SPECIAL FEATURE SEAR ENERGY ACCESS AND GENDER GETTING THE RIGHT BALANCE Soma Dutta, Annemarije Kooijman, and Elizabeth Cecelski, ENERGIA, International Network on Gender and Sustainable Energy b    S TAT E O F E N E R GY ACCES S R EPO RT  |  2 0 1 7 Copyright © 2017 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK Washington DC 20433 Telephone: +1-202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of the World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work and accept no responsibility for any consequence of their use. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for non- commercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: +1-202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Furthermore, the ESMAP Program Manager would appreciate receiving a copy of the publication that uses this publication for its source sent in care of the address above, or to esmap@worldbank.org Cover Photo: © Department of International Development (via flickr CC lic.) ENERGY ACCESS AND GENDER GETTING THE RIGHT BALANCE Soma Dutta, Annemarije Kooijman, and Elizabeth Cecelski, ENERGIA, hosted by International Network on Gender and Sustainable Energy INTRODUCTION M ore than 1.1 billion people globally lack access THE CASE FOR A GENDER PERSPECTIVE to electricity, and 2.9 billion lack access to clean ON ENERGY ACCESS cooking fuels. Why does gender matter in access to energy services? One focus of the gender, In developing countries, the links between energy access energy, and poverty narrative has been that since women and impacts on poverty reduction can materialize in three play a significant role in energy systems as part of their ways—all of which involve women in a different way than subsistence and productive tasks, they are disproportion- men. ately affected by energy shortages. In recent years how- ever, there is a growing awareness that energy, as a critical First, women with energy access hold a special role in enabler to development, can also play a transformative poverty reduction. Where physical energy access is trans- role in the lives of men and women by enhancing their lated into actual use of energy services, it can help reduce productivity and effectiveness at home and at work. For poverty by: (i) saving time (by substituting for manual labor) example, when women gain physical access to a connec- and enhancing convenience and comfort; (ii) reducing the tion and make use of energy services, the poverty reduc- use of polluting energy forms such as woodfuel and kero- tion impacts are multiple, on health, income generation, sene; (iii) creating opportunities for new options for income and family. At the same time, there is evidence that going generation and for enhancing existing ones;(iv) building beyond their traditional role as “users” and “beneficia- social capital in education and health, a precondition for ries,” women have started playing a role in expanding women’s empowerment; and (v) providing access to infor- energy access—thereby becoming part of the solution to mation and entertainment. Since women are the primary expand energy access for all. users and often producers of energy, interventions that do Men and women differ in the purposes for which they not reach women or meet their needs adequately risk need and use energy and in their levels of access. Ensur- ignoring a key section of the population—in turn, reducing ing equitable development outcomes of energy interven- the odds of the technologies being adopted and used tions necessitates factoring in these differences. This (Cecelski, 2000, GACC 2014, ENERGIA, 2011). paper explores the linkages between gender, energy, and But even where energy supply infrastructure is physi- poverty and the empirical evidence on these linkages— cally available, the poor and women are often hindered in with an emphasis on electricity and cooking energy. It also their use by lack of finance, appliances, information, and reviews global experience on what strategies and training or education. In addition, institutional structures approaches have been employed to integrate a gender are often skewed toward men, and in many households, perspective in energy, what results have been achieved, men have a stronger decision-making role. Thus, a gender and good practices and lessons learned. Unfortunately, “neutral” approach that overlooks these differences could most energy access projects and programs continue to have unintended differential impacts and benefits for men deal with gender issues on a piecemeal basis and do not and women, and may inadvertently end up perpetrating mainstream gender systematically in project frameworks, gender inequalities. For example, obtaining subsidized and for monitoring results and impacts. Thus, the key chal- electricity connection or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) lenge now is to use both the lessons learned from the past registration may require a bank account and extensive and new evidence to increase energy access for both men paperwork, which places women and their enterprises and women. (which are mostly informal) at a disadvantage.   1  2    S TAT E O F E L E C T RI CI TY ACCES S R EPO RT  |  2 0 1 7 Second, women with energy access can mean more • Studies in Africa indicate that the weight of average connections and usage. Targeting women as a specific firewood head-loads is typically well above 25 kilo- and distinct target group for energy services offers a way grams (or about 55 pounds) (Matinga 2010). to expand the customer base. In Botswana, an Energy • Time spent on fuelwood collection depends on region, Department survey showed that female-headed house- season, and wood availability, but typical numbers are holds connected to the grid at only half the rate of male- 4–10 hours per week or 1–2 hours on average per day headed households, a significant statistic considering that (Matinga 2010, Charmes in Kohlin 2011). 52 percent of all rural households in Botswana are female- headed (ENERGIA, 2011). Household appliances (such as • Data sets from five African countries showed that fuel- stoves) should be designed in collaboration with the end wood collection can be the “assigned” role of men or user to increase the likelihood of their being accepted and of women, the ratio of time spent by women to men used by women. In Kenya, a study on improved cook- being 4:1 in Benin and 1:2 in Madagascar (Charmes, in stoves reveals that customers that purchased a cookstove Kohlin et al 2011). from a woman (rather than a man) were more likely to • In rural Gujarat, India, women spend up to 40 percent report that they not only used it all of the time but also felt of their waking time on collecting fuel or cooking it was better overall than their traditional stove and safe (SEWA, 2014, cited in World LP Gas Association, 2014). and easy to use (GACC 2015a). • In resource scarce areas like Eastern Zimbabwe, collect- Third, women in energy jobs can improve the workings ing water can take over 10 hours per week (Mehretu of the energy supply chain. Two reasons to support and Mutambira, 1992 in WDR, 2012). women participating in energy supply chains are to: (i) • Women spend at least twice as much time as men on encourage gender equality in employment, and (ii) domestic work, and when all work—paid and unpaid— improve the effectiveness of the energy supply chain. This is considered, work longer hours than men (UNDESA, chain provides job opportunities for the poor (including Duflo, 2012). They have a long working day, between women) at different levels and steps—ranging from policy 11 and 14 hours, compared with around 10 for men development and enterprise operation to infrastructure (Biran, 2004, ENERGIA, 2006, Barnes and Sen, 2004, development and sales of energy services. Since energy Massé and Samaranayake, 2002). sector employment is currently male dominated, opening up the sector to women in non-traditional jobs would Releasing women’s time is a prerequisite for them to invest increase their chances of income generation and empow- in education, their agency, and life choices, along with erment. The World Bank’s World Development Report freeing them up to seize economic opportunities and par- 2012 on gender reports that female employment in the ticipate in economic, political, and social life (WDR, 2012). electricity, gas and steam, and water sectors is half the One way to do this is with improved cooking devices, and level of male employment (WDR, 2012). Further women, LPG stoves, which can mean less fuel collection and shorter who are part of social networks that differ from those of cooking times. Moreover, studies from India suggest that men, have access to hard-to-reach households that might these savings can be even greater for cooking (up to one want to buy household energy devices (GACC, 2014). to one and a half hours per day) than for fuel collection (about 15 minutes per day) (World LP Gas Association, 2014). A second way is with modern water pumps. In Zan- THE GENDER, ENERGY, POVERTY NEXUS zibar, electrified water-pumping to central places in vil- Over the past decade, a great deal of empirical evidence lages has helped women save three hours a day (Winther, has been gathered to buttress the case for ensuring that 2008). And less time spent on water collection can signifi- women have the same access to energy services as men. cantly boost school enrollment for boys and girls in coun- The ripple effects for individuals, the family, communities, tries where substantial gender gaps exist (Koolwal and van and even the country are many and important. However, de Walle, 2010). A third way is with small-scale mills—in the gender energy gap that is related to women’s roles and Mali, women reported saving two and a half hours a day on responsibilities in cooking continues to increase.The latest processing grains (Porcaro and Takada 2005). reports on Sustainable Development Goal 7, which calls for universal access to modern energy services, shows that Improving health while progress to reach the electricity target is largely on Better energy services can reduce indoor air pollution and track, the population lacking access to clean cooking enable other health benefits for women and children. In energy is increasing, as it is lagging behind population 2012, 4.3 million deaths (mainly women and children) were growth. caused by household air pollution from fumes from bio- mass based fuels, accounting for 7.7 percent of global mor- Saving time and reducing drudgery tality,1 and in 2000, indoor air pollution was ranked as the Modern energy services help women save time by substi- fourth leading cause of premature death in developing tuting for manual labor and reducing workloads. Fetching countries (Smith et al, 2005). Today, in many regions (such fuel, fodder, and water for homes, and manual grinding or as South Asia and parts of Sub-Saharan Africa), it has pounding of grains or tubers as food preparation are heavy become the most important risk factor for ill health—higher tasks that demand an inordinate amount of time and effort. than risk factors such as unsafe water and sanitation. Mor- tality from indoor air pollution exposure in Sub-Saharan ENERGY ACCESS AND GENDER: GET T ING T H E RIGH T B A L A NC E   3  Africa already exceeds tuberculosis, is roughly on par with Although energy services for income generation may malaria, and could approach the level of HIV/AIDS by 2030 appear gender neutral, the reality is that female entrepre- (World Bank, 2012 and Smith et al., 2013, cited in AFREA, neurs face more barriers to access to energy than men. In forthcoming). many societies, women’s mobility is restricted, forcing What can be done? Studies show that improved or them to locate their enterprises at home (GACC, 2014, advanced cookstoves can offer higher levels of perfor- IMF, 2013). While this helps them to combine household mance in terms of efficiency, pollution control, and safety. chores and income generation, they are often at a distance The World Health Organization (WHO) suggests that from drop-off points for diesel and LPG or petrol stations, investing in clean fuels and improved stoves would repay and less likely to be electrified. Plus the impact of energy itself many times over in less ill-health and more economic services on productivity depends highly on the size and benefits (WHO, 2006, cited in WLPGA 2014). saturation of the local market, and the skills and social net- Currently, 58 percent of health care facilities in Sub- work of the entrepreneur to extend markets (Kooijman Saharan African countries have no electricity, but multi- 2008 and 2012), in which energy services in communica- sectoral approaches that integrate energy delivery with tion can play a supporting role. An example of this is solar other development priorities are showing promise. In drying of fruit in Uganda, where women found export out- northern Mozambique, VidaGas’ supply of LPG to health lets through the internet. clinics has contributed to a 36 percent increase in the number of children immunized in participating districts Offering social benefits (Sprague, 2007). When a woman is given an opportunity to earn an income, it helps in many other areas of her life. Studies show that Improving education women reinvest 90 percent of their income in their families Electrification offers significant benefits, many of which are and communities, while men reinvest only 30 to 40 percent; especially relevant for women and children. Lighting thus the implications for economically empowering women enables greater flexibility in the organization of work pat- can reach far beyond the individual (Borges, 2007). Women terns (Barkat et al 2002, Laksono 2003, Winther 2008), are also more likely than men to invest a large proportion of which has a large impact when time is scarce, as it is for their household income in the education of their children, women in most developing countries. It also enables chil- including that of girls (Lewis, 2013; IMF, 2013). According dren to study. Lewis (2013) found that one of the long-run to the ILO, women’s work, both paid and unpaid, may be impacts of household modernization (including electrifica- the single most important poverty-reducing factor in tion) is increased investment in children—and when tar- developing economies. geted toward daughters is associated with long-term increases in female employment. In Brazil, the electrifica- tion experience shows that girls in rural areas with access SOLUTIONS IN SCALING UP ENERGY to electricity are 59 percent more likely to complete pri- ACCESS: WHAT STRATEGIES HAVE mary education by the time they are 18 years old than BEEN ADOPTED? those without (Deloitte, 2014). In Bangladesh, women’s In recent years, the linkages between energy access and literacy was found to be more than 20 percent higher in gender have encouraged practitioners to incorporate electrified households in Bangladesh (Barkat et al., 2002). gender-related actions into operations. Methodologies and good practices are emerging, in three key areas: (i) Boosting income “engendering” energy projects, programs, and policies Energy access plays a critical role in diversifying women’s through gender mainstreaming; (ii) empowering women to livelihoods through productive uses that increase incomes contribute directly toward expanding energy access as and reduce poverty. The potential impact of greater energy energy entrepreneurs; and (iii) financial inclusion, pricing, access on income generation are high, as products or ser- and subsidies. vices can be improved, processes made more efficient (saving time), costs of operation reduced, and working “Engendering” energy projects, programs, and conditions improved. policies through gender mainstreaming Once an enterprise has access to modern energy, the Gender mainstreaming ensures that women as well as men benefits depend on a range of factors including whether participate and benefit from energy access, both as house- new customers or markets can be found. In certain sectors, hold consumers and as entrepreneurs. Gender mainstream- modern energy services provide new opportunities for ing can be defined as “the process of assessing the income generation (like cooling and freezing in food pro- implications for women and men of any planned action, cessing and milling). In others, improved or additional ser- including legislation, policies or programs, in all areas and vices are enabled (like locking and embroidery instead of at all levels. It is a strategy for making women’s as well as only stitching in tailoring businesses). Communication with men’s concerns and experiences an integral dimension of customers and suppliers by telephone and sometimes the design, implementation, and monitoring and evalua- computer may support or even be a condition for opera- tion of policies and programs in all political, economic and tion of an enterprise. At times, the main benefit may not be societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally directly related to providing new or improved products or and inequality is not perpetuated.”2 The process—referred services, but rather comfort or flexibility of opening hours to as “engendering”—ensures that the different roles, thanks to electric lights, fans, or heaters. access, and control over resources by women and men are 4    S TAT E O F E L E C T RI CI TY ACCES S R EPO RT  |  2 0 1 7 accounted for in project and policy design so that total ben- ing and evaluation plans with key gender-sensitive per- efits can be maximized and gender equality is advanced. formance indicators). Over the past decade, several organizations have taken • Gender training and coaching programs customized to this approach with energy programs and policies, for exam- the program context. ple, ENERGIA, Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, Asian Development Bank, and ECOWAS. Since 2007, ENERGIA • Gender audit/review of energy sector policies and pro- supported more than 35 medium/large scale energy access grams projects in Africa and Asia to mainstream gender. In addi- Energia visualizes the mainstreaming approach as consist- tion, it is currently working with 3,750 women-led micro and ing of four stages (preparing, designing, implementing, small entrepreneurs in 7 countries, who have sold energy and monitoring) and seven blocks (from getting started to technologies to 1.8 million people. The AFREA Gender institutionalizing the process), as show in figure 1. Each and Energy Program of ESMAP piloted gender activities in step builds on and reinforces the previous ones but can 6 countries (Senegal, Benin, Mali, Kenya, Tanzania, and also be carried out as a separate activity. For example, a Zambia). And the Global Alliance on Clean Cookstoves has project already in the implementation stage can be “retro- been supporting its grantees under the Spark Fund3 to fitted” to make the ongoing activities more gender- integrate and mainstream gender within their companies responsive by using the tools suggested in Block 3. Simi- and operations. larly, a project planning an end-of-project evaluation can The gender mainstreaming process is a step by step use Block 8 to mainstream gender into its terms of refer- methodology, using gender analysis throughout the proj- ence for evaluation. ect cycle (UNDP, 2004; ENERGIA, 2011; World Bank, 2013). In large-scale energy infrastructure projects, such as It involves several elements: hydropower development, environmental and social • Gender assessments/scoping studies that identify key impact assessments (ESIAs) have typically failed to identify gender issues, risks, constraints, and opportunities as- gender issues. When gender mainstreaming has been sociated with a proposed energy sector initiative, with incorporated through the ESIAs, the approach informs the results included in the programming cycle to increase planning process by detailing how men and women per- accountability for results. ceive proposed interventions and the features they would like in technologies(ENERGIA, 2014). Such information is • Gender organizational analysis of institutional partners especially relevant for large-scale energy infrastructure and to develop and implement gender action plans and to extractive industries that can have deep impacts on the measure gender-related organizational change. Gender communities involved. strategies and action plans (such as preparing monitor- FIGURE 1: Stages in mainstreaming gender concerns in energy projects BLOCK 1 Getting Started: Introducing the process BLOCK 2 Country Context Review: Mapping the gender and energy situation in the country BLOCK 3 Project Document Review: Understanding the project’s starting point on gender issues BLOCK 4 Organisational Assessment: Assessing BLOCK 6 Gender Action Plan: Agreeing on goals, the capacity of the energy project to mainstream activities and indicators for gender gender mainstreaming BLOCK 5 Stakeholder Consultations: Understanding the gender and energy situation in the field Prepare Design BLOCK 8 Monitoring and Monitor Implement BLOCK 7 Institutionalizing Evaluation: Tracking project performance and progress on the Process: Gender mainstream- gender ming in the organization BLOCK 9 Communications Strategy: Effectively engaging all stakeholders in the gender mainstreaming process Source: Cecelski and Dutta, Mainstreaming Gender in Energy Projects: A Practical Handbook, ENERGIA, 2011) ENERGY ACCESS AND GENDER: GET T ING T H E RIGH T B A L A NC E   5  A good example of gender mainstreaming is the Lao mote gender equality; to build organizational ownership Rural Electrification Program. Between 1995 and 2010, this for gender equality initiatives; and to sharpen organiza- program increased electricity access across the country tional learning on gender. Moreover, in some countries from 16 percent to 71 percent, but there were large where gender audits were implemented, changes in urban-rural disparities, as well as gender disparities. The energy policies have been witnessed. key issue, as shown by a 2004 social impact survey, was In Kenya, the 2007 audit of energy policy and related that in electrified villages, 20–40 percent of the house- projects and programs,5 contributed to: (i) sensitizing and holds (especially those living below the poverty line or influencing key decision makers from the Kenya Ministry of headed by females) would not connect to the grid because Energy and Petroleum, Kenya Power, SCODE, and Practi- they could not afford the connection charges of $80–100. cal Action Eastern Africa to adopt gender approaches in In 2008 the Power to the Poor (P2P) scheme was launched, their planning; (ii) arranging a follow-up gender organiza- implemented by Electricité du Laos (EDL), to get these tional assessment of Kenya Power so that the company’s households connected. It is a targeted, subsidized afford- gender policy and strategy could be endorsed;, (iii) influ- able, and sustainable financing mechanism for connection encing the planning of the SE4All Action Agenda and and indoor wiring for the poorest rural households– specif- Investment Prospectus; and (iv) securing funding (by the ically designed with a gender focus. The monthly pay- EU and Hivos) of the improved cookstoves programs for ments for credit and electricity consumption are designed household and institution (implemented by SCODE). In to be about the same as the cost for lighting by candles, addition, although the 2004 energy policy had scant refer- diesel lamps, or car batteries prior to electrification. The ence to gender mainstreaming, the revised policy in 2011 pilot results show that the program increased connection incorporated gender issues. rates for female-headed households from 63 percent to 90 In Botswana, a gender audit6 of the energy sector percent, while the overall connection rate increased from showed that, although there was a common understand- 78 percent to 95 percent (ESMAP 2015, Carlsson Rex and ing of the different roles of women and men, the knowl- Jie Tang). The program is now being expanded through- edge of the relationship between gender, energy, and out the country. poverty was still limited. Based on the outcome of the Similarly, at the household level, there are many good audit and subsequent training initiatives, awareness about examples of mainstreaming gender concerns in energy the importance of the gender-energy nexus has increased projects, especially in clean cooking. The Global Alliance within the government and the Botswana Power Corpora- on Clean Cookstoves has compiled good practices that tion (BPC)—which recently started a gender mainstream- help to increase the number of women engaged in market ing programme for rural electrification. The audit also led activities and to address gender issues that prevent the to a pilot project for collecting gender-disaggregated data adoption of clean cooking solutions. (A summary of good and strengthening gender expertise in the country’s energy practices/specific gender focused activities that have been sector, and the Ministry of Energy carried out a survey on mainstreamed into electrification and in household energy demand-side management in which questions were asked projects is included in the Appendix.) on energy use in households according to gender. In Zambia, a gender audit7 of the National Energy Pol- Gender audits/ reviews of national energy sector icy culminated in the Zambia Gender and Energy Main- policies streaming Strategy (2011–2013). As a result, the Zambia ENERGIA has been using gender audits as a tool to iden- Electricity Supply Corporation Limited (ZESCO) is imple- tify and analyze factors that hinder efforts to mainstream menting the Increased Access to Electricity Service (IAES) gender in energy policy. Gender audits have been con- Project—which enables women to be more effective eco- ducted in several countries, including Botswana, Kenya, nomic agents, using rights-based development approaches Ghana, Nigeria, Nepal, India, Zambia, and Senegal. The that focus on greater economic opportunities and the free- approach used is a participatory one led by a national dom to work in security and dignity. team of experts. The gender audits provide in-depth anal- In Senegal, staff members of ministries that participated ysis of energy planning, budgets; the institutional capacity in gender audits mainstreamed gender into their own pro- of ministries to implement gender-mainstreaming strate- gram—as occurred with GiZ PERACOD (Promote Rural gies; and the links between gender, energy, and the Electrification and a Sustainable Supply of Domestic Fuel). national objectives for poverty reduction strategies. The audit also facilitated the financing of the evaluation of The audits identify specific ways in which gender issues the inclusion of gender in the Rural Electrification Program are, or are not, addressed, and critical gender gaps in (ASER) by the World Bank as part of the AFREA program. existing national energy policy formulation and implemen- tation. Validation workshops help to reach consensus and ownership of the audit findings within the energy minis- ENGAGING WOMEN AND THEIR tries—and offer a forum to discuss recommendations and NETWORKS TO DELIVER ENERGY agree on actions with specific targets and time frames. The PRODUCTS AND SERVICE final reports produced from the gender audits are consid- The second group of good practices for scaling up involves ered semi-official documents.4 ways to get energy services out to difficult-to-reach house- In countries where gender audits were undertaken, holds at scale, with a focus on engaging women-centric they were seen to enhance the organization’s capacity to sales force—and there is growing evidence that women examine its activities from a gender perspective and pro- can play a critical role in the promotion, sales, servicing 6    S TAT E O F E L E C T RI CI TY ACCES S R EPO RT  |  2 0 1 7 and financing of household energy devices (see Box 1) manufacturing or assembling devices, to women’s net- (Kohlin et al, 2011; Smith and Dutta 2011; Cecelski, 2000; works raising awareness of issues like pricing and safety. A Batliwalla and Reddy, 1996; Dutta, 2005, cited in GACC common element in the models is to educate the pur- 2015a). Worldwide, a large number of women are ported beneficiaries on the technology, its use, and main- engaged in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). tenance, along with facilitating the lowering of the According to ILO statistics on non-agricultural employ- purchase cost of the devices. Many of these initiatives pri- ment from 40 countries, there are 375 million people in marily aim at empowering women entrepreneurs, and informal employment (29 percent women and 71 percent receive significant external support; an important question men). Of these, 156 million are self-employed in informal that needs to be examined is under what conditions they industries (34 percent women and 66 percent men). are (or should be) financially sustainable and scalable. Despite lack of data for the informal sector and lack of As of now, systematic and large-scale data on income clarity on the definition of the term informal, it is clear that increases experienced by women entrepreneurs is still the number of informal sector workers is high, involving a being collected, but early results look promising. In India, large number of women (ILO, 2015). At the same time, Swayam Shikshan Prayog (SSP), a wPOWER partner, is women play a central role as primary cooks and household working with women entrepreneurs, who have, over two energy managers, which provides a ready springboard for years, increased their incomes by 33 percent. Another selling energy products and services. wPOWER and ENERGIA partner, Solar Sister, established All of the scaling-up initiatives work on a two-pronged in 2010, works with more than 2,000 women entrepre- strategy: (i) popularization of clean energy; and (ii) empow- neurs in Uganda, Nigeria, and Tanzania, and has reached ering women entrepreneurs to educate people in their clean energy to 549,865 people. Solar Sister equips communities on the benefits of using clean energy prod- women to build their own technology driven businesses ucts—and make them customers. Three notable initiatives and provides a holistic package of inputs (including busi- include: ness and technical training, a quality brand, access to world class products and service, marketing support, and • ENERGIA’s WE programme (2014–2017) is aimed at ongoing coaching). A study conducted by ICRW (ICRW, scaling up proven business models that will strengthen 2012) showed that the Solar Sister Entrepreneurs earn an the capacity of 3,000 women-led MSEs (micro and average of $48 a month. Additionally, women reported small enterprises) to deliver energy products and ser- indirect economic benefits. For example, as users of solar vices to more than 2 million consumers. lanterns, they can save about 30 percent of fuel expenses • wPOWER, an initiative of the U.S. Department of State on kerosene. And since they spend less time collecting with USAID, works through partners in India, East Afri- firewood and have light at night, they have more time to ca, and Nigeria, to empower more than 8,000 female engage in income-generating activities. entrepreneurs to provide clean energy access to more The experience of the different organizations working than 3.5 million people (Koclar and Bonnie Carlson). with women entrepreneurs is highlighting several elements that are common to the core business model: • Women’s Empowerment Fund of the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, a grant facility, is designed to Recruit-train-mentor. Women typically start with small scale up effective business models and approaches for energy businesses, but with consistent support and men- empowering women energy entrepreneurs in the clean toring, many go on to become social leaders in their com- cooking sector. munities. The process starts with a very careful selection Some experiences in working with women in energy are process, clearly identifying the barriers each of them faces summarized below. and systematically addressing them. A common thread in Business models used range from consignment all interventions is continuous mentoring to support busi- arrangement,8 to entrepreneurs being linked to micro ness development to the entrepreneurs. It is necessary to financing institutions (possibly through use of loan guaran- take the support package right to the door of the entrepre- tee funds, which lowers the risk for the financing institu- neur, work around their domestic chores, and demystify tions), to women individually or in groups taking on “business” when working with women. Energy 4 Impact BOX 1 Women and Cookstoves Sales Since women are the primary users of cookstoves, they are in a position to drive demand and catalyze more con- sistent and sustained use and adoption. A recent survey in Kenya shows that women-led sales of improved cook- stoves offers additional benefits for adoption and customer satisfaction (GACC 2015a): women outsold men by a margin of nearly 3:1, and when women sold to other women, consumers reported greater satisfaction with the cookstove, better knowledge of cookstove benefits, and more regular use. ENERGY ACCESS AND GENDER: GET T ING T H E RIGH T B A L A NC E   7  TABLE 1  How women in energy make a difference ORGANIZATION SCALE OF INTERVENTION Energy 4 Impact About 3.2 million reached through 640 women entrepreneurs in East and West Africa Practical Action Annual dissemination of about 10,000 stoves in Kenya East Africa EcoFuel Africa About 1,250 women engaged in producing char and green charcoal briquettes Kopernik Solutions About 235,000 people reached through clean energy and water solutions. Working with 3,000 women entrepreneurs in Indonesia. Sakhi Unique Rural A network of more than 550 women entrepreneurs (Sakhis) trained; have sold about 86,000 Enterprise (SURE) clean cookstoves in India Grameen Shakti Sold over 1 million solar home systems and 600,000 improved cookstoves so far in Bangladesh. The network of 11,000 trained technicians and engineers includes a network of 3,500 women renewable energy technicians. GERES Over 3 million improved cookstoves sold in Cambodia since 2003. Out of these, 450,000 are of Neang Kongrey Stove (NKS) type, these are sold in rural Cambodia. About 8,000 NKS are disseminated each month, with women as stove builders SEWA Disseminated clean cook stoves and solar lights to 200,000 of its members in India Senegal provides a range of advisory services to MSEs producing the cookstoves. Additionally, because they are (covering strategic planning, investments, operations/ also using the NKS in their own homes, the time saved in logistics, financial planning and analysis, marketing and firewood collection allows additional time for other pur- sales and project development, and training). suits, including cookstove production. This is also appreci- ated by the Solar Sisters who are able to sell solar products Address financing barriers. While a robust product is cen- when they go to the weekly markets to sell other products tral to the model, so is ensuring that the consumer is able like agricultural produce and fruits. When women work in to afford the product, and at the same time, the entrepre- groups, they are able to cover for each other if one of them neur has access to funds to meet both investment and is called away, for example, to nurse a sick family member. recurring costs. Kopernik addresses the “initial investment barrier” faced by women entrepreneurs by providing initial FINANCIAL INCLUSION, PRICING AND inventory on consignment, a starter kit of sales and market- SUBSIDIES ing materials, and mentoring (see Box 2). Energy 4 Impact Senegal, along with its partner SEM (social and ecological The third group of good practices for scaling up involve management) Fund, tries to bridge the financing gap by helping women, who represent a significant part of the facilitating access to capital by linking with local financial market for energy products, buy energy appliances. One institutions, supporting their lending to the MSEs by a par- challenge is matching energy technologies with ability to tial risk guarantee and training. pay. Another is the fact that women-owned businesses and female energy entrepreneurs lack access to credit (IFC, Build on a local network of trust. In introducing new tech- 2012)—a key reason being that they do not have the same nology, gaining the trust of local communities—especially rights as men to assets and land that can be used as collat- in remote villages where the social fabric is cohesive—has eral to obtain loans. The Global Findex, a comprehensive been found to be an important entry point. Building on database measuring how people save, borrow, and man- this social dynamic, it is vital to work closely with individu- age risk in 148 countries, reveals that in developing econ- als, organization, and networks that enjoy local trust (like omies, women are 20 percent less likely than men to have community-based organizations, cooperatives, savings an account at a formal financial institution and 17 percent and loans groups, schools, churches, and local govern- less likely to have borrowed formally in the past year(- ment representatives). CRT/N Nepal works with electricity Demirguc-Kunt, 2015). In some countries, less than 5 per- user cooperatives; and GERES in Cambodia works with cent of women have bank accounts. However, the problem wives of village officials, female leaders, and female heads is not only that women entrepreneurs are less likely to have of Village Development Committees (see Box 2)(GACC, taken a loan but also that the terms of borrowing are often 2014). less favorable for women; for example, they face higher interest rates, are required to collateralize a higher share of Be flexible to accommodate women’s multiple responsi- the loan, and are only offered shorter-term loans. bilities. Given women’s multiple responsibilities and varied roles that they need to perform, business models that Good practices in financing for increasing access to allow for flexibility work well. Since the women producers energy use for household purposes are able to produce the cookstoves at their homes, they One way to expand affordable energy access to women is can complete their household responsibilities while also by targeting subsidies (and information about them) to 8    S TAT E O F E L E C T RI CI TY ACCES S R EPO RT  |  2 0 1 7 BOX 2 Reaching the last mile in the Indonesian islands Kopernik is a nonprofit organization that delivers simple, affordable technology products to people in poor and often remote communities. It has been working with Indonesian women since 2011 to expand access to solar lamps, solar home systems, clean cookstoves, and water filters. Kopernik’s Wonder Women initiative empowers women to sell these technologies in their villages, boosting their income and expanding energy access. The women receive business training, technologies on consignment, and a starter kit of sales and marketing material. As they sell technologies they repay the cost price to Kopernik, which is reinvested in more stock. Under the ENERGIA supported Wonder Women programme, more than 300 women in four provinces have participated in the program to date, connecting clean energy technologies with 176,140 people. In a country like Indonesia—where more than 80 million people live without reliable access to electricity, and more than 100 mil- lion people still cook over three-stone fires—business models such as these could be game changing. female-headed households and to women-owned busi- Targeted credit. In Haiti, Switch SA is tackling the low-in- nesses. Still, there is limited evidence of subsidies making come market by offering credit for stoves and low-cost a real difference to poor women. In fact, a recent study of refills. Kalinda Magloire, Chair of Switch, notes that fossil-fuel subsidy reform in India by the Global Subsidies although few people have the luxury to make a large sum Initiative of the International Institute for Sustainable cash purchase, some households might still be able to Development (Merill, 2014) shows that fossil fuel subsidies afford these products by paying in installments (over 10 have historically provided little benefit for rural women, months), drawing on the savings made by switching from which is why it recommends using cash transfers instead. charcoal to LPG ($0.50/day) (Magloire, 2014). But when cash transfers to replace fuel subsidies were piloted in India, women were at a disadvantage due to Targeted credit guarantees. In India, SEWA partnered being unbanked, and hence unable to access the transfers. with IFC in 2012 to provide loans to members to purchase Thus, the government’s current strategy to expand bank- clean energy products. IFC provides a partial credit guar- ing to the poorest may provide a solution. antee for the $4 million loan provided by India’s ICICI Bank At the same time, enterprises are also exploring innova- to SEWA’s Grassroots Trading Network for women, backed tive consumer finance mechanisms to expand their mar- by risk-sharing agreements with a number of donors and kets: these include micro-consignment, revolving loan financing agencies. The IFC guarantee eases the banker’s funds, and flexible repayment plans. Organizations are perceived risk of lending to female borrowers who likely also educating banks about the market opportunities and lack formal credit histories and collateral. the specific needs of women borrowers, as well as working through existing women’s saving and loan groups such as Savings and credit groups. In India, Jagriti (a community Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SACCos). non-profit in Himachal Pradesh) has organized women’s Examples of good practices of gender-equitable finan- savings and credit groups and launched a clean fuels pro- cial inclusion enabling women consumers to access energy gram to help women save enough time to participate in include: development activities. Group purchases of orders of LPG fuel and improved cooking technologies help 1,400 Targeted subsidy. In Nepal, the Renewable Energy Sub- women in 130 groups afford modern energy. Flexible pay- sidy Policy of 2013 has specific subsidies targeted to ment plans with small monthly installments over six months women and socially excluded groups, both at the house- make this affordable. As a result, women have been able to hold and community level, for solar thermal, biogas, and save up to six hours per day—and of the 53 women who metallic cookstoves. For biogas, women own 23 percent of initially bought LPG and improved cooking devices, 41 biogas plants installed and 11 construction companies out have engaged in additional income generating activities. of 107. Women’s cooperatives provide 36 percent of bio- gas “credit plus” services. And the program collaborates Good practices in financing female energy with 92 micro financing institutes that are operated by entrepreneurs women (ENERGIA/ADB, 2015). Commercial banks often perceive women’s businesses to be riskier, higher cost, or lower return. Microfinance has Conditional cash transfer. In Brazil, 98 percent of house- partly compensated for women’s low access to formal holds (including 93 percent of rural) have access to LPG finance; however, as women entrepreneurs grow, they thanks to a government policy that promotes developing need financial products and services that go beyond an LPG delivery infrastructure in all regions, including by microcredit. Women’s access to finance beyond microfi- subsidizing LPG users. This program is part of the Bolsa nance is increasingly supported by development partners. Familia, by far the largest conditional cash transfer pro- The IFC has identified a number of successful examples of gram in the developing world (IEA, 2006). ENERGY ACCESS AND GENDER: GET T ING T H E RIGH T B A L A NC E   9  financial institutions pro-actively (and profitably) engaging Persistent energy access gap. In spite of huge strides, with women entrepreneurs as clients (IFC, 2012). Similar this gap continues, and there is a continued struggle for successful examples need to be documented for women energy supply to keep up with increasing population size, energy entrepreneurs, as models for the energy sector. especially in Africa. Progress toward SDG 7 on universal “Too often financial institutions in less developed and less access to modern energy services is inequitable: while the competitive markets do not know enough about the mar- electricity target is largely on track, the cooking energy tar- ket opportunities that low-income clients and women get has fallen behind. Electrification is staying ahead of entrepreneurs could present to them” (IFC, 2012). population growth, unlike with cooking. Women carry the Good practices of gender-equitable financial inclusion worst burdens of the energy access gap. More than 4 mil- in the energy sector enabling female entrepreneurs, lion deaths every year, mostly among women and children, including both productive uses of energy and energy busi- are linked to fumes from fuels such as wood, animal waste, nesses, include: and charcoal, which are used for cooking and heating. In Indonesia, Kopernik uses philanthropic money from Gender-energy linkage being ignored. Even though it is individual donor and corporate grants to finance the increasingly being recognized that men and women have upfront costs of products, shipping, and marketing to different energy needs, men’s energy needs tend to be pri- entrepreneurs as part of a consignment model. The prod- oritized in energy sector interventions. Most projects and ucts are sold to communities at as close to retail price as programs neither incorporate a gender perspective in the possible (no price subsidies), but revenues are reinvested design nor systematically collect and monitor sex- in the purchase and delivery of additional products. Install- disaggregated data on processes and impacts. ment payments are allowed, and existing platforms are identified and tapped into. Case for tailor-made, context-specific, solutions. As energy access proceeds from reaching areas with higher In East Africa, CARE’s wPOWER program works through population density and, in the case of electricity, proximity 10,000 existing Village Savings and Loan Associations to the grid, the target population will have different char- (VLSAs) with over 1 million members. The program uses acteristics (including likely higher poverty levels and more training (in Kenya, Rwanda, and Tanzania), access to quality households being managed by women). Thus, the busi- products, and microfinance to empower female village ness case of energy supply will need to be tailor-made to agents to establish micro-enterprises in the clean energy each situation rather than extrapolated from prior experi- sector. ences. And it will be increasingly important to remove reg- ulatory and other barriers to energy access by women in In Ghana, the African Rural Energy Enterprise Develop- their own right. ment Program (AREED), launched in 2000,has supported women entrepreneurs—who now run two of the leading Hard-to-reach still out of reach. Women and their net- LPG retail businesses in Accra and Kumasi, with total loans works have started playing a role in extending energy of more than half a million dollars. Lambark Gas sells over services to the difficult to reach and poor customers. Sev- 2.5 million KG of LPG each year, and M38 sells 0.45 million eral initiatives (global, regional and national) are promot- kg. M3 was turned down by a bank before receiving the ing this approach, using a range of innovative strategies. AREED loan. But the scale achieved is, at best, a few million consumers and a few thousand women entrepreneurs, by a single In Uganda, Eco-Fuel Africa, a for-profit social enterprise, organization. produces and sells green charcoal—including a credit scheme that enables 260 marginalized women to become Ripple effects from giving women access. When women micro-entrepreneurs. The women are encouraged to use gain access to modern energy services, they gain: their mobile phone-based payment methods. And farmers health improves, children are able to study, and opportuni- (1,000 women out of 2,500 total) are provided with kilns ties to earn an income are enhanced. But there are also that are paid off in installments over 3–12 months. vital developmental benefits: when women earn an income, they use the bulk of it in ways that benefit their families, communities, and economies. CONCLUSIONS The narrative in the gender, energy, and poverty discourse Moving forward toward a more gender-equitable energy has shifted over the years from focusing on gender (in) access strategy means correcting existing imbalances and equality (which positions women as victims of energy pov- strengthening women’s position. On top of the many good erty) to gender equality and, most recently, to women practices detailed in this paper, there are numerous univer- being part of the solution. In the current scenario, the main sal strategies that lessons from the past and new evidence trends are: suggest can add new momentum to the effort (see Box 3). 10    S TAT E O F E L E CTR I CI TY ACCES S R EPO RT  |  2 0 17 BOX 3 Universal strategies to engendering energy access • Recognize unpaid work and make it visible—so that reducing drudgery becomes a key element in poverty reduction strategies. • Take into account the differences in needs for energy services between men and women in designing energy interventions and provide targeted support to small women’s informal businesses that use energy. • Recognize women-led energy enterprises as a central strategy for universal energy access and provide target- ed support, at a large scale, to women energy entrepreneurs. • Target awareness of subsidies, measures for access to energy supply, and energy technologies and appliances, by gender and income—and train and involve both women and men in the energy supply chain. • Invest in energy for social infrastructure. Support holistic development initiatives in which energy supply in combination with appliances and a sustainable use structure to reach benefits can be achieved—for example, electricity supply to clinics including access to cooling and sterilization equipment NOTES 1. http://www.who.int/gho/phe/indoor_air_pollution/en/ 2. ESCAP 1997. UN Economic and Social Council. Report of the Economic and Social Council 1997.New York 1997. 3. The Spark Fund provides funding to strengthen supply and enhance demand in the cookstove and fuels sector through innovation and tailored entrepreneurial capacity development. 4. http://www.energia.org/knowledge-centre/gender-audit-reports/ 5. The audit was carried out by the Ministry of Energy, the University of Nairobi, and Practical Action Eastern Africa. 6. The audit was undertaken by the Botswana Technology Centre (BTC) in consultation with the Energy Affairs Division of the Ministry of Minerals, Energy and Water Resources and other stakeholders (UNDP, 2012; Wright et al, 2009). 7. The audit was conducted by the Ministry of Mines, Energy and Water Development. 8. In consignment model, entrepreneurs receive initial inventory on consignment, and a starter kit of sales and marketing materials, so that they can start selling technology without taking on risk or debt, and earn a commission on every sale. ENERGY ACCESS AND GENDER: GET T ING T H E RIGH T BA L A NC E   11  REFERENCES AFREA, forthcoming. Social and economic impacts of energy ENERGIA, (2011). Mainstreaming gender in energy projects, access: a gender perspective. AFREA Gender and Energy a practical handbook. Prepared by Elizabeth Cecelski and Programme, ESMAP, The World Bank Soma Dutta Barnes, D.F. and Sen, M. (2004) The Impact of Energy on ENERGIA (2006) From the Millennium Development Goals: Women’s Lives in Rural India. Washington, DC: ESMAP, Towards a Gender-Sensitive Energy Policy Research and The World Bank. Practice: Empirical Evidence and Case Studies. Synthesis Barkat, A., Khan, S.H., Rahman, M., Zaman, S., Poddar, A., Report for Department for International Development Halim, S., Ratna, N.H., Majid, M., Maksud, A.K.M, Karim, (DFID) KaR research project R8346 “Gender as a Key A., and Islam, S. (2002), Economic and Social Impact Variable in Energy Interventions”. evaluation study of the Rural Electrification Program in ESMAP, 2015. Energy & Extractives Practice, Integrating Bangladesh. Dhaka: Human Development Research Gender into Energy Operations. Initiatives and Good Center (HDRC), NRECA International Ltd, Rural Electrifica- Practice Examples. March 2015 tion Board of Bangladesh and USAID for the Rural Power GACC 2015a. Understanding Impacts of Women’s Engage- for Poverty Reduction Program. ment in the Improved Cookstove Value Chain in Kenya. Biran, A., J and Mace, R (2004). “Families and Firewood: A collaborative study by Johns Hopkins University, A Comparative Analysis of the Costs and Benefits of Bloomberg School of Public Health, USA; ESVAK Children in Firewood Collection and Use in Two Rural Community Development Initiatives, Kenya and Envirofit, Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Human Ecology Ltd Kenya Vol. 32, No. 1. GACC, 2015b. GACC Statistical Snapshot: Access to Blackden, C.M. and Wodon, Q. (eds) (2006) Gender, Time Improved Cookstoves and fuels and its Impact on Use, and Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Bank Women’s Safety in Crises, 2015 Working Paper No. 73. Washington, DC: The World Bank. GACC, 2014. Scaling Adoption of Clean Cooking Solutions Borges, P. (2007). Women empowered: Inspiring change in through Women’s Empowerment: A Resource the emerging world. New York: Rizzoli. Guide. https://cleancookstoves.org/binary-data/ Carlsson Rex, H. and Jie Tang, undated. Powerpoint RESOURCE/file/000/000/223-1.pdf SUS presentation on Shining a Light on Women: Results from Gabriela Women’s Party, 2007. House Bill 1126.Quezon City: the Power to the Poor Rural Electrification Pilot in Lao Republic of the Philippines House of Representative. PDR, World Bank. Available at: http://www.esmap.org/ Herrera, J. and C. Torelli. 2013. “Domestic Work and esmap/node/565 Employment in Africa: What is the Trade-Off for Women?” Cecelski, E. (2000), The Role of Women in Sustainable Energy Urban Labor Markets in Sub-Saharan Africa (June 2013): Development. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 221–249. Retrieved November 12, 2014, from http://www.nrel.gov/ ICRW, 2012. Invisible Market: Energy And Agricultural docs/fy00osti/26889.pdf Technologies For Women’s Economic Advancement, Clancy, J.S. et al (2015 forthcoming). Cross-cutting issues of International Center for Research on Women, 2012 Energy: Exploring the Nexus of Water, Food, Health, and IEA, 2006. World Energy Outlook 2006, Paris: International Gender, Chapter 6 Global Tracking Framework, SE4All Energy Agency. Clancy, J.S., Winther, T., Matinga, M. and Oparaocha, S. IFC, 2012. From Gap to Opportunity: Business Models for (2011), Gender equity in access to and benefits from Scaling Up Energy Access. International Finance modern energy and improved energy technologies, Corporation, World Bank Group. Background Paper for World Development Report 2012. http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/topics_ext_content/ (ENERGIA/Norad/World Bank) ifc_external_corporate_site/ifc+sustainability/learn- Deloitte, (2014). Women, energy, and economic empower- ing+and+adapting/knowledge+products/publications/ ment: Applying a gender lens to amplify the impact of publications_report_gap-opportunity energy access. Deloitte Development LLC. ILO, 2015. Small and medium sized enterprises and decent Demirguc-Kunt, Asli, Leora Klapper, Dorothe Singer, and and productive employment creation. Report IV. ILO Peter Van Oudheusden. 2015. “The Global Findex conference 104th session, 2015. http://www.ilo.org/ Database 2014: Measuring Financial Inclusion around the wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_norm/@relconf/documents/ World.” Policy Research Working Paper 7255, World meetingdocument/wcms_358294.pdf Bank, Washington, DC. IMF, 2013. Women, Work, and the Economy: Macroeconomic Duflo, E., 2012, “Women Empowerment and Economic Gains from Gender Equity. IMF Staff Discussion Note. Development,” Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 50, Prepared by Katrin Elborgh-Woytek, Monique Newiak, No. 4: pp. 1051-079. Kalpana Kochhar, Stefania Fabrizio, Kangni Kpodar, Dutta, S. (2005), Energy as a key variable in eradicating Philippe Wingender, Benedict Clements, and Gerd extreme poverty and hunger: A gender and energy Schwartz. September 2013 perspective on empirical evidence on MDG #1. Discus- Kariuki, P. and Balla, P. (2011) GVEP’S Experience with sion Paper DFID/ENERGIA project “Gender as a Key Working with Women Entrepreneurs in East Africa. GVEP Variable in Energy Interventions“. International. http://www.gvepinternational.org/sites/ ENERGIA, (2014). Mainstreaming Gender in the Energy default/files/gveps_experince_with_working_with_ Sector: A Training Manual. Developed by Ministry of women.pdf Energy Mozambique, Embassy of Norway in Mozam- bique, Norad and ENERGIA International Network 12    S TAT E O F E L E CTR I CI TY ACCES S R EPO RT  |  2 0 17 Kelkar, G. and D. Nathan (2005). Draft report, Collaborative Porcaro, J. and Takada M. (eds.) (2005), Achieving the Research Group on Gender and Energy (CRGGE) under Millennium Development Goals: The Role of Energy (DfID) KaR research project R8346 on “Gender as a Key Services. UNDP: New York. Variable in Energy Interventions”. SEWA, 2014. Case Study - Hariyali, Vienna: SEALL Energy Koclar, Grace and Carlson, Bonnie. Empowering Women Access Committee. Through Clean Energy Stretches From India to Africa. Smith, K.R., Frumkin, H., Balakrishnan, K., Butler, C.D., Chafe, http://www.usaid.gov/news-information/frontlines/ Z.A., Fairlie, I., Kinney, P., Kjellstrom, T., Mauzerall, D.L., powertrade-africa/empowering-women-through-clean-en- McKone, T.L., McMichael, A.J. and Schneider, M. (2013), ergy-stretches-india “Energy and Human Health”. Annu. Rev. Public Health Köhlin, G., Sills, E.O., Pattanayak, S.K. and Wilfong, C. (2011), 34:159–88 Energy, Gender and Development: What are the Smith, K R. & Dutta, K. (2011). Cooking with Gas. Energy for Linkages? Where is the Evidence? Policy Research Sustainable Development, 15(2): 115-116. doi:10.1016/j. Working Paper 5800 - Background Paper to the 2012 esd.2011.05.001 World Development Report. Washington, DC: Social Smith, K., Rogers, J. & Cowlin, S. C., 2005. Household Fuels Development Unit, World Bank. and Ill-Health in Developing Countries: What improve- Kooijman-van Dijk, A. L., 2008. The power to produce: the ments can be brought by LP Gas, Paris: World LP Gas role of energy in poverty reduction through small scale Association and Intermediate Technology Development enterprises in the Indian Himalayas, Enschede: University Group (Practical Action). of Twente. Sprague, C., 2007. VidaGás: Powering Health Clinics and Kooijman-van Dijk, A. L. (2012). The role of energy in creating Households in Mozambique with Liquefied Petroleum opportunities for income generation in the Indian Gas. Growing Inclusive Markets. Himalayas. Energy Policy 41(0): 529-536. Thorat, V., Raja, A., Agnihotri, I. & Mohini, G., 2014.Women’s Koolwal, Gayatri and Dominique van de Walle. 2010. Access Charter for the 16th Lok Sabha Elections –2014. Economic to Water, Women‘s Work and Child Outcomes. Policy & Political Weekly, 15 March. XLIX(11). Research Working Paper 5302. Washington DC: World World LP Gas Association, 2014. Cooking with Gas: Why Bank women in developing countries want LPG and how they Laksono, S. and W. Subagya (2003). The development impact can get it. Report developed for the World LP Gas of solar home system in the province of Lampung. Association by ENERGIA International Network on Yogyakartta, Yayasan Dian Desa. Gender and Sustainable Energy, October 2014 Lewis, Joshua, 2013. “Short-run and long-run effects of UNDESA, 2010. The World’s women, 2010. Trends and household electrification,” paper presented at Economic statistics. United Nations Department of Economic and History Workshop, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Social Affairs Canada, April 25. http://www.hec.ca/iea/seminaires/ UNDP, 2012. Gender and Energy, Gender and Climate 131105_Joshua_Lewis.pdf Change Africa. Policy Brief 3, 2012 Lim, S. S. et al., 2012. A comparative risk assessment of UNDP, 2004. Gender and energy for sustainable develop- burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors ment: A toolkit and resource guide and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990- 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Winther, T. (2008), The Impact of Electricity: Development, Study 2010. The Lancet, 380(9859). Desires and Dilemmas. Oxford:Berghahn Books. Magloire, K., 2014. Discussion on LPG. Personal Communica- WDR (2012), World Development Report 2012: Gender and tion, 26 September, cited in WLPGA, 2014. Development. World Bank. Matinga, M.N. (2010), We Grow up with It: An Ethnographic WHO, 2014. Burden of disease from Household Air Pollution Study of the Experiences, Perceptions and Responses to for 2012, Geneva: World Health Organisation the Health Impacts of Energy Acquisition and Use in Rural WHO, 2006. Fuel for Life: Household Energy and Health. South Africa. PhD thesis, University of Twente, Enschede, Geneva: World Health Organization, Geneva: The World The Netherlands. Health Organisation. Masse, R. and M. R. Samaranayake (2002). “EnPoGen study World Bank, 2014. Gender at Work. A Companion to the in Sri Lanka.” Energia News 5(3) World Development Report on Jobs Mead, D. C., & Liedholm, C. (1998). The Dynamics of Micro World Bank. 2013. Integrating Gender Considerations into and Small Enterprises in Developing Countries. World Energy Operations. Washington, DC. © World Bank. Development, 26(1), 61-74. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/han- Mehretu, A. and Mutambira, C. (1992), Gender Differences in dle/10986/17479. Time and Energy Costs of Distance for Regular Domestic World Bank, 2002. Rural electrification and development in Chores in Rural Zimbabwe, World Development 21 (11); the Philippines: Measuring the social and economic 1675-1683 benefits. Merill, Laura, 2014. Power, Gender and Fossil-Fuel Subsidy Wright, N., Gueye, Y., 2008. “Gender Audits of Energy Policy Reform in India, Published by the International Institute in Botswana and Senegal: What has been achieved?” in for Sustainable Development Boiling Point, Issue 57, 2008 Nathan, D. and Kelkar, G. (1997) “Wood Energy: The Role of Women’s Unvalued Labour”, Gender, Technology and Development (2): 205-224. ENERGY ACCESS AND GENDER: GET T ING T H E RIGH T BA L A NC E   13  ANNEX The following are examples of good practices/specific gender focused activities, which have been compiled from ENERGIA, 2011; World Bank, 2013; GACC 2014; and ESMAP 2015: Electrification projects: • Local women employed, individually or as part of self-help groups, as franchisees, for meter reading, bill dis- tribution and revenue collection (Uttaranchal Power Corporation Ltd, India, Bangladesh) • Women represented in utility committees and groups with responsibilities for governance and decision mak- ing in the utility (Kenya Power, Kenya, Bangladesh) • Embedding gender in human resources policies and processes, including addressing sexual harassment and discrimination within Kenya Power (Kenya Power, Kenya) • Combine provision of cooking fuels and stoves with supply of electricity (Eskom, South Africa, Botswana) • Recruiting and training women employees (Eskom, S. Africa, REB Bangladesh, Maharashtra State Electricity Board, India) • Women extension agents promote credit and use of household appliances (U.S. rural cooperatives) Household energy (cooking and heating) projects: • Engage women in design and testing of energy devices (energy efficient stoves designed in consultation with women’s groups by Ecozoom in Kenya, Mexico, Rwanda, and Nigeria; Potential Energy in Darfur, Sudan) • Develop a strategy to engage men (for example, raising men’s awareness of the multiple benefi¬ts of energy ef¬ficient stoves) (Jagriti in Himachal Pradesh) • Target women and men separately in consumer campaigns and user feedback for improved cookstove mar- kets (Practical Action, Kenya) • Engage women in manufacture/ assembling/installation/servicing of stoves/fuels (Maasai Stoves & Solar in Kenya; Geres in Cambodia; TIDE in India; GVEP International in East Africa; SURE, India; Grameen Shakti, Bangladesh) • Support the inclusion of women in decision-making and entrepreneurial positions of organizations in charge of forest management, biomass charcoal, and wood production/collection, conditioning, transportation. and re- tailing (Eco-Fuel Africa in Uganda; PROGEDE in Senegal) • Identify and build strong local partnerships with trusted individuals and organizations; consider working with women’s groups SPECIAL FEATURES To download the State of Electricity Access Report, overview, and Special Features, visit: http://esmap.org/SEAR