NEPAL COUNTRY ECONOMIC MEMORANDUM CLIMBING HIGHER: TOWARD A MIDDLE-INCOME NEPAL May 2017 NEPAL COUNTRY ECONOMIC MEMORANDUM CLIMBING HIGHER: TOWARD A MIDDLE-INCOME NEPAL May 2017 World Bank Macroeconomics & Fiscal Management Global Practice South Asia Region © 2017 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved 1 2 3 4 18 17 16 15 This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. 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NEPAL—GOVERNMENT FISCAL YEAR July 16 – July 15 CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS (Exchange Rate Effective as of May 18, 2017) Currency Unit: Nepalese Rupee US$1.00 = NPR 102.55 Vice President: Annette Dixon Country Director: Qimiao Fan Country Manager: Takuya Kamata Practice Manager: Manuela Francisco Co-Task Team Leaders: Damir Cosic and Markus Kitzmuller Acknowledgements This report was prepared by a team led by Damir Cosic, Sudyumna Dahal, and Markus Kitzmuller under the management of Shubham Chaudhuri, Deepak Mishra, and Manu- ela Francisco, and the overall guidance of Takuya Kamata. Many people provided valuable contributions to the report. Roshan Darshan Bajracharya provided critical insights on Nepal’s history and constraints on development, and valuable guidance in all stages of the preparation of the report. Rishab Sinha assisted with long- term growth modelling. Tuan Minh Le contributed analysis of the public investment man- agement system in Nepal. Ashish Narain and Gonzalo Varela provided extensive inputs on trade issues. Dino Merotto contributed analysis on firm dynamics and on labor demand and supply, including demographic trends. Dinar Dhamma Prihardini and Calvin Djio- fack ably carried out computable general equilibrium modelling. Keomanivone Phimma- hasay and Somneuk Davading helped with hydro data collection and analysis. The section on agriculture draws entirely from the 2016 World Bank report, “Nepal: Sources of Growth in Agriculture for Poverty Reduction and Shared Prosperity,” prepared by the Agriculture Global Practice and led by Elliot Wamboka Mghenyi. Jasmine Ra- jbhandary and Dhusyanth Raju provided helpful inputs and suggestions on education and the youth labor market. Pushpa Lal Shakya and Jayandra Shrestha provided sectoral guid- ance and assistance on the public investment management and energy sectors, respectively. Rajib Upadhya and Richa Bhattari managed media relations and dissemination. Diane Stamm edited the report. Sunita Yadav provided operational and logistical assistance. Michael Geiger, Mona Prasad, Nara Bahadur Thapa (Executive Director, Nepal Rastra Bank), Strahan Spencer (Economic Advisor, Department for International Development), and Swarnim Wagle (Member, National Planning Commission) served as peer reviewers; and Christian Eigen-Zucci, Martin Rama, Pablo Gottret, and Sailesh Tiwari provided helpful comments and suggestions. Following colleagues helped to make the report better: Benu Bidani, Bigyan Pradhan, Hi- roki Uematsu, Aurelien Kruse, Rabin Shrestha, Saurav Rana, and Dilip Parajuli. The team is also grateful for consultations with officials of the Government of Nepal during the preparation of the report. In particular, we would like to thank officials with Investment Board Nepal and Nepal Electricity Authority for their assistance. Except when noted, peo- ple mentioned are with the World Bank. The United Kingdom’s Department for International Development provided generous financial support that facilitated research activities undertaken for the report. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal iii Abbreviations BRICS Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa CGE computable general equilibrium EM-DAT Emergency Events Database FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FDI foreign direct investment FS feasibility study FY fiscal year FNNTE Federation of Nepalese National Transport Entrepreneurs GDP gross domestic product GFCF gross fixed capital formation GNI gross national income ICOR incremental capital output ratio LIC low-income country M&E monitoring and evaluation MOF Ministry of Finance MW megawatt NASA National Assessment of Student Achievement NER Net Enrollment Rate NPC National Planning Commission PDA Project Development Agreement PIM Public Investment Management SAM Social Accounting Matrix SLC School Leaving Certificate SPS Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standards TEA Trucking Entrepreneurs’ Association TFP total factor productivity UN United Nations US$ United States dollar VAT value-added tax WB World Bank WDI World Development Indicators Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal iv Table of Contents Acknowledgments-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- iii Abbreviations-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- iv Executive Summary------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ix I. A leader in poverty reduction, but a laggard in growth-------------------------------------------------------------- 1 II. The status quo is neither sustainable nor desirable----------------------------------------------------------------- 5 Why has growth been persistently low?------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7 Contemporary economic history points to weak institutions and poor policy choices---------------------------------------------- 8 Growth decomposition indicates persisting challenges-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------10 Atypical economic transformation is stifling the country’s development aspirations-----------------------------------------------11 A systematic assault is needed to break Nepal out of the vicious cycle---------------------------------------------------------------13 III. Breaking down barriers to facilitate greater investments and improved productivity-----------------17 Unfavorable endowments and poor policy choices have contributed to low investment and weak productivity-------------17 Breaking down barriers to greater investment—both public and private------------------------------------------------------------18 a) Reforming the public investment process--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------18 b) Crowding in greater private investment----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------20 Breaking down constraints to greater productivity----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21 a) Outward orientation and external competitiveness--------------------------------------------------------------------------------22 b) Competition in the economy is weak—both within and from abroad---------------------------------------------------------24 IV. Building new sources of growth------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------27 Identifying the potential investments in hydro energy------------------------------------------------------------------------------------28 The US$26.5 billion question—what can investment in hydropower do?-----------------------------------------------------------29 V. Revitalize existing sources of growth------------------------------------------------------------------------------------35 Agriculture, vital to the Nepalese economy, is stuck in low investment and low productivity------------------------------------35 Main factors inhibiting growth in agricultural productivity-----------------------------------------------------------------------------37 To increase broad-based agricultural productivity, a well-integrated national program is required----------------------------39 Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal v VI. Investing in people-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------43 Putting more human capital to productive use in Nepal is critical for a stronger and more sustainable growth path------43 Nepal has entered a youth bulge phase—an opportunity for a demographic dividend-------------------------------------------44 Deepening of human capital remains a basic condition for brighter economic prospects----------------------------------------47 Annex-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49 Nepal Public Investment Management Gap Analysis----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49 References--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------52   BOXES Box I.1 The debilitating shocks of 2015 may have further set back development and growth potential----------------------- 2 Box II.1 Empirical research on the effects of large disasters on growth--------------------------------------------------------------- 7 Box IV.1 Analyzing economic impacts of various policy options: a computable general equilibrium approach------------29 FIGURES Figure ES.1 Nepal’s low-growth, high-migration trap---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- x Figure ES.2 Political vicious cycle---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- xi Figure I.1 Nepal is simultaneously praised for its poverty reduction record and pilloried for its weak growth performance---- 1 Figure I.2 Pace of poverty reduction in South Asia----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3 Figure I.3 Growth of countries in South Asia------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3 Figure I.4 Remittances as a share of GDP---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3 Figure I.5 Remittances per capita--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3 Figure II.1 Nepal’s low-growth, high-migration trap---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6 Figure II.2 History of economic growth in Nepal, 1970–2015---------------------------------------------------------------------- 8 Figure II.3 Population and GDP per capita growth, 1970–2015-------------------------------------------------------------------- 9 Figure II.4 Contribution to value-added growth by sector---------------------------------------------------------------------------10 Figure II.5 Contribution to GDP growth by expenditure----------------------------------------------------------------------------11 Figure II.6 Contribution to GDP growth by factor------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11 Figure II.7 Historical productivity growth----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12 Figure II.8 Historical human capital growth--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12 Figure II.9 Historical investment-to-GDP ratio----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13 Figure II.10 GNI per capita growth (business as usual)--------------------------------------------------------------------------------13 Figure II.11 Investment need for LIC graduation---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13 Figure II.12 Investment rates in the South Asia region--------------------------------------------------------------------------------13 Figure II.13 Reform scenario assumptions-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14 Figure II.14 GNI per capita growth (reform scenario)---------------------------------------------------------------------------------14 Figure II.15 Political vicious cycle----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15 Figure III.1 Average level of public investment, 2007–15----------------------------------------------------------------------------18 Figure III.2 Average Incremental Capital Output Ratio, 2001–07-----------------------------------------------------------------18 Figure III.3 Average level of private investment, 2007–15---------------------------------------------------------------------------21 Figure III.4 All enterprises have been severely affected by political instability---------------------------------------------------21 Figure III.5 History of productivity growth in Nepal, 1970–2015------------------------------------------------------------------21 Figure III.6 Nepal has one of the highest tariff rates-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------23 Figure III.7 The real effective exchange rate has appreciated considerably since 2006----------------------------------------23 Figure V.1 Rice yields in South Asia-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------36 Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal vi Figure V.2 Wheat yields in South Asia---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------36 Figure V.3 Productivity in agriculture----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37 Figure V.4 Net export value of agricultural products---------------------------------------------------------------------------------37 Figure VI.1 Employment share by major sector, 1999–2013-------------------------------------------------------------------------44 Figure VI.2 Value added per worker by sector, 2001–13------------------------------------------------------------------------------44 Figure VI.3 Migration has exceeded new entrants to the labor force--------------------------------------------------------------45 Figure VI.4 The majority of migrants are under 35 years of age-------------------------------------------------------------------45 Figure VI.5 Population growth in South Asia-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------45 Figure VI.6 Age-dependency ratio for Nepal--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------45 Figure VI.7 Population by five-year age groups, historical, Nepal, 2015----------------------------------------------------------46 Figure VI.8 Population by five-year age groups, projection, Nepal, 2050---------------------------------------------------------46   TABLES Table III.1 Five common ingredients in policies of rapidly growing countries--------------------------------------------------17 Table III.2 Projects take a very long time to complete in Nepal--------------------------------------------------------------------19 Table III.3 Cross-country PIM performance-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19 Table IV.1 Identified potential investments in hydro sector, 2017–30------------------------------------------------------------28 Table IV.2 Identified financing of potential investments in the hydro sector, 2017–30---------------------------------------29 Table IV.3 Baseline macroeconomic scenario, 2017–30-----------------------------------------------------------------------------30 Table IV.4 Hydro investments macroeconomic scenario, 2017–30---------------------------------------------------------------30 Table IV.5 Hydro investments, productivity, and migrant returns macroeconomic scenario, 2017–30-------------------30 Table IV.6 Effects of hydro investment in Nepal in 2030---------------------------------------------------------------------------32 Table V.1 Decomposition of changes in crop income between FY2004 and FY2011, percent----------------------------36 Table V.2 Relative contribution of technical change and technical efficiency to productivity between FY2004 and FY2011----38 Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal vii Executive Summary Nepal’s recent history of development is marred by a paradox. Many countries in the world have experienced rapid growth but modest poverty reduction, as income has increasingly concentrated in the hands of the wealthy. Nepal, however, has the oppo- site problem—modest growth but brisk poverty reduction. The country has halved the poverty rate in just seven years and witnessed an equally significant decline in income inequality. Yet, Nepal remains one of the poorest and slowest-growing economies in Asia, with its per capita income rapidly falling behind its regional peers and unable to achieve its long-standing ambition to graduate from low-income status. Unfavorable starting conditions have meant that Nepal’s development path was never going to be easy. First, historical and natural endowments make develop- ment challenging. The country’s geography—landlocked externally and challenging topography internally—represents a natural barrier to its development. Its history of extractive political regimes left Nepal with extremely low levels of physical and human capital and illiteracy rates of 90 percent in 1951. Second, a propensity for natural disasters, which most recently included two devastating earthquakes in 2015, contrib- uted to the destruction of physical assets and near continuous setbacks. Third, Nepal is uniquely exposed to India and its pace of economic development, both for good and bad. Fourth, during the past two decades, the country has been undergoing a prolonged period of political transition, from a monarchy to a multiparty democracy, marked by armed conflict, ethnic protests, and frequent changes in government. Put simply, Nepal has faced enormous obstacles on its path to development. Challenging development constraints have been further compounded by unsup- portive policy choices. The economic history of Nepal over the past 45 years provides important lessons. The resulting current state of Nepal’s economy not only reflects the challenging constraints to development, but also policy choices that have resulted in weak performance of the large agricultural sector, low public investment and capital ac- cumulation, and low productivity growth. During the past 45 years (1970–2014), Nepal grew at an average annual rate of 4 percent, while the growth rate of per capita income was the lowest in South Asia, averaging just 2 percent during this period. Given this backdrop, it is not surprising that outward migration has grown in importance, especially in the post conflict period. In FY1996, approximately one in four Nepali households received some form of remittances. This became one in Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal ix three by FY2004 and more than one in two by FY2011. remittances (in per capita terms and as a share of GDP). Not only did more households start receiving remittances, However, large-scale migration and the ensuing remittances but the amount of remittances received also increased over have also contributed to the steady loss of competitiveness the years. The first half of the 2000s saw a drastic increase (through appreciation of the real exchange rate) and have in remittances, from 2 percent of gross domestic product enabled the growth of low-productivity services. Further, (GDP) in FY2000 to 15 percent in FY2005, 22 percent in they have reduced pressure to generate more productive 2010, and as much as 30 percent in FY2016, making Nepal employment at home. Consequently, this cycle compounds the second highest recipient in the world among countries existing and longstanding challenges that hamper Nepal’s with a population of over 1 million and measured as a share competitiveness, furthering weak growth and limited do- of the economy. Given the phenomenal rise in remittanc- mestic opportunities. All these factors combined mean es, they are likely the primary engine behind the improve- that Nepal—home to some of the world’s most industrious ments in living standards witnessed in Nepal, both directly and adventurous people—could be stuck in a low-growth, (households receiving remittances) and indirectly (increased high-migration equilibrium for years to come (Figure ES.1). labor income of those that remained). Perhaps the most detrimental aspect of large-scale mi- Despite the successful and rapid reduction in poverty, gration is that it relieves the pressure on policy makers there is an urgent need to change Nepal’s development to be more accountable and to deliver results. Large- model. Large-scale migration is not a sign of strength, but scale migration solves several problems for Nepal. It allevi- a symptom of deep, chronic problems. Remittances are ates unemployment; enables greater consumption; and leads providing a safety net so people do not fall into poverty, but to higher tax collection, given the high dependency of taxa- are not being used to leverage rapid growth and greater tion on imports (currently generating half of all revenues). At opportunity. Large-scale migration is rapidly, and in many the same time, it lessens the pressure on the political class to cases, permanently, depleting the country’s stock of human break with the long history of trading favors for patronage. capital. And while remittances are helping boost household Frequent change of governments has become a long-estab- expenditure, they are doing little directly to improve pub- lished norm; the country has had 22 governing coalitions in lic service delivery. Consequently, the quality of education, the last 26 years. This political instability has hampered the health care, and infrastructure remains abysmal. country’s development and disillusioned its citizens, contrib- uting to further migration (Figure ES.2). Further, the current development path is not aiding Nepal’s escape from the low-growth trap it is in. His- Without comprehensive reforms to address its torically, low economic growth led to a shortage of employ- long-standing challenges, Nepal will probably not be- ment opportunities at home, which is fueling labor outmi- come a lower-middle-income country before 2030. To gration. Labor outmigration has resulted in a large flow of determine the growth rate of potential GDP going forward Figure ES.1 Nepal’s low-growth, high-migration trap Weak growth and limited job opportunities Low competitiveness Outward migration and large-scale remittances Geography / poor implementation infrastructure Governance / educational High reservation outcomes capacity wages and Skills / appreciation of real exchange rate Source: World Bank staff. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal x Figure ES.2 Political vicious cycle Votes Financing for elections & patronage Migration Citizens Politicians Businesses Access to limited Government contracts, public services & jobs protection, and cheap public resources Source: World Bank staff adapted from Rajan (2014). Note: Thickness of arrows approximates the size of relationships. in a business-as-usual scenario, we keep key variables—invest- ments and improved productivity, but it has the po- ment-to-GDP, growth of human capital, growth of produc- tential to lift wages significantly and help to partial- tivity—at recent historical averages and complement them ly reverse migration and increase competitiveness in with United Nations (UN) population projections. As a result, downstream industries (see Part IV). potential or trend rate of growth slows to 3 percent from the 3. Revitalizing existing sources of growth: Reforms in agricul- current 4 percent. At this trend rate of growth, per capita in- ture, which account for one-third of GDP and two- come would reach US$958 in 2030. At present, the World thirds of the labor force, are key to further poverty al- Bank defines lower-middle-income countries as those with a leviation, improving productivity and releasing labor per capita income in excess of US$1,025. However, under a for new sources of growth (see Part V). reform scenario where, for example, both investment and pro- 4. Investing in people: Nepal is in the midst of a demographic ductivity improve until 2021 and then level off, Nepal’s trend transition. As a result of lower fertility rates, the share of rate of growth accelerates to 4.3 percent and graduation from the population that is working age is now greater than lower-income-country (LIC) status occurs in 2027. the share of the population that is not. This is the de- mographic dividend. To fully capture the benefits of the Consequently, a systematic assault is needed to break the demographic dividend, investing in the skills of Nepali vicious cycle and create the right balance between job cre- youths is imperative. Putting more human capital to pro- ation at home and exports of labor. Marginal interventions ductive use in Nepal is critical for a stronger and more are unlikely to help break the self-reinforcing dynamics that have sustainable growth path in the future (see Part VI). kept Nepal in a low-growth, high-migration trap. Nepal needs a comprehensive approach that will both boost investment and History also teaches us that Nepal has undertaken bold accelerate productivity by carrying out the following: and sweeping reforms before, and it can do so again. 1. Breaking down policy barriers: To tackle the persistent Between 1986 and 1996, Nepal instituted broad-based re- challenges of low investment and weak productivity, forms that had a positive effect on the economy. Growth Nepal needs to dramatically restructure its public in- during this period averaged 5 percent, and was the highest in vestment program; intensify the level of competition Nepal’s modern history, while growth of per capita income in the domestic market in sectors such as transport, increased to 2.4 percent. The economy became more open logistics, and telecommunications; reduce the cost of and diversified as the share of trade in GDP and exports, and doing business; and steadily integrate the economy the share of manufacturing, nearly doubled. These reforms with the rest of the world (see Part III). were underpinned by the political transition to democratical- 2. Building new sources of growth: Unleashing large invest- ly elected governments that also gave the people a sense of ments in hydropower would be a game changer for new purpose. Today, they serve as a stark reminder that bold Nepal. It would not only lead to massive new invest- and challenging reforms in Nepal are indeed possible. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal xi Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal XII Chapter one A Leader In Poverty Reduction, But A Laggard In Growth 1. Nepal’s development progression has both admirers and detractors. The coun- try has witnessed a remarkable reduction in poverty and an equally significant decline in income inequality in recent decades. It has a relatively low unemployment rate and strong female labor force participation, a rarity in the South Asia region. Nepal is ranked 27th among developing countries in the Inclusive Development Index of the World Economic Forum (2017), well ahead of several BRICS countries such as Brazil, In- dia, and South Africa (panel A, Figure I.1). Yet, Nepal remains one of the poorest and slowest-growing economies in Asia, with its per capita income rapidly falling behind Figure I.1 Nepal is simultaneously praised for its poverty reduction record and pilloried for its weak growth performance Panel A Panel B Inclusive Development Index Average real GDP growth rate, (higher number implies more inclusiveness) 2000–15, in percent China Combodia Lao PDR India China Vietnam Bangladesh Srilanka Vietnam Nepal Bangladesh Devloping Countries Srilanka (Average) Nepal Combodia Lao PDR India 0 1 2 3 4 5 -5 0 5 10 15 Source: World Economic Forum. Source: World Development Indicators. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 1 its regional peers (panel B, Figure I.1). Some observers are (1970–2014) grew at an average of 4 percent, while the concerned that the country is hurtling toward becoming a growth rate of per capita income was the lowest in South fragile state, while others fear that Nepal is trapped in a Asia, averaging just 2 percent during this period (Figure low-investment, low-growth equilibrium (IMF 2015). I.3). In recent years, Nepal’s economy has grown at a slow- er rate than Afghanistan’s, Bhutan’s, and Lao PDR’s, all 2. The country’s steady progress in poverty reduction three landlocked countries in the region. It has grown at the is even more impressive once its structural constraints same or slower rate as Sri Lanka and Pakistan, two coun- are considered. Nepal’s geography—landlocked externally tries that have been severely affected by armed conflict and and challenging topography internally—poses a natural bar- terrorism, respectively. And even Myanmar, a country sig- rier to its development. This has been exacerbated by a series nificantly poorer and internationally isolated until recently, of natural disasters including two devastating earthquakes in has grown at twice the rate of Nepal in recent years. Nepal 2015 (Box I.1). The country has been undergoing a prolonged is clearly punching significantly below its weight when it period of political transition, from monarchy to a multiparty comes to overall economic performance. democracy, marked by armed conflict, ethnic protests, and un- stable governments during the past two decades. Against this 4. Nepal’s unusual development achievement can be backdrop, Nepal has met most Millennium Development explained largely by its high and sustained flow of re- Goal targets ahead of schedule, and the Multidimensional mittances. Many countries in the world have experienced Poverty Index has steadily declined. Data from the Nepal rapid growth but modest poverty reduction, as income has Living Standards Survey fielded in FY2011 puts consump- increasingly concentrated in the hands of the wealthy. But tion-based poverty in the country at 25.2 percent. The head- Nepal has the opposite problem—modest growth but brisk count poverty rate declined by an average annual rate of 2.2 poverty reduction—thanks to its large-scale exports of hu- percentage points per year between FY1996 and FY2011— man capital and the money remitted home. In FY1996, ap- one of the fastest rates regionally (Figure I.2). proximately one in four Nepali households received some form of remittances. This became one in three by FY2004 3. Nepal’s sluggish growth rate, however, is unac- and more than one in two by FY2011 (World Bank 2016a). ceptable in a neighborhood that is home to some of Consequently, the rapid increase in remittance receipts oc- the fastest-growing countries in the world. Starting curred at every spectrum of the consumption distribution. from a low level, national income during the past 45 years Not only did more households start receiving remittances, Box I.1 The debilitating shocks of 2015 may have further set back development and growth potential During 2015, in a span of six months, Nepal was hit by two major As a result of the shocks, Nepal’s potential growth may be shocks. The first shock was the April 2015 earthquake, followed permanently lower. Standard growth theory posits that if a by over 400 aftershocks, which caused huge losses of life and natural disaster destroys part of a country’s capital stock, assets. The earthquake not only caused physical destruction, then the production possibility frontier shifts inward, lead- but also severely impacted the record rate of poverty reduction. ing to lower total output per capita. Subsequently, increased Simulations suggest that the earthquakes pushed an addition- investment replenishes the capital stock again and returns al 700,000 to 1 million Nepalis into poverty during FY2015 and it to its steady state level. In terms of growth rates, theory FY2016. predicts growth to be lower than trend on impact and, under the right institutions, higher than trend thereafter. Before the The second shock followed in September 2015 in the form of a earthquakes hit, actual growth appeared to be at potential near-complete disruption in cross-border trade with India. Acute and Nepal’s output gap close to zero, given that output fluctu- shortages of fuel, raw materials, and essential supplies across the ated around its trend growth of 4 percent. Boosting the econ- country caused prices to soar and industry and businesses to cur- omy’s potential to achieve faster rates of growth in the future tail economic activity. As a result, Nepal experienced its lowest will hinge on the speed and quality of reconstruction efforts growth in the last 14 years, barely avoiding a recession. While the in rebuilding the destroyed capital stock. However, should effects of the trade disruptions may be temporary, they obstruct- the recovery effort falter, the medium-term path of Nepal’s ed earthquake reconstruction efforts, dampened economic mo- potential growth may be permanently affected by the events mentum and delayed a post-earthquake reconstruction recovery. of 2015. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 2 Figure I.2 Pace of poverty reduction in South Asia Figure I.3 Growth of countries in South Asia (Poverty rate circa 1995=100, PPP$1.9/day) (Index, 1990=100) 100 600 Nepal 500 Bangladesh 487 80 India 400 Sri Lanka 60 61 South Asia 53 300 294 46 40 33 200 Nepal (1995-10) Bangladesh (1995-10) 20 22 India (1993-11) 100 Sri Lanka (1995-12) South Asia (1996-10) 0 0 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 Source: WB staff calculations. Sources: WDI and WB staff calculations. but the amount of remittances received also increased over percent in 2015, making Nepal the second highest recipient the years. Given the phenomenal rise in remittances, they in the world among countries with a population of over 1 are likely the primary engine behind the improvements in million and measured as a share of the economy (Figure living standards witnessed in Nepal, both directly (house- I.4). The neighboring countries experienced an increase at holds receiving remittances) and indirectly (increased labor a much more modest rate. Expressed in per capita terms in income of those that remained). current U.S. dollars, on average, Nepal received less than US$5 of remittances from abroad in 2000. That amount 5. Remittances have increased in Nepal at a nearly reached US$205 by 2014, the second highest in South Asia unprecedented pace. Until the late 1990s, personal re- and more than twice as much as Bangladesh (US$94) (Fig- mittances received were less than 1 percent of GDP, lower ure I.5) (World Bank 2016a). Remittances in Nepal are 10 than Bangladesh and India. The first half of the 2000s saw times larger than foreign aid and 2.5 times larger than total a drastic increase in this share, from 2 percent in 2000 to exports. The annual flow of remittances is nearly as large as 15 percent in 2005, 22 percent in 2010, and as much as 30 the entire stock of foreign reserves. Figure I.4 Remittances as a share of GDP Figure I.5 Remittances per capita (Percent of GDP) (US$ per capita) 35 400 Nepal Nepal Bangladesh 350 Bangladesh 30 India India Sri Lanka 300 25 Sri Lanka South Asia South Asia 250 20 200 15 150 10 100 5 50 0 0 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2015 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 Sources: WDI and WB staff calculations. Sources: WDI Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 3 Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 4 Chapter TWO The Status Quo Is Neither Sustainable Nor Desirable 6. Despite the successful and rapid reduction in poverty, there is an urgent need to change Nepal’s development model. Large-scale migration is not a sign of strength, but of deep structural problems. Remittances are providing a safety net so people do not fall into poverty, but are not being used to leverage rapid growth and greater opportu- nity. Large-scale migration is rapidly, and in many cases, permanently, depleting the country’s stock of human capital. And while remittances are helping boost household expenditure, they are doing little directly to improve service delivery. Consequently, the quality of education, health care, and infrastructure remains abysmal. 7. Despite many positive effects of remittances, there are at least five reasons why the status quo is neither sustainable nor desirable: 1. Nepal’s pace of development is increasingly driven by exogenous factors. Historically, growth in Nepal depended on exogenous factors, such as a good monsoon for a bountiful har- vest. Since the turn of the century, growing migration has resulted in ever higher re- mittances, which are now as large as agriculture and are again completely dependent on conditions outside of Nepal’s control. This is a perilous strategy in a world that is becoming increasingly insular, with a significant backlash against foreign workers. Therefore, the need for a domestic engine of growth that complements and de-risks the economy from exogenous factors has never been more important. 2. Large-scale migration and remittances are compounding—not resolving—long-standing challenges. Remittances are fueling consumption that in turn sustains low-productivity agricultur- al activity and growth of low-skilled services. As employment in services has grown, it has had a positive relocation effect, with workers moving out of agriculture and find- ing more productive jobs in the urban service sector. However, declining productivity in the urban service sector may have a negative dynamic effect; that is, these jobs are only marginally better and thus do not reflect a major transformation. As such, this atypical structural transformation is a constraint on boosting aggregate productivity, a key determinant of faster growth in the long run. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 5 3. Remittances are contributing to the loss of competitiveness and to can add to exchange rate appreciation and erode external an anti-export bias of tariff policies. Consumption fueled by re- competitiveness by raising production costs. mittances raises imports and appreciates the real exchange rate. Analysis suggests that an increase in remittances by 5. Large-scale migration has lowered the potential for urbanization 10 percent leads to a 0.5 percent appreciation of the real to serve as an engine of growth. Increasing urbanization can exchange rate in the long run (Portugal 2017). In turn, the foster productivity through the concentration of economic appreciation of the real exchange rate further favors im- activity in cities. So-called agglomeration economies can ports and hampers exports. The impact is possibly largest improve productivity and spur employment creation, par- on low-value, low-margin manufactured goods, which ac- ticularly in manufacturing and services. These potential count for a large share of Nepal’s export bundle. Further- forces may be subdued by large labor outmigration. more, rising imports are an attractive tax base and prompt increased reliance on import taxes. This aggravates the 8. Consequently, Nepal appears stuck in a low-growth, anti-export bias, because exporters rely on imported, in- high migration trap. Historically, low economic growth led termediate goods as key inputs for production. to a shortage of employment opportunities at home, which is fueling labor outmigration. Labor outmigration has re- 4. Large-scale migration has reduced the pressure to generate more sulted in a large flow of remittances (in per capita terms and productive employment at home. Out of a total workforce of as a share of GDP) contributing to rapid poverty reduction. 14 million, some 4 million (28 percent) are believed to be However, large-scale migration and ensuing remittances working abroad. This is around twice the entire population are also contributing to the steady loss of competitiveness of Kathmandu, Nepal’s capital and largest city. Since the (through appreciation of the real exchange rate) and have end of the conflict in 2007, the labor force has increased, enabled the growth of low-productivity services. Further, on average, by about 330,000 new entrants each year. they have reduced pressure to generate more productive Registered outward migration exceeded the increase in la- employment at home. This cycle compounds existing and bor force each year, averaging 375,000 during this period. long-standing challenges that hamper Nepal’s competitive- This is leading to a sharp reduction of labor supply inside ness, furthering weak growth and limited domestic opportu- Nepal. In addition, remittances are causing recipient fami- nities. All these factors combined mean that Nepal—home ly members to increase leisure, work less, and to further re- to some of the world’s most industrious and adventurous duce supply of labor and increase reservation wages. The people—could be stuck in a low-growth, high-migration increase in real wages is a double-edged sword, because it equilibrium for years to come (Figure II.1). Figure II.1 Nepal’s low-growth, high-migration trap Weak growth and limited job opportunities Low competitiveness Outward migration and large-scale remittances Geography / poor implementation infrastructure Governance / educational High reservation outcomes capacity wages and Skills / appreciation of real exchange rate Source: World Bank staff. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 6 Why has growth been persistently low? sets worth US$5.2 billion, approximately one-quarter of the country’s FY2014 GDP. As Box II.1 explains, empiri- 9. First, historical and natural endowments in Nepal cal research finds that natural disasters hurt growth. make development challenging. In addition to being landlocked, Nepal has a difficult topography that rises 11. Third, Nepal is uniquely exposed to India and its sharply from the southern plains in Tarai to the Middle pace of economic development. India is Nepal’s largest Hills and to the Himalayan range in the north, which ham- trading partner, accounting for 65 percent of Nepal’s total pers domestic connectivity. In addition, for more than a trade, and the principal transit route, with more than 85 century after 1846, Nepal was ruled by the dynastic Prime percent of all imports entering through India irrespective Ministerial Rana family. Their principal objective was to of their country of origin. The two countries share 1,750 extract resources from the country; government expendi- kilometers of open border, which means that, in addition tures were mainly devoted to supporting their lavish life- to formal trade, there is a considerable volume of unre- style and repressing political and economic threats. Until corded trade in goods, exchange of labor, remittances 1951, there was no modern administration, and practical- and, consequently, a close correlation of inflation. The ly no public education, which resulted in very low levels of Nepalese rupee is pegged to the Indian currency, giving physical and human capital and illiteracy rates exceeding the central bank’s limited scope to undertake independent 90 percent (World Bank 1964). monetary policy. The fact that India itself remains a rela- tively closed economy by global standards adds a layer of 10. Second, Nepal is prone to natural disasters such delicateness to this economic symbiosis. as earthquakes. Because Nepal lies toward the southern limit of the collisional boundary where the Indian Plate 12. Fourth, Nepal suffered a prolonged episode of con- underthrusts the Eurasian Plate, United Nations Develop- flict followed by a drawn out political transition. In ad- ment Programme estimates that Nepal is the 11th most dition to the direct suffering wrought by the violent insurgen- earthquake-prone country in the world (UNDP 2004). The cy that occurred from 1996 to 2006, it was a major drag on last great earthquake, with a magnitude 8.4, was in 1934, growth and development. However, even after the end of the taking over 10,000 lives and destroying most of the infra- conflict, much-anticipated peace dividends did not material- structure. Earthquakes causing severe human and physi- ize, as the country embarked on a 10-year process of drafting cal loss occurred in 1980, 1988, 2011 and, most recently, a new constitution. This has, in effect, led to a 20-year peri- in 2015. A 7.6 magnitude earthquake on April 25, 2015, od of instability and political transition that has lasted to this claimed around 9,000 lives and destroyed or damaged as- day. During this period, the country went from being a Hindu BOX II.1 Empirical research on the effects of large disasters on growth Since the early 2000s, a new strain of empirical research has ing just the outcomes of disasters, Felbermayr and Gröschl emerged that evaluates the macroeconomic impact of di- (2014) use a data set on physical intensity (that is, the Rich- sasters and that has found a negative relationship between ter scale, Volcanic Eruptions Index, wind speed, precipitation disasters and growth. The main source of disaster data for and temperature, and so forth) and find that natural disas- these studies tends to be the Emergency Events Database ters also reduce growth of GDP per capita. This approach (EM-DAT), which captures outcomes of disasters (number has an advantage of capturing more disaster events than of people affected, damage caused, state of emergency de- those reported in the EM-DAT. They estimate that the im- clared, and so forth) and the impact on various macroeco- pact of stronger disasters (top 1 percentile in strength) low- nomic variables. Two recent studies (Klomp and Valckx 2014; ers growth per capita by 6.8 percent on average. In addition, Lazzaroni and van Bergeijk 2014) summarize results from looking at the length of impact, they do not find that disas- over 60 studies using a meta-analysis approach. They find ters lead to a temporary boom, on average, in the subsequent that, on average, there is a negative relationship between five years. Consequently, they argue that “natural disasters natural disasters and economic growth. harm development, period.” In addition, they find strong ev- idence that higher institutional quality, higher openness to This finding is further confirmed using a data set that cap- trade, and higher financial openness improve the ability of tures the physical intensity of disasters. Instead of captur- countries to cope with the costs of the natural disasters. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 7 monarchy to a federal republic, with 20 prime ministers and led to a decline in the performance of industries and exports, as many governments. Because large sections of the popula- which put pressure on the external accounts. On the other tion are dissatisfied with certain provisions of the new con- hand, expansionary fiscal policies in the early 1980s failed to stitution, the remaking of a highly centralized country into a stimulate the economy and resulted in a large fiscal deficit, functioning federal country is yet to start in earnest and has which led to a full-blown macroeconomic crisis. The over- already proven to be a contentious process. all budget deficit rose from 6.1 percent of GDP in FY1981 to 12.3 percent in FY1983, while the current account deficit more than doubled between FY1981 and FY1983, reaching Contemporary economic history points to almost 9.2 percent of GDP. Gross foreign reserves fell from weak institutions and poor policy choices the equivalent of eight months of imports to three months by the end of FY1985 (World Bank 1989). 13. Contemporary economic history of Nepal teach- es us that weak institutions and unsupportive policy 15.The second period, from 1986 to 1996, was an era choices have compounded Nepal’s challenges. We di- of openness, reforms, and the highest average rate of vide Nepal’s economic history into four distinct periods to growth. The precarious macroeconomic situation of the examine the policies that have shaped development (Fig- mid-1980s threatened the viability of Nepal’s development. ure II.2 and Figure II.3). As a result, beginning in 1985, the government took steps to implement stabilization and adjustment programs supported 14. The first period, from 1970 to 1985, was a pre-open- by the IMF and World Bank aimed at restoring prudent fiscal ness era of slow and volatile growth. Nepal’s difficult and monetary policies and setting the economy on a sustain- initial conditions were further compounded by policies that able growth path. By the late 1980s, Nepal was not only out Nepal followed from 1970 to 1985. Based on development of the stability crisis, but liberalization of the trade and indus- thinking at the time, the policies were interventionist, protec- trial regime had begun. The end of the party-less Panchayat tionist, and state-led, resulting in a large public sector, dom- system, followed by the democratically elected government in inance of state-owned corporations, and a closed economy. 1991, gave further impetus to the reforms. The government This ultimately led to low levels of investment and meagre began implementing a broader set of reforms aimed at re- productivity growth. As a result, between 1970 and 1985, the ducing poverty through market-oriented reforms and invest- growth rate of national income averaged 3 percent and that of ments in social sectors to develop human capital. Reforms in per capita income just 0.8 percent. On the one hand, restric- the early 1990s included initiatives to ease the entry of firms, tive economic policies, such as an overvalued exchange rate, increase trade and current account transactions, and liberal- Figure II.2 History of economic growth in Nepal, 1970–2015 (Percent change) Trend growth (HP filter) GDP growth 10 Pre-openness era Reform era Conflict Political transition 8 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Sources: WDI and WB staff calculations. Note: HP = Hodrick-Prescott filter. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 8 Figure II.3 Population and GDP per capita growth, 1970–2015 (Percent change) Population growth GDP per capita growth (trend) 3.5 Pre-openness era Reform era Conflict Political transition 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Sources: WDI and WB staff calculations. ize financial sector policies. By the mid-1990s, reforms were mid-1990s, a succession of unstable coalition and minority deepened, such as liberalization of the agricultural sector, in- governments ruled for 12-month periods each, on average. troduction of a value-added tax, and promulgation of local The resulting political instability undermined the ability governance laws (World Bank 2005). These reforms had a of nascent institutions to implement their own policies. All positive effect on the Nepalese economy. Growth accelerated these factors sowed the seeds for a Maoist insurgency, which and income volatility decreased markedly. Average growth started in 1996, and intensified after 2001, leading to a seri- between 1986 and 1996 was the highest in Nepal’s modern ous deterioration of security, and disruption in development history, averaging 5 percent, with growth of per capita in- and governance in large parts of Nepal. Democratic institu- come increasing to 2.4 percent. The economy became more tions were progressively suspended, and in February 2005, open and diversified, as the share of trade in GDP and ex- King Gyanendra assumed direct rule. The turmoil resulted ports doubled (exports of goods and services rose from 11.5 in large war costs and slow progress in reforms, leading to percent of GDP in 1985 to 23 percent of GDP in 1996)1. The a marked slowdown in growth during this period. Industry share of manufacturing also nearly doubled from 5 percent of was also hampered by labor unrest and work interruptions GDP in 1985 to 9 percent of GDP in 1996. due to the civil conflict. Furthermore, an increasingly com- petitive global environment, brought about by the phasing 16. The third period, from 1997 to 2006, was an era of out of the quota that was guaranteed under the Multi-Fiber conflict and political turmoil, which resulted in slower Arrangement, resulted in a steady loss in the market share growth. Despite the progress made in the previous period, of Nepali exports.3 By 2006, exports of goods and services Nepal’s development was fragile and fraught with deficien- as a share of GDP had declined to 13 percent of GDP and cies. Most importantly, not all regions or groups were able manufacturing to 7.8 percent of GDP. However, despite to participate equally in growth and human development these challenges, broad macroeconomic stability was main- gains. The Western and Far Western regions (about 22 tained. percent of the population) and Dalits (lowest caste or “un- touchables”) and indigenous nationalities (Adivasi Janjatis) 17. The fourth period, from 2007 to 2014, was the (about 46 percent of the population), particularly, lagged post conflict period, with a focus on the new political behind.2 In addition, despite the relative progress, per capita compact, which overshadowed economic issues. The growth barely kept up with population growth, largely ex- political compact around the new interim Constitution plaining the persistence of poverty. Further, starting in the endorsed the devolution of power, social and political in- 1 Mostly driven by garments and carpets. 2 However, there is significant disparity both between and within categories. For example, while Brahmans and Chhetris (upper castes) have the highest HDI ranking on average, they also have some of the highest poverty rates in the country in remote geographic regions such as the Mid- and Far-Western hills and mountains. 3 The Multi-Fiber Arrangement ended in 1995, but the quota system for trade in textiles was gradually phased out over the next 10 years, formally ending in 2005. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 9 clusion, democratic elections, and political accountability. at 86 percent at the beginning of the period and declining However, the peace dividend that many had anticipated to 66 percent at present. Consequently, growth of value has largely failed to materialize, and the economy sput- added per worker employed has averaged just 0.7 percent tered forward at an average growth rate of 4.7 percent per year (Figure II.4). during this period. The sharp increase in investment that was expected did not materialize, while Nepal’s invest- 20.Low public investment and capital accumulation. ment climate may have been worsened by the prolonged Gross fixed capital formation (GFCF) hovered at an period of political transition and uncertainty. average of 18 percent of GDP during 1970–2014. GFCF increased and averaged 20 percent of GDP from 1985 to 1996 but could not be sustained. The stagnation Growth decomposition indicates of investment after 1996 can be attributed to the conflict. persisting challenges However, even after the end of conflict, there has not been a boom in investment. As a result, investment contributed 18. Decomposing economic performance over the just 1 percentage point to the average growth of 4 percent past 45 years reveals several key stylized trends. for the entire period (Figure II.5). Three broad trends can be discerned from Nepal’s histori- cal economic performance: weak performance of the large 21. Low aggregate productivity growth. Throughout agricultural sector, low public investment and capital ac- the period, productivity did not improve as it zigzagged cumulation, and low productivity growth. between periods of negative and positive growth. For the first decade and a half, productivity declined. After lib- 19. Agricultural performance has been weak. Although eralization reforms started in 1985, productivity growth declining as a share of GDP, agriculture plays a large role picked up, registering a positive contribution to economic in Nepal’s economy—starting at two-thirds of value add- growth. This was also the period with the highest contri- ed in 1970 and averaging 50 percent through the entire bution to economic growth from capital formation. Not period. While the economy grew at an average rate of 4 surprisingly, the contribution of capital inputs and total percent, agriculture grew at 2.8 percent, barely faster than factor productivity (TFP) significantly dropped during the population growth of 2 percent. Given its large relative conflict period (1996–2006). While TFP growth improved size, slow growth rates in agriculture have dragged down in the post conflict period, capital accumulation has not growth overall, especially in per capita terms. In addition, and is still contributing less to growth compared to the agriculture has absorbed a large share of labor—starting pre-conflict period (Figure II.6). Figure II.4 Contribution to value-added growth by sector (Percentage points, contributions to growth) Agriculture Services Average growth Industry Residual 6 Pre-openness era Reform era Conflict Political transition 5 4.8 4.4 4 4.0 3.8 3.3 2.3 3 1.9 2.5 1.8 1.4 2 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.6 1 1.3 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.4 0 1973-14 1973-85 1986-96 1997-06 2007-14 Source: WB staff calculations based on national data. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 10 Figure II.5 Contribution to GDP growth by expenditure (Percentage points, contributions to growth) Private consumption Public consumption Gross investment Net exports Residual Average growth 14 Pre-openness era Reform era Conflict Political transition 10 6 1.0 1.5 5.0 1.2 4.7 4.0 0.8 0.4 3.8 0.6 0.4 1.6 0.4 3.0 2 3.3 0.3 3.6 3.6 4.0 1.9 -1.8 -0.6 -1.1 -1.1 -4.0 -2 -6 1973-14 1973-85 1986-96 1997-06 2007-14 Source: WB staff calculations based on UN data. Atypical economic transformation is Currently, the Fourteenth Plan (2015–2017) has set a goal of attaining middle-income status by 2030. stifling the country’s development aspirations 23. Migration and remittances have supported atypical structural transformation. Atypical structural transforma- 22. The Government of Nepal has continuously tion occurs when workers leave rural low-productivity agri- strived to achieve economic development through a culture for jobs in urban high-productivity manufacturing. series of national plans, with graduation from low-in- These cities act as engines of growth, leading to further trans- come status being a recent goal. From 1956 to 2007, formation to even greater value addition in a service-based the government executed 10 five-year plans aimed at in- economy. While the share of agriculture in Nepal’s economy creasing production and living standards. Following the has declined rapidly to 34 percent, the movement of labor abolition of the monarchy and adoption of the Interim out of agriculture was not triggered by new jobs in emerging Constitution in 2007, plans were shortened to three years. Nepali industries, but by foreign employment opportunities. Figure II.6 Contribution to GDP growth by factor (Percentage points, contributions to growth) Capital stock Labor Human capital Productivity (TFP) Average growth 6 Pre-openness era Reform era Conflict Political transition 5 5.0 0.4 4.7 0.4 0.0 4.0 4 0.6 0.8 3.8 1.1 0.8 1.1 3 0.0 3.0 0.9 1.1 1.0 0.6 2.8 2 2.5 2.1 1.0 2.2 1 1.4 0 -0.3 -1 1973-14 1973-85 1986-96 1997-06 2007-14 Source: WB staff calculations based on national data. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 11 Nonetheless, low-productivity agriculture remains the largest model enables us to calculate a future path of trend growth employer in the country. Remitted foreign earnings have fu- based on a set of inputs, such as assumptions on the time eled an expansion of services in Nepal, such as banking, edu- path of investment-to-GDP ratio, growth rates of human cation, restaurants, trade, and real estate, which now account capital, TFP, population growth, labor force participation, for over 50 percent of GDP, while industry has declined in and other key drivers of growth. The World Bank classi- relative terms, accounting for the remaining 16 percent. fies countries into various income groups based on gross national income (GNI) per capita calculated using the 24. Atypical transformation is, in turn, limiting pro- Atlas method. For 2016, lower-middle-income countries ductivity growth. One side effect of “premature grad- were defined as countries with GNI per capita of more uation” to services has been that the skills content of all than US$1,025. The GNI per capita in 2016 for Nepal wage-earning jobs in the economy has not increased during was US$730. 1995–2010. While there are greater numbers of profession- al services and manufacturing jobs, they are low-skilled jobs. 26. Without comprehensive reforms to address its This has led to a positive relocation effect, that is, workers long-standing challenges, Nepal will probably not be- moving out of agriculture have found better jobs in urban come a lower-middle-income country before 2030. services. However, declining productivity in urban services To determine the growth rate of potential GDP going reflects a negative dynamic effect; that is, these jobs are only forward in a business-as-usual scenario, we keep key vari- marginally better and thus do not constitute a sustainable ables—investment-to-GDP, growth of human capital, transformation. As such, this atypical structural transforma- growth of productivity—at recent historical averages and tion is a constraint on boosting aggregate productivity, a key complement them with UN population projections. For determinant of faster growth in the long run. example, based on WB estimates, from 2001 to 2014, pro- ductivity grew at just 0.04 percent, on average, (Figure 25. Using neoclassical growth theory, a long-term II.7), and human capital grew, on average, at 1.5 percent growth model is applied to Nepal to analyze what it per year (Figure II.8), while the investment-to-GDP ratio would take for the country to graduate from low-in- averaged around 21 percent of GDP (Figure II.9). If noth- come-country (LIC) status. Based on the seminal work ing were to change, the potential or trend rate of growth of Solow (1956) and Swan (1956), and more recent ap- would slow and average 3 percent from 2017 to 2030. At plication by Hevia and Loayza (2012), we model future this trend rate of growth, per capita income would reach potential or trend growth rate of Nepal’s economy. This US$958 in 2030 (Figure II.10). Figure II.7 Historical productivity growth Figure II.8 Historical human capital growth (Percent change, yly) (Percent change, yly) 3 1.8 Human capital growth 2 TFP growth 1 1.6 0 -1 1.4 2001-2011 2001-2014 average average -2 -3 1.2 -4 -5 1.0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Source: WB staff calculations based on national data. Source: Penn World Tables 8.1 Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 12 Figure II.9 Historical investment-to-GDP ratio Figure II.10 GNI per capita growth (business as usual) (Percent of GDP) (GNI, 2016$) 30 1100 Gross fixed capital formation LIC graduation threshold 1000 900 GNI per capita 20 2001-2016 average 800 700 10 600 500 0 400 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 Source: Central Bureau of Statistics. Source: WB staff calculations. A systematic assault is needed to year, the required investment-to-GDP ratio needs to in- crease by more than 10 percentage points from the aver- break Nepal out of the vicious cycle age investment-to-GDP ratio the country achieved during the 15 years from 2001 to 2016. The required invest- 27. What would it take for Nepal to graduate from LIC ment-to-GDP ratio for the entire period 2017–30 averag- status by 2030? Using the same model, we solve for the es above 25 percent of GDP (Figure II.11). The required required investment rate that delivers a specified path of ratio declines marginally over time as the growth rate re- GNI per capita, while keeping other inputs at their histor- quired to add US$22 in subsequent years declines due to a ical averages. To conduct this exercise, it is assumed that rising level of GNI per capita. In this scenario, potential or GNI per capita increases by a constant amount each year trend growth averages 3.5 percent. While achieving an in- such that it reaches US$1,026 by 2030. This amounts to vestment-to-GDP ratio in excess of 25 percent is feasible, a per year increase of approximately US$22. The mod- especially in the context of other countries in South Asia el estimates that to grow GNI per capita by US$22 each (Figure II.12), it is not realistic to achieve nearly 10 per- Figure II.11 Investment need for LIC graduation Figure II.12 Investment rates in the South Asia region (Percent of GDP) (Percent of GDP) Nepal Bangladesh India 30 Required investment ratio 40 Pakistan Sri Lanka 2001-2016 average 35 30 20 25 20 15 10 10 5 0 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 Source: WB staff calculations. Source: WDI Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 13 Figure II.13 Reform scenario assumptions Figure II.14 GNI per capita growth (reform scenario) (Percent of GDP) (GNI, 2016$) 35 0.6 1400 Investment ratio GNI per capita 30 1200 0.5 LIC graduation threshold TFP growth (right) 25 1000 0.4 20 800 0.3 15 600 0.2 10 400 5 0.1 200 0 0 0 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 Source: WB staff calculations. Source: WB staff calculations. centage points increase overnight. Since 2000, India, Sri countability and development results. Large migration solves Lanka, and Bangladesh have all achieved a 10 percentage several problems for Nepal. It alleviates unemployment, en- point increase in investment ratio, but it took them 7, 14, ables greater consumption, and leads to larger tax collection, and 15 years, respectively, to do so. given the high dependency of taxation on imports (currently generating half of all revenues). At the same time, it lessens 28. A more comprehensive strategy—boosting invest- the pressure on the political class to shift from the long histo- ments and productivity—would not only enable grad- ry of trading favors for patronage toward greater public ser- uation from LIC status, but would enable it to happen vice delivery. Frequent change of governments has become even faster. Nepal’s economic history illustrates that there a long-established norm; the country had 22 governing coa- are two key bottlenecks that have constrained faster growth— litions in the last 26 years. This political instability has ham- weak productivity and low investment. A more comprehen- pered the country’s development and disillusioned its citizens, sive strategy would address both. The focus should be on contributing to further migration (Figure II.15). Writing on both accumulation of assets (the neoclassical growth frame- India’s political process, Rajan (2014) notes: work) and faster productivity growth (the endogenous growth framework). Such a growth strategy would emphasize higher “So the circle is complete. The poor and the underprivileged need investment rates, increases in human capital, and adoption the politician to help them get jobs and public services. The crook- of new technology. For example, raising public savings rates ed politician needs the businessman to provide the funds that allow leads to a one-time rise in potential income via more invest- him to supply patronage to the poor and fight elections. The corrupt ment. Combining such policies with micro-level policies re- businessman needs the crooked politician to get public resources and quired to push firms to be more innovative by adopting better contracts cheaply. And the politician needs the votes of the poor and technology would lead to improvements in productivity. Such the underprivileged. Every constituency is tied to the other in a cycle of a reform scenario—where productivity growth improves dependence, which ensures that the status quo prevails.” gradually to 0.5 percent by 2020 and the investment-to-GDP ratio improves to 30 percent by 2021 (Figure II.13)—would 30. No country has grown unless its political elites result in faster potential or trend growth averaging 4.3 per- want it to grow. Policy makers and political elites cent and graduation from LIC status by 2027 (Figure II.14). must consciously choose growth as an overarching goal. Critical insights from Acemogulu and Robinson’s in- 29. However, a frank acknowledgment of the con- fluential work show that the nature of political institutions straints emanating from the political process is needed. determines the nature of economic institutions. In their Perhaps the most detrimental aspect of large-scale migration framework, poor countries are not poor because their poli- is that it relieves the pressure on policy makers for greater ac- cymakers or citizens are uninformed about what good poli- Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 14 Figure II.15 Political vicious cycle Votes Financing for elections & patronage Migration Citizens Politicians Businesses Access to limited Government contracts, public services & jobs protection, and cheap public resources Source: World Bank staff adapted from Rajan (2014). Note: Thickness of arrows approximates the size of relationships. cies or institutions are. According to them, “Poor countries 1. Breaking down policy barriers: To tackle the persistent chal- are poor because those who have power make choices that lenges of low investment and weak productivity, Nepal create poverty. They get it wrong not by mistake or igno- needs to dramatically restructure its public investment rance but on purpose.” (Acemoglu and Robinson 2012, 86). program; intensify the level of competition in the domes- tic market in sectors such as transport, logistics, and tele- 31. Therefore, neither history nor geography need be communications; reduce the cost of doing business; and destiny. The first step for Nepal to break out of its cur- steadily integrate the economy with the rest of the world rent low-growth trap is for its political leaders to decide to (see Chapter III). break the status quo though the upcoming implementation of the new federal constitution to build inclusive political in- 2. Building new sources of growth: Unleashing large investments stitutions and initiate broad reforms to build corresponding in hydropower would be a game changer for Nepal. It would inclusive economic institutions. This is not impossible for not only lead to massive new investments and improved pro- Nepal, as it has been attempted at least twice before, in both ductivity, but has the potential to lift wages significantly, and instances motivated by imperatives to counter challenges to help to partially reverse migration, and increase competi- political legitimacy with performance legitimacy. In the late tiveness in downstream industries (see Chapter IV). 1980s and early 1990s, and later in the early 2000s, groups of capable technocrats coalesced around the effort to drive 3. Revitalizing the existing sources of growth: Reforms in agricul- key reforms. Importantly, in both cases, these “champions” ture, which accounts for one-third of GDP and employs two- were provided the space by the powers that be. Difficult en- thirds of the labor force, are key to boosting productivity and dowments can be overcome to deliver greater prosperity for releasing labor for new sources of growth (see Chapter V). its people. The remainder of this report shows how. 4. Investing in people: Nepal is in the midst of a demographic 32. A systematic assault is needed for Nepal to break transition. As a result of lower fertility rates, the share of the vicious cycle and to create the right balance be- the population that is working age is now greater than the tween job creation at home and exports of labor. share of the population that is not. This is the demograph- Marginal interventions are unlikely to help break the ic dividend. To fully capture the benefits of the demo- self-reinforcing dynamics that have kept Nepal in a graphic dividend, investing in the skills of Nepali youths low-growth, high-migration trap. Nepal needs a com- is imperative. Putting more human capital to productive prehensive approach that will both boost investment and use in Nepal is critical for a stronger and more sustainable accelerate productivity by carrying out the following: growth path in the future (see Chapter VI). Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 15 Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 16 Chapter Three Breaking Down Barriers To Facilitate Greater Investments And Improved Productivity Unfavorable endowments and poor policy choices have contributed to low investment and weak productivity 33. Nepal’s unfavorable initial conditions have been compounded by unsup- portive policy choices. The list of development constraints is long: a challenging geographic environment, poor endowment of human capital, continued political un- certainty following a decade of conflict and a prolonged quest toward agreeing a con- stitution, and lack of quality infrastructure and connectivity. However, the resulting current state of Nepal’s economy not only reflects those constraints, but also policy choices that have resulted in relatively low levels of investment and weak productivity. 34. Most countries accelerate their growth by increasing national savings in order to fund investments, and by increasing exports. In 2006, the World Bank convened the Growth Commission, which attempted to highlight the common char- acteristics of countries that grew rapidly (at 7 percent or more per year for at least 25 years), something achieved by only 13 countries since 1950. Growing at 7 percent doubles a country’s real GDP in a decade. Taken in totality, the list of ingredients emphasizes savings and accumulation; sustainable public finances; provision of public goods in health, education, and infrastructure; strong leadership; trade openness; and a private sector orientation (Table III.1). Table III.1 Five common ingredients in policies of rapidly growing countries Common ingredients for sustained and rapid growth 1. Macroeconomic stability Characterized by modest inflation and sustainable public finances 2. Future orientation Manifested in high savings and high public and private investment rates 3. Strong leadership and governance Characterized by stability in the rules of investment, a focus on inclusive growth, and an effective government that is pragmatic and acts in the interest of all its citizens 4. Trade openness Necessary to import knowledge and leverage global demand 5. Market incentives Due emphasis is given to market incentives and decentralization Source: Commission on Growth and Development 2008. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 17 35. Nepal does relatively well only on macroeconom- savings needed to generate investments. The result of this ic stability, while other ingredients for faster growth underinvestment is lower growth. Cross-country evidence are missing. While there are ample savings, Nepal has suggests that countries aiming to grow at 7 percent or more underinvested, resulting in a substantial infrastructure gap annually, and double their real GDP every 10 years, require that manifests itself in poor connectivity and insufficient savings rates of around 35 percent of GDP. power supply (ingredient 2). Prolonged political instability and poor governance undermined public investments and a) Reforming the public investment process de-incentivized private investment as well (ingredient 3). Furthermore, high tariffs and appreciating real exchange 37. The level of public investment has been histori- rates have accentuated an anti-export bias, and Nepal’s cally very low in Nepal, but even more concerning is export performance has worsened over time (ingredient 4). the low efficiency of investment. Nepal’s public invest- The existence of syndicates and cartels has limited com- ment has averaged 4 percent of GDP, which is below av- petition in the economy and slowed the adoption of new erage among both the South Asian and low-income coun- technologies and upgrading of skills, resulting in weak pro- tries (Figure III.1). With a low (public) investment rate and ductivity growth (ingredient 5). capital stock, the return on marginal investment should be high, with many projects expected to have a high return. Breaking down barriers to greater But this is not the case for Nepal, as exemplified by the investment—both public and private incremental capital output ratio (ICOR), or the units of capital required to increase output by 1 additional unit. In 36. While Nepal has the savings necessary for high other words, the higher the ICOR, the more inefficient is growth rates, it has been unable to mobilize them ful- public investment. From 2001 to 2007, the ICOR for Ne- ly for investment. Over the past 16 years, gross national pal was 5.7, the highest among comparator countries (Fig- savings have averaged 34 percent of GDP and have exceed- ure III.2). The ICOR has not improved is recent years, ed capital formation in each year, which has averaged 22 and the approach paper of the Fourteenth Plan estimates percent of GDP. This is unusual for a low-income country, the ICOR to be 5.2 between FY2016 and FY2019, with because most are not able to mobilize adequate national an unacceptable level of 29 for energy and 9 for transport. Figure III.1 Average level of public investment, 2007–15 Figure III.2 Average Incremental Capital Output Ratio, 2001–07 (Percent of GDP) (Ratio) 18 7 16 15.4 6 5.7 ICOR Public GFCF (2001-2007) average 14 12.8 (2007-2015) average 4.8 4.7 5 12 4.1 10 9.5 4 9.0 7.8 2.8 8 7.1 3 2.2 6 5.5 4.5 2 1.5 4 1 2 0 0 Ethiopia Cambodia Low income Lao PDR India South Asia Bangladesh Nepal Nepal Bangladesh Vietnam India China Cambodia Mongolia Source: WDI Source: Taguchi and Lowhachai 2014 Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 18 Table III.2 Projects take a very long time to complete in Nepal Average length of time needed to Length of longest-lasting Sectors complete a project (years) project (years) Roads 12 31 Irrigation 16 38 Power 9 18 Sources: World Bank staff calculations based on NPC 2016a and NPC 2016b. 38. Inefficiency is manifested in the public invest- ning Commission’s document. Some road and irrigation ment process, which fails to deliver completed pro- projects have even been ongoing for more than 30 years. ductive assets and infrastructure. The system runs To address the problems faced by various national-level into chronic underspending of the capital budget, with projects, in FY2012, the government even initiated “na- underspending averaging 70 to 80 percent of the amount tional pride projects,” and every government since then budgeted for capital spending in recent years. There have has announced the timely completion of these pride proj- been several challenges that have led to project delay, in- ects. However, national pride projects on average are not completeness, and cost and time overruns. According to implemented more swiftly than other projects, and have the list of projects compiled from the Annual Develop- been ongoing for more than 13 years, on average, with the ment Plans of the National Planning Commission, projects longest project ongoing since 1988. on average have been ongoing for more than 11 years. When further disaggregated, roads, irrigation and pow- 39. Using a standard World Bank assessment, none of the er projects on average have been ongoing for more than eight “must-have” institutional features of an effective pub- 12, 16, and 9 years, respectively (Table III.2). This is a lic investment management system (PIM) are present in Ne- conservative estimate because the projects are unlikely to pal. A standard World Bank assessment of the PIM system, have been fully completed on time, as stated in the Plan- as elaborated on by Rajaram et al. (2010), identifies eight Table III.3 Cross-country PIM performance Korea, Stages of PIM Nepal Vietnam Cambodia China Brazil Belarus Chile Ireland Rep. Investment guidance & project screening Formal project appraisal Independent review of appraisal Project selection & budgeting Project implementation Project adjustment Facility operation Evaluation Source: Country PIM reports. Note: Color scale goes from dark red (nonexistent) to green (best practice). Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 19 key institutional features that countries need to adopt to b) Crowding in greater private investment ensure that public investments support growth and devel- opment. The missing features in Nepal include the critical 41. Political instability is the major constraint to functions such as project selection and budgeting, project private sector investment. Unsurprisingly, numerous implementation, adjustment of projects in construction, and studies carried out in recent years have identified politi- ex-post evaluation (details can be found in the Annex). As a cal instability leading to policy uncertainty as the major result, a snapshot of the PIM performance in Nepal shows it constraint to private sector investment and growth (ADB, is among the weakest when compared with selected devel- DFID, and ILO 2009; MCC 2014; ODI 2014; World oping and developed countries (Table III.3). Bank 2015). The violent insurgency that occurred from 1997 to 2007 was a major drag on growth and on devel- 40. Given the results, it is difficult to speak of a public opment in general. However, even after the end of the investment management system as such. The public in- conflict, a much-anticipated peace dividend did not ma- vestment process in Nepal represents a paradoxical mix of terialize. This has, in effect, led to a 20-year period of po- formal rules on the one hand, and the long-standing lack of litical transition and instability that has lasted to this day. application of the same rules at various stages of the process Consequently, the level of private investment in Nepal un- on the other. In the upstream stages, the formal institution- derperforms compared to its peers (Figure III.3). al delegation of responsibility and the supporting procedural arrangements have been put in place to guide project devel- 42. In addition, political instability is affecting firms opment, and planning and selection for financing. In execu- of all sizes and in all locations. Two of the most fre- tion, the new procurement law and legislation, as well as the quently cited obstacles by private firms are political insta- institutions governing monitoring project execution, do exist. bility and limited access to electricity (World Bank 2013a). It is evident, however, that the formal procedures are not be- Of the total number of firms surveyed, almost 50 percent ing complied with in practice. There is a complete disconnect cited political instability as the major obstacle. Political in- between planning, policy, and budgeting. Project appraisal stability has affected firms of all sizes and in all locations and prioritization are ineffective. Value for money cannot be and sectors; however, small and medium firms are most guaranteed. Various sectors may develop their own guidance severely affected, and they constitute almost 90 percent of for technical screening and appraisal of projects, but the pro- the total private enterprises in Nepal (Figure III.4). cess has not been uniform and—more importantly—does not form an integral part of financing decisions. Monitoring 43. Political stability is key to boosting investment, of project execution has been weak and does not link to any because it reduces risk and raises expected private onward financing decision. The parallel functioning of the returns to capital, while also lowering the cost of National Planning Commission (NPC) and the Ministry of capital. Political stability is needed to build institutions Finance (MOF), without an overarching framework of a Me- that reduce corruption and uphold contracts and proper- dium-Term Expenditure Framework, leave the capital and ty rights efficiently, as well as invest in infrastructure like recurrent budgets functionally and procedurally fragmented, transport and electricity, while reducing tax rates and ex- and perpetuates the missing link between multiyear invest- panding the tax base through improved tax policy and ad- ment and annual needs for maintenance and operation of ministration, all of which boost expected private returns to assets. Spending agencies—as well as central planning and capital. Political stability and domestic harmony also low- financial agencies—do not exercise a real sense of hard bud- er country risk, and thereby reduce interest rates and low- get constraints. These issues have been magnified by the fre- er the cost of capital. The combination of higher expected quent change in government, leading to a shifting of priori- returns and lower cost of capital is key to incentivizing the ties and de-incentivizing all levels of government (ministries, private sector to invest over longer time horizons, and in- departments, and agencies) to invest in building capacity and crease the difference between returns to and the cost of planning a capital budget with a true long-term vision (World capital, thereby boosting investment and spurring growth. Bank 2017a). Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 20 Figure III.3 Average level of private investment, 2007–15 Figure III.4 All enterprises have been severely affected by political instability (Percent of GDP) (Percent of total) Very severe Major Moderate Minor 30 Private GFCF obstacle obstacle obstacle obstacle 25 (2007-2015) average 24 Small firms 70 25 22 21 21 20 18 16 15 Medium firms 63 10 5 0 Large firms 50 India South Asia Bangladesh Lao PDR Ethiopia Nepal Low income 0 20 40 60 80 100 Source: WDI. Sources: World Bank (2013a) and WB staff calculations. ing rate), it is the improvements in productivity (that is, more Breaking down constraints to greater output per unit of input) that drives the long-run growth rate. productivity This is the key insight of Solow’s seminal work (1957), which found that the bulk of long-run growth per capita comes from 44. Faster productivity growth is key to faster long-run rising TFP. Nepal’s historical productivity growth oscillated growth. Increasing only investments will lead to an increase around zero during the entire historical period for which in the level of potential GDP, but because investment is sub- data are available, and contributed nothing to overall growth ject to diminishing marginal returns (that is, an additional when adjusted for growth of human capital, employment, unit of input will generate additional output, but at a decreas- and labor force participation rates (Figure III.5). Figure III.5 History of productivity growth in Nepal, 1970–2015 (Percent change) Treand growth (HP filter) TFP growth 10 8 Pre-openness era Reform era Conflict Political transition 6 4 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Source: World Bank staff calculations based on national data. Note: HP = Hodrick-Prescott filter. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 21 45. Consequently, boosting TFP growth rates is a key 1. Consistently across the years, firms that export are the growth challenge. As we have seen from growth model- most productive, and foreign-owned firms are more ing exercises in part II, gradual acceleration of productiv- productive than privately owned domestic and pub- ity growth to 0.5 percent from the current trend growth of lic firms. Worryingly, the share of exporting firms zero percent from 2017 to 2021—or just a 0.1 percentage dropped from 13 percent in 2007 to 6 percent in 2012. point increase per year—speeds up graduation by four to five years. More generally, the faster the productivity 2. Larger firms are not more productive. Though pro- growth, the lower the amount of investment needed to ductivity does significantly increase with the move attain desired GDP targets. from firms with less than 20 to more than 20 employ- ees, the relationship is not applicable for all size cate- 46. Improving productivity requires micro-level pol- gories. In fact, in 2012, for firms with 250 to 499 em- icies to spur innovation by companies. Micro-level ployees, the productivity level was below that of firms policies, or so called micro-foundations to growth, are with less than 20 employees. defined as incentives for firms to innovate, upgrade skills, and adopt new technology that result in faster productiv- 3. Firms that have significant market power are signifi- ity growth. Countries can innovate at the leading edge cantly less productive. Results show an inverse rela- (that is, pushing the technological frontier outward) or by tionship between the share of sales and firm produc- imitation and implementation of existing technologies. tivity. In other words, the greater market power a firm Growth is determined by the frequency of either type of has (that is, the greater its share of sales) the less pro- innovation, while the frequency of such innovations is ductive it is. driven by the actions of profit-maximizing companies. In other words, higher TFP growth runs through agile and a) Outward orientation and external competitiveness efficient firms. In addition, productivity growth can be driven by movement in labor and capital from less pro- 49. Integration into the global marketplace is a ductive to more productive firms within the same sectors. powerful vehicle for greater productivity, yet Ne- When this mechanism does not function as effectively as it pal’s performance in this area has slipped. As a small could—for example, due to barriers to competition—the economy that is comparatively close to the fastest-grow- economy suffers from a misallocation of resources. ing markets in the world, Nepal’s growth prospects are linked to its success in integrating into the regional and 47. However, implementing productivity-enhancing global marketplaces. However, Nepal has not been able policies is often politically challenging. Necessary mi- to take advantage of this proximity, and the situation is cro-foundations for growth could be summed up as pol- worsening. Nepal’s overall openness to trade was similar icies that foster (a) outward orientation, and (b) competi- to that of other countries at comparable levels of develop- tion in the economy (ingredients 3, 4, and 5 in Table 2). In ment during the 1990s (that is, with openness levels above practice, this means opening the country to competition Uganda or Bangladesh), but fell well below the average both domestically and from abroad, and not shielding or thereafter. The trade-to-GDP ratio declined from an av- subsidizing inefficient or failing companies. These are of- erage of 59 percent between 1995 and 1999, to 46 percent ten the hardest things to do because one quickly runs into between 2010 and 2014. vested interests and political economy considerations. 50. Performance in the trade of goods has been par- 48. Available data underscore that firms with an ticularly poor. Merchandise export growth slowed from outward orientation are more productive in Nepal. an average rate of 19 percent per year in the 1990s to Using data from the National Census of Manufacturing 0.6 percent per year during the subsequent decade. To- Establishments from 2007 and 2012, the World Bank’s day, most of Nepal’s goods exports are concentrated in a Job Diagnostic (World Bank 2017b) notes the following narrow range of agricultural and low-value-added manu- key insights about manufacturing firms in Nepal: factured products, in globally declining market segments, Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 22 Figure III.6 Nepal has one of the highest tariff rates Figure III.7 The real effective exchange rate has appreciated considerably since 2006 (Percent) (Index number, 2010=100) (3-m mov. avg. US$ m) 30 120 700 Remittances (right) 25 115 600 25 Consumption Intermediary Primary 110 500 20 19 18 17 105 400 15 100 13 Real exchange rate 11 300 95 10 8 8 200 90 5 85 100 0 80 0 India Bangladesh Malaysia Nepal Sri Lanka Thailand Vietnam China Jan-06 Jan-07 Jan-08 Jan-09 Jan-10 Jan-11 Jan-12 Jan-13 Jan-14 Jan-15 Jan-16 Jan-17 Source: WTO. Source: WB staff calculations. and in a handful of countries. The stagnation in exports 52. Exports are critically dependent on inputs (in 2013 they were barely 10 percent higher than in the sourced from abroad. In Nepal, as in other countries, 2000s), is in stark contrast to the steep rise in imports, imported inputs (both of goods and services) are key for which quadrupled over the same period. The result has the vast majority of exporters. More than 90 percent of been an increasingly large trade deficit (around 30 per- Nepalese exporters import inputs necessary for the pro- cent of GDP in recent years), which is mainly financed duction of exports, which is reasonable given the size of through remittances. the economy. Sourcing inputs at competitive prices, irre- spective of their origin, helps firms grow, diversify, and 51. Exports have been hampered by loss of compet- upgrade. Access to a wide variety of inputs relaxes firms’ itiveness and an anti-export bias of tariff policies. technological constraints, helping firms diversify into new From a macroeconomic perspective, remittances are help- products, and upgrade into better quality. However, im- ing finance large trade deficits and moving people out of port tariffs are extremely high in Nepal (Figure III.6), poverty. However, they are also contributing to an appre- which makes imports expensive and disadvantages the ciation of the real exchange rate. Analysis suggests that an country’s exporters. increase in remittances by 10 percent leads to a 0.5 percent appreciation of the real exchange rate in the long run. With 53. Attracting and retaining foreign direct investment remittances having grown quickly over the last 20 years, (FDI) is crucial, but is hampered by restrictive invest- pressure on the real exchange rate to appreciate due to this ment policies. Since foreign-owned firms are some of the channel is non-negligible (Figure III.7). In turn, the appre- most productive firms in the country, FDI is vital for access- ciation of the real exchange rate favors imports and ham- ing new technologies, business practices, and markets. But pers exports. The impact is possibly largest on low-value, Nepal barely attracts any FDI inflows, averaging less than 1 low-margin manufactured goods, which account for a large percent of GDP. It has significantly trailed the performance share of Nepal’s export bundle (Portugal and Zildzovic even of other small landlocked countries in the region (Bhu- 2017). Further, from a political economy perspective, ris- tan and Lao PDR). Apart from the problems that affect all ing imports make them an attractive tax base and prompt investment, FDI has been hurt by unclear policies, complex increased reliance on import taxes. This further aggravates procedures, and inadequate investment facilitation. Entry the anti-export bias, because exporters rely on imported, barriers to foreign investment include foreign ownership intermediate goods as key inputs for production. limitations, sector caps, a long negative list, and restric- Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 23 tions on non-equity modes of investment. Among the other observed as the most prevalent anticompetitive behavior, important restrictions affecting foreign investment in the and has been implemented by many business and trade country are the cumbersome processes for the repatriation associations, including regional truck and bus syndicates, of funds and the lengthy processes needed to hire foreign air transport associations, and taxi services. workers. Restrictive FDI policies compound the challenges the country faces in attracting foreign investment and need 57. The Supreme Court of Nepal has issued three to be reconsidered. decisions over the past decade that call for an end to cartels (syndicates) in public transport, and to b) Competition in the economy is weak—both annul any provisions and agreements made earli- within and from abroad er that promote anticompetitive behavior (My Re- publica 2016). Examples of such syndicates include the 54. There is ample evidence of a lack of competition 39 local Trucking Entrepreneur’s Associations (TEAs) in the economy. High import tariffs and barriers to for- in Nepal that dictate the rules of trucking operation for eign investment are shielding domestic firms from compe- about 30,000 trucks along 429 recognized routes, despite tition from abroad. Competition among firms in different the fact that the TEAs have no legal authority to do so sectors is also limited. As mentioned, the largest firms in (Poudel 2015). There are more than 250 bus “commit- manufacturing (250 to 499 employees) with the largest tees” registered under the Federation of Nepalese Nation- concentration of sales tend to be least productive. This is al Transport Entrepreneurs (FNNTE) which are actually counterintuitive and indicative of potential anticompeti- cartels that want to protect route monopolies at all cost— tive behavior, since it is more typical for larger firms to by threatening the government and new bus companies tend to be more productive given their economies of scale, (Nepali Times 2017). Further, in 2000, the Department easier access to financing, better employees, and tendency of Transport Management stopped registering new taxis to adopt stronger business practices. in the Bagmati Zone (where Kathmandu is located) and has not lifted the ban. Since 2007, an agreement between 55. Business entry or survival of new firms is diffi- the FNNTE and three related government agencies has cult. Two waves of World Bank Enterprise Surveys were required a recommendation from the FNNTE for the conducted in 2008 and 2012. The data reveal that the issuance of route permits for any transportation services average firm age (years of operation) increased from 9.6 to (Shresta 2015). 14.2 between the two surveys. The difference in average age (4.6 years) corresponds with the time elapsed between 58. Trucking syndicates impose significant costs on the two waves of surveys, indicating that either no new the overall economy. Poudel (2015) calculated the dead- firms were formed or that their rate of survival is low. The weight loss or excess burden of the syndicates to be 2.6 same conclusion holds for manufacturing companies, the percent of GDP in 2014. Furthermore, the study estimat- average age of which increased from 11.4 years to 15.6 ed that in 2014, of the 9.1 percent inflation rate of the years between the two surveys. Both cases point to signif- Kathmandu valley, 11 percent was due to the syndicates icant barriers faced by new entrants, again indicative of (that is, in the absence of the syndicates, the inflation rate anticompetitive practices. should have been 8 percent). 56. One of the most visible anticompetitive regula- 59. This also matters for trade, given that Nepal’s tions and practices exists in the transport sector. top export sectors appear to use more transport Transport services, a crucial determinant of connectivity, services than other manufacturing sectors. For ex- face important and harmful competitive constraints in all ample, 39 percent of the services inputs provided to segments of the sector. Business associations that operate processed food exports are transport, 30 percent are for in the transport industry are exercising various limits on leather exports, and 25 percent are for beverage and to- competition. In particular, collective price fixing has been bacco exports. In contrast, transport services account for Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 24 just 9 percent of all service inputs for manufacturing firms while imposing an unnecessary transaction cost on small- overall. Exports of primary agricultural products also rely er firms. Second, the competition law framework includes heavily on the domestic transport sector, since 45 percent several exceptions to specific markets (agricultural prod- of services inputs are transport services (Hollweg 2016). ucts) or types of transactions (procurement of raw mate- rials), while advocacy—a mechanism to strengthen mea- 60. The current competition policy framework is sures to deter anticompetitive product market regulation counterproductive because it increases the cost of stemming from government policies—is lacking. Third, doing business while not deterring anticompetitive competition issues at the sector level are distorting the behavior. First, the absence of effective merger control level playing field and affecting the provision of transport regulation may prevent efficient mergers or acquisitions services, in particular. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 25 Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 26 Chapter FOUR Building New Sources Of Growth 61. Nepal’s most abundant and yet vastly underexploited resource is hy- dropower. Nepal is abundantly endowed with hydropower resources that can both meet domestic electricity needs and enable it to become an important player in regional power markets. Nepal’s hydropower potential is estimated at 84,000 megawatts (MW), of which 43,000 MW is deemed economically viable. At present, less than 2 percent of this economically viable potential is being exploited. 62. At the same time, Nepal’s households and firms have suffered from power shortages. Only 75 percent of Nepal’s population has access to electric- ity, and households and firms suffer from significant power cuts (up to 17 hours per day during the dry season in the winter of 2016/17) and rationing through- out the year. Unreliable access to power is consistently identified by firms as the greatest obstacle to their operations, and Nepal’s manufacturing sector has been performing poorly over the past decade. 63. Given its natural endowments, it is possible to envision an electricity sector in Nepal that could boost growth, poverty reduction, and shared prosperity for the country. Such an electricity sector would not only meet domestic demand reliably, affordably, and cleanly, but would also earn revenue from the export of surplus hydropower through enhanced regional electricity markets to neighboring countries by integrating with the wider South Asia pow- er market. 64. As recent experience has shown, a combination of demand manage- ment and greater imports can improve power availability significantly. Since November 2016, the Nepal Electricity Authority has implemented a series of changes in the way it manages demand for electricity, when combined with greater availability of imports from India through recently constructed cross-bor- der high-voltage power lines. At present, Nepal’s installed capacity is 800 MW, while hydropower generation is 450 MW, because the water level in most riv- Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 27 er basins decreases in the dry season. To bridge the Identifying the potential gap, Nepal is currently importing around 380 MW of electricity from India. The country’s peak electricity investments in hydro energy demand hovers at 1,250 MW. The Nepal Electricity Authority has been managing the deficit of 420MW by 66. Investments totaling 120 percent of GDP are in cutting off power to energy-intensive industries during various stages of preparation until 2030. In 2014, peak hours. This has resulted in sharply lower pow- Project Development Agreements (PDAs) for two large er cuts in several large cities in Nepal for the general export-oriented hydropower projects—the Upper Karna- public, while industry can get electricity for 20 out of li and Arun 3 projects, each with a capacity of 900 MW 24 hours. and an estimated investment cost of around US$2 bil- lion—were signed. However, the shocks of 2015 have al- 65. Development of hydropower is perceived to ready delayed their preparation by a year. There are three be an economic game changer for Nepal; howev- additional large projects with a capacity of 2,800 MW er, few studies exist quantifying the economic impact. and investment costs of about US$5.2 billion that are in Investment associated with the development of new various stages of preparation by international companies. hydropower plants, transmission lines, and distribu- These projects are considered export oriented. However, tion networks has the potential to boost economic none has reached financial closure or started construc- growth during the construction phase, improve econ- tion. Furthermore, there are some 3,365 MW (around omy-wide productivity through the continuous avail - US$6.4 billion in investments) of large hydro projects that ability of electricity, and generate new fiscal revenues. are at different stages of development by private and pub- The scale of the envisaged hydropower investments lic companies. In addition, there are also 117 small hydro implies large annual expenditures as well as future projects (around US$1.4 billion in investment with a ca- revenues, relative to the size of Nepal’s economy. pacity of 1,500 MW) developed by local private compa- Should investment materialize, substantial capital in- nies that have reached financial closure and are in various flows are likely to add to the inflows from remittances stages of construction. Taken together, there are currently and assistance from development partners, and create about 8,500 MW of projects under development, with in- challenges for macro-management, as well as drive a vestment costs of about US$15 billion, or almost 80 per- reallocation of production across sectors of the econ- cent of GDP. In addition, complimentary investments of omy. However, no solid quantitative basis exists to es- US$11.6 billion of new transmission lines and upgrades timate the magnitude of the expected change, or to of the distribution system are required for this new capac- systematically analyze its likely repercussions on key ity to reach consumers. In total, investments in the hydro economic variables of interest. Here, we aim to do sector are identified at US$26.5 billion, or 120 percent of precisely that utilizing a computable general equilib- GDP over the next 13 years, or, on average, 9 percent of rium model (see Box IV.1). GDP in additional investments (Table IV.1). Table IV.1 Identified potential investments in hydro sector, 2017–30 Investment cost Number Capacity (MW) (US$ bn) Large export-oriented HPPs 5 3,700 7.2 Large domestic HPPs (>100 MW) 9 3,365 6.4 Small domestic HPPs (<100 MW) 117 1,506 1.4 Transmission and Distribution — — 11.6 Total — 8,571 26.5 Source: WB staff calculations based on project level data. Note: HPP = hydropower plants. — = not available. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 28 Table IV.2 Identified financing of potential investments in the hydro sector, 2017–30   US$ billion Share of total (%) Foreign 21.2 80 o/w equity 2.3 9 o/w debt 18.9 71 Domestic 5.3 20 o/w equity 0.4 2 o/w debt 1.3 5 o/w government 3.7 14 Total 26.5 100 Source: WB staff calculations based on project-level data. Note: o/w = of which. 67. At present, most of the financing is expected The US$26.5 billion question—what to come from abroad. Naturally, this represents an outsized amount of investment for Nepal and raises can investment in hydropower do? questions about how it will be financed. Looking at each project’s cost and financing structure identified 68. We begin by looking at what Nepal’s economy by project developers, the financing sources for com- might look like under a baseline or business-as-usu- plete investments in hydropower can be aggregated. al scenario. In this scenario, the historical structure of Given the large size, it is not surprising that most of the economy is maintained, with consumption compris- the funding is expected to come from foreign sources. ing approximately 82 percent of GDP. Trend growth in The second-largest contribution is expected to come the baseline scenario increases slightly over the projection from the government to cover part of the compli- period (2017–30) and averages 3.6 percent, slightly below mentary investments in transmission and distribution the long-run historical average of 4 percent, but above the (Table IV.2). 3 percent trend growth in the business-as-usual scenario Box IV.1 Analyzing economic impacts of various policy options: a computable general equilibrium approach Structural reforms have many indirect and complex reper- a recursive dynamic computable general equilibrium model. cussions on the economic activity of different sectors and on This approach links a sequence of static equilibriums with a different segments of the population. Computable general set of equations, which update, at every period, a selection equilibrium (CGE) models have emerged as effective tools to of macroeconomic variables (that is, population growth, assess these effects. The CGE model captures the impact of capital stock, and productivity). the reform on a range of macro indicators. It also captures the distributive effects of a policy, because the successful A custom-built Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) for Nepal is implementation and sustainability of policies depends on developed for this model. The SAM is a unifying framework the proper management of their distributive effects. A range that contains consistent data linking commodity demand of scenarios can be simulated using the model to assess the and supply, factor incomes, transfers and expenditures, economy-wide effects of different government policies and and savings and investment. The data for the SAM comes economic shocks. from FY2012/13 National Accounts, FY2004/05 Supply and Use Tables, FY2010/11 Household Budget Surveys, and The Nepal CGE model built for this exercise is a single-coun- FY2012/13 International Trade Accounts. Given the impor- try model drawn from the World Bank’s global CGE model tance of the power sector for this analysis, information from (LINKAGE). The model is calibrated on a Social Accounting the Nepal Electricity Authority annual reports are used to Matrix (SAM) comprising 27 sectors that produce 27 com- separately identify the electricity sector in the Nepal SAM. modities, three factors of production, and 10 households rep- The Nepal Electricity Authority reports are also used to esti- resenting each consumption decile. The Nepal CGE model is mate the magnitude of the implicit electricity subsidy. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 29 Table IV.3 Baseline macroeconomic scenario, 2017–30 2017 2018 2025 2030 Avg. 2017–30 Real GDP growth (percent change) 5.0 4.8 3.5 3.1 3.6 Investment, (percent of GDP) 22.4 21.9 22.1 22.0 22.1 o/w public 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 4.7 o/w private, electricity 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 o/w private, non-electricity 16.9 16.4 16.6 16.5 16.6 Current account balance (percent of GDP) 1.2 1.2 0.9 0.8 1.0 Real exchange rate (2016 = 100); Avg. 2017–30 (percent change) 99.1 99.0 99.8 99.8 -0.2 Government budget balance (percent of GDP) -1.0 -1.4 -1.5 -1.7 -1.5 Public debt (percent of GDP) 24.6 24.8 28.3 31.8 27.7 GDP per capita (US$); Avg. 2017–30 (percent change) 718 744 893 1,000 2.6 Source: Nepal computable general equilibrium (CGE) model results. Note: o/w = of which. Table IV.4 Hydro investments macroeconomic scenario, 2017–30 2017 2018 2025 2030 Avg. 2017-30 Real GDP growth (percent change) 5.2 4.6 5.3 3.4 4.0 Investment, (percent of GDP) 28.9 28.1 29.9 25.1 30.2 o/w public 10.0 9.5 7.3 6.1 8.4 o/w private, electricity 4.5 4.1 5.2 1.9 5.4 o/w private, non-electricity 14.4 14.5 17.4 17.1 16.4 Current account balance (percent of GDP) -3.7 -3.5 -5.0 -1.4 -5.0 Real exchange rate (2016 = 100); Avg. 2017–30 (percent change) 96.0 95.4 93.2 94.0 -6.0 Government budget balance (percent of GDP) -5.2 -5.2 -3.5 -2.9 -4.3 Public debt (percent of GDP) 28.6 32.3 54.6 60.1 47.9 GDP per capita (US$); Avg. 2017–30 (percent change) 743 772 973 1,109 3.1 Source: Nepal CGE model results. Note: o/w = of which. Table IV.5 Hydro investments, productivity, and migrant returns macroeconomic scenario, 2017–30 2017 2018 2025 2030 Avg. 2017–30 Real GDP growth (percent change) 5.2 4.6 6.9 3.9 4.7 Investment, (percent of GDP) 28.9 28.1 29.9 25.6 30.3 o/w public 10.0 9.5 7.2 6.0 8.3 o/w private, electricity 4.5 4.1 5.1 1.8 5.4 o/w private, non-electricity 14.4 14.5 17.6 17.8 16.6 Current account balance (percent of GDP) -3.7 -3.5 -5.0 -1.4 -5.0 Real exchange rate (2016 = 100); Avg. 2017–30 (percent change) 96.0 95.4 94.3 97.3 -2.7 Government budget balance (percent of GDP) -5.2 -5.2 -3.4 -2.9 -4.2 Public debt (percent of GDP) 28.6 32.3 53.9 57.2 46.9 GDP per capita (US$); Avg. 2017–30 (percent change) 743 772 983 1,178 3.6 Source: Nepal CGE model results. Note: o/w = of which. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 30 presented in Part II. The reason for the difference is that 71. Tradable sectors are adversely affected by the we account for the recent improvements in availability of real exchange rate appreciation, in a classic case of electricity by modelling improvements in TFP. Investment Dutch disease. The inflow of foreign funds used to fi- stays the same as a share of GDP, as do government defi- nance the hydro investment leads to an appreciation cits, debt, and the current account balance. Nonetheless, of the real exchange rate. The appreciation reduces the the same conclusion holds as previously: Nepal still falls international competitiveness of Nepal’s non-electricity short in graduating from LIC status (Table IV.3). exports. The effect of the appreciation is compounded by the inflow of imported materials used in constructing the 69. Implementing investments in hydropower sig- hydropower facilities. nificantly boosts outcomes. The investments outlined above are introduced to the baseline scenario. In addition, 72. Government revenues increase as a result of the several complimentary policies are also implemented. For hydropower investment, but the overall balance dete- example, electricity subsidies that go to the Nepal Elec- riorates as the government borrows to fund construc- tricity Authority are gradually eliminated from 2017 to tion of the transmission and distribution network. 2021. Repatriation of profits and dividends is allowed, as The public debt increases to around 48 percent of GDP, on is movement of domestic capital from non-electricity sec- average, in the forecast period. The hydropower investment tors into the electricity sector. Comparing this “hydropow- directly contributes to government revenue. In addition, er investment” scenario to the baseline scenario gives an the increase in imports supports an increase in tariff rev- estimate of the economy-wide effects of investing in hy- enue. Since electricity sales domestically are exempt from dropower. As expected, GDP growth is higher than in the the VAT, an expansion of the electricity sector reduces rev- baseline scenario and averages 4 percent. By 2030, GDP enue collection from this tax. It is also assumed that some itself is 4.5 percent higher than would otherwise be the of the additional revenue is used to provide additional gov- case. Given faster growth, Nepal would be able to grad- ernment services. Importantly, the deterioration in the gov- uate from LIC status by 2029 (Table IV.4). The analysis ernment balance moderates over time as the expansion of here focuses on 2017 to 2030, which captures the bulk of the economy helps support additional revenue collection. the investment phase of the projects and approximately five years of exports. The boost in exports is expected to 73. Modelling potential broader impacts reveals even continue well past 2030 and will continue to support GDP. more favorable results for Nepal. The previous scenar- io treated the investment in hydro energy as a standard 70. In the long term, the investment expands Nepal’s investment shock to the economy. However, given that productive capacity and supports export-led growth achieving electricity self-sufficiency eliminates one of the in the economy. In the first decade, electricity invest- key constraints for companies in Nepal, it is not unreason- ment becomes a key driver of economic activity. In- able to anticipate broader impacts from these investments. vestment averages 30 percent of GDP during this period, In addition to investment, revenue, and subsidy elimina- buoyed by increases in private investment in the electricity tion policy, we also model an alternative scenario where sector as well as public investments. As the additional gen- there is a sizable improvement in the productivity of all eration capacity comes online, Nepal’s electricity exports sectors in the economy (approximately an 8 percent boost expand to around 5 percent of GDP by 2030. This hy- in productivity by 2030).4 Given rising real wages, we also dro investment helps lift real wages by around 3 percent model a modest return of migrants to Nepal. The boost in per year, on average, between 2017 and 2030. This wage productivity and the labor force leads to even more ben- boost is initially supported by higher labor demand, while eficial outcomes. GDP growth averages 4.7 percent, and the hydropower plants are being constructed. Over time, by 2030 the GDP level is 18 percent higher than in the the higher capital stock improves labor productivity, and baseline, enabling Nepal to graduate from LIC status by this is translated into higher real wages. 2027 (Table IV.5 and Table IV.6). Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 31 Table IV.6 Effects of hydro investment in Nepal in 2030 (percent deviation from baseline) Main effects Broader effects Real GDP 4.5 14.8 Private consumption 1.2 8.4 Public consumption 4.5 14.8 Investment 8.9 15.6 public 38.0 48.3 private, electricity 122.0 132.3 private, non-electricity 8.4 24.3 Exports 44.8 68.9 non-electricity -22.0 3.4 Imports 10.7 15.2 Real wages 6.6 16.4 Source: Nepal CGE model results. 74. Interestingly, Nepal might be one of the rare coun- currently abroad, or Indians currently in Nepal and India. tries in the world that has a virtually unconstrained Our CGE model does not distinguish between who will fill labor supply. The 1950 Peace and Friendship Treaty be- these new jobs. tween India and Nepal provides for the free movement of people between the two countries. According to the Treaty, 75. Harnessing the opportunities presented by elec- Nepalis and Indians can travel and work across the border tricity self-sufficiency helps mitigate the effects of and are to be treated the same as native citizens. Rural Ne- Dutch disease. Having reliable access to electricity reduc- palis, who have long been suffering poverty, unemployment es the production costs of firms across the economy. The and, more recently, armed conflict, have been the tradi- lower cost is passed on to consumers in the form of lower tional migrants to India. The process of migration is not prices, and this improves the international competitiveness one-sided though. Indians have been migrating to Nepal of Nepal’s exports and allows non-electricity exports to also for as long as Nepalis have been migrating to India. The expand. In addition, lower domestic prices encourage sub- process and factors determining migration may be differ- stitution away from imports toward domestic production, ent, but it does take place. Consequently, wage pressures further supporting Nepal’s firms. Notably, the productivity originating from large-scale investments in the hydro sector boost enables increases in real wages, which are 16 percent could be filled either by Nepalis currently in Nepal, Nepalis higher on average compared to the baseline scenario. 4 This magnitude is calibrated based on a study by Allcott, Collard-Wexler, and O’Connell (2014) on the effects of electricity shortages on the productivity of manufacturing firms in India. They found that, in 2005, the nationwide electricity shortage of 7.1 percent led to a 1.6 percent loss in revenue productivity. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 32 Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 33 Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 34 Chapter five Revitalize Existing Sources Of Growth 5 Agriculture, vital to the Nepalese economy, is stuck in low investment and low productivity 76. Agriculture remains a large part of Nepal’s economy as a key source of em- ployment and income, and as a driver of poverty reduction. Since agriculture contributes one-third of the value added and accounts for two-thirds of employment, improvements in agricultural productivity are essential to boosting aggregate produc- tivity, as well. Agriculture is also an important sector for poverty reduction and shared prosperity. Most of the poverty reduction between FY2004 and FY2011 occurred in rural areas and was driven by rising agricultural incomes (World Bank 2013b). A de- composition of total income growth shows that farm income and agricultural wages rose by 24.4 percent, followed by remittances (23 percent), nonagricultural wages (22.8 percent), and enterprise income (18.3 percent). The impact of agriculture on poverty reduction was highest among the bottom 40 percent, where agricultural incomes con- tributed about 39 percent of their income gains. 77. However, agriculture in Nepal is characterized by volatility and relatively low yields compared to neighboring countries. Growth in the agricultural sector has been volatile in recent decades, to the extent that the lowest and highest growth rates were recorded in consecutive years, mainly because agricultural output is highly dependent on the monsoon. Agriculture in Nepal, particularly food grains such as rice and wheat that occupy most cultivable land, is characterized by relatively low yields compared to neighboring countries. For example, Nepal’s yields in rice are lower than in India and Bangladesh, while wheat yields have been consistently lower than in In- dia, Bangladesh, and Pakistan over the past decade (Figure V.1 and Figure V.2). 5 This section draws entirely from World Bank (2016b), “Sources of Growth in Agriculture for Poverty Reduction and Shared Prosperity,” World Bank, Washington, DC. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 35 Table V.1 Decomposition of changes in crop income between FY2004 and FY2011, percent Total Nepal Tarai Hills Mountains Change in Crop Income 0.21 0.35 0.07 0.32 Contribution of Land -0.02 0.00 -0.01 -0.11 Contribution of Yield 0.05 0.14 -0.07 0.23 Contribution of Price 0.18 0.21 0.15 0.19 Source: World Bank 2016b. 78. Much of the increase in agricultural income has nessy 2001; Sandmo 1971). The finding that area under come from gains in prices, not yields. Of the total in- cultivation contracted in FY2011 relative to FY2004 mir- crease in crop income of 21 percent between FY2004 to rors global evidence that farmers reduced land allocation FY2011, about 18 percentage points was due to increased to major cereal crops during the recent global food crisis, food prices, while yields contributed only about 5 percent- when prices were high and volatile (Haile, Kalkuhl, and age points, and land contraction decreased crop income von Braun 2014). Within Nepal, in Mountains and Tarai, by about 2 percentage points (Table V.1). The contribu- both food prices and yields contributed to increased crop tion of land is negative, which indicates that there was income, but in the Hills, crop incomes were driven only by a contraction of area under cultivation despite the in- increased prices, as the yields actually declined. creased food prices increasing farmers’ income. Increased food prices would normally give farmers incentives to 79. Farmers are diversifying away from grain staples employ more factors of production, including putting to fruits and vegetables, but the trend is unlikely to more land under cultivation. However, food prices were occur on a larger scale. Nepal has the highest yields in not only high but also volatile, and the volatility became fruits relative to its neighbors, and the second-highest a major source of risk to the food sector. For farmers en- yields in vegetables. But the land currently is dispropor- gaged in primary food production, unstable commodity tionately allocated to grain staples (rice, maize, wheat, prices in output markets is a primary concern, and the millet, barley, and buckwheat), despite fruits and vegeta- uncertainty this generates affects investment decisions bles showing relatively higher yields and higher growth in regarding use of productive factors (Moschini and Hen- consumption. While the contribution of grain staples to Figure V.1 Rice yields in South Asia Figure V.2 Wheat yields in South Asia (Metric ton per hectare) (Metric ton per hectare) Nepal Bangladesh India Pakistan Nepal Bangladesh India Pakistan 5.0 3.5 4.5 3.0 4.0 3.5 2.5 3.0 2.0 2.5 1.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.0 0.0 2013 2013 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2014 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2014 Source: FAOSTAT. Source: FAOSTAT. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 36 agricultural GDP is only about three times higher than the proportion of the consumption of home-produced fruits and vegetables, land allocation to grain staples is dis- foods to total consumption declined faster in Nepal than proportionately 10 times higher. Therefore, this diversifi- in India—by about 4 percentage points in Nepal com- cation trend is unlikely to occur on a larger scale unless (a) pared to 2 percentage points in India. Food consumption there are broad-based productivity gains in the main food has increased across all food categories and across the ru- grains to release land to other crops, and (b) farmers with ral-urban divide. In addition, households are increasingly comparative advantage in fruits and vegetables develop relying on food markets to meet their consumption needs. stable expectations that the market could be relied upon Yet, much of the supply of this marketed food consists of to consistently deliver staples foods at low cost. imports, as domestic value chains become less competitive and lose market share in Nepal’s domestic food market. 80. As a result, agricultural productivity growth, Moreover, while exports have faltered across the board, though modestly increasing, has been one of the low- food exports have seen a severe decline (Figure V.4). Ne- est in the region. Most estimates of the agricultural TFP pal is increasingly becoming a net importer of food, both have relied on Fugile (2012), who uses data from FAO of high-value foods such as fruits and vegetables, and of and applies growth accounting methods to estimate TFP staples such as rice, potatoes, and maize. in various countries, including Nepal. The data suggest that TFP in Nepal’s agricultural sector has grown steadily Main factors inhibiting growth in since 1998. From 1992 to 2011, TFP in Nepal grew faster than in Pakistan but substantially more slowly than in In- agricultural productivity dia and Bangladesh (Figure V.3). 82. The principal factor inhibiting growth in agricul- 81. Nepal’s agriculture has also become less com- tural productivity in Nepal is the low level of tech- petitive in both domestic and export markets. Ne- nical change and technical efficiency, particularly in pal used to be a net food exporter, but has become a net the Tarai region, the breadbasket of Nepal. Technical food importer. On the demand side, the per capita con- change is associated with the release and application of sumption of food is increasing quickly in Nepal and at a new technology, while technical efficiency change is about much faster rate than at the regional level. For example, how well existing technologies are used by farmers. Mea- Figure V.3 Productivity in agriculture Figure V.4 Net export value of agricultural products (TFP Index, 1992=100) (Million US$) Nepal Bangladesh India Pakistan 160 60 150 Pulses 40 140 Wheat 20 130 0 120 Maize -20 Potatoes 110 Rice 100 -40 Fruits and 90 -60 Vegetables 80 -80 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Source: Fugile 2012. Source: FAOSTAT. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 37 Table V.2 Relative contribution of technical change and technical efficiency to productivity between FY2004 and FY2011 (index, 2004 = 1) Mountain Hills Tarai Malmquist Productivity Index 1.22 1.26 0.94 Technical Change 1.26 1.18 1.08 Technical Efficiency Change 0.95 1.06 0.85 Source: World Bank 2016b. suring productivity through the Malmquist Productivity the land to the renter. On the other hand, rural households Index shows that technical change has been the main that are land-constrained may not be able to rent additional driver of productivity increase in all regions of the coun- land and are therefore trapped in small-scale agriculture. If try—and between FY2004 and FY2011, it increased by the relationship between land size and productivity is posi- 26 percent in the Mountains, 18 percent in the Hills, and tive, small-scale agriculture could become a low-income trap. 8 percent in the Tarai. This means that farmers adopting This is incentivizing land fragmentation and less mechaniza- these technologies are having a relatively large impact in tion, which are unlikely to bring economies of scale in the the Mountains, followed by the Hills. The breadbasket current agricultural system of Nepal. of Nepal, however, the Tarai, has had much less impact. This could be because the other regions are starting from 84. Fertilizer use is skewed and prohibitive, with in- a low base, and any new technologies are likely to increase sufficient coverage. Fertilizer use is heavily skewed in fa- productivity relatively faster. Still, a worrying fact is that vor of nitrogen, which is contained in urea and which ac- the increase in technical change in the Tarai was offset counts for some 60 percent of the total inputs covered by by a decline in technical efficiency, such that the region the government’s fertilizer subsidy program. The program suffered a decline in overall productivity between FY2004 covers phosphorous and potassium-bearing diammonium and FY2011. The poor performance in technical efficien- phosphate and potash fertilizers to a lesser extent, and cy change suggests that farmers are not efficiently using this helps lead to an imbalanced use of the respective nu- even the existing technologies and practices (Table V.2). trients. It is an imbalance that needs to be addressed in order and to maintain soil nutrients and increase produc- 83. Contrary to conventional wisdom, the large farms tivity. In addition, the subsidy program itself is expensive are less productive than the small farms, which is incen- and requires improvements in how it is administered to tivizing land fragmentation and stalling mechanization. avoid imposing prohibitive costs on the national treasury, Due to the distortion in the land tenure system, small farms which had led to the dismantling of the previous subsidy are the only category with consistent productivity growth program in FY1997. Its coverage is insufficient, with only across the agroecological zones, and the only category where about half of estimated demand being met. growth is consistently driven by both technical change and technical efficiency change. In the smallest land size category, 85. Issues related to financial constraints have lim- productivity increased by 77 percent in the Mountains, 50 ited private investment agriculture. Improving pro- percent in the Hills, and 14 percent in the Tarai. There is ducers’ technical knowledge about precision farming and no other land category where there are gains in all agricul- the use of modern inputs and varieties would require an tural zones in productivity, technical change, and technical initial capital investment, which is difficult for subsistence efficiency change. Access to land is affected by many factors, farmers in Nepal. In addition, making financial resourc- chief among them the functioning of land rental markets. es available to both traditional farmers, and particularly The land rental markets in Nepal are thin mainly because to more innovative farmers, is a practical imperative cur- there are tenure laws that impose a risk that rented land rently undermined by bank lending policies that require may be lost by the landowner if the renter stays there long loan applicants to own land and use it as collateral. This enough. As a result, on the one hand, owners with relatively has been a major factor dampening private investment in bigger land size are keeping it fallow out of fear of losing agriculture. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 38 To increase broad-based agricultural has considerable potential to resolve one of the most basic constraints affecting agriculture in Nepal, and in so doing productivity, a well-integrated national transform agricultural production. Such a transformation program is required can take place through both improved technical efficiency that allows producers to move closer to an existing pro- 86. Development, dissemination, and extension ef- duction frontier, and through technical change that en- forts to ensure farmers can use technology appropri- ables them to shift to a new production frontier by using ately will be extremely important. The findings indicate more modern practices and technologies. that technical change as the driver of productivity increase is important for all agroecological zones of Nepal. But further 88. Agricultural interventions must be informed by improving producers’ technical knowledge about precision differences in factor productivities across various re- farming and the use of modern inputs and varieties would gions in Nepal. Efforts should also focus on expanding irri- make agriculture in Nepal more attractive to investors. The gation programs in Tarai and developing skills for produc- government is already implementing the Agriculture and ing high-value crops, especially in the Hills and Mountains. Food Security Project, but the project only covers mid-west- The output elasticity of irrigation is relatively higher in the ern and far-western hill and mountain districts. The pro- Tarai (0.31) compared to both the Mountains and Hills gram should be expanded nationally. And since there are agroecological zones (0.08). Agricultural output, however, important differences across districts in terms of produc- responds better to labor in the Hills and Mountains relative tivity, technical change, and technical efficiency change (or to the Tarai—with an elasticity of 0.33 in the Mountains, farmers effectively adopting new technology)—even within 0.20 in the Hills, and 0.06 in the Tarai. In the mountains, similar agroecological zones—the proposed national pro- highly productive farmers exhibit more intensive use of la- gram should be informed by a better understanding of the bor compared to their less efficient peers. And in the Hills, causes of these differences. the most productive farmers use relatively more pesticides and labor relative to their less efficient peers. In the Tarai, 87. Unlocking the constraints in the financial sector the most productive farmers operate with higher intensities not only to traditional farmers but also to returnee of capital assets compared to their peers. The main impli- migrants will be important in spreading innovation cation of the findings is that while all factors of produc- and increasing private investment in agricultural en- tion are important across the board, a national program terprises. Financial issues impose a serious constraint not for broad-based productivity growth should be informed by only to traditional farmers but also to some of Nepal’s these differences in factor productivities. most innovative and technically skilled farmers—those who have gone abroad to work on farms in Israel, Japan, 89. Improving fertilizer use will increase the produc- the Republic of Korea, and Gulf countries, and who have tivity, profitability, and environmental sustainability returned with direct knowledge and experience of high- of agricultural production in Nepal through reform of ly advanced, capital-intensive production systems. Rela- the government fertilizer subsidy program. This points tively few own land so are unable to meet the collateral to the need for more effective targeting that benefits only requirements of banks. Their investable funds are there- farmers who cannot afford their fertilizer inputs without fore largely limited to the savings they have accumulated the subsidy. These are often referred to as “smart subsi- abroad. Yet these returnees are potentially decisive agents dies,” which not only differentiate between those farmers of change, many of whom already disseminate the knowl- who can and cannot afford fertilizers at market prices, but edge they have to neighbors and even college students— which can also require beneficiaries to learn about fertil- an activity that is a source of additional income to some. izers and how to use them properly. Smart subsidies can Many of them have also organized; about 80 percent of also be delivered through the private sector, using voucher the 400-member Nepal Commercial Farmers Association and E-voucher systems that have been successfully intro- are returnees. Enabling them and other farmers to expand duced in other developing countries such as Burkina Faso, their operations through access to formal sources of credit Cote d’Ivoire, Liberia, Nigeria, and Senegal. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 39 90. Increasing competitiveness in both domestic 91. Many of the same factors related to Nepal’s ability and international markets is crucial. It is important to comply with international SPS standards also re- to strengthen domestic value chains so domestic products late directly to the coordination of related information can compete with imports where there are comparative among public institutions within Nepal. This will mean advantages. Similarly, expanding exports would require developing an SPS information management system through investments in infrastructure and a conducive regulatory which information on emerging risks can be instantly and environment to certify that products from Nepal achieve systematically exchanged among the responsible ministries the various sanitary and phytosanitary standards (SPS) and agencies. Implementing such a plan would entail both required in foreign markets. Recent examples of ginger, training of monitors and partnerships among private grow- tea, and many other agro products being stranded at the ers, traders, and regulators, as well as establishing channels borders of Nepal highlight the urgent need to address this of regular communication that would enable them to jointly issue. One of the first priorities will be to transition grow- improve traceability. It would also entail greatly improving ers out of the current practice of using seed materials re- the capacity of laboratories and testing facilities. Existing tained from previous growing seasons. As a result of this laboratories lack both high-precision and basic instruments practice, for example, only two major types of ginger are and equipment. The Central Food Research Laboratory, for grown in Nepal. Addressing this challenge will entail cre- instance, is limited to 27 parameters and does not monitor ating a national seed development program that replen- microbial contaminants or heavy metals. The ability to test ishes farmers’ supply with improved varieties, something for these is crucial to complying with various standards in that would likely be part of a larger national program that export markets, and is therefore necessary for promoting Ne- serves growers of various commodities. Nepal would be pal’s products and ultimately accessing export markets. well served by also developing an operational plan for de- tecting contaminants in the value chains of all its major 92. In sum, Nepal needs to address several underlying agricultural and horticultural commodities, including pes- causes of low yields and productivity in its agriculture: ticide residues, diseases, mycotoxins, microbes, and heavy low rates of adoption of improved technology due to sub- metals (Codex standards and EU requirements provide an sistence farming, poor access to suitable technology (both excellent frame of reference for this purpose). This also on-farm and post-harvest), limited availability of inputs moves farmers closer to meeting the specific requirements (planting materials, livestock germplasm, fertilizer, animal of high-value niche markets in other countries while im- feed, plant and animal health protection, irrigation, elec- proving food safety for domestic consumers. tricity, finance), and limited investment in the sector. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 40 Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 41 Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 42 Chapter Six INVESTING IN PEOPLE Putting more human capital to productive use in Nepal is critical for a stronger and more sustainable growth path 93. As highlighted in Part II, Nepal appears to be stuck in a low-growth, high migration trap. Historically, low economic growth led to a shortage of employment opportunities at home, which is fueling labor outmigration. Labor outmigration has resulted in a large flow of remittances (in per capita terms and as a share of GDP) contributing to rapid poverty reduction. However, large-scale migration and the en- suing remittances have also contributed to the steady loss of competitiveness (through appreciation of the real exchange rate), and have enabled the growth of low-pro- ductivity services. Further, they have reduced pressure to generate more productive employment at home. Consequently, this cycle compounds existing and long-standing challenges that hamper Nepal’s competitiveness, furthering weak growth and limited domestic opportunities. These factors combined mean that Nepal—home to some of the world’s most industrious and adventurous people—could be stuck in a low-growth, high-migration equilibrium for years to come. 94. While the economy experienced a large shift in value added away from ag- riculture, this occurred without a commensurate shift in employment. Employ- ment in services grew 5 percent annually between FY1999 to FY2013, while industry and agriculture grew at 2.6 percent and 0.7 percent, respectively. Value added in ser- vices accounts for over half of national value added, whereas employment in services accounts for 22 percent of total employment (Figure VI.1). Agriculture remains the largest employer, accounting for 67 percent of total employment, but only one-third of total value added. 95. The premature graduation to services is constraining economic prospects. One side effect of the premature graduation to services has been that the skills content of wage employment in the economy did not increase from 1995 to 2010. While pro- fessional service and manufacturing employment has grown, it tends to be low skilled. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 43 Figure VI.1 Employment share by major sector, 1999–2013 Figure VI.2 Value added per worker by sector, 2001–13 (Percentage, share) (Million constant 2005 US$ per 1000 people) 120 3.0 Agriculture Industry Services 1991 2001 2008 2013 100 2.5 80 2.0 60 1.5 40 1.0 20 0.5 0 0.0 1999 2001 2008 2013 Agriculture Industry Services Sources: WDI and WB staff calculations. Sources: WDI and WB staff calculations. Premature graduation has led to a positive relocation effect, particularly in manufacturing and services. These poten- with workers moving out of agriculture and finding more tial forces may be subdued by large labor outmigration. productive jobs in the urban service sector. However, de- clining productivity in the urban service sector may have a Nepal has entered a youth bulge negative dynamic effect; that is, these jobs are only margin- phase—an opportunity for a ally better and thus do not reflect a major transformation (Figure VI.2). As such, this atypical structural transforma- demographic dividend tion may be constraining increases in aggregate productivi- ty, a key determinant of faster growth in the long run. 97. Nepal is in the midst of a youth bulge, and a poten- tial demographic dividend that can support growth. 96. In addition, the large labor migration outflow may Starting in 2004, Nepal has seen a shift in the age struc- have reduced the pressure for more productive em- ture of its population. The share of the population that is ployment at home, and for urbanization to serve as working age is now greater than the share of the population an engine of growth. Since the end of the conflict in that is not, lowering the dependency ratio. This is a result 2007, the labor force has increased, on average, by about of a sharp decline in the fertility rate—from 4.97 children 330,000 new entrants each year. This is the difference be- per woman of childbearing age in 1995 to 2.32 in 2015. tween the number of new people turning 16 and 65 (the Population growth in Nepal is now among the lowest in working-age population). However, labor outmigration the region (Figure VI.5). Countries with the greatest demo- has exceeded the increase in the labor force each year, graphic opportunity are those entering a period in which averaging 375,000 during this period, leading to the de- the proportion of young dependents is falling, the share of pletion of human capital inside Nepal (Figure VI.3). Fur- working-age population is rising, and the proportion of el- ther, the majority of migrants are young people, under 35 derly is still small. This is the demographic dividend. It typ- years of age (Figure VI.4). Increasing urbanization can ically lasts for a limited period, because aging in the popu- foster productivity through the concentration of econom- lation then reverses the decline in the dependency ratio (the ic activity in cities. So-called agglomeration economies number of dependents aged zero to 14 and over age 65, to can improve productivity and spur employment creation, the total population aged 15 to 64) (Figure VI.6). Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 44 Figure VI.3 Migration has exceeded new entrants to the labor force Figure VI.4 The majority of migrants are under 35 years of age (Thousands) (Percentage, share) 600 100 Age 90 36+ 500 Migrant workers 80 400 70 Age 25-35 Labor force 60 300 (new entrants) 50 40 200 30 100 20 Age 16-35 10 0 0 2013 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2014 2013 2014 2015 Sources: WDI and Department of Foreign Employment. Source: Department of Foreign Employment. Figure VI.5 Population growth in South Asia Figure VI.6 Age-dependency ratio for Nepal (Population growth, percent change) (Percentage of working-age population) 3.5 90 Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan South Asia 3.0 80 2.5 70 Dependency ratio for Nepal 2.0 60 1.5 50 1.0 40 0.5 30 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 Source: WDI. Source: WDI. 98. During a demographic transition, there are typ- dend.” Subsequently, as the share of working-age popu- ically two “demographic dividends” that can poten- lation continues to increase, countries are in a position to tially benefit a country. As the rate fertility declines in a realize high rates of savings and investment, building up country, the population share of children declines and the large stocks of human and physical capital. The contri- share of people of working age increases, while the share bution of this capital to production, which may be long of elderly remains small, leading to an increase in labor term, is considered a “second demographic dividend.” supply. The magnitude of this benefit will depend on the extent to which additional workers obtain productive em- 99. Nepal is currently classified as an “early-divi- ployment. This is the so-called “first demographic divi- dend” country from a demographic transition stand- Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 45 point. The World Bank’s 2015/16 Global Monitoring ic dividend. Before the population begins to age, Nepal Report examines demographic change globally. It lays should implement policies that will enable the second de- out the typology that defines each country according to mographic dividend in the future. Such policies should its demographic trends. Nepal is classified as an early-div- encourage savings and their channeling into productive idend country, meaning that “If a country’s total fertility investments in human and physical capital. Such policies is below four births per woman, then it is likely that the would strengthen public services underpinning private country has been progressing through the demographic sector activity, contract enforcement, financial inclusion, transition model and will be experiencing rapid reduc- and protection of labor rights. tions in the population share of its youth. These are the early-dividend countries” (World Bank 2016c, 268). 102. History shows there is a real possibility of coun- tries missing their chance at a dividend. The opportu- 100. It is urgent to implement policies that take ad- nity to reap a demographic dividend occurs during a finite vantage of the demographic dividend. The urgency window that gradually closes as the working generation stems from the relatively small window of opportunity to ages. For example, in the late 20th century there was a de- create the conditions needed for the youth bulge to trans- mographic dividend in Asia. GDP increased sevenfold, an late into a demographic dividend. During this window, economic boom that was dubbed the East Asian econom- countries traditionally try to accelerate job creation in ic miracle. However, in Latin America around the same order to create productive opportunities for the growing time, GDP rose only twofold, reflecting unequal educa- share of the working-age population so as to reap the first tional investment and other factors hampering gains from demographic dividend. Failure to provide these opportu- the demographic dividend. nities to a growing young population can have negative repercussions on current and future economic prospects, 103. In addition to creating domestic opportunities, and strain the social fabric of the country. realizing a demographic dividend requires invest- ments in people. Looking forward from a macro per- 101. Because the dependency ratio is projected to spective, the demographic change or the increasing share start increasing again in 2050, Nepal should imple- of the working-age population can play an increasingly ment policies that facilitate the second demograph- important economic role in the coming years. The pos- Figure VI.7 Population by five-year age groups, historical, Nepal, 2015 Figure VI.8 Population by five-year age groups, projection, Nepal, 2050 (Age group) (Age group) 100 + 100 + 90-94 90-94 80-84 80-84 Male Female Male Female 70-74 70-74 60-64 60-64 50-54 50-54 40-44 40-44 30-34 30-34 20-24 20-24 10-14 10-14 0-4 0-4 2000 1000 0 1000 2000 2000 1000 0 1000 2000 (thousand) (thousand) Sources: UN World Population Prospects and WB staff calculations. Sources: UN World Population Prospects and WB staff calculations. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 46 itive effect depends on youth being sufficiently educated. with severely compromised labor market and higher ed- Young people need a chance to gain the education and ucation prospects. Further, large differences in test scores experience required to succeed in a competitive global between public and private school students are feeding a workplace, which demands more skills, education, and sense of frustration and exclusion among young people technical expertise than ever before. In addition, Nepal who cannot afford private education. needs to find new drivers of high-quality, productive em- ployment. Parts III, IV, and V offered advice on how to 107. The educational system is not producing enough generate greater opportunities for Nepali youth at home. student learning and skills. Student learning at all levels of education—from kindergarten to higher education— Deepening of human capital remains a remains one of the foremost challenges. According to the Nepal Living Standards Survey 2010/11, 56 percent of basic condition for brighter economic females and 28 percent of males aged six or above could prospects not read or write a simple sentence (UNESCO 2015). There appear to be persistent student failures. Dropout 104. Youth in Nepal are more educated on average than and repetition rates are high, even at the primary level, in the past thanks to significantly expanded access to implying that the transition from primary to lower second- education. Nepal’s Human Development Index increased ary, and from lower secondary to secondary level, remains to 0.55 in 2014 from 0.34 in 1990, and administrative data challenging (UNESCO 2015). For 2013, grade 8 Nation- indicate that the primary Net Enrollment Rate for prima- al Assessment of Student Achievement results show that ry education reached 96.6 percent in 2015. The education students averaged only 43 percent in mathematics (World system has seen major interventions aimed at improving ac- Bank 2013c). Furthermore, student learning outcomes cess. There has been a significant increase in the number vary significantly by geography, school, and individual and of both schools and trained teachers, leading to increased household characteristics (World Bank 2016b). enrollment and inclusion in educational access. In addition, Nepal has introduced reforms, such as decentralization of 108. Hence, Nepal should focus on improving student service delivery to local communities and introduction of learning outcomes and skills attainment. Prioritiz- demand-side incentives, such as scholarships targeting the ing based on local and global evidence, as well as lessons poor, girls, and children belonging to marginalized groups. learned from past and ongoing programs, the education strategy should focus on three pillars: (1) aligning perfor- 105. Average wage premiums from education contin- mance incentives and accountability at each level of ser- ue to be sizable in Nepal, especially for post primary vice delivery—central, district, school, and classroom; (2) education. When the potential private gains to education strengthening systems for improved service delivery; and are aggregated, they translate into significant poverty re- (3) ensuring a consistent and cross-cutting focus on the la- duction. In addition, education can lead to other import- bor market. ant nonpecuniary benefits, such as greater agency for women, improved health and education outcomes for the 109. The education-to-employment transition in Nepal next generation, reduced risky behaviors, and increased is fraught with obstacles that can be significantly eased civic engagement among youth. Furthermore, productive through better-quality education. Some pressing obsta- education and employment can aid social cohesion and cles include a culture of high-stakes testing, unmet needs political stability in Nepal. for pre-employment training, lack of information, limited migration support, and a centralized mode of academic 106. However, the education sector is falling short in management in higher education. Some of Nepal’s current delivery, as reflected in low learning outcomes and high-stakes examination systems are undergoing reforms skills attainment. Students in the public education sys- (such as the Secondary Education Examination at the end tem are not acquiring key foundational skills at the rate Grade 10 and the School Leaving Certificate examination they should be. Also, large numbers of students are left at the end of Grade 12). However, technical and vocational Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 47 education and pre-employment training remain scarce, and derweight and stunted than other children. In contrast, the their quality and relevance are questionable (World Bank percentage wasted is highest in the Central Terai. Children 2016c). In addition, young people in Nepal have little ac- in rural areas were more likely than those in urban areas cess to information and guidance. It is estimated that a large to be underweight, stunted, or wasted. Fifty-five percent of share of youth find domestic employment through informal children in the poorest quintile are stunted compared to channels, such as by joining family income-generating activ- 15 percent in the richest quintile (CBS 2015). ities, or asking family and friends for assistance. Only a small share formally apply for employment, and a negligible share 111. Improving nutrition contributes to economic use government-run employment offices as part of their job development, because economic costs of malnutri- search (Raju and Rajbhandary 2017). tion are very high. An estimated 2 to 3 percent of GDP (US$250 million to US$375 million) is lost every year 110. Complimentary investments are needed to im- in Nepal due to vitamin and mineral deficiencies alone. prove health outcomes in early childhood, particularly The window of opportunity for improving nutrition is to address stunting. In 2014, one in three children un- narrow—the first 1,000 days—from the first day of preg- der age five in Nepal was underweight (30 percent), more nancy through the first two years of life. The damage to than one-third (37 percent) were stunted, and 11 percent physical growth, brain development, and human capital were wasted. There are also differences in nutritional out- formation that occurs during this period is extensive and comes according to geographic and development regions, largely irreversible. Interventions must therefore focus on class or wealth status, and education status. Children in this window of opportunity and focus on this age group the Mid-Western Mountains were more likely to be un- and women of child-bearing age (World Bank 2011). Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 48 Annex Nepal Public Investment Management Gap Analysisa Desirable Institutional and Procedural Arrangements Current Status in Nepal in a Public Investment Management (PIM) system Strategic Guidance and Preliminary Screening Published development strategy or vision statement that has No real links exist among strategic planning, policy, and budgeting. unambiguous authority. Various strategic national development plans and sector plans have been developed, but their quality needs to be improved. Not all sec- Centralized approval by planning or finance ministry (or tors prepare their own strategic plans, while others are prepared delegated) for developing proposals/explicit ministry-level with or without costing. justification with strategy. Sectors are responsible for preparation of project proposals and, in Clarity of project objectives in terms of outputs and out- collaboration with the National Planning Commission (NPC), carry- comes. ing out the preliminary screening. The form for new project propos- als includes all the cost-benefit analysis/cost-effectiveness analysis, Consideration of alternative approaches to objectives. and is equivalent to a full-fledged feasibility study (FS). It is unclear whether the sector planning staff or the NPC have sufficient tech- nical capacity and resources to carry out this responsibility, which demonstrates that the screening process is largely a formality. No statistics are kept on project prescreening rejections. Formal Project Appraisal Publicized and transparent guidance, backed by effective A “Project Management Directive” exists that is supposed to provide training and deployment of staff for project design and ap- formal project preparation and appraisal guidance. However, it has praisal (including stakeholder consultation in project design). not been revised since its publication in 2000, and is outdated. Large Application of guidance in project appraisal. spending agencies, particularly in infrastructure sectors, also develop their own technical standards to guide the appraisal. However, no differentiation is made in terms of methodologies to be applied to projects of different scales and/or sectors. The guidelines are not backed by qualified staffing in the planning departments of min- istries, departments, or agencies. No specific evidence exists on the share of proposals rejected at appraisal. a. Benchmarking per Rajaram et al. (2010). Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 49 Desirable Institutional and Procedural Arrangements Current Status in Nepal in a Public Investment Management (PIM) system Independent Review Independent checks to ensure objectivity and quality of ap- There is no effective formal independent review of the pre-FS or praisals. FS, even though for listing and prioritizing projects, the NPC holds discussions with the MOF and line ministries regarding the projects’ Disciplined completion of project appraisals prior to budget. technical and financial viability. Identifying and maintaining an inventory of appraised proj- ects ranked by priority for budgetary consideration. Clarity of roles among projects that are minor and may be dealt with at the departmental level, and those requiring additional appraisal. Project Selection Transparent criteria for selecting projects with reference to Consideration for financing is a joint process among the NPC, line policy objectives at the ministerial level. ministries, and the MOF. The final decision on project selection and financing rests with the Cabinet of Ministers, formally on the basis Well-structured budget preparation process with scope to of recommendation by the NPC/MOF. integrate investment and recurrent implications of projects. No transparent criteria exist to prioritize financing. Sometimes, for Effective gatekeeping to ensure that only appraised and ap- example, the broad government policies or targets are used to con- proved projects are selected for budget financing. sider projects for financing. With the discontinuation of a Medium-Term Expenditure Framework and Ensuring adequate financing for selected projects, including parallel budgeting, there is no mechanism for integration of recur- recurrent needs on completion. rent and capital budgeting. Project Implementation Published guidelines for project implementation. There are no standard operational guidelines or manuals at the cen- tral government level that can be applied to all sectors. Sectors or Cost-effective implementation through procurement and their major spending departments may prepare their own guidelines contracting. but, as a result, there is no uniformity in the rigor of contract and Timely implementation in line with guidelines. project management. Project management expertise is scarce and project managers Timely implementation reports on major projects. change too frequently. Effective budgeting for selected projects. Major progress in procurement has been made with the enactment of the new Public Procurement Act and Regulations (2007). While competitive bidding is by default, legalized loopholes exist, leading to time and cost overruns. Implementation reports are prepared but they have no direct impact on continued financing or implementation of ongoing projects. Annual costing is tracked by sectors, but that does not translate into effective cost control. No threshold for cost overruns has been estab- lished that requires management action. Project adjustment Active monitoring. Different levels of monitoring and evaluation (M&E) exist, but the outcomes of the M&E reports do not affect the decision on further The funding review process should have some flexibility to financing of project completion. allow changes in the disbursement profile to take account of Sectors are allowed to request additional funding to complete proj- changes in project circumstances. ects, which should be presented to and agreed by both the NPC and MOF. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 50 Desirable Institutional and Procedural Arrangements Current Status in Nepal in a Public Investment Management (PIM) system Facility Operation Asset registry. A system for asset registry exists, but the process for updating and tracking of depreciation and net asset value over time remains lim- Asset registers need to be maintained and asset values re- ited. corded. Sufficient funding has been provided for routine and recurrent Facility Operation. maintenance, but not for periodic maintenance and rehabilitation, which has adversely impacted project performance. Project Evaluation Formal institutional arrangements for ex-post evaluation of Government budget-financed projects are not subject to ex-post projects and programs with feedback into future project de- project evaluation. In fact, this function is completely missing. signs. Climbing Higher: Toward a Middle-Income Nepal 51 References Acemoglu, D., and J. Robinson. 2012. Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity and Poverty. New York: Random House. ADB (Asian Development Bank), DFID (Department for International Development), and ILO (International Labor Organization). 2009. “Nepal: Critical Development Constraints Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank Allcott, H., A. Collard-Wexler, and S. D. O’Connell, 2014. “How Do Electricity Shortag- es Affect Productivity? 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