi-sectoral 11 Bangladesh Mahila Parishad Governance/Democracy 12 Bangladesh Mahila Parishad (BMP) Governance/Democracy 13 Bangladesh Nari Progati Sangha (BNPS) Governance/Democracy 14 Bangladesh National Woman Lawyers' Association Governance/Democracy 15 Bangladesh Parliament Governance/Democracy 16 Bangladesh Shishu Adhikar Forum Media 17 BRAC (Research and Evaluation Division) Youth and Education 18 BRAC Development Institute - Centre for Gender and Social Transformation Youth and Education 19 BRAC University, James P. Grant School of Public Health Youth and Education 20 CARE Multi-sectoral 21 Center for Policy Dialogue Youth and Education 22 Centre for Women and Children Studies (CWCS) Multi-sectoral 23 Daily Sangbad Media 24 Youth and Education, Women's Dhaka Ahsania Mission (DAM) Economic Empowerment 25 doctorsbd.com Media 26 Gono Gagoran Kendra Media 27 Hotline Bangladesh (Asia) Media 28 ICDDRB Youth and Education 29 Integrated Community & Industrial Development Initiative (INCIDIN) Bangladesh Multi-sectoral 30 Kapotakkha Media 31 Khan foundation Governance/Democracy 32 MenEngage Alliance South Asia Youth and Education 33 Ministry of Information and Communication Governance/Democracy 34 Ministry of Law, Justice and Parliamentary Affairs (MOLI&PA) Governance/Democracy 35 Ministry of Women and Children's Affairs (MOWCA) Governance/Democracy 36 Nari Kalayan Samity Media 37 Narigrantha Probortana Media 38 NariPokhho Multi-sectoral 39 NORAD Multi-sectoral 40 Organization for Women's Development in Bangladesh Multi-sectoral 41 Oxfam GB Bangladesh Multi-sectoral 42 Red Bernet Multi-sectoral 43 Rehabilitation Centre for Prostitutes and Rootless Children PARC Multi-sectoral 44 Rights Jessore Multi-sectoral 45 Rupantar Media 46 STEPS Towards Development Governance/Democracy, 47 The Asia Foundation bangladesh Crisis and Disaster, Governance/Democracy 48 The Daily Sun Media 49 The Hunger Project Legal 50 The Institute of Governance Studies (IGS) Youth and Education 51 The Ministry of Expatriate Welfare Overseas Employments Multi-sectoral 52 The Monthly Computer Jagat Media 53 The Thengamar Mohila Sabuj Sangha (TMSS) Women's Economic Empowerment 54 UBINIG (Unnayan Bikalper Nitinirdharoni Gobeshona) Multi-sectoral 55 UNDP, ILO, UNFPA, WHO, UNAIDS, UN Women, UNESCO, UNICEF, IOM Multi-sectoral 56 Unnayan Shamannay (US) Youth and Education 57 Unnayan Shamannay (US) Youth and Education 58 USAID Multi-sectoral 59 USAID/Women’s Advancement and Gender Equality sub-group of the Youth and Education Local Consultative Group – Bangladesh 60 Winrock International Multi-sectoral Bhutan 1 Ministry of Education Youth and Education 2 National Commission for Women and Children Multi-sectoral 3 RENEW Multi-sectoral 4 UN Resident Coordinator's Office in Bhutan (UNICEF, UNFPA, UNDP) Multi-sectoral 5 Women and child protection division (Royal Bhutanese Police) Governance/Democracy India 1 Aalochana-Center for Documentation and Research on Women Research; Multi-sectoral 2 AASH-Hope of Kashmir Crisis and Disaster Setttings 3 Academy for Educational Development (AED) Multi-sectoral 4 Academy for Educational Development (AED) Multi-sectoral 5 Action Against Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation of Children and Women (ATSEC) Multi-Sectoral (anti-trafficking) 6 Youth and Education, Multi-sectoral, Women's Economic Empowerment, Action Aid International Governance/Democracy 7 Ahmedabad Women's Action Group (AWAG) Womens Economic Empowerment 8 Akshara Center Multi-sectoral 9 All Bengal Women's Union Health 10 All India Dalit Mahila Adhikar Manch marginalized communities; multi-sectoral 11 All India Democratic Womens' Association Governance/Democracy 12 All India Womens Conference Governance/Democracy 13 All India Women's Conference Governance/Democracy 14 Alternative for Rural Movement Rural Welfare 15 American Center for International Labor Solidarity (ACILS) Multi-sectoral 16 American Center for International Labor Solidarity (ACILS) Multi-sectoral 17 Ankuram Health 18 Anti-Slavery International Multi-Sectoral 19 Anveshi Research Center for Womens Studies, Hyderabad Research; Multi-sectoral 20 Anweshi Womens Counselling Center Health 21 Apnalaya Urban Development 22 Arpan Child Centered Approaches 23 Arz India Governance/Democracy; anti-trafficking 24 Asmita-Resource Center for Women Women's Empowerment, Multi-Sectoral 25 Association for Advocacy and Legal Initiatives Governance/Democracy 26 Astitva Health Sector 27 Bachpan Bachao Andolan Child Centered Approaches 28 Bangalore Political Action Committee Governance/Democracy, Private sector 29 Bengal Mass Education Society Youth and Educaton 30 Agriculture, Labor rights, Bharatiya Kisan Sangh Governance/Democracy 31 Bhoomika Women Economic Empowerment 32 Bhoomika Vihar Mutli-Sectoral (anti-trafficking) 33 Governance/Democracy, Health, Blank Noise Women's Empowerment 34 Brahmol Samaj Mahila Bhawan Womens Empowerment, Health 35 Breakthrough Youth and Education 36 Canvasm technologies (Tech Mahindra) Media 37 Care Multi-Sectoral 38 CEHAT (Center for Enquiring into Health and Allied themes) Health 39 Center for Equity for Women, Children and Families, TISS Governance/Democracy, Health, Research 40 Center for Feminist Legal Research Governance/Democracy 41 Center for Health and Social Justice Multi-sectoral 42 Center for Social Justice Multi-sectoral 43 Center for Women' Studies and Development, Punjab University Research; Multi-sectoral 44 Center for Women Studies, Aligarh University Research; Multi-sectoral 45 Center for Womens Development and Research (CWDR) Research; Multi-sectoral 46 Center for Womens Development Studies Research; Multi-sectoral 47 Center for Women's Studies and Development, Banaras Hindu University Research; Multi-sectoral 48 Centre for Social Research Governance/Democracy, Multi-sectoral, 49 Cents of Relief Womens empowerment (anti-trafficking) 50 Health, Legal Action Chetna (Governance/Democracy) 51 Chetna (Center for Health Education Training and Nutrition Awareness) Health 52 Circle of 6 IT 53 City Health and Welfare Association Health 54 Colalition Against Trafficking in Women Crisis and Disaster settings 55 Confederation of Indian Industries Private Sector 56 CORO (Committee for resource organizations) for literacy Youth and Education 57 Counsel to Secure Justice Child Centered Approaches 58 CREA Womens Empowerment, Health 59 Crime Against Women Cell Governance/Democracy 60 Crossover Foundation Governance/Democracy 61 Dasra Private Sector 62 Delhi Brotherhood Society Health 63 Delhi Commission for Women Governance/Democracy 64 Dev Kalpana Technologies IT 65 Development Alternatives Multi-sectoral 66 Durbar Mahila Samanwaya Committee Womens Empowerment 67 Educate Girls Youth and Education 68 Equal Community Foundation Youth and Education 69 Feminist Association for Social Action Research; Multi-sectoral 70 Forum Against Oppression of Women Governance/Democracy, Education 71 Freedom Firm Governance/Democracy, Legal Sector 72 Gana Unnayan Parshad Womens Empowerment 73 Gender at Work Labor 74 Gulabi gang Governance/Democracy (local level) 75 Guru Swayam Seva Sansthan Religious based ameliorative efforts 76 HAQ Center for Child Rights Governance/Democracy, Childrens rights 77 Hengasara Hakina Sangha Multi-sectoral 78 Human Rights Law Network Governance/Democracy 79 Human Rights Law Network Legal Action (Governance/Democracy 80 Impulse NGO Network’s Multi-sectoral 81 Impulse NGO Network’s Multi-sectoral 82 Health, Multi-sectoral, Indian Community Welfare Organization working with marginalized community 83 Indian Social Institute Research; Multi-sectoral 84 Indian Women Welfare Foundation Multi-sectoral; Governance/Democracy 85 Indira Kranthi Patham Women and Girls Empowerment 86 Initiatives of Women in Development Womens Economic Empowerment 87 Institute for Social Development Multi-Sectoral 88 Institute of Economic Growth, Delhi University Womens Economic Empowerment 89 Governance/Democracy, Gender Institute of Social Studies Trust sensitive economics and planning 90 Institute of Social Work Multi-sectoral 91 International Center for Research on Women Youth and Education, Multi-sectoral 92 International Justice Mission Governance/Democracy, Legal Sector 93 International Planned Parenthood Federation Health, Multi-sectoral 94 Jabala Womens Economic Empowerment 95 Jagori Multi-sectoral, Infrastructure 96 Jajnaseni Multi-Sectoral (anti-trafficking) 97 Jananeethi Multi-sectoral 98 Joint Action Council for women Governance 99 Joint Womens Program Governance/Democracy 100 Joint Women's Programme (JWP) Multi-Sectoral 101 Justice and Care Governance/Democracy 102 Women's Economic Empowerment, Kudhumbashree Governance/Democracy, 103 Lawyers' Collective Legal Action,Governance/Democracy 104 Lawyers Collective Women's rights initiative Health 105 Youth and Education, Love Commandos Legal Action (helplines and shelters) 106 Madras Christian Council of Social Service Mult-Sectoral 107 Youth and Education, Magic Bus India Foundation Youth Empowerment 108 Mahila Dakshata Samiti Multi-sectoral 109 Mahila Jan Adhikar Samiti Multi-Sectoral 110 Governance/Democracy, Mahila Samakhya Womens Economic Empowerment 111 Health, Governance/Democracy, Multi- Maitri sectoral 112 Majlis Governance/Democracy 113 Mamta Health 114 MAMTA-Health Institute for mother and child Health 115 Manav Seva Sansthan Crisis and Disaster Relief 116 Governance/Democracy Manushi (Accountability and Human Rights) 117 Maps4Aid Crisis and Disaster, Media 118 MARG (Muliple Action Research Group Multi-Sectoral 119 Men against violence and Abuse Multi-Sectoral 120 Must Bol Youth and Education 121 MV Foundation Health 122 Education, Legal Action, Myrada Governance/Democracy 123 Nari Adalat Governance/Democracy 124 Nari Raksha Samiti Governance/Democracy 125 National Alliance of Womens Organization Multi-sectoral 126 NationaL Domestic Workers Union Labor Rights 127 National Mission for Empowerment of Women, Ministry of Women and Child Development Governance/Democracy 128 Women's Economic Empowerment, Navjyoti India Foundation Multi-sectoral 129 Youth and Education, Womens Nirantar (A center for gender education) Empowerment 130 Northeast Network Multi-sectoral 131 Odanadi Seva Samsthe Multi-Sectoral (anti-trafficking) 132 OxfamIndia Governance/Democracy, Multi-sectoral, 133 Packard Foundation Health, Multisectoral 134 Palash Foundation Multi-sectoral (acid attacks) 135 Participatory Research in Asia (PRIA) Multi-sectoral 136 Pathfinder International Multi-sectoral 137 PCVC (International Foundation for crime prevention and Victim care Multi-sectoral 138 Pennurimai Iyakkam Multi-Sectoral 139 Health, Legal Action, Plan International Governance/Democracy 140 Plan International Multi-sectoral 141 Point of View Education 142 Population Council Health 143 Population Council Health, Education 144 Health, Education, Population Foundation of India Governance/Democracy 145 Women's Economic Pradan Empowerment, Governance/Democracy, 146 Prajnya Multi-sectoral 147 Prajwala Multi-sectoral 148 Pratidhi Governance/Democracy 149 Health, Governance/Democracy, Multi- Prayas Bharati Trust sectoral 150 Health, Legal Action, Prayatn Governance/Democracy 151 Prerana ATC Multi-Sectoral (anti-trafficking) 152 Rahi Foundation (recovering and healing from incest) Child Centered Approaches 153 Rescue Foundation Health 154 Research Center for Women's Studies, S.N.D.T Research; Multi-sectoral 155 Education, Legal Action, Rockefeller Foundation Governance/Democracy 156 Rupantar Health 157 Saarthak Women's Economic Empowerment 158 Saheli Womens Resource Center Health 159 Sahodari Foundation Multisectoral (transgender community) 160 Sakshi Multi-Sectoral 161 Sama Health, Youth and Education 162 Sambhali Trust, Jodhpur Womens Economic Empowerment 163 Womens empowerment, youth and Samvada education 164 Sanchetna-Community health and research center Health 165 SANGAMA Multi-Sectoral 166 SANGAT (South Asian Feminist Network) Multi-sectoral 167 Sangath (Goa) Health, Multi-sectoral 168 SANGRAM (Sampada Gramin Mahila Sanshta) Multi-Sectoral 169 Sanhita Gender Resource Center Multi-sectoral 170 Sanjivini Society for Mental Health Health 171 Sanlaap Multi-sectoral (anti-trafficking) 172 Sanlaap multi-sectoral; anti-trafficking 173 Sari Bari anti-trafficking 174 Save the Children Multi-sectoral 175 Save the Children Multi-sectoral 176 Multi-Sectoral, SEWA Bharat Womens economic empowerment 177 Shakti Shalini Multi-Sectoral 178 Youth and Education, Womens Economic Empowerment, Shakti Vahini Advocacy 179 Women's Economic Empowerment, Shared Hope International Health, Multi-sectoral 180 Sneha (Society for Nutrition, Education and Health Action) Health 181 Special Cells for Women and Children Governance/Democracy 182 Special Police Unit for Women and Children Governance/Democracy 183 Stop Trafficking Oppression and Prostitution of Children and Women (STOP) Multi-Sectoral (anti-trafficking) 184 Stree Adhar Kendra Multi-Sectoral 185 Multi-Sectoral, Womens economic Sutanutir Sakhyo empowerment 186 Swaadhar Multi 187 Swanchetan Society Health 188 Swanchetan Society Health 189 SWAYAM Multi-sectoral 190 Tarshi Health 191 Tata Steel Rural Development Authority Health 192 The Art of Living Foundation Health 193 The Resources Center for Interventions on Violence Against Women (RCI- VAW), Tata Institute of Social Sciences Governance and Infrastructure 194 The YP Foundation Youth and Education, Empowerment 195 Tibetan Womens Association Multi-sectoral 196 Women Economic Empowerment, Udyogini Renewable Energy 197 UN Women Multi-Sectoral 198 UNFPA Health, Education, Governance/Democracy 199 UNICEF Multi-sectoral 200 United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Multi-sectoral 201 United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Multi-sectoral 202 Urmul Trust Education, Legal Action 203 Vanangana Womens Economic Empowerment 204 Vigyan Foundation Multi-sectoral 205 Vigyan Foundation Multi-sectoral 206 Vimochana Multi-Sectoral 207 Vimochana Media, Infrastructure 208 Vodafone Foundation India Private Sector 209 Warlaw (Womens Action research and legal action for women) Legal Action (Governance/Democracy 210 Women against sexual violence and state repression Governance/Democracy 211 Women Power Connect Multi-Sectoral 212 Women Studies and Development Center, University of Delhi Research; Multi-sectoral 213 Women Studies Unit, TISS Research; Multi-sectoral 214 Women's Collective Womens Economic Empowerment 215 Women's Interlink Foundation Multi-Sectoral (anti-trafficking) 216 Womens Political Watch Governance/Democracy 217 Women's Studies Center, University Research; Multi-sectoral 218 Womens Studies Research Center, Faculty of Family and Community Science Research; Multi-sectoral 219 Yuwa India Youth and Education, Empowerment 220 YWCA India Multi-Sectoral Maldives 1 Care Society Health 2 Community Aid Youth and Education 3 Department of Judical Administration Governance/Democracy 4 Department of Judicial Administration Governance/Democracy 5 The Ministry of Finance Governance/Democracy 6 Family Protection Authority Governance/Democracy 7 Foundation For the Advanced of Self Help in Attaining Needs Multi-sectoral 8 Hope for Women Multi-sectoral 9 One Bilion Rising Multi-sectoral 10 Society for Health Education Health 11 SWAD Health 12 The International Planned Parenthood Federation Health 15 The Ministry of Gender and Health Governance/Democracy 18 The Ministry of Youth and Sports Governance/Democracy 19 UNFPA Health 20 UNICEF Multi-sectoral 21 WHO Health 22 Journey Health and Youth 23 The Vibe Health and Youth 24 Ensure Maldives Multi-sectoral 25 Hand in Hand Multi-sectoral 26 Hulhulmale Association for Women's improvement Multi-sectoral 27 Maldivian Network on Violence Against Women Multi-sectoral, Governance/Democracy and Disaster Settings 28 Silent Voices Governance/Democracy, Multi-sectoral, 29 Youth for Equality Youth and Education, Empowerment, Multi-sectoral 30 Strength of Society Youth and Education 31 Hamma Janiyya Governance/Democracy, Media` 32 Madulu Governance/Democracy 33 Voice of Women Multi-sectoral 34 Maldivian Detainee Network Governance/Democracy 35 Maldivian Aid Disaster Settings 36 Open Society Association Multi-sectoral Nepal 1 Aama Milan Kendra (AMK) Health, Women's Economic Empowerment 2 AATWIN Women's Economic Empowerment 3 Aawaj Women's Economic Empowerment 4 ABC Nepal Health, Women's Economic Empowerment 5 Actionaid Nepal Multi-sectoral 6 Advocacy Forum Governance/Democracy 7 ADWAN Governance/Democracy 8 Alliance for Peace Governance/Democracy, Youth and Education 9 American Himalayan Foundation Youth and education 10 Annapurna Post Media 11 Antenna Foundation Nepal(AFN) Media 12 Asia Foundation ( Women Empowerment Program) Multi-sectoral 13 Asian Development Bank Governance/Democracy 14 Association of Youth Organizations Nepal (AYON) Youth and Education 15 Bishwas Nepal Women's Economic Empowerment 16 Blue Diamond Society Multi-sectoral 17 CARE Multi Sectoral 18 Care Society Health 19 Center for Legal Research and Resource Development (CeLRRd) Governance/democracy 20 Center for Awareness Promotion (CAP-Nepal) Multi-sectoral 21 Centre for Victims of Torture (CVICT) Women's Economic Empowerment 22 Child Workers in Nepal Concerned Centre (CWIN) Youth and education 23 Children-Women in Social Service and Human Rights (CWISH) Governance/Democracy 24 Community Action Center(CAC Nepal) Women's Economic Empowerment, Multi- sectoral 25 Community Aid Youth and Education 26 Dalit Mahila Ekta Kendra (DMEK) Women's Economic Empowerment 27 Department of Judical Administration Governance/Democracy 28 Department of Judicial Administration Governance/Democracy 29 Department of National Planning, The Ministry of Finance Governance/Democracy 30 Department of Women and Children Governance/Democracy 31 DFID Multi-sectoral 32 Didi Bahini Youth and Education, Women's Economic Empowerment 33 Easter Benjamin Memorial Fund (EBMF) Youth and education 34 EDC Women's Economic Empowerment 35 Equal Access Nepal Multi-sectoral 36 Family Protection Authority Governance/Democracy 37 Fatima Foundation Women's Economic Empowerment 38 FEDO Health, Youth and Education, Women's Economic Empowerment 39 Forum for Women, Law and Development (FWLD) Governance/Democracy 40 Foundation For the Advanced of Self Help in Attaining Needs Multi-sectoral 41 FPAN Health, Youth and Education 42 Freed Kamaiya Women Development Forum Women's Economic Empowerment 43 Himali Rural Youth Social Development Centre Youth and Education 44 Hucodon Multi-sectoral 45 ICRW Health, Education, Multi-sectoral 46 Informal Sector Service Center(INSEC) Multi-sectoral 47 Institute for Human Rights Communication Nepal(IHRICON) Media 48 Jagaran Media Centre Media, Youth and Education 49 Legal Aid and Consultancy Center Governance/Democracy 50 Maiti Nepal Multi-sectoral 51 Ministry of Education Governance/Democracy 52 Ministry of Finance Governance/Democracy 53 Ministry of Health and Population Governance/Democracy 54 Ministry of Home Affairs Governance/Democracy 55 Ministry of Law, Justice, Constituent Assembly & Parliamentary Affairs Governance/Democracy 56 Ministry of Women, Children and Social Welfare Governance/Democracy 57 Mission East Nepal Multi-sectoral 58 Mitini Nepal Health 59 Nari Chetana Kendra Nepal (Women Awareness Centre Nepal) Women's Economic Empowerment 60 National Alliance for Women's Rights Defenders Governance/Democracy 61 National Alliance of Women Human Rights Defender Governance/democracy 62 National Health Foundation Health 63 National Human Rights Commission ( NHRC) Governance/Democracy 64 National Inter-Religious Network - Nepal (NIRN) Multi-sectoral 65 National Network Against Domestic Violence (NNADV) Governance/democracy 66 National Network Against Girl Trafficking (NNAGT) Governance/Democracy 67 National Women Commission ( NWC) Governance/Democracy 68 National Network against Girls Trafficking (NNAGT) Multi-sectoral 69 Nepal Muslim Women Welfare Society (NMWWS) Multi-sectoral 70 Nepal Police ( Women and Children Service) Governance/Democracy 71 Office of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers (OPMCM) Governance/Democracy 72 Peacewin Women's Economic Empowerment 73 Plan International Multi-sectoral 74 Pourakhi Women's Economic Empowerment 75 Prerana,- Support Group for Participatory Development Women's Economic Empowerment 76 Prisoners Assistance Nepal (PA Nepal), Women's Economic Empowerment 77 Pro-public Nepal Governance/Democracy 78 Raksha Nepal, Multi-sectoral 79 Renaissance Society Nepal, Multi-sectoral 80 Rural Health and Education Service Centre Youth and Education 81 Rural Women Creative Forum Multi-sectoral 82 Rural Women's Development and Unity Center (RUWDUC) Multi-sectoral 83 Rural Women's Development Centre Women's Economic Empowerment 84 SAATHI Women's Economic Empowerment, Multi- sectoral 85 Samabikas Women's Economic Empowerment 86 Samachar Patra Media 87 Samagra Radio Youth and Education, Women's Economic Empowerment, Governance/Democracy 88 SAMANATA- Institute for Social & Gender Equality Governance/Democracy 89 Sancharika Samuha Media 90 Shakti Milan Samaj Multi-sectoral 91 Shakti Samuha Infrastructure 92 Shilpee Art Group Youth and Education, Media 93 Single Women Group (WHR) Multi-sectoral 94 Society for Empoertment-Nepal (STEP-Nepal) Health 95 Society for Health Education Health 96 South Asia Partnership-Nepal (SAP Nepal) Governance/Democracy 97 Strii Shakti Multi-sectoral 98 SWAD Health 99 Swiss Development Cooperation Multi-sectoral 100 The International Legal Foundation (ILF) Governance/Democracy 101 The International Planned Parenthood Federation Health 102 The Ministry of Youth, Sports and Human Resources Governance/Democracy 103 The Ministry of Youth, Sports and Human Resources Governance/Democracy 104 TPO-Nepal Health 105 UNDP Multi-sectoral 106 UNFPA Multi-sectoral 107 UNFPA Health 108 UNFPA Multi-sectoral 109 UNICEF Multi-sectoral 110 UNICEF Multi-sectoral 111 UNICEF Governance/Democracy 112 UNWomen Women's Economic Empowerment 113 UNWomwn Multi-sectoral 114 USAID Governance/democracy 115 Voice of Women Women's Economic Empowerment 116 WATCH Nepal Multi-sectoral 117 Women development safe empowerment training centre Women's Economic Empowerment 118 Women development Society Nepal Governance/Democracy 119 Women for Human Rights Women's Economic Empowerment 120 Women forum for women in Nepal (wofwon) Women's Economic Empowerment 121 Women Progress centre, kanchanpur Multi-sectoral 122 Women Security Pressure Group Governance/Democracy 123 Women WelfareSociety Women's Economic Empowerment 124 WOREC Multi-sectoral 125 Working Women Journalist Media 126 World Education Youth and education Pakistan 1 Aahung Multi-sectoral 2 AASHA (Alliance Against Sexual Harassment) Multi-sectoral 3 Acid Survivors Foundation (ASF) Multi-sectoral 4 Action Aid Pakistan Multi-sectoral 5 ADB Multi-sectoral 6 AGS Law Associates Governance/Democracy 7 Al Asar Development Organization Women's Economic Empowerment 8 Al Mubarik Welfare Society Governance/Democracy 9 Al Shahbaz womens organization Multi-sectoral 10 All Pakistan Womens Association Multi-sectoral 11 AMAL Human Development Health 12 Ansar Burney Trust Governance/Democracy 13 Applied Socio-economic research (ASR) Multi-sectoral 14 Asia Foundation Multi-sectoral 15 Aurat Foundation Multi-sectoral 16 Aware Girls Multi-sectoral 17 Balochistan Foundation for Development Multi-sectoral 18 Balochistan (Health and Rural Development) (HARD) Multi-sectoral 19 Bargad Youth and Education 20 Batool Welfare Trust Multi-sectoral 21 Bedari Multi-sectoral 22 Behbud Multi-sectoral 23 Blue Veins Health 24 Boy Scouts, Balochistan Youth and Education 25 Bytes for All Media 26 Care International Multi-sectoral 27 Citizen Rights and Sustainable Development Multi-sectoral 28 Collective for Social Science Research Multi-sectoral 29 Community Development Foundation Multi-sectoral 30 Consultative Group for Development Cooperation Multi-sectoral 31 Creative Anger Multi-sectoral 32 Dastak Multi-sectoral 33 Depilex Smile Again Foundation Multi-sectoral 34 Ethnomedia Governance/Democracy 35 Federal Ombudsman for Protection Against Harassment Governance/Democracy 36 Gawaahi Media 37 Gender Crime Cell Governance/democracy 38 Girl Guides of Pakistan Multi-sectoral 39 HANDS Legal rights (Governance/Democracy) 40 Himalyan Development Foundation Multi-sectoral 41 HRCP Multi-sectoral 42 Human Development Foundation Youth and Education 43 Human Rights Commission Media 44 IDRAK Health 45 Insaaf Network Pakistan Governance/Democracy 46 Insaf Foundation Governance/Democracy 47 Insan Foundation Trust Multi-sectoral 48 International Child Development Initiatives Multi-sectoral 49 Islamabad Progressive Women's Association Governance/Democracy 50 Kainaat Development Association Multi-sectoral 51 Kashf Foundation Women's Economic Empowerment 52 Khushal Welfare Organization Multi-sectoral 53 Khwendo Kor Multi-sectoral 54 Lawyers for Human Rights and Legal Aid Governance/Democracy 55 Life and Hope Multi-sectoral 56 Madadgar Youth and Education 57 Madni Women Development Organisation [MINDO] Multi-sectoral 58 Meher garh Youth and Education 59 Meher Garh Governance/Democracy 60 Mehran-Socio cultural forum Multi-sectoral 61 Men Engage alliance for Gender Equality Multi-sectoral 62 Ministry of Human Rights Governance/Democracy 63 Mukhtar Mai Women's Organization Multi-sectoral 64 National Commission on the status of women Governance/Democracy 65 National Organization for Social Development Health 66 National Police Bureau Governance/Democracy 67 National White Ribbon Campaign Governance/Democracy 68 Nishat Welfare Organization Multi-sectoral 69 Noor Pakistan Multi-sectoral 70 Norweigan Church Aid Multi-sectoral 71 Norweigan Church Aid Multi-sectoral 72 Oxfam Pakistan Multi-sectoral 73 Paiman Trust Multi-sectoral 74 Pakistan Federation of Business & Professional Women Women's Economic Empowerment 75 Pakistani Womens Human Rights Organization Governance/Democracy 76 Pattan Multi-sectoral 77 Plan Pakistan Multi-sectoral 78 Population Council Pakistan Health 79 Rahnuma-Family planning association of Pakistan Governance/Democracy 80 Research and Development for Human Resources Health 81 Rozan Multi-sectoral 82 Rutgers WPF Education, Health 83 Sahara for Life trust Health 84 Sahil Multi-sectoral 85 Sarsabz Foundation Women's Economic Empowerment 86 Sewa development trust Multi-sectoral 87 Sexual Harrassment Watch (An initiative of Meher Garh) Multi-sectoral Shahid Benazir Bhutto Womens Centers (Ministry of Womens 88 Development, Pakistan) Governance/Democracy 89 Shirkat Gah Governance/Democracy 90 Simorgh Collective Governance/Democracy 91 Society for Appraisal and Womens empowerment in rural areas (SAWERA) Women's Economic Empowerment 92 Society for Community organization and promotion of education (SCOPE) Multi-sectoral 93 Society for Empowering Human Resources (SEHER) Governance/Democracy Society for the Advancement of Community, Health Education and Training 94 (SACHET) Multi-sectoral Legal rights for children 95 Sparc (Governance/Democracy), Water and Sanitation, Education, Disaster 96 Sujag Sansar Relief 97 Tehrik E-Niswan Governance/Democracy 98 The Kering Foundation Multi-sectoral 99 The National Education and Environmental Development Society Multi-sectoral 100 The Pakistan Women's Lawyers Association Governance/Democracy 101 Uks Multi-sectoral 102 UNFPA Pakistan Multi-sectoral 103 UNHCR Pakistan Multi-sectoral 104 UNIFEM Pakistan Multi-sectoral 105 USAID Pakistan Multi-sectoral 106 War against rape Multi-sectoral 107 We Can Pakistan Youth and Education 108 Women Association Struggle for Development Multi-sectoral 109 Women Development Department Governance/Democracy 110 Women Empowerment Group Multi-sectoral 111 Women Shade media 112 Women's Action Forum Governance/Democracy 113 Womens Rights Association Governance/Democracy 114 World Population Foundation Multi-sectoral 115 World Vision International Multi-sectoral 116 Youth Advocacy Network Pakistan Youth and Education 117 Youth Network Youth and Education Sri Lanka 1 Affected Women’s Forum Multi-sectoral 2 ARD Governance/Democracy 3 Association of War Affected Women Governance/Democracy 4 CARE International Sri Lanka Multi-sectoral 5 CARE International Sri Lanka Multi-sectoral 6 Center for Women's Research Multi-sectoral 7 Community Concern Society Multi-sectoral 8 Community Strength Development Organization Multi-sectoral 9 Danish Refugee Council Crisis and Disaster 10 Devasarana Development Centre, Kurunegala Multi-sectoral 11 Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era Multi-sectoral 12 Diriyata Sawiyak Women's Organization Multi-sectoral 13 EMERGE Global Multi-sectoral 14 Employers Federation of Ceylon Multi-sectoral 15 Family Planning Association (FPA) Multi-sectoral 16 FDSIL (formerly FORUT) Multi-sectoral 17 Good Shepherd Sisters Multi-sectoral 18 ILO Governance/Democracy 19 Inform Human Rights Documentation Centre (INFORM) Governance/Democracy 20 Kantha Shakthi Organisation Multi-sectoral 21 Legal Aid Commission of Sri Lanka Governance/Democracy 22 Mannar Women's Development Foundation Multi-sectoral 23 Ministry of Child Development and Women's Affairs Governance/Democracy 24 Ministry of Gender, Family and Human Rights Governance/Democracy 25 Ministry of Health and Welfare Governance/Democracy 26 Ministry of Justice Governance/Democracy 27 Mithuru Piyasa Centers (at Castle Street Hospital for Women, Ministry of Health Sri Lanka) Health 28 National Committee on Women Multi-sectoral 29 Norwegian Refugee Council (since closed down) Governance/Democracy 30 Oxfam Australia Multi-sectoral 31 Oxfam GB Sri Lanka Governance/Democracy 32 Penne Vimochana Gnanodayam Multi-sectoral 33 Plantation Human Development Trust (tri-partite org) Governance/Democracy 34 Police Children and Women’s Bureau Desks Governance/Democracy 35 Women's Economic Empowerment, Protection of Environment and Children Everywhere (PEACE) Governance/Democracy, 36 Rajarata Women’s Foundation Multi-sectoral 37 Ruhunu Rural Women’s Organisation Multi-sectoral 38 Sarvodaya Multi-sectoral 39 Save the Children Multi-sectoral 40 Sri Lanka Medical Association (Women's Committee) Multi-sectoral 41 Sri Lanka Sumithrayo Multi-sectoral 42 Sri Lanka Women Lawyers' Association Governance/Democracy 43 Suriya Women's Development Center Multi-sectoral 44 The Agromart Foundation Governance/Democracy 45 The Asia Foundation Sri Lanka Governance/Democracy 46 The Asian Development Bank Multi-sectoral 47 The National Child Protection Authority Multi-sectoral 48 The Salvation Army of Sri Lanka Multi-sectoral 49 UN (UNFPA) Multi-sectoral 50 UNDP Multi-sectoral 51 UNFPA Multi-sectoral 52 UNHCR Multi-sectoral 53 UNHCR Sri Lanka Governance/Democracy 54 UNICEF Multi-sectoral 55 UNWomen Multi-sectoral 56 Vehilihini Development Organisation Multi-sectoral 57 Welcome House Multi-sectoral 58 WHO Health 59 Women and Media Collective Media 60 Women In Need (WIN) Multi-sectoral 61 Women’s Development Centre Multi-sectoral 62 Women’s Development Foundation (WDF) Multi-sectoral 63 Women's Center Governance/Democracy 64 Women's Education and Research Center Multi-sectoral 65 World Vision Sri Lanka Health APPENDIX T Select Evaluated Interventions Outside of South Asia That Address Violence against Women and Girls Early Marriage 1 Primary or one of several objectives 2 VAWG not program objectives but included in program activities and evaluation Program and organization. Sources. Country Program description Focus areas Evaluation description and findings Ishraq (Sunrise) (2001- Egypt Program looked to create safe 1 A,B,C Methodology: Quasi-experimental. Comparison of 2013) public spaces for girls, support participants and non-participants. Evaluation covers their continuing education and period 2001-2004. change their knowledge and  Caritas, CEDPA, attitudes regarding marriage Findings: Ishraq participants were more likely to want to and childbearing. The program delay marriage and limit childbearing. Eighty-five percent Population Council, Save targeted out-of-school girls thought that the appropriate age at marriage should be 18 the Children, Ministry of (aged 12-15), adolescent boys or older, while only 63 percent of non-participants thought Youth, National Council for (aged 13-18), and parents. the same. Ishraq participants were also more likely to Literacy classes, life skills believe they should have a say in who they marry. Childhood and training and sports training Parents’ attitudes became more progressive about girls’ Motherhood, Teaming for were offered in a classroom roles, rights and capacities. Development, Egyptian setting. Girls meet four times a week for three-hour sessions in Food Bank, Embassy of the youth centers. Program was Kingdom of the implemented in one year in 54 Netherlands, Nike villages and reached 3,321 girls and 1,775 boys. Foundation, The Dickler Family Foundation, The Ford Foundation/Egypt, Focus area codes: A = Empowering girls with information, skills, and support networks; B = Educating and mobilizing parents and community members; C = Enhancing the accessibility of and quality of formal schooling for girls; D = Offering economic support and incentives for girls and their families Program and organization. Sources. Country Program description Focus areas Evaluation description and findings UK Department for International Development, UNICEF/Egypt Selim, M; Nahla Abdel-T; K Elsayd, K; el badawy A, and El Kalaawy,H (2013) Berhane Hewan (2004- Ethiopia The program’s objective was to 1 A,B,C,D Methodology: A quasi-experimental evaluation with present) reduce the prevalence of child baseline and endline. Chi-square tests, proportional marriage. Program activities hazards models and logistic regressions were also Ethiopian Ministry of included literacy and livelihood conducted. Evaluation covers period 2004-2006. Youth and Sport, Amhara training delivered in group Regional Bureau of Youth setting and creation of safe Findings: Younger girls aged 10-14 experienced more and Sport, Population spaces for girls. There were positive changes resulting from the intervention. This Council, UNFPA, UN also activities with the cohort was more likely to be in school and less likely to be Foundation, Nike communities to engage them in married. At baseline, 10% and 14% of treatment and Foundation, USAID, discussions of key issues, such control girls respectively had ever been married. At Amhara Regional Bureau as early marriage. Communities endline, only 2% of intervention girls in this cohort had of Women, Children, and were supported in the been married while the figure rose to 22% in the control Youth, Ethiopia Ministry of development of collective area. When the sample was restricted to girls who had not Women, Children, and actions, such as not to marry off been married two years before the survey periods, a Youth, Tabora their daughters early or not to similar pattern was observed: The proportions of girls who Development Foundation circumcise them. Once a got married in the year prior to baseline were nearly the Trust, Association Munyu collective decision was reached, same (1%–2%), but at endline none of the treatment girls des Femmes de la Comoé a subset of the group formed a had gotten married in the previous year, whereas 5%of the committee, which in turn controls had done so. The likelihood of having ever been Erulkar, A. S. & Muthengi, attempted to influence other married increased with age and higher-socioeconomic E. (2009). community members to adopt status and decreased with years of education. Girls aged the same resolution. Program 15-19 in the intervention area had a higher likelihood of targeted married and unmarried being married by endline. The evaluation results suggest a Focus area codes: A = Empowering girls with information, skills, and support networks; B = Educating and mobilizing parents and community members; C = Enhancing the accessibility of and quality of formal schooling for girls; D = Offering economic support and incentives for girls and their families Program and organization. Sources. Country Program description Focus areas Evaluation description and findings young girls aged 10-19. delay in marriage until later adolescence. Zomba Cash Transfer Malawi Conditional cash transfer 2 C,D Methodology: Randomized control trial. Program (2007-2009) program that provides approximately $10 conditional Findings: For program beneficiaries who were out of World Bank, Government on school attendance to current school at baseline, the probability of getting married of Malawi schoolgirls and young women declined by more than 40%. However, the program had no who have recently dropped out effect on the propensity to get married among the baseline Baird, S, McIntosh, C., & of school to stay in or return to schoolgirls – 4.7% of whom got married both among the Ozler, B. (2009). school. Program also provides controls and treatments. direct payment of secondary Another treatment arm with unconditional cash transfers school fees. (Baird 2011) the likelihood of girls being “ever married” was lower than in the conditional transfer arm. References: Baird, S., McIntosh, C., & Ozler, B. Cash or Condition? Evidence from a Cash Transfer Experiment. (2011) The Quarterly Journal of Economics (2011) 126 (4): 1709-1753. Erulkar, A. S. & Muthengi, E. (2009). Evaluation of Berhane Hewan: A Program To Delay Child Marriage in Rural Ethiopia. International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 35, 6-14. Selim, M; Abdel-Tawab N; Elsayed K; el badawy A, and El Kalaawy, H. 2013. “The Ishraq Program for out-of-school girls: from Pilot to scale- up.” Population Council Focus area codes: A = Empowering girls with information, skills, and support networks; B = Educating and mobilizing parents and community members; C = Enhancing the accessibility of and quality of formal schooling for girls; D = Offering economic support and incentives for girls and their families Intimate Partner Violence 1 Primary or one of several objectives 2 VAWG not program objectives but included in program activities and evaluation Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description areas Evaluation description and findings Respect, Protect, Australia Interactive training program that 1 B Methodology: Mixed-method approach with pre- and post-test Connect Program aimed to increase awareness of questionnaires and semi-structured interviews in the two treatment schools gender stereotyping and build and one control school. South East Centre skills for respectful and non- Against Sexual Assault violent relationships. The program Findings: The evaluation revealed a decrease in favorable beliefs supporting targets younger teens aged 12-15. the use of violence and gender stereotyping among young men. There were Ricardo et al (2011); mixed results for young women; one treatment group saw a decrease in Fergus et al (2006) beliefs condoning VAW amongst young women and the other experienced a slight increase in these same beliefs by young women The Youth Canada The program was designed to 1 B Methodology: A random two-group, two-level growth curve design is Relationships Project partner with youths to assist them applied to individual-level longitudinal data that permits an examination of (YRP) in making informed choices and to the pattern of changes over time. Fifteen coeducational intervention groups learn about nonviolent, non- (approximately 6–10 participants per group) were conducted. Each of the 2 CPS Agencies abusive and healthy relationships hour sessions were detailed in an intervention manual and was led by a man with their current and future and a woman co-facilitator who modeled positive relationship skills such as Wolfe et al. (2003) partners. The programs used power sharing and assertiveness. curriculum, guest speakers, videos, Findings: Participants evidenced decreasing frequency and severity of abuse behavioral rehearsal, visit to compared with controls. Also those receiving the intervention were less community agencies, and social physically abusive toward their dating partners and reported less physical, action project in the community. emotional and threatening forms of abuse by their partners toward themselves. Focus area codes: A = Raising awareness of rape or IPV and increasing knowledge and access to support services; B = Promoting healthy intimate partner relationships; C = Supporting women’s economic empowerment; D = Addressing consequences of IPV, including non-reporting, in order to reduce incidence of IPV. Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description areas Evaluation description and findings A School-Based Canada The program included core lessons 1 A Methodology: The individual student-level intervention was a 21-lesson Program to Prevent about healthy relationships, sexual , manualized curriculum delivered by teachers with specialization in health Adolescent Dating health and substance use B and physical education . The curriculum comprised 3 units containing seven Violence prevention using interactive 75-minute classes each: (1) personal safety and injury prevention, (2) healthy exercises, video resources, role- growth and sexuality, and (3) substance use and abuse. Total sample Center for Addiction play exercises, rubrics, handouts, consisted of a total of 1722 students aged 14-15 from 20 public schools and Mental Health, The additional teacher training on (52.8% girls).Categorical data were analyzed by using 2-level hierarchical University of Western dating violence and healthy models to account for clustering of students in schools. Also, pre-specified Ontario, public schools relationships, information for subgroup analyses by sex were conducted. The follow-up was 2.5 year. in Southwestern Ontario parents and student-led “safe Findings: The study showed that the Physical Dating Violence (PDV) was school committees” greater in control vs intervention students (9.8% vs 7.4%) and after Wolfe et al. (2009) intervention, the findings support for the hypothesis that teaching youth The intervention program aims to about healthy relationships and ways to avoid PDV in Grade 9 Health determine whether an interactive classes would reduce PDV 2.5 years later, but this effect was greater in boys 21 lessons into the 9th grade (PDV: 7.1% in controls vs 2.7% in intervention students) than in girls curriculum increases the (12.1%vs 11.9%). knowledge of participants on dating violence prevention, healthy relationships, sexual health, and substance use reduces physical dating violence (PDV). Effect of an Advocacy China The focus of the intervention was 2 D Methodology: Randomized control trial design where 200 women were Intervention on Mental to improve depressive symptoms placed either in the treatment or control group. Health in Chinese among women with a history of Women Survivors of IPV. The 12-week intervention Findings: There was a decrease in depressive symptoms in the women in the Intimate Partner consisted of in-person and treatment group, although this was not statistically significant. There was Violence-A telephone counseling support. The also a decrease in psychological aggression by partners of women in the Randomized Controlled women in the control group treatment group, which might have been a potential contributor to the Trial received services that were already decrease in depressive symptoms amongst women. offered in the community centers Tiwari et al (2010) where the intervention was implemented. Focus area codes: A = Raising awareness of rape or IPV and increasing knowledge and access to support services; B = Promoting healthy intimate partner relationships; C = Supporting women’s economic empowerment; D = Addressing consequences of IPV, including non-reporting, in order to reduce incidence of IPV. Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description areas Evaluation description and findings Somos Diferentes, Nicaragu Mass media HIV-prevention 2 A Methodology: The program evaluation used quantitative and qualitative Somos Iguales (We are a program that included the B survey instruments. A longitudinal panel study was used to quantitatively Different, We are production of a weekly evaluate the program’s impact on individuals. Equal) edutainment TV drama, Sexto Sentido. Findings: Exposure to the program is attributed with a greater probability of PATH, the Horizons knowing of, and using centers that support victims of domestic violence. Program/ Population There was also a greater probability of having talked to someone in the last Council, National six months about experiencing domestic violence, and greater probability of Autonomous University perceiving capacities among their group of friends to jointly do something to of Nicaragua – Center solve domestic violence problems. for Demographic and Health Research, Puntos de Encuentro Solórzano (2008) Stepping Stones South Stepping Stones was a 50-hour 2 A Methodology: Cluster randomized control trial where the treatment clusters Africa HIV-prevention program for B received the full 50-hour program and control clusters received a 3-hour MRC South Africa, women and men. The training training program on HIV and safer sex. Seventy clusters comprising of 64 Planned Parenthood curriculum covered a number of villages were in the treatment group. VAW related outcomes measured by Association of South sexual and reproductive health the evaluation include the incidence of physical or sexual intimate partner Africa topics including gender-based violence, rape or attempted rape and depression. violence. Jewkes et al. (2008) Findings: The program did not have an effect on the incidence of HIV, but it had an impact on incidence of HSV-2 and perpetration of intimate partner violence. The proportion of men who perpetrated physical or sexual intimate partner violence was significantly lower. Zero Tolerance Village South Program focused on addressing the 1 D Methodology: Randomized control trial Alliance Intervention Africa problem of non-reporting of Model SGBV due to stigmatization of Findings: Randomized control trial evaluation revealed that while there was victims. Program activities no statistical significance observed for the variable, self-reported incidence Thohoyandou Victim included the creation of safe- of SGBV and self-reported experiences of SGBV increased in the two Empowerment Program houses for victims of abuse that intervention sites. There was a marked increase, at endline, of knowledge of (TVEP), Population were run by the community, the where to go to access services after assault, including TVEP Help desks, for Council identification of male leaders as both women and men, in treatment villages. Focus area codes: A = Raising awareness of rape or IPV and increasing knowledge and access to support services; B = Promoting healthy intimate partner relationships; C = Supporting women’s economic empowerment; D = Addressing consequences of IPV, including non-reporting, in order to reduce incidence of IPV. Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description areas Evaluation description and findings program champions, and Carty (2010) community workshops where SGBV issues were discussed. Intervention with South HIV prevention intervention that 2 A Methodology: Randomized control trial evaluation where eight villages Microfinance for AIDS Africa included microfinance to poor B were pair-matched and randomly allocated to receive the intervention at and Gender Equity women in addition to HIV training C once (the treatment group) or three years later (the comparison group). Both (IMAGE) (2001-2005) given to the women and other arms of the trial were divided into three cohorts: Cohort 1 consisted of the community members. women who received the loans and training; Cohort 2 included randomly Rural AIDS & selected household co-residents who were 14-35 years old; and, Cohort 3 Development Action included randomly selected community members. Research Program, School of Public Findings: Evaluation revealed a 55 percent reduction in IPV for cohort 1, Health, University of but no effect on other factors (such as HIV transmission or rate of the Witwatersrand, unprotected sex with non-spousal partner ) measured for cohorts 2 and 3, South Africa; Small household and community members. A combined microfinance and training Enterprise Foundation intervention can lead to reductions in levels of intimate-partner violence in programme participants. Social and economic development interventions Pronyk et Al.(2006) have the potential to alter risk environments for HIV and intimate-partner violence in southern Africa. The World Starts With Uganda Computer-based programs that 1 B Methodology: A quasi-experimental evaluation with intervention (N=853) Me (WSWM) combined training in digital and comparison students (N=1011). A mixed model repeated measures literacy with sex education (sexual analysis was performed to assess the effectiveness of the program. World Population and reproductive health). The Foundation, Butterfly program was implemented in Findings: The evaluation found significantly greater sense of self-efficacy Works, SchoolNet secondary schools in Uganda. The in dealing with sexual coercion among students in the treatment group. Uganda computer-based lessons included virtual peer educator guides and Rijsdijk et al (2011) games (i.e., safe sex quiz). Family planning clinic USA This study examined the efficacy 1 B Methodology: Randomized control trial evaluation. English-speaking and partner violence of a family-planning-clinic-based D Spanish-speaking females ages 16-29 years (N = 906) completed audio intervention (Unnamed) intervention to address IPV and computer-assisted surveys prior to a clinic visit and 12-24 weeks later (75% reproductive coercion. retention rate). Analyses included assessment of intervention effects on Community based recent IPV, awareness of IPV services and reproductive coercion. Focus area codes: A = Raising awareness of rape or IPV and increasing knowledge and access to support services; B = Promoting healthy intimate partner relationships; C = Supporting women’s economic empowerment; D = Addressing consequences of IPV, including non-reporting, in order to reduce incidence of IPV. Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description areas Evaluation description and findings practitioners, IPV advocates and Findings: There was a 71 percent reduction in the odds of pregnancy researchers, trained coercion among women that reported an incident of IPV three months prior para-professional to the intervention. Women in the intervention arm were more likely to reproductive health report ending a relationship because the relationship was unhealthy or specialists because they felt unsafe regardless of IPV status. Miller et al (2011); Chibber et al (2011) Secondary prevention USA The trial examined the impact of 1 B Methodology: A randomized two arm clinical trial testing impact of a of intimate partner various combinations of D wallet-sized referral card and a 20-minute nurse case management protocol. violence interventions in women’s safety behavior. Specifically, it examined Findings: Both treatment groups of women reported significantly fewer Unnamed urban public the impact of nurse case threats of abuse, assaults, danger risks for homicide, and events of work primary care clinics management combined with abuse harassment, but there were no significant differences between groups. assessment and provision of Compared to baseline, both groups of women adopted significantly more McFarlane et al. (2006) referrals alone, on women’s safety safety behaviors within 24 months; however, community resource use behaviors, use of community declined significantly for both groups. resources, and subsequent experience of violence. Safe Dates Program USA Safe Dates was a school-based 1 B Methodology: Randomized control trial evaluation where participating prevention program that helped schools were stratified by grade and matched by school size. Baseline data Substance Abuse and students recognize the difference was collected in participating schools and follow-up data was collected 1- Mental Health Services between supportive and abusive month after the intervention and then yearly for the next four years. A Administration relationships. randomly selected half of treatment adolescents received a booster between years two and three. Foshee et al (1998, 2000, 2004) Findings: Evaluation revealed short-term behavioral effects including reductions in the perpetration of psychological abuse (25% reduction) and sexual violence (60% less) in treatment schools. Adolescents receiving the intervention reported significantly less physical and sexual dating violence perpetration and victimization 4 years after the program. The booster did not improve the effectiveness of the program. Video Doctor USA Study objective was to report the 2 B Methodology: Randomized control trial evaluation with women receiving Focus area codes: A = Raising awareness of rape or IPV and increasing knowledge and access to support services; B = Promoting healthy intimate partner relationships; C = Supporting women’s economic empowerment; D = Addressing consequences of IPV, including non-reporting, in order to reduce incidence of IPV. Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description areas Evaluation description and findings effectiveness of a prenatal D routine prenatal care and were at risk for IPV. Health in Pregnancy intervention and to provide Study,IBM evidence that prenatal visits Findings: Women who received an interactive 15-minute multimedia-based provide an opportune time for assessment (the Video Doctor) followed by personalized counseling by a Chibber et al (2011); health assessment and counseling health care provider (aided by a printed cue sheet alert with suggested Humphreys et al (2011) for abused women. counseling messages) were more likely to report having IPV discussions with their provider. They were also more likely to find provider interactions to be helpful compared with patients receiving standard care. Ending Violence USA Program objective was to prevent B Methodology: Randomized control trial evaluation. Classrooms were Curriculum dating violence. The program randomly selected within tracks and individual student outcomes were included three-class-sessions assessed pre- and post-intervention, and six months later. Break the Cycle focused on the law, highlighting legal rights of victims of domestic Findings: Students in intervention classrooms showed improved knowledge Ricardo et al (2011); violence and legal responsibilities related to IPV, less acceptance of female-on-male aggression, and enhanced Jaycox et al (2006) of perpetrators. The program perception of the helpfulness and likelihood of seeking assistance from a targeted younger teens aged 12-15. number of sources immediately after the program. Unnamed five USA Intervention consisted of a five- 1 B Methodology: Quasi-experimental evaluation with health classes randomly component dating session dating violence curriculum assigned to treatment and no treatment conditions. Violence Prevention implemented in health classes in a Program secondary school. Program Findings: The evaluation revealed significant decreases in overall attitudes objectives were to promote equity justifying the use of dating violence as a means to resolve conflict amongst Single unnamed school in dating relationships by those students exposed to the curriculum material. The rates of aggression, in Long Island, New demonstrating how gender victimization and injury did not differ significantly between treatment and York inequality may foster violence; control groups. Significantly, more girls reported having been aggressive in challenge individual/societal a dating relationship during the past year. Avery Leaf et al. attitudes towards violence as a (1997) means of conflict resolution, identify constructive communication skills, and support resources for victims of aggression. Connections: USA The purpose of this study was to 2 B Methodology: Quasi-experimental design matched set of 72 high school Relationships and evaluate the effectiveness of the students either in the curriculum group or the control group. Marriage Connections’ curriculum up to Focus area codes: A = Raising awareness of rape or IPV and increasing knowledge and access to support services; B = Promoting healthy intimate partner relationships; C = Supporting women’s economic empowerment; D = Addressing consequences of IPV, including non-reporting, in order to reduce incidence of IPV. Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description areas Evaluation description and findings four years after the class was Findings: The one variable that did show a significant difference between Agriculture experiment taught instead of the original the groups at follow-up was dating and relationship violence. During the station at South Dakota pre/posttest assessment. Program course of the curriculum, the Connections group had clear declines in their State University; Dibble was a school-based training use of violence, whereas the control group had a modest increase. By the 1- Institute for Marriage program that aimed to improve year follow-up, the control group decreased their usage of violence to mirror Education relationships. the low level of the Connections group. During the time period between the 1- and 4-year follow-ups, however, the Connections group again decreased Gardner and Boellaard their usage of violence, and the control group increased their incidence of (2007) dating and relationship violence. The Healthy Couples, USA High school students in Family 2 B Methodology: Quasi-experimental evaluation including pre and post- Healthy Children: and Consumer Science classes surveys. Targeting Youth participated in an evaluation study (HCHCTY) of the Relationship Smarts Plus Findings: The quantitative and qualitative findings of this evaluation (RS+) curriculum. showed that students receiving the RS+ program found the curriculum useful U.S. Department of and there were improved changes in knowledge and attitudes from pre-to- Health and Human post program in the participants. Positive changes in favor of curriculum Services, Office of effectiveness were found for six of the seven quantitative areas examined. Planning Research and Although there was no difference in the groups at pre-test in five of the six Evaluation and by the significant tests, the test group changed positively at post-test in all three Alabama Department of faulty relationship beliefs, in perceived conflict management ability, beliefs Child Abuse and about the importance of a supportive partner, and interest in pursuing future Neglect Prevention relationships education/counselling. Kerpelman et. al 2009 First Year Campus USA FYCARE was a mandatory 1 A Methodology: In the program evaluation, questionnaires were designed for Acquaintance Rape college rape education training FYCARE participants and were assessed immediately following workshop Education program designed to increase participation. Telephone surveys were conducted with students who student awareness of rape and participated in FYCARE 4 to 6 months earlier and first year students who University of Illinois relevant services in the school had not yet attended the workshop. campus. Lonsway & Kothari Findings: The evaluation showed that FYCARE participants had greater (2000) sexual assault knowledge, less support for cultural rape myths, and less rape- supportive judgments in a hypothetical case scenario compared with students Focus area codes: A = Raising awareness of rape or IPV and increasing knowledge and access to support services; B = Promoting healthy intimate partner relationships; C = Supporting women’s economic empowerment; D = Addressing consequences of IPV, including non-reporting, in order to reduce incidence of IPV. Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description areas Evaluation description and findings who had not yet attended a FYCARE workshop. However, positive change was seen primarily among those participants assessed immediately following the FYCARE workshop. No comparable impact was observed in the unrelated context of introductory psychology. Date-Rape Prevention USA The intervention was a play 1 A Methodology: A randomized pretest and posttest control group design to Program designed to counter rape-tolerant B assess changes in attitudes was used for evaluation. Participants were attitudes. randomly assigned in approximately equal numbers to the control and Unnamed private intervention groups. A pretest, play view (intervention or control play) was institution given to each group who then responded to a posttest questionnaire. Lanier et al 1998 Findings: The students who saw the play showed evidence of some improvement in attitudes toward date rape, compared with students exposed to the alternative play. There was equal improvement in the attitudes of men and women who viewed the play. Poster Campaign for USA The poster campaign was a 1 A Methodology: A posttest-only design was used to assess student awareness Empowering university based media program. It of the bystander role in reducing sexual violence. A Web survey was also Bystanders to Prevent was based on extensive empirical conducted to reach a diverse sample of the student body. Students who Campus Violence and theoretical work that indicates participated in the survey were asked first about their attitudes regarding Against Women sexual and intimate partner sexual violence prevention, then asked whether or not they had seen the violence has roots in larger posters, and in the end, were asked about the relevant demographic University of New cultural, community, and peer information. Hampshire norms. These norms support Findings: The results showed that poster campaigns can be important in coercive relationships. The raising awareness about sexual violence on the college campus. Promising Source: SJ Potter campaign was based on the variation in the awareness of students who reported seeing the campaign (2009) ‘Bringing in the Bystander’ compared to those who did not was also observed. program, which is a peer- facilitated bystander education program. This program trains participants to identify situations that could lead to sexual violence and to intervene in safe, nonviolent, and positive ways before, during, and after such an incident with friends, Focus area codes: A = Raising awareness of rape or IPV and increasing knowledge and access to support services; B = Promoting healthy intimate partner relationships; C = Supporting women’s economic empowerment; D = Addressing consequences of IPV, including non-reporting, in order to reduce incidence of IPV. Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description areas Evaluation description and findings acquaintances, or strangers. Rape-Awareness USA The program was a high school 1 A Methodology: For evaluation, a two-page survey (that served as both the Program based rape awareness program pre- and posttests) on rape attitudes was created and distributed in high through presentations and schools. The experimental design had pre- and posttests and experimental Women Helping discussions about the legal and control groups. Data from a total of 837 surveys was used for Women (WHW), Ohio definition of rape, motivation of conducting the multivariate analysis. First high school students adherence to rape, statistics and myths about rape myths was assessed, second the effectiveness of rape awareness Proto-Campise et al. rape. The program had a one- program for high school students was assessed using an experimental design. (1998) session class presented by a worker from WHW. There was a Findings: Participation of high school students in a rape-awareness program combination of lecture and verbal has an important impact on changing students' adherence to rape myths by interaction between the presenter educating students about these myths. There seems to be strong support to and the students. The program was include rape-awareness programs in high schools. meant to dismiss common societal rape myths, to educate the participants about the warning signs of potentially dangerous situations, the importance of effective communication in dating relationships, role of media and information on community resources available to survivors of sexual violence. Reaching and Teaching USA The study addressed three 1 A Methodology: A quasi-experimental pretest, posttest, follow-up group Teens to Stop Violence research questions: (1) Do the B design was used to evaluate the sexual assault and dating violence knowledge levels and attitudes of prevention program's effectiveness on the knowledge and attitudes of an Rape Counseling seventh-grade students related to intervention group of 46 and a comparison group of 20 African American Center, urban inner city sexual assault program? (2) Are seventh graders in urban middle school. public charter middle knowledge and attitude changes Findings: In response to first two research questions, the findings suggest school in undisclosed maintained over a six month that the program was effective in increasing knowledge and improving location, period? (3) Do the knowledge attitudes, and effects were maintained for six months. In response to the third levels and attitudes of seventh research question, the findings confirm that there are differences between Weisz and Black (2001) graders regarding sexual assault or male and female attitudes about sexual assault and dating violence. dating violence differ by gender? Focus area codes: A = Raising awareness of rape or IPV and increasing knowledge and access to support services; B = Promoting healthy intimate partner relationships; C = Supporting women’s economic empowerment; D = Addressing consequences of IPV, including non-reporting, in order to reduce incidence of IPV. Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description areas Evaluation description and findings Programmatic approach included curriculum “Reaching and Teaching Teens to Stop Violence”, didactic presentation of information, modeling, role-plays, experiential exercises, discussions. 1. Rape Supportive USA The goal of Rape Supportive 1 A Methodology: A 2 (Time; pre/post) x 3 (Group; RSC, VE/OE, No- Cognitions (RSC) Cognitions (RSC) was to increase B Treatment) MANOVA was used to assess differences due to treatment for 2. Victim subjects' knowledge concerning the four pre/post dependent measures (Attraction to Sexual Aggression Empathy/Outcome sexual communication, rape (ASA), Acceptance of Interpersonal Violence (AIV), Adversarial Sexual Expectancies (VE/OE) myths, and the disastrous effects Beliefs (ASB) and Rape Myth Acceptance (RMA)) and to control for of sexual victimization while the experiment wise error, while a one-way ANOVA is conducted to asses purpose of Victim group differences on the Rape Conformity Scale (RCA). 225 male Schewe and O Donohue Empathy/Outcome Expectancies undergraduates from a large Midwestern university participated in the (1996) (VE/OE) was to decrease subjects' pretest/screening for this study. The average age of subjects was 19.7 years proclivity to rape by increasing (range = 1833), and 67% were Caucasian, 15% Hispanic, 10% Asian subjects' awareness of the negative American, and 6% African American. consequences of rape, both for Findings: The results of this study supports the relative efficacy of the RSC themselves. This study aimed to program over the VE/OE intervention. While both interventions were determine the relative efficacy of successful in lowering subjects' scores on the ASA and on the AIV, only the one over the other. RSC intervention was successful in changing subjects' scores on the ASB and RMA scales. Components of the program consisted of 50-min videotaped presentation, discussion, and behavioral exercises. Expect Respect: USA The programmatic approach 1 A Methodology: High school student participants in each treatment group Preventing Teen Dating included discussion groups with B provided demographic information, attitudes, and experiences of teen dating Violence engagement of students, video violence (TDV) via a background information form, the Conflict in clips depicting real life situations, Adolescent Dating Relationships Inventory (CADRI) and the Attitudes Ohio University, introducing Velma Farris, a Toward Dating Violence Scales (ATDV) to determine the effect of the unnamed domestic woman who is a survivor of teen program directly after its completion and its short term effect three full violence prevention dating violence and domestic weeks after the program concluded. While the sample size was 141 valid group. violence. The purpose of this study cases for CADRI analysis, 272 responses were obtained for ATDV analysis. Focus area codes: A = Raising awareness of rape or IPV and increasing knowledge and access to support services; B = Promoting healthy intimate partner relationships; C = Supporting women’s economic empowerment; D = Addressing consequences of IPV, including non-reporting, in order to reduce incidence of IPV. Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description areas Evaluation description and findings was to determine the efficacy of For analysis of the data, measures were compared within and between the Roberts (2009) the Expect Respect: Preventing control and experimental groups resulting in a Repeated Measures Teen Dating Violence program Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) design. and to determine whether this program decreased the incidence Results: The findings suggest that the program did lower participants’ of teens’ use of violent behaviors tolerance towards dating violence initially, and three weeks after the in their relationships and if it program concluded. In addition, male participants’ scores were consistently altered teens’ attitudes towards higher than females’ scores, tolerance of dating violence than females. teen dating violence. Biological sex of respondent significantly explained 13% of the variance in scores on both ATDV scales overall. Focus area codes: A = Raising awareness of rape or IPV and increasing knowledge and access to support services; B = Promoting healthy intimate partner relationships; C = Supporting women’s economic empowerment; D = Addressing consequences of IPV, including non-reporting, in order to reduce incidence of IPV. References: Avery-Leaf, S., Cascardi M, O'leary K.D, and Cano,A.1997. "Efficacy of a dating violence prevention program on attitudes justifying aggression." Journal of Adolescent Health 21, no. 1 (1997): 11-17. Carty, C. 2010. “Zero Tolerance Village Alliance Intervention Model: Evaluation and Report 2010-2012” Thohoyandou Victim Empowerment Programme. Available at http://www.svri.org/Presentations/ZTVAEvalFinalCC.pdf. Last accessd: September 7th 2014. Chibber, K and Krishnan S.2011. Confronting Intimate Partner Violence: A Global Health Priority. Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine 78:449–457. Fergus,L. 2006. “An Evaluation of the Respect, Protect, Connect program” South Eastern Center against Sexual Assault. Available at http://www.secasa.com.au/assets/Documents/respect-protect-connect-evaluation-report.pdf Foshee, V A., Bauman K, Susan T. Ennett, G. Fletcher Linder, Thad Benefield, and Chirayath Suchindran.2004. "Assessing the long- term effects of the Safe Dates program and a booster in preventing and reducing adolescent dating violence victimization and perpetration." American Journal of Public Health 94, no. 4 : 619. Foshee, Vangie A., Karl E. Bauman, Ximena B. Arriaga, Russell W. Helms, Gary G. Koch, and George Fletcher Linder.1998. "An evaluation of Safe Dates, an adolescent dating violence prevention program." American Journal of Public Health 88, no. 1 : 45-50. Foshee, Vangie Ann, Karl E. Bauman, Wendy F. Greene, Gary G. Koch, George Fletcher Linder, and James E. MacDougall.2000. "The Safe Dates program: 1-year follow-up results." American Journal of Public Health 90, no. 10: 1619. Gardner, S. P. and Boellaard, R. 2007. Does Youth Relationship Education Continue to Work After a High School Class? A Longitudinal Study. Family Relations, 56: 490–500. Global Violence Prevention, “The Intervention with Microfinance for AIDS and Gender Equity (IMAGE) Study” Available at http://www.aidstar-one.com/sites/default/files/promising_practices/g3p_docs/Intimite_partner_violence.pdf Humphreys J, Tsoh JY, Kohn MA, et al. 2011. Increasing discussions of intimate partner violence in prenatal care using video doctor plus provider cueing: a randomized, controlled trial. Womens Health Issues. 21: 136–144 Jaycox L. H, McCaffrey D, Eiseman E, Aronoff J, Shelley GA, Collins R. L, Marshall G. N.2006. Impact of a school based dating violence prevention program among Latino teens: a randomized controlled effectiveness trial. J Adolesc Health; 39(5):694-704. Jewkes, R., Nduna, M., Levin, J., Jama, N., Dunkle, K., Puren, A., Dunwury, N.2008. Impact of Stepping Stones on Incidence of HIV & HSV-2 and Sexual Behaviour in Rural South Africa: Cluster Randomised Controlled Trial. British Medical Journal 337:a506. Kerpelman, J.L., Pittman J, Adler-Baeder F, Eryigit,S, and Paulk,A. 2009."Evaluation of a statewide youth-focused relationships education curriculum." Journal of Adolescence 32, no. 6 : 1359-1370. Lanier, C. A., Elliott, M.N., Marti, D.W. & Kapadia. A., (1998). Evaluation of an Intervention to Change Attitudes Toward Date Rape. College Teaching 46 (2). Lonsway, K., and Kothari,C.2000 "FIRST YEAR CAMPUS ACQUAINTANCE RAPE EDUCATION Evaluating the Impact of a Mandatory Intervention." Psychology of Women quarterly 24, no. 3: 220-232. Miller E, Decker MR, McCauley HL, et al.2011 A family planning clinic partner violence intervention to reduce risk associated with reproductive coercion. Contraception; 83: 274–280. McFarlane JM, Groff JY, O’Brien JA, et al.2006. Secondary prevention of intimate partner violence: a randomized controlled trial. Nurs Res; 55: 52–61 Potter, S. J., Moynihan, M. M. Stapleton, J. G., Banyard, V. L. 2009. Empowering Bystanders to Prevent Campus Violence Against Women: A Preliminary Evaluation of a Poster Campaign. Violence Against Women. 15 (1), 106-121 Proto-Campise, L., Belknap, J., & Wooldredge, J. 1998. High school students’ adherence to rape myths and the effectiveness of high school rape-awareness programs. Violence against Women, 4 (3), 308-328. Pronyk,P., Hargreaves JR,Kim JC, Morison, Godfrey Phetla, Charlotte Watts, Joanna Busza, John D H Porter. 2006. Effect of a structural intervention for the prevention of intimate-partner violence and HIV in rural South Africa: a cluster randomised trial. Lancet ; 368: 1973–83 Rijsdijk, Liesbeth E., Arjan ER Bos, Robert AC Ruiter, Joanne N. Leerlooijer, Billie de Haas, and Herman P. Schaalma.2011 "The World Starts with Me: A multilevel evaluation of a comprehensive sex education programme targeting adolescents in Uganda." BMC public health 11, no. 1 : 334. Ricardo, C., Marci Eads, M., Barker, G. 2011. Engaging Boys and Young Men in the Prevention of Sexual Violence: A systematic and global review of evaluated interventions Roberts, K. 2009. “An Evaluation of the Expect Respect: Preventing Teen Dating Violence High School program” Submitted for Doctor of Philosophy Dissertation at Ohio University. Available at: https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=ohiou1242323117&disposition=inline Schewe, P, & O Donohue, W. 1996. Rape prevention with high-risk males: Short-term outcome of two interventions. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 25(5),455-471 Solórzano, I, Bank A, Peña R, Espinoza H, Ellsberg M, and Pulerwitz,J. 2008. “Catalyzing individual and social change around gender, sexuality, and HIV: Impact evaluation of Puntos de Encuentro´s communication strategy in Nicaragua,” Horizons Final Report. Washington, DC: Population Council Tiwari A, Yee Tak Fong,D., Kwan Hok Yuen, Yuk H, Pang P, Humphreys J, Bullock L .2010. Effect of an Advocacy Intervention on Mental Health in Chinese Women Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence A Randomized Controlled Trial. JAMA. 2010;304(5):536-543. doi:10.1001/jama.2010.1052. http://jama.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=186339&resultClick=1 Weisz, A. N., & Black, B. M.2001. Evaluating a Sexual Assault and Dating Violence Prevention Program for Urban Youths. Social Work Research 25(2): 89-100. Wolfe et al . 2009. A School-Based Program to Prevent Adolescent Dating Violence: A Cluster Randomized Trial Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med.; 163(8):692-699 Wolfe, D. A.; Wekerle, C.; Scott, K.; Straatman, A.; Grasley, C.; Reitzel-Jaffe, D. 2003. Dating violence prevention with at-risk youth: A controlled outcome evaluation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Vol 71(2), 279-291. Sexual Harassment/ Non-Intimate Partner Violence 1 Primary or one of several objectives 2 VAWG not program objectives but included in program activities and evaluation Program and organization. Program Focus Sources. Country description areas Evaluation description and findings Safe and Smart Savings Kenya, Program aimed to 2 A Methodology: Quasi-experimental evaluation with intervention and comparison Products for Vulnerable Uganda support the economic group. The comparison group consisted of girls from a similar area who also Adolescent Girls (2008- and social opened bank accounts with the financial institutions that participated in the 2011) empowerment of project. A program delivery error in Uganda caused many girls to not participate adolescent girls. in the safe-spaces component. The evaluation in Uganda, therefore, allowed for a Population Council, Activities included comparison between girls who opened a savings account and participated in the MicroSave Consulting weekly meetings with safe spaces component and girls who only opened a savings account. female mentors and Austrian and Muthengi creation of safe Findings: In Kenya, intervention girls were significantly less likely to report that (2013) spaces for girls, they feared getting raped, or had been teased by people of the opposite sex at financial literacy endline. Generally, intervention girls in the older age group (15-19) were training, and support significantly more likely to experience teasing than girls in the younger age in opening an group. The evaluation of the program in Uganda found that girls who only individual savings received a savings account experienced increased levels of sexual harassment account. The program and violence (i.e., being touched inappropriately or teased). This finding points worked with to the possibility that simply increasing economic empowerment (i.e., savings adolescent girls aged accounts only) can increase girls vulnerability, unless it is accompanied by an 10-19. investment in building girls’ other assets, such as self-esteem, knowledge of their rights, and other life skills. The guardian programme Tanzania Program objective 1 B Methodology: Guardians received one day of training. At the end of one year, (1996) was to reduce girls’ the program was assessed through interviews with adolescent girls age 13-19 in a vulnerability to sample of intervention schools and a comparable sample of schools without the TANESA Project, District sexual harassment in guardian program. Education Office schools in Mwanza, Tanzania, where Findings: The program was well accepted by girls with about 60 percent in the Mgalla, Z, Schapink, D and sexual harassment intervention schools having sought the guardian’s help or advice; they were Focus area codes: A = Support social and economic empowerment of program participants; B = Reduce vulnerability to sexual harassment and violence; C = Provide knowledge and tools to intervene in situations of violence; D = Changing gender norms, attitudes and behaviors Program and organization. Program Focus Sources. Country description areas Evaluation description and findings Ties Boerma,J (1998) and violence directed much more likely to speak to the guardian than were girls in the control schools against school girls and were more likely to seek assistance from a female teacher. For example, 19 was found to be percent of girls sought help from a guardian about being sexually harassed by a prevalent. In the boy compared to just 1 percent of girls who sought help for the same problem context of an from a female teacher. All of the schools in the study reported at least one case HIV/AIDS control of sexual abuse or violence and many of these cases were made public. project, a ‘guardian’ system was introduced in primary schools in which a female teacher was designated as someone who could be safely consulted by girls in cases of sexual harassment and for advice on sexual and reproductive health issues. Sexual violence prevention USA Sexual violence 1 C,D Methodology: An experimental design with a longitudinal study was used. Two through bystander prevention program versions of the program were developed and tested to compare the effectiveness education: An experimental based on a of different doses of the intervention. Analyses of gender differences in the evaluation community effectiveness of the program were also conducted. To assess the relationship responsibility model between socially desirable bias in responding and outcomes, a series of Pearson University of New that teaches women correlations were performed. Hampshire and men how to intervene safely and Findings: Conducted over two academic years; the groups did not significantly Banyard, V. L., Moynihan, effectively in case of differ from one another on outcome measures at pretest. Results from the M. M., Plante, E. G. (2007). sexual violence research reveal that up to 2 months after participating in either a one or three- before during and session version of the program, participants in the treatment conditions showed after incidents with improvements across measures of attitudes knowledge and behavior while the strangers, control group did not. Most program efforts persisted at 4 and 12 months follow acquaintances and up. Higher perceived bystander ineffectiveness was related to lower bystander Focus area codes: A = Support social and economic empowerment of program participants; B = Reduce vulnerability to sexual harassment and violence; C = Provide knowledge and tools to intervene in situations of violence; D = Changing gender norms, attitudes and behaviors Program and organization. Program Focus Sources. Country description areas Evaluation description and findings friends. Program willingness to intervene and more negative perceptions of bystanding. implemented in a Otherwise, correlations were fairly low between measures, supporting the university setting decision. Univariate analyses indicated sex differences on most outcomes, with using group training. women more knowledgeable, less endorsing of general rape myths, more accurate about date rape, and more willing to engage in various bystander behaviors. Women reported that they actually engaged in more bystander behaviors and had total decisional balance scores that reflected less positive views of being an active bystander. For this sample, there were not overall significant differences between men and women in the impact of the prevention program though both men and women were tested. Furthermore, both one- session and three-session doses produced significant changes, though more significant change was seen with the longer prevention program. Application of such results supports implementation of longer prevention programs when possible for maximum effect, but also suggests that when time constraints prohibit longer programs, even a shorter bystander program can create important changes. Syracuse Partnership for USA The MVP program is 1 C,D Methodology: Quasi-experimental, pre-test/post-test survey design to measure Violence Prevention based on a peer change. (Mentors in Violence leadership model, Prevention - MVP) targeting not only Findings: Both peer-educators and workshop participants reported significantly potential perpetrators less sexist attitudes at post-test than at pre-test. Workshop participants attributed Syracuse University and victims, but also significantly less sexist attitudes to their peers at post-test than at pre-test. seeking to empower However, peer educators’ assessment of their peers did not change significantly. Cissner (2009) those who might No significant change in the reporting or prevalence of violence in the university otherwise be passive as a whole. Both groups reported an increase in self-efficacy and prevention. bystanders to potentially violent situations. The program relies on adult staff to train youth participants (‘Peer Educators’) who in turn facilitate workshops attended Focus area codes: A = Support social and economic empowerment of program participants; B = Reduce vulnerability to sexual harassment and violence; C = Provide knowledge and tools to intervene in situations of violence; D = Changing gender norms, attitudes and behaviors Program and organization. Program Focus Sources. Country description areas Evaluation description and findings by a larger number of their peers (‘Workshop Participants’). This study was mainly to see whether the program can be adapted for a college age population. Program was implemented over three semesters. It was initially meant to be for college athletes. It has four primary aims to raise awareness of men’s abuse of women, challenge mainstream messages about gender and sex, create a safe space for dialogue, and inspire leadership. Approach: group training Freshmen 101 Curriculum USA Program consisted of 1 D Methodology: Randomized control trial a six-activity Findings: The program decreased students acceptance of rape myths compared Unnamed high school in acquaintance rape with non-participating students both on a scale developed by Burt and on South Carolina prevention program additional items measuring acquaintance rape. Attitudes towards dating violence for first year high did not change. Fay, K., & Medway, F. school students living (2006) in a rural community Focus area codes: A = Support social and economic empowerment of program participants; B = Reduce vulnerability to sexual harassment and violence; C = Provide knowledge and tools to intervene in situations of violence; D = Changing gender norms, attitudes and behaviors Program and organization. Program Focus Sources. Country description areas Evaluation description and findings in South Carolina. This program was included in high school’s ‘Freshman 101’ curriculum-a three week experience focusing on high school transitions. Program objectives were to provide an understanding of acquaintance rape, rape laws and the relationship of rape to violence, explore feelings about acquaintance rape, be more aware of cultural norms influencing rape, learn about the role of inconsistent verbal and nonverbal communication, and identify rape prevention strategies. Rape myth changes are particularly significant as myth acceptance has been strongly linked to behavioral intentions to commit rape. The Focus area codes: A = Support social and economic empowerment of program participants; B = Reduce vulnerability to sexual harassment and violence; C = Provide knowledge and tools to intervene in situations of violence; D = Changing gender norms, attitudes and behaviors Program and organization. Program Focus Sources. Country description areas Evaluation description and findings educational setting of this project was in the only high school in a town of 6600 in rural South Carolina. 21% of the population had family incomes below the poverty rate and the town’s incidence of reported rape was 62% higher than the national average. 154 students (67 males, 85 females;78 control group, 76 treatment group). Focus area codes: A = Support social and economic empowerment of program participants; B = Reduce vulnerability to sexual harassment and violence; C = Provide knowledge and tools to intervene in situations of violence; D = Changing gender norms, attitudes and behaviors References Austrian, K. and E. Muthengi. 2013. “Safe and Smart Savings Products for Vulnerable Adolescent Girls in Kenya and Uganda: Evaluation Report.” Nairobi: Population Council Mgalla, Zaida, Dick Schapink, and J. Ties Boerma. 1998. “Protecting school girls against sexual exploitation: A guardian programme in Mwanza, Tanzania.” Reproductive Health Matters 6(12):19-30. Banyard, V. L., Moynihan, M. M., Plante, E. G. (2007). Sexual Violence Prevention Through Bystander Education: An Experimental Evaluation. Journal of Community Psychology. 35 (4), 463–481 Cissner, A. B. (2009). Evaluating the Mentors in Violence Prevention Program: Preventing Gender Violence on a College Campus.Washington DC: U.S. Department of Education. Fay, K., & Medway, F. (2006) An Acquaintance Rape Education Program for Students Transitional to High School. Sex Education 6 (3): 223-236. Engaging Men and Boys to Prevent VAWG 1 Primary or one of several objectives 2 VAWG not program objectives but included in program activities and evaluation Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description Areas Evaluation description and findings Using Football to Reach Brazil Program included 1 A Methodology: Quasi-experimental design. Targets were men aged 15-64 in Men in GBV Prevention educational workshops, Rio de Janeiro. Date? soccer tournaments and Findings: Survey results show that following the workshops, there was a community-wide ten percent decrease in the number of participants in the intervention group Promundo campaigns. Workshops who agreed with the statement “there are times when a woman deserves to focused on increasing be beaten.” Furthermore, following the intervention, there was a significant Instituto Promundo (2012) awareness of gender decrease in the number of men in the intervention group (from 62 to 53 norms and the percent), who agreed with the statement “violence in a relationship is the consequences of violence couple’s problem and should not be discussed with others” Participants against women. The self-reported continuing to use psychological violence during instances of soccer tournament served conflict within couples. Additionally, there were statistically significant as an incentive: in order increases in the sharing of household responsibilities among male to participate in the participants and their partners. soccer tournament, men needed to have participated in at least one workshop per week. Family members were invited to meals immediately after the matches to encourage wider family discussion on the topics. Promoting More Gender- Brazil The program examines 1 A Methodology: A quasi-experimental study was conducted to compare the equitable Norms and the effectiveness of the impact of different combinations of program activities: interactive group Behaviors Among Young interventions designed to education and a community-wide “lifestyle”/ social marketing campaign to Men as an HIV/AIDS i) improve young men`s promote condom use. Three groups of young men aged 14 to 25 years, with Focus area codes: A = Changing gender norms, attitudes, and behaviors; B = Provide knowledge and tools to intervene in situations of violence Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description Areas Evaluation description and findings Prevention Strategy. attitudes toward gender a mean age of 17 (at baseline, n = 780), were followed over time. The GEM norms and, (ii) to reduce (Gender-equitable men) Scale, which measures attitudes toward gender The Horizons Program and HIV/STI risk through norms related to topics such as HIV/AIDS prevention, partner violence, and Instituto Promundo interactive group sexual relationships, was used to assess the impact of the program. education and a Findings: The findings indicate that improvements on the gender norm Julie Pulerwitz, community-wide social scale were associated with changes in at least one key HIV/STI risk Horizons/PATH marketing campaign to outcome. Agreement with inequitable norms in the GEM Scale was Gary Barker, Márcio promote condom use. significantly associated with reported STI symptoms (p < .05), lack of Segundo, and Marcos contraceptive use (p = .05), and both physical and sexual violence against a Nascimento, current, or most recent, partner (p < .001). Instituto Promundo (2006) Engaging Young Men via Chile CulturaSalud conducted 1 A Methodology: Quasi-experimental design. To supplement the quantitative the Public Health System educational workshops evaluation, in-depth interviews and focus groups were conducted with both for 260 young men via health professionals who implemented the workshops, and young men who CulturaSalud the public health sector, participated in them, to assess their impact. CulturaSalud conducted 16 in- and in public schools, on depth interviews and six group interviews with participants, and five in- Instituto Promundo (2012) the prevention of violence depth interviews and five focus groups with the health professionals. against women, Findings: Results showed a significant positive change in participants’ alternatives to violence self-reported behavior, including an increase in condom use. There was also and gender equity. The a significant increase in gender equitable behavior by participants and they manual and workshops reported feeling that they were given better tools to deal with violence addressed multiple types compared to no change in the control group. of violence including violence within families, intimate partner violence, assault and sexual abuse. Focus area codes: A = Changing gender norms, attitudes, and behaviors; B = Provide knowledge and tools to intervene in situations of violence Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description Areas Evaluation description and findings Ethiopia The program aimed to 1 A Methodology: This quasi-experimental study was used to compare the Male Norms Initiative promote gender equitable impact of different sets of program activities on three groups of young men norms and reduce risk of ages 15 to 24 years, who were members of the youth groups. After being The US President’s HIV and violence. exposed to different interventions, three groups of young men were Emergency Plan for AIDS Activities conducted followed over six months. One intervention arm consisted of interactive Relief (PEPFAR) included distribution of group education with community engagement activities (GE+CE); the leaflets, newsletters, and second intervention arm included only community engagement activities Pulerwitz et al. (2010) other materials, music (CE); and the third arm (a comparison group) did not receive any and drama skits, intervention activities until after the study period ended (a “delayed” community discussions, intervention). Surveys were administered in May and June 2008. condom distribution, and Findings: The program had a positive impact on young men`s attitude an International Father’s towards gender norms: the percentage of respondents who reported being Day physically violent toward a female partner over the past six months March. significantly decreased in both the GE+CE arm (36 vs. 16 percent) and the CE-only arm (36 vs. 18 percent). Also 95% of participants in the GE+CE arm, and 82% of participants in the CE arm reported that after intervention, they are more aware of gender issues, treat women with more respect, have increased their ability to negotiate condom use, reduced their sexual risk behavior, and have learned how to improve partner communication about HIV risk issues. One Man Can Campaign South The One Man Can 1 A Methodology: Program evaluation included phone surveys with a Africa Campaign engages men randomly selected pool of previous OMC campaign workshop participants Sonke Gender Justice to prevent GBV, reduce in the three provinces, in addition to other sources of data. One of the Network the spread and impact of indicators included in the evaluation was increased awareness and reporting HIV/AIDS and support of GBV. Colvin (2009) efforts to achieve greater Findings: The phone survey indicated significant changes in short-term gender equality. The behavior in the weeks following Sonke workshops with 50% of participants program included training reporting acts of gender-based violence. More than 4 out of 5 participants at to civil society Sonke workshops also reported having subsequently talked with friends or organizations on a range family members about HIV and AIDS, gender and human rights. of community education, mobilization and advocacy activities. The program also included a Focus area codes: A = Changing gender norms, attitudes, and behaviors; B = Provide knowledge and tools to intervene in situations of violence Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description Areas Evaluation description and findings range of communication campaigns through various media. Work was also undertaken with local governments to support the implementation of existing laws related to GBV. The campaign was launched in urban, peri- urban and rural areas with men and boys of all ages ‘How to Help a Sexual USA An all-male sexual 1 A Methodology: Randomized control trial. Belief in rape myths was assessed Assault Survivor’ Program assault peer education using the Burt Rape Myth Acceptance Scale in which respondents endorse (Spring 1995) program focusing on how belief in items rated on a 7 point Likert scale. The scale was completed to help survivors. Trained three times: at pre-test, immediately following the post test, and Department of Resident male undergraduate peer approximately two months after (follow up test). The control group Life, University of educators used videos and completed the questionnaire only twice-one month apart. Participants were Maryland, College Park facilitation skills in told that the sessions will provide them with the skills to help a sexual college campuses. assault survivor to ensure men enter the program in a non-judgmental open Foubert & Marriott (1997). atmosphere Findings: Led to a decrease in rape myth belief among predominantly Caucasian participants immediately after, and two months following, a one- hour program. Program participants believed fewer rape myths than the initial testing of a control group. In addition, a clear majority of participants reported decreased likelihood of being sexually coercive as a result of attending the program. Preventing Sexual USA This study administered 1 A,B Methodology: Randomized control trial. First-year dormitories were Aggression Among College two tailored single-sex randomly assigned to participate in either the treatment or control groups. Men: An Evaluation of a programs for randomly The program incorporated social norms and bystander intervention Social Norms and assigned male and female education and is grounded in theory and empirical data regarding risk for Bystander Intervention first year students living sexual aggression. Men completed a 1.5-hour intervention program and 1 Program in the same campus hour booster. community. Male Findings: Compared with men in the control group, men in the program Focus area codes: A = Changing gender norms, attitudes, and behaviors; B = Provide knowledge and tools to intervene in situations of violence Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description Areas Evaluation description and findings Gidycz, C, Orchowski, L participants were exposed group found sexual assault behavior less reinforcing. Program group men and Berkowitiz,A (2011) to a theoretically driven also evidenced larger decreases in associations with sexual assault peers prevention program and and exposure to sexually explicit media relative to the control group. female participants were Program group men also believed that their friends would be more likely to exposed to a risk intervene when they witnessed inappropriate behavior. These findings are reduction program. Both noteworthy in light of previous research suggesting that men’s own programs focused on willingness to intervene is strongly associated with their perceptions of how debunking rape myths, other men might act in similar situations. Despite positive changes, some increasing awareness outcomes remained unchanged like support for rape prevention efforts and about conditions of sustained positive changes in rape myths. consent, and fostering bystander interventions. The Men’s Program USA The Men’s Program was 1 A Methodology : This was a randomized control trial. All 12 fraternities on a college rape education the campus were randomly divided. Four fraternities participated in The One in Four Inc. program specifically Men’s Program with an added training module on bystander intervention in designed for college men situations involving alcohol; four participated in The Men’s Program with Foubert, J. D., & Newberry, and it was designed to an added training module on defining consent in situations involving J. T. (2006). reduce men’s alcohol; and four constituted a control group. They were first presented defensiveness while still guided imagery of a woman close to them being sexually assaulted while a targeting men’s rape bystander did nothing to stop it. Next, participants were asked what they supportive behaviors and would do where they had the opportunity to confront another man abusing beliefs. It uses video, or preparing to, with a woman who cannot give consent due to intoxication. audience connection and Finally, participants considered what they would do in a potentially discussion. The major sexually intimate situation involving alcohol. The program is based in ways this program belief system theory and elaboration likelihood model. Belief in rape myths focuses on ending rape is was assessed using the IRMAS. Behavioral intent to rape was assessed by through a powerful male- Malamuth’s likelihood of raping scale. Empathy was measured by the Rape on-male victim empathy Empathy Scale. Pre and posttest surveys, which took about 10 minutes. component and by Findings: Program participants reported significant increases in empathy including bystander toward rape survivors and significant declines in rape myth acceptance, intervention training likelihood of raping, and likelihood of committing sexual assault. Program delivered by male peer participants’ scores significantly differed from an untreated control group in Focus area codes: A = Changing gender norms, attitudes, and behaviors; B = Provide knowledge and tools to intervene in situations of violence Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description Areas Evaluation description and findings educators to an all-male several areas. Implications for describing a male-on-male rape to increase audience. Participants are men’s empathy toward female survivors and other related attitudes are specifically encouraged discussed. Evidence was stronger for the impact of the program that to learn to respond more contained The Men’s Program with an additional element on ‘alcohol and effectively to women who bystander intervention’ than ‘alcohol and defining consent’. might seek their assistance after surviving rape. Men As Allies as part of the USA The Men’s Program was 1 A Methodology: The intervention consisted of three 45-minute sessions. Data ‘Working Together’ a college rape education about peer pressure and dating violence was presented along with a focus curriculum program specifically on the students' disagreement with rape-supportive behavior and positive designed for college men feedback for students suggestions to decrease abusive behavior. Finally, and it was designed to during the last session, a student role play served as a means to demonstrate Hillenbrand-Gunn, T., reduce men’s how males can be a support to a rape survivor. Heppner, M.J., Mauch, P. defensiveness while still Findings: The male and female experimental groups demonstrated a A. & Park, H. J. (2010). targeting men’s rape significant decrease in rape-supportive attitudes, which was maintained at supportive behaviors and follow-up. Male participants viewed peers' attitudes toward sexual violence beliefs. It uses video, as significantly different (worse) from peers' pretest self-ratings; after audience connection and intervention, male and female experimental group participants' peer ratings discussion. The major were significantly more accurate. ways this program focuses on ending rape is through a powerful male- on-male victim empathy component and by including bystander intervention training delivered by male peer educators to an all-male audience. Participants are specifically encouraged to learn to respond more effectively to women who might seek their assistance after surviving Focus area codes: A = Changing gender norms, attitudes, and behaviors; B = Provide knowledge and tools to intervene in situations of violence Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description Areas Evaluation description and findings rape. Coaching Boys into Men USA CBIM was a school- 1 A,B Methodology: 2,006 student athletes participated in the intervention and (CBIM)’ Dating Violence based training program of control groups from across 16 schools. Of these, 1,798 athletes participated (DV) Perpetration athletic coaches to in a follow up assessment 3 months after the program. Regression models Prevention Program become role models for for clustered, longitudinal data that assessed between-arm differences in male athletes. CBIM was over-time changes in the mean levels of continuous outcomes were used. Futures Without Violence intended to engage The primary outcomes were intentions to intervene, recognition of abusive athletic coaches to behaviors, and gender-equitable attitudes while the secondary outcomes Miller (2011) become positive role explored bystander behaviors and abuse perpetration. models to deliver Findings: This evaluation showed the effectiveness of a school athletics- violence prevention based prevention program as a promising strategy to reduce DV messages to adolescent perpetration. Athletes who were exposed to the intervention showed male athletes. The improvements in intentions to intervene and recognition of abusive program has a 60-minute behaviors and positive bystander intervention as compared with the control training session for subjects. coaches, led by a trained instructor who also introduced ‘Coaches Kit’ which provides strategies to athletes to discuss violence against women. There were also eleven Focus area codes: A = Changing gender norms, attitudes, and behaviors; B = Provide knowledge and tools to intervene in situations of violence Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description Areas Evaluation description and findings “Training Cards” guides with short 10–15 minutes weekly discussions with athletes highlighting DV prevention. Mentors in Violence USA MVP is a university 1 A Methodology: The evaluation of the program was conducted from 1999- Prevention (MVP) based, gender violence 2002. Both qualitative and quantitative data from 475 student leaders from Program, Northeastern prevention and education 20 different urban, suburban, and rural high schools was collected for the University program. It aimed to analysis. create awareness among Northeastern University the participants about the Findings: It was found that the MVP was very effective in creating positive (2007) level of men’s verbal, and significant changes in students’ knowledge, attitudes and behaviors emotional, physical, and regarding gender violence. MVP has a powerful impact on both individuals sexual abuse of women. and communities. Sexual Assault Prevention USA This program was a 1 A Methodology: There was a random selection of 342 college men for Program for Men college based sexual control and experimental groups. Pre-test and post-tests at 3 months and 7 assault prevention months were conducted to collect data on self-reported sexually aggressive The Ohio Department of program using behavior, rape supporting attitudes, perception of other men’s attitude about Health presentations, group sexual aggression and judgments of consent. Statistical analysis was discussions and group performed on the collected data Lobo (2004) activity. It was based on Findings: The results of evaluation suggested a lack of evidence to support social norms theoretical the effectiveness of this program. It was observed that a brief, one session perspective and prevention program is not very effective and only those programs that have integrated model of multiple exposures to important information over a period of time have a sexual assault by stronger impact. Berkowitz (1992 &2003). Some of the objectives were to improve participants understanding about consent, to discourage rape supportive attitudes, and help prevent the occurrence of sexually aggressive behavior. The Focus area codes: A = Changing gender norms, attitudes, and behaviors; B = Provide knowledge and tools to intervene in situations of violence Program and organization. Focus Sources. Country Program description Areas Evaluation description and findings program was conducted by a trained male graduate student and participants were randomly assigned to control or experimental groups. Focus area codes: A = Changing gender norms, attitudes, and behaviors; B = Provide knowledge and tools to intervene in situations of violence References Colvin, C (2009) “Report on the Impact of Sonke Gender Justice Network’s “One Man Can” Campaign in the Limpopo, Eastern Cape and Kwa- Zulu Natal Provinces, South Africa” Cape Town: Sonke Gender Justice Network. Foubert, J. D. & Marriott, K. A. (1997). Effects of a sexual assault peer education program on men’s belief in rape myths. Sex Roles, 36, 257-266. Foubert, J. D., & Newberry, J. T. (2006). Effects of two versions of an empathy-based rape prevention program on fraternity men’s survivor empathy, attitudes, and behavioral intent to commit rape or sexual assault. Journal of College Student Development, 47, 133–148. Gidycz, C.A., Orchowski, L.M. & Berkowitz, A.D. (2011) Preventing Sexual Aggression Among College Men: An Evaluation of a Social Norms and Bystander Intervention Program Violence Against Women. 17: 720-742 Hillenbrand-Gunn, T., Heppner, M.J., Mauch, P. A. & Park, H. J. (2010). Men as Allies: The efficacy of a high school rape prevention intervention. Journal of Counselling and Development, 88, 43-51. Instituto Promundo. 2012. “Engaging men to prevent gender-based violence: A multi-country intervention and impact evaluation study.” Report for the UN Trust Fund. Washington, DC :Promundo Lobo, T. R. (2004) Evaluation of a Sexual Assault Prevention Program for College Men: Effects on Self-Reported Sexually Aggressive Behavior, Social Perceptions, and Attitudes. Doctoral dissertation submitted to the Philosophy department of the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University. Miller E. (2011) Evaluation Of “Coaching Boys Into Men” (CBIM) Program. United States: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Inline: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01367704 Northeastern University (2007) Mentors in Violence Prevention (MVP) Program: research and evaluation. Northeastern University - Center for the Study of Sport in Society. CSSS Research Articles and Reports, online: http://iris.lib.neu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=sport_res_art_rep Pulerwitz, J., Barker, G., Segundo, M. & Nascimento, M (2006.) Promoting more gender-equitable norms and behaviors among young men as an HIV/AIDS prevention strategy, Horizons Final Report. Washington, DC: Population Council. Pulerwitz J, Martin S, Mehta M, Castillo T, Kidanu A, Verani F, Tewolde S. (2010) Promoting Gender Equity for HIV and Violence Prevention: Results from the Male Norms Initiative Evaluation in Ethiopia. Washington, DC: PATH