PAPER NO. 92 E N V I R O N M E N T A L E C O N O M I C S S E R I E S Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Opportunities for Alignment Jan Bojö Rama Chandra Reddy September 2003 THE WORLD BANK ENVIRONMENT DEPARTMENT Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Opportunities for Alignment Jan Bojö Rama Chandra Reddy September 2003 Papers in this series are not formal publications of the World Bank. They are circulated to encourage thought and discussion. The use and citation of this paper should take this into account. The views expressed are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank. Copies are available from the Environment Department, The World Bank by calling 202-473-3641. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. Manufactured in the United States of America First printing September 2003 Contents ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vii ABBREVIATIONS ix EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 Chapter 1 Introduction 3 Chapter 2 MDG7 -- Ensuring Environmental Sustainability 5 2.1 Relevance of the MDG7 Indicators to Poverty Strategies 5 Chapter 3 How Do Poverty Strategies Align with MDG7? 9 3.1 Environment as a Dimension of Non-income Poverty 9 3.2 Environment Targets Coinciding with the MDG Horizon 9 3.3 Coverage of MDG in the PRSPs 11 3.4 Good Practice Examples of PRSPs with respect to MDG coverage 11 Chapter 4 Data Availability and Progress of PRSP Countries Toward MDG7 13 4.1 Area Under Forest Cover 13 4.2 Proportion of Land Area Protected 15 4.3 Traditional and Modern Fuels 18 4.3.1 Traditional fuels 18 4.3.2 Modern fuels 20 4.4 Access to Safe Water 21 4.5 Access to Adequate Sanitation 24 4.6 Slum Improvement 27 Chapter 5 Monitoring and Evaluation of the Progress on MDG7 31 Country-level MDG Monitoring and Evaluation 31 Statistical Capacity Building 33 Environmental Economics Series iii Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Chapter 6 Conclusions 35 Appendix A Environmental Targets Adopted at the World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002 37 Appendix B Coverage of MDG7 Environmental Baselines and Targets in the Full PRSPs 41 Appendix C Countries in the Interim PRSP/PRSP Preparation and Implementation Stages 51 NOTES 53 REFERENCES 57 BOXES Box 1. Focus on Millennium Development Goals in the PRSPs 12 Box 2. Province level MDG Index: Vietnam Statistical Capacity Building 33 FIGURES Figure 1. Rates of deforestation in PRSP countries during 1980­90 and 1990­2000 14 Figure 2. Proportion of land area protected in PRSP countries in 1990 and 1999 17 Figure 3. Poverty incidence and traditional energy dependence in PRSP countries 19 Figure 4. Poverty incidence and access to electricity in PRSP countries 21 Figure 5. Achieved and required access rates in reaching the water supply target 24 Figure 6. Achieved and required access rates in reaching the sanitation target 26 TABLES Table 1. Targets and indicators of MDG7 -- Ensuring environmental sustainability 5 Table 2. Coverage of the MDG environmental indicators in full PRSPs 10 Table 3. Trends in area under forests by forest type during 1990­2000 (million hectares) 13 Table 4. Annual rate of deforestation in PRSP countries (in percent) 14 Table 5. Forest area under management plans and certified under sustainable management 15 Table 6. Complementary indicators for monitoring the area under forest cover 16 Table 7. Percent land area protected in PRSP countries 16 Table 8. Complementary indicators for monitoring the area protected 17 Table 9. Regional trends in biomass energy dependence 19 Table 10. Progress of traditional energy dependence in the PRSP countries of Asia 20 Table 11. Population with access to electricity across regions (percent) 20 Table 12. Rural access to electricity across regions in 2000 (percent) 21 Table 13. Complementary indicators for monitoring solid fuel dependence 22 Table 14. Targets and outcomes on the access to safe water (percent) 23 Table 15. Rural and urban differences in the source-wise access to water in Rwanda 23 iv Environment Department Papers Contents Table 16. Complementary indicators for monitoring the access to safe water 25 Table 17. Targets and outcomes on the access to sanitation (percent) 26 Table 18. Complementary indicators for monitoring the access to sanitation 27 Table 19. Regional trends of slum population 28 Table 20. Complementary indicators for monitoring the secure tenure indicator 28 Table 21. Country progress reports on MDG7 32 Table A1. Environmental targets adopted at the WSSD, 2002 37 Table A2. State of global fisheries production (million tons) 38 Table A3. Status of marine fisheries during the 1990s (million tons) 39 Environmental Economics Series v Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Shelton Davis The authors alone are responsible for the final and Francisco Pichon, peer reviewers of the text, which does not necessarily represent the October 2002 version; and Katie Bolt, Louise opinion of the World Bank, its Executive Cord, Jonathan Halpern, Kirk Hamilton, Directors, or the countries they represent. Makiko Harrison, Jane Holt, Sergio Margulis, Anil Markandya, Roberto Martin-Hurtado, The financial support provided by the Mohammed H. Ordoubadi, Andrew Steer, Eric Norwegian Trust Fund for Environmentally Swanson, and Vinod Thomas, for their valuable and Socially Sustainable Development is comments on later versions; and Jim Cantrell gratefully acknowledged. for guiding the publication of this final version. Environmental Economics Series vii Abbreviations AET Actual evapotranspiration CAS Country Assistance Strategy CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research DfID Department for International Development, UK ECD Evaluation Capacity Development DHS Demographic and Health Survey GEF Global Environmental Facility FAO Food and Agricultural Organization IDA International Development Association IEA International Energy Agency IMF International Monetary Fund IPRSP Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization IUCN World Conservation Union JSA Joint Staff Assessment LSMS Living Standard Measurement Survey MDG Millennium Development Goal MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey MSY Maximum Sustainable Yield MT Million Tonnes NEAP National Environmental Action Plan ODA Official Development Assistance OED Operations Evaluation Department PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper PRSC Poverty Reduction Strategy Credit UIP Urban Indicators Programme UN United Nations Environmental Economics Series ix Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability UNHSP United Nations Human Settlement Programme UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund WCMC World Conservation Monitoring Center WEC World Energy Council WHO World Health Organization WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development WWF Worldwide Fund for Nature x Environment Department Papers Executive Summary About 50 countries have prepared interim and Our analysis of the available data on targets and full Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs). indicators of MDG7 shows that for the PRSP In this context, this paper examines Millennium countries reviewed in this paper: Development Goal (MDG)7: Ensuring Environmental Sustainability, its targets and · The rate of deforestation has marginally indicators, and responds to three questions: declined, with marginal improvements in the forest cover of Central Asia, but a · To what extent do PRSPs define and adopt continuous loss in the forest cover of Africa targets and indicators that align with those · Land area protected has grown significantly of MDG7? during the last decade with additional area · To what extent do the available data allow brought under legal protection tracking of progress with respect to MDG7? · The proportion of people relying on · When data are available, what are the traditional fuels remains high, particularly trends, and how can the data be effectively in rural Africa, and is likely to remain so utilized to examine the status and trends of within the MDG horizon countries in relation to MDG7? · Growth in access to safe water is still low in several countries of Africa, reflecting the The assessment of interim and full Poverty challenges in meeting the target; Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) shows that: · Most countries will not be able to reach the sanitation target with the current pace of · Only 12 of the 28 full PRSPs present some improvement in access information on the baselines and targets in · Progress on secure tenure is modest line with the MDG7; and none of the 22 considering the multiple challenges interim PRSPs present discussion on the involved in achieving the target. long-term perspective; · Within the PRSPs that present targets In summary, a major effort is needed to raise the aligned with MDG7, attention is almost level of attention to MDG7 in the PRSPs. While exclusively focused on water and sanitation; progress has been registered with respect to · Available data can be used to document the integration of immediate environmental status and trends of relevant MDG7 concerns, focus on long-term environmental indicators. sustainability is still lacking in most PRSPs. However, the revisions from interim to full PRSPs show promise. First, coverage of Environmental Economics Series 1 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability environmental issues has improved strength of such links vary across countries, but considerably from interim to full PRSPs. Second, are most apparent with respect to safe water, our assessment shows that available data can be improved sanitation, substitution of traditional effectively utilized to enhance the alignment of with modern fuels, and secure tenure for urban PRSPs with MDG7, with particular attention to poor. indicators that are directly linked to poverty. The 2 Environment Department Papers 1 Introduction The Poverty Reduction Strategies implemented Johannesburg during September 2002. These by countries with the active support of new targets are discussed separately in multilateral and bilateral agencies represent Appendix A. medium-term commitments with a long-term perspective to reach poverty reduction targets. Comments on the draft versions of this paper As key instruments of national and sub-national highlighted the need to clarify the ways in planning within a country, Poverty Reduction which this paper relates to existing literature Strategy Papers (PRSPs)1 can also be the major and what this paper is not about. First, this building blocks in achieving the Millennium paper is not an assessment of the MDGs. For Development Goals (MDGs).2 example, IMF, OECD, UN, and World Bank (2000) 2000 A Better World for All provides an The MDGs, adopted by the UN General overview of progress towards the International Assembly in 2000, articulate a long-term Development Goals. The World Development perspective and provide direction to PRSP Indicators (World Bank 2002b) contains an implementation. Environment is inextricably introductory chapter on the MDGs along with linked to several MDGs.3 In this context, this regional data on access to water supply and paper focuses on the MDG7: environmental changes in forest cover. Devarajan et al (2002) sustainability,4 and responds to three questions: focus on the global costs of achieving the MDGs. Another contribution, The Environment · To what extent do PRSPs define and discuss and the Millennium Development Goals (World targets and indicators that align with the targets Bank 2002d) takes a broad look at how and indicators of MDG7? environment relates to the entire set of goals, · To what extent do the available data allow poverty-environment links, and the cost of enhanced tracking of progress with respect to meeting the MDGs globally. We complement MDG7? this literature by taking a more detailed look at · When data are available, what are the trends, and MDG7, with specific reference to PRSPs. how can the data be effectively utilized to Second, this paper is not an evaluation of PRSPs examine the status and trends of countries in and their associated processes.5 There are relation to MDG7? already other processes to assess the qualities of PRSPs.6 In this report, we focus exclusively on In addition to the environmental targets of the the relationship of PRSPs and MDGs in the MDG7, new targets were adopted at the World context of environmental sustainability, which Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in has received limited attention. Environmental Economics Series 3 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Third, we agree that the relevance of the MDG7 Finally, our paper is not an attempt to assess the indicators varies across regions and countries. environmental sustainability issues globally, or Beyond some brief comments on that, it has not across the PRSP countries in a manner that been possible to review the indicators gives weighted attention to countries according systematically from the perspective of the six to their size or population. Several large regions that the World Bank recognizes in its developing countries have not presented a PRSP organization.7 to the World Bank and IMF Boards, and are outside the scope of this paper. Fourth, we have taken the internationally agreed targets and indicators as a starting point. The paper is organized into six chapters. Additional indicators may provide more Chapter 2 describes the MDG7 devoted to insights into the country progress on MDGs, environmental sustainability, and discusses the and we discuss several complementary poverty-relevance of the associated targets and indicators in this context. However, this paper is indicators. Chapter 3 analyzes environmental not an open-ended search for suitable indicators baselines and targets in the PRSPs, their on environmental sustainability but is focused alignment with MDG7, and good practice on a set of indicators as relevant to improve the examples. Chapter 4 presents data from non- monitoring process related to MDG7. PRSP sources to assess the extent to which available data are utilized. Chapter 5 examines Fifth, it is agreed that official data pertaining to the monitoring and evaluation systems of MDG7 are often deficient. We examine the PRSPs to assess the progress on MDG7. Chapter opportunities for using and improvising the 6 presents conclusions. existing data, however a comprehensive treatment of data quality goes much beyond what we aspire to cover in this report. 4 Environment Department Papers MDG7 -- Ensuring 2 Environmental Sustainability Though environment as a crosscutting theme examined separately in Appendix A. Access to influences several MDGs, its significance in the adequate sanitation emphasized along with the MDG framework,8 is prominently highlighted in water supply target at the WSSD was MDG7: Ensuring Environmental Sustainability. subsequently adopted as one of the MDG7 MDG7 is divided into three targets--reversal of indicators (UN 2003). natural resource degradation and emphasis on 2.1 Relevance of the MDG7 Indicators to sustainability principles; access to safe drinking Poverty Strategies water; and slum improvement (Table 1). Before we set out to examine the MDG7 targets Additional targets adopted at the World and indicators in the PRSPs, it is pertinent to Summit on Sustainable Development 2002 ask: which MDG7 indicators can reasonably be include: targets pertaining to fisheries; marine expected to be included in a poverty strategy? The answer will vary across countries. This section protection; biodiversity loss; access to renewable reviews the poverty-relevance of the indicators energy; and phase out of organic pollutants defined in Table 1. (Table A1, Appendix A). Since these targets are not officially part of the MDGs and the relevant Proportion of land area covered by forests: The indicators have not been determined, they are extent of forest area is to a large extent a Table 1. Targets and indicators of MDG7 -- Ensuring environmental sustainability Targets Indicators Integrate the principles of sustainable development · Proportion of land area covered by forests into country policies and programs and reverse · Land area protected to maintain biological diversity the loss of environmental resources. · Energy use per unit of GDP · Per capita CO2emissions and consumption of ozone depleting substances · Proportion of population using solid fuels Halve by 2015 the proportion of people without · Proportion of population with sustainable access to sustainable access to safe drinking. improved water source and adequate sanitation* Achieve by 2020 a significant improvement in the · Proportion of households with access to secure lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers tenure Source: United Nations 2001. Note: * The sanitation indicator included as part of the targets adopted at the WSSD is discussed along with the MDG7 targets. Environmental Economics Series 5 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability function of ecological conditions: areas such as conservation of medicinal plants,10 and as a the African Savanna and the Sahara desert have source of revenue from eco-tourism. not been bequeathed with heavy vegetation. Considering the geographic nature of this Hence, different countries have different natural indicator, its significance will vary across starting points with respect to this indicator. countries. Countries with low dependence on biodiversity among poor may find this indicator Forests are important sources of livelihood for less significant to their poverty strategies. large groups of poor in many low-income countries. As the World Bank's new Forest Energy per unit of GDP: The major concern with Strategy points out: "About 60 million this measure arises out of the climate change indigenous people are almost wholly dependent debate and the need to "de-link" economic of forests. Some 350 million people living growth from the emissions of greenhouse gases. within or adjacent to dense forests, depend on High-income countries produce more GDP per them for subsistence and income. In developing unit of energy than poor countries: the energy countries, about 1.2 billion people rely on agro- per unit of GDP in OECD countries is three forestry to sustain agricultural productivity and times that of the developing country average generate income. Worldwide, forest industries (WEC 2001). However, considering the large provide employment for 60 million people." magnitude of energy use in the OECD countries, (World Bank 2002a, p. 20) However, clearance this indicator has major relevance to the of forests for agriculture and pasture can also industrialized countries. From this perspective, pave the way for higher incomes. Hence, it is we expect limited attention to this indicator in difficult to attribute a direct causal relationship the poverty strategies. There is, however, between poverty and proportion of area under another public policy aspect that needs forests.9 Nevertheless, in countries where attention. Energy intensity is often strongly significant household incomes of poor are linked to large public subsidies for energy. This attributable to products and services from in turn reinforces a tendency for public deficits, forests, attention to deforestation and inadequate investment in energy development, management of forests would be relevant in inefficient operation and maintenance of their poverty reduction strategies. For other infrastructure, and a corresponding "tax" on countries, the significance of this indicator may household income, translating into an indirect be low. link between energy intensity and poverty. Land area protected to maintain biological diversity: Per capita CO2 emissions: CO2 emissions are Biodiversity conservation can be the basis of positively correlated with the income per capita sustainable livelihoods. However, it may also and are influenced by the type and amount of exclude the poor from using biological energy used in the economy (World Bank, resources that support basic needs, creating a 2002b). With high levels of per capita income, dichotomy between the use and conservation energy intensity tends to level off with objectives. Considering the high dependence on improvements in energy efficiency, stabilizing biological resources in several PRSP countries, absolute emissions over time, as observed in the we expect attention to biodiversity in the high income countries (World Bank 2002e). context of promoting sustainable livelihoods, Since most PRSP countries are not globally 6 Environment Department Papers MDG7 -- Ensuring Environmental Sustainability significant emitters of CO2, we do not expect sanitation is as effective in preventing diseases explicit attention to this indicator in the PRSPs. as improved water supply. Provision of adequate sanitation and hygiene reduces Proportion of population with solid/traditional fuels: diarrhea incidence by 65% and morbidity by The proportion of traditional and modern fuel 26% (WHO 2000a). In most PRSP countries, use is an important indicator of quality of life more than 80% of rural population has no access and poverty incidence in a country. In most to improved sanitation, and the differences in low-income countries biomass is a major form rural and urban coverage are significant. of traditional energy; however it is not reported Therefore, explicit emphasis to this indicator in in the final energy consumption of national poverty strategies is highly relevant statistics under solid fuels.11 The International Energy Agency (IEA) has initiated reporting on Proportion of people with secure tenure: The term biomass energy since 1998. It is estimated that "secure tenure" refers to protection from 2.5 million women and children die prematurely involuntary removal from property except each year from carbon monoxide and other through a due legal process. It refers to legal gaseous pollutants of the stoves using biomass title that provides security to tenants for (IEA 2002). In Sub-Saharan Africa, women carry undertaking long-term improvements to their 20 kg of fuelwood each day over 5 km causing a dwellings. Varied interpretations of "secure large share of their time and calorie intake to be tenure" present difficulties in the estimation of used directly for fuel collection (IEA 2002). Since this indicator. About 40 percent of the urban use of traditional energy is closely related to population in developing countries lives in low income and poor health outcomes, it is slum environment, in comparison to the 4 appropriate that PRSPs explicitly highlight the percent of urban population in developed issues relating to this indicator. countries (UN 2002a). Therefore, this indicator is expected to have strong poverty-relevance. Proportion of population with access to improved water source.12 Water supply has strong To summarize, the following MDG7 indicators relationships with poverty ­ poor health and are expected to hold high priority for countries loss of productive time. Time spent in fetching in the design and implementation of poverty water has implications for child education and reduction strategies. The degree of their women employment. The quality of water has significance differs across countries, with implications for water borne transmission of traditional fuels, water supply, sanitation, and diseases such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery, secure tenure generally having the strongest and hepatitis A; water-washed transmission of relevance to poverty reduction strategies, skin and eye infections (trachoma) spread particularly in the poorest countries.13 This through insufficient water for hygiene; and report examines the following six major MDG7 water-borne and water-washed transmission of indicators in the context of PRSP countries that diseases such as diarrhea (WHO 2000a). Hence, are in different stages of design and one would expect PRSPs to pay attention to this implementation. indicator. · Area under forests and changes in forest Proportion of population with access to adequate cover sanitation: Epidemiological studies indicate that · Proportion of land area protected Environmental Economics Series 7 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability · Traditional/solid energy use and access to · Access to adequate sanitation modern energy sources · Urban poor with secure tenure. · Access to safe drinking water 8 Environment Department Papers How Do Poverty Strategies 3 Align with MDG7? To examine how well the PRSPs align with to align the medium- and long-term priorities to MDG7, we reviewed all PRSPs submitted to the reflect their commitment to MDGs. World Bank as of May 2003. The PRSP preparation involves interim and full stages. 3.2 Environment Targets Coinciding with Currently 28 out of 50 countries included in our the MDG Horizon sample have prepared full PRSPs and are in the The focus of this paper is to assess the emphasis process of implementation, while 22 countries of PRSPs on the MDG-related environmental are in the interim stage of PRSP preparation.14 targets,16 and the extent to which they provide Since none of the 22 interim PRSPs presents insights into ways of improving the treatment noteworthy discussion relating to MDG7, only of MDG targets within available data and full PRSPs are considered for assessing the resource constraints. coverage of MDG7. However, to assess the data availability on environmental targets and Most full PRSPs do not provide baseline and indicators and the progress of countries towards target data on the environment indices. Among achieving the MDG7, both interim and full the PRSPs that present baseline data, attention PRSPs is considered. to targets and supporting monitoring indices is often missing. Less than half of the full PRSPs 3.1 Environment as a Dimension of that present baseline data on water supply and Non-income Poverty less than a third of the PRSPs that present In addition to income dimension,15 poverty baseline data on sanitation have targets that reflects in several non-income dimensions coincide with the 2015 MDG horizon. Table 2 involving the interface of environment, health, presents an overview of the MDG vulnerability, and empowerment and environmental indicators covered in the PRSPs. manifested in the quality of natural resource Detailed country-wise assessment of the base, ecosystem services, property rights, air environmental baselines and targets of the and water quality, access to water and PRSPs are presented in Appendix B. sanitation, typology of energy use, quality of housing, and existence of slums. While most Though baselines and targets on access to water PRSPs focus on a 3 to 5 year period, and sanitation are presented in few PRSPs, lack environment issues fall beyond such a horizon; of information on costs and resource allocation therefore it is imperative for PRSPs to focus makes it difficult to assess the realism of the beyond medium-term expenditure framework targets. In cases where targets are presented, rural and urban access distinctions and quality Environmental Economics Series 9 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability of service issues often do not receive attention. commitment to sector issues. Linking support For several countries, the targets also appear to programs along with relevant indices that are be ambitious: Ethiopia sets a 100 percent target amenable to cost-effective monitoring is a first for access to safe water by 2015, while the step in improving the monitoring process. baseline as late as 1999 was only 28 percent. Rwanda proposes to increase the sanitation What explains this paucity of attention to long- coverage from 10 percent to 56 percent over the term issues of environment that most likely MDG horizon. Nicaragua proposes to enhance affect the immediate objectives of PRSPs? We the sanitation coverage by 4 percent per year consider that the following factors may during the PRSP period, which appears to be contribute to the limited attention. unrealistic considering the resource commitments and the pace of past achievement. · First, we are still dealing with a large share of interim PRSPs in our sample. The The information on baselines and targets with treatment of MDG7 has improved with the respect to forests, protected area, traditional revision from interim to full PRSPs. Hence, energy, and secure tenure is either very limited we expect attention to MDGs to grow as or non-existent. PRSPs that discuss forest area more interim PRSPs transform into full and deforestation (Albania;17 Bolivia, PRSPs. Cambodia, Ghana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Sri · Second, the MDGs, although evolved Lanka, Vietnam, and Zambia); protected areas during 1990s and officially adopted in 2000, (Albania, Nicaragua, Sri Lanka); and traditional have yet to make their full imprint on energy dependence (Ethiopia,18 Honduras, development planning in countries Mauritania, Mali, Nicaragua, Niger, Rwanda, preparing their poverty strategies. and Zambia), present baseline information that · Third, poverty relevance of indicators such is often sketchy without reference to either as deforestation and biodiversity loss is targets or to a long-term perspective. The focus limited or ambiguous in some countries. on slums is often cursory without supporting · Fourth, low data quality, vaguely defined information on baselines and targets. The indicators, and weak monitoring capacity support programs and qualitative indices are appear to be the major deterrents in often generic with respect to sector priorities assessing the progress on MDGs. and only provide an overview of a country's Table 2. Coverage of the MDG environmental indicators in full PRSPs Area Solid fuels / Access Access to under Land area traditional to safe adequate Secure Variable forests protected energy water sanitation tenure Baseline 10 3 7 24 18 Targets for 2015 - MDG horizon 1 12 5 Targets for 2004-06 - PRSP horizon 3 2 1 14 9 2 Qualitative indices/support programs 7 8 6 8 6 5 highlighted in the PRSP Note: See Appendix B for detailed country-wise assessment of the environmental baselines and targets of the PRSPs. 10 Environment Department Papers How Do Poverty Strategies Align with MDG7? · Fifth, the emphasis of most PRSPs is on a 3- sanitation. Only Honduras presents target 5 year perspective. In contrast, most relating to forest area. environmental issues reflect a time horizon longer than a PRSP. Those countries that PRSPs with targets for the period falling short of did not design forward-looking PRSPs often MDG horizon: Guinea and Vietnam present fail to present a good description of targets for 2010. Guinea proposes a target for environment issues. water supply, and Vietnam presents a target relating to forest area. Vietnam's target of 5 3.3 Coverage of MDG in the PRSPs million ha of afforestation and 43 percent area Given the limited attention to MDG7, one might to be protected forests as against the baseline of ask: what about the long-term perspective of 33 percent appears to be ambitious considering PRSPs? Countries that refer to the MDG horizon the resources allocated and time horizon of the highlight legal, institutional, and sector specific target. interventions to be implemented as part of the PRSPs. The legal interventions highlighted PRSPs that indicate general commitment to MDG: include reform of laws pertaining to forestry, Countries such as Bolivia, Benin, Ghana, The water, mining, biodiversity, and tenure. The Gambia, and Yemen indicate a general institutional and capacity development commitment to achieving the MDG targets, proposals focus on national environment action however, they do not present targets. The plans, decentralization, and disaster Gambia PRSP presents monitoring indices for preparedness. Sector programs often emphasize 2005 and proposes to align future planning with interventions relating to water and sanitation, the MDG horizon and in the interim proposes to and in certain cases to those relating to forestry. use annual implementation progress reports to assess the progress on MDG. The PRSPs that highlight the MDG time frame 3.4 Good Practice Examples of PRSPs may be grouped into three categories: those with respect to MDG coverage with explicit targets in the MDG horizon; those with targets falling short of the MDG horizon; The revision of interim PRSPs into full PRSPs and those that indicate their general saw improvements in the coverage of MDG commitment to MDG framework without indicators and their targets. Honduras, reference to targets. Nicaragua, Rwanda, and Zambia present baselines and targets relating to MDG7 and serve PRSPs with explicit targets in the MDG horizon: as examples for several interim PRSPs that are include Guyana, Honduras, Mauritania, under revision. Several countries have also Nicaragua, Rwanda, Senegal, and Zambia, prepared country progress reports on MDG, which present targets coinciding with 2015. In which can be effectively utilized in monitoring most of these countries, baselines and targets the PRSP implementation. Box 1 presents the are often presented with reference to water and attention given to MDGs in the PRSPs. Environmental Economics Series 11 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Box 1. Focus on Millennium Development Goals in the PRSPs Bolivia: establishes three levels of indicators; impact, outcome, and intermediate indicators. Impact indicators coincide with the MDG horizon of 2015 and summarize the changes in different dimensions of poverty. Out- come and intermediate indicators reflect the progress towards achieving impact indicators. Water, sanitation, and protected areas are discussed in the context of intermediate indicators coinciding the PRSP horizon of 2006. Ethiopia: The PRSP discusses issues relating to traditional energy, water and sanitation. However, baselines and targets on water supply and sanitation presented in the PRSP appear to be ambitious considering the progress on access to water and sanitation during 1990-2000. Guinea presents targets and indicators relating to water supply and electricity in terms of coverage, service delivery, and cost recovery for 2010. Indicators relating to renewable energy, infections from sanitary condi- tions, tenure, and access to affordable housing are also proposed. Honduras: presents targets relating to forestry, water supply, and sanitation to coincide with the MDG hori- zon. In addition, targets on pm10 particulate air pollution concentrations and early warning systems for envi- ronmental risks are also presented. Mauritania: presents targets and indicators relating to secure tenure, subsidized housing, and access to water and sanitation. Indicators relating to current and targeted amounts in terms of liters per capita and cost of m3 of drinking water are also considered for monitoring. Nicaragua: In line with MDG7, the PRSP reports on the approval of laws relating to forestry, fishery, and biodiversity. The MDG targets are proposed with additional national-level targets and are proposed to be monitored with intermediate indicators. Rwanda: The targets and performance indicators relating to health, education, gender, and access to water and sanitation proposed in the PRSP coincide with the MDG time frame of 2015. The PRSP proposes to collect information to develop outcome, access, process, and proxy indicators and refers to relevant surveys to be used to generate the information. Vietnam: proposes targets and indicators relating to forest resources, safe water, solid waste, and slums to be achieved by 2010. The national strategies for rural hygiene, clean water, and environmental protection are presented for 2001-10, to strengthen health and environmental protection in vulnerable regions. Zambia: Access targets on water supply and sanitation are presented for 2015, with indicators such as number of water points, distance to water facility, volume of water treated, and number of D-WASHE committees strengthened to support water supply and sanitation. Targets for electrification are presented for 2010, while targets for wood fuel, solar applications, deforestation, and air and water pollution are presented for 2004. 12 Environment Department Papers DataAvailability and Progress 4 of PRSP CountriesToward MDG7 A natural argument in explaining the lack of forest area. However, there is a need for attention to long-term environmental improvements in the estimates relating to forest perspective of the PRSPs is "lack of data." Are quality and density at the sub-national level. data not available? To examine this question, we Area under forest cover and data on the rates of return to the selected indicators to verify what deforestation are the starting points to examine data are readily accessible. To the extent that the progress on this indicator. Since the FAO data are available, it is also of interest to Forest Resource Assessment 2000 uses a common document any trends towards achieving the methodology across countries, it provides a MDG7 targets. comparable basis for assessing the progress on deforestation. National and sub-national studies 4.1 Area Under Forest Cover can be utilized to supplement the FAO data for The indicator for land area under forests does not setting intermediate and long-term targets, and specify a quantitative target for 2015. However, corresponding monitoring indices. since the MDG target calls for reversal of natural STATUS AND TRENDS IN AREA UNDER FORESTS resource degradation, we assume that the area under forest cover should remain stable or FAO forest resource assessments use area under increase. In other words, the rate of deforestation vegetal cover as a criterion for estimating the should decline during the MDG horizon. land area under forests. Analysis of the changes in forest area during 1990 and 2000 indicates a DATA loss of 14.6 million ha of forests with almost all of The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) this loss occurring in tropical regions. Table 3 of the United Nations is the nodal agency on the presents changes in forest area during 1990-2000. data relating to area under forest cover. It STATUS AND TRENDS OF CHANGE IN FOREST conducts periodic assessments of the area under COVER forest cover, including deforestation and degradation. Combined satellite and ground Data and reports on forest cover change during inventory methods have improved estimates on 1980s and 1990s present the trends of Table 3. Trends in area under forests by forest type during 1990­2000 (million hectares) Type Loss of forest area Gain in forest area Net change Tropical -14.2 +1.9 -12.3 Temperate -0.4 +3.3 +2.9 Global -14.6 +5.2 -9.4 Source: FAO 2001, Global Forest Resource Assessment 2000. Environmental Economics Series 13 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Table 4. Annual rate of deforestation in PRSP countries (in percent) Variable 1980 ­1990 1990 ­2000 Mean 0.80 0.79 Median 0.80 0.50 Standard deviation 1.45 1.32 Number of countries 43 47 Source: World Bank 1996, and FAO 2001. deforestation. Table 4 presents the average PROGRESS IN CONTROLLING DEFORESTATION annual rate of deforestation in the PRSP Considering 1990 as the baseline for MDG, a countries included in our sample during 1980­ comparison of the deforestation rates of PRSP 90 and 1990­2000. Comparison of annual rates countries between 1980­90 and 1990­2000 of deforestation for the two periods indicates a indicates that the proportion of countries that marginal decline in the rate of deforestation for increased their forest cover has grown, and the PRSP countries. Considering the different proportion of countries with deforestation rates estimation methods used during 1980­90 and greater than 1 percent has decreased since 1990­2000 assessments, broad generalizations several countries have transitioned from a high can only be made. deforestation rate in 1980­90 to a low rate in 1990­2000 (Figure 1).19 Increase in forest cover The 1990­2000 assessment indicates that area is reflected in the transition economies of under forest cover has increased in countries Central Asia and Europe, while high rates of such as Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kyrgyz Republic, deforestation are observed in the conflict and Tajikistan, Mongolia, Vietnam, Lao PDR, and post-conflict countries. There is a strong need to Pakistan in Asia; Bolivia and Honduras in Latin strengthen national forest inventory systems, America; and The Gambia, Guinea, and synchronize the variables and time period of the Mozambique in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, FAO and national forest resource assessments, deforestation rates show significant increase in and to undertake periodic analysis of forest countries such as Benin, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, management, forest health, and certification Mauritania, Malawi, Nicaragua, Niger, Rwanda, processes to improve monitoring and to Sierra Leone, and Zambia. ascertain the progress of countries on sustainable forest management. Figure 1. Rates of deforestation in PRSP countries during 1980­90 and 1990­2000 0.6 0.6 seirt 0.5 0.5 n seirt 0.4 n ouc 0.4 f ouc o f t 0.3 o t 0.3 onit 0.2 onit or or 0.2 op op Pr 0.1 Pr0.1 0 0 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 >3 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 >3 Rate of Deforestation (%) Rate of Deforestation (%) Source: Authors' calculations based on FAO (2001). 14 Environment Department Papers Data Availability and Progress of PRSP Countries Toward MDG7 COMPLEMENTARY INDICATORS illustrative list of indicators that can Changes in forest cover may be a starting point complement the MDG indicator relating to to assess the progress in area under forests. forest resources. Country specific indicators However, statistics on forest area in most relating to forest resources should provide countries do not provide information on additional information on the indicator. regeneration status, changes in density, species 4.2 Proportion of Land Area Protected composition, and quality of vegetation. Improvements to monitoring should combine Proportion of land area protected to maintain both geographic and management perspectives biological diversity refers to the area protected of forest resources. under nature reserves, national parks, sanctuaries, heritage sites, and other From a geographic perspective, indicators conservation statutes. However, the MDG7 relating to national and sub-national data on indicator corresponding to the land area under land use, per capita forest area, vegetation protection does not define a quantitative target. density and quality, and forest health provide The Plan of Implementation of WSSD seeks to insights into the dynamics of forest cover operationalize programs to achieve a change. While, from a management perspective, "significant reduction" in the biodiversity loss indicators such as area under sustainable forest by 2010 (United Nations 2002d). In the absence management, harvest intensity per hectare, of measurable indices, area under protection and proportion of value added forest products, species threatened may serve as reference points. certification of area and products in managed forests, and stakeholder participation in the DATA management of forests provide additional The World Conservation Monitoring Center insights into the evolution of forest resources. (WCMC) of the United Nations Environment The divergence between the area under forest Programme (UNEP) is the nodal agency for management plans and the area certified under global biodiversity information on protected sustainable management in Bolivia, Honduras, areas, habitats, and species. The Biodiversity and Sri Lanka highlights the need to also Conservation Information System of the WCMC consider the qualitative aspects of forest area provides searchable databases on protected indicator (Table 5). areas, species diversity, and their management status.20 A combination of geographic, management, and institutional indicators can provide holistic Status and trends in land area protected assessment of the progress on the MDG7 From Table 7, it is clear that land area protected indicator relating to forests. Table 6 presents an in PRSP countries has grown significantly Table 5. Forest area under management plans and certified under sustainable management Forest area under Forest area certified under Country management plans (%) sustainable management (%) Bolivia 15.0 0.4 Honduras 13.0 1.7 Sri Lanka 100.0 0.7 Source: FAO 2001. Environmental Economics Series 15 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Table 6. Complementary indicators for monitoring the area under forest cover Indicator Significance of the indicator Data sources Extent of illegal Illegal logging and improper concessions are estimated to account for Country, province logging revenue losses of $5-10 billion per annum. Improving policies and regulation can enhance the revenue to forest agencies and minimize damage to forest resources (World Bank 2002a) Area under Currently 9 million ha out of 600-800 million ha of forests in countries WWF, ITTO, sustainable with World Bank lending are certified under sustainable management. FSC, country, management The World Bank ­ WWF Alliance for Forest Conservation and province Sustainable Use has set a target of bringing 200 million ha of production forests under certification by 2005 Value addition from Significant value addition can be achieved through improving FAO, CIFOR, timber & non-timber management practices, product mix; and developing markets for non- country, province sources timber services such as eco-tourism and carbon storage Governance gap and Extent of decentralization, disputes relating to tenure and FAO, Forest participation encroachments, and participation of civil society in the management of Trends, country, forest resources province during the last decade.21 The number of Figure 2 presents the frequency distribution of protected areas has also grown over the period. countries with percent land area protected in However, growth in area protected in the PRSP 1990 and 1999. The growth in the proportion of countries is slower than the growth in area area protected during the period is primarily protected globally,22 with large variation in the due to reservation of additional geographical area protected from 0 (Lao PDR) to 14.7 percent area under legal statues. Since this indicator (Rwanda). The quality of protection and the highlights the government's commitment to nature of extractive dependence on protected conservation of biological resources, it does not areas also vary significantly across countries. provide adequate information on the status of With the growth of eco-tourism, focus on biodiversity in a given region. Therefore, protected area management has also increased suitable complimentary indicators will need to rapidly. Considering the expected population be considered to accurately reflect the status of growth and increase in demand for land use, the biodiversity. rate of growth in area under protection observed during 1990-2000 may not be COMPLEMENTARY INDICATORS realizable in future.23 Another implication is the Since some protected areas cover continuum of increase in marginal cost of area brought under terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, the protection. proportion of protected area to geographic area Table 7. Percent land area protected in PRSP countries Variable 1990 1999 Mean 4.2 6.1 Median 3.6 5.5 Standard deviation 3.7 4.3 Number of countries 39 44 Source: UNEP-WCMC 2002, and WRI 1996. 16 Environment Department Papers Data Availability and Progress of PRSP Countries Toward MDG7 Figure 2. Proportion of land area protected in PRSP countries in 1990 and 1999 1990 1999 0.3 0.3 0.25 s 0.25 ie sei untr 0.2 0.2 o ountr C C of 0.15 of 0.15 on ti tion 0.1 0.1 oporr oporr P P0.05 0.05 0 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 >10 0 2 4 6 8 10 >10 % Geographical Area Protected % Geographical Area Protected Source: Authors' calculations based on UNEP-WCMC (2000) and WRI (1996). may often get inflated for countries with large legal statutes may continue to lack active coastlines and for small islands states. Therefore management. Indicators such as number of classification of protected areas in terms of species threatened, area under active ecosystem diversity and species richness may management, and number of species under ex- improve the information on this indicator. situ and in-situ conservation should improve the measurement of this indicator. Table 8 provides Since the definition of protected area and nature information on the complementary indicators of protection afforded differ significantly across that can provide additional insights into the countries, areas designated as protected under MDG indicator relating to protected areas. Table 8. Complementary indicators for monitoring the area protected Indicator Significance of the indicator Data sources Change in habitat & species Information on habitat and species status WCMC, country Keystone or indicator species Serves as early warning system on changes in the WCMC, IUCN, ecosystem. country Area and number of invasive Provides information on the disturbance and WCMC, country species unsustainable use studies Area supporting alternative Significance of the ecosystem to local poor and potential Country studies livelihoods for community management Staff and budget allocation per unit Informs the resource commitments and capacity Country studies area protected development for protected area management Poaching and illegal trade in Informs the effectiveness of regulation & protection Country studies protected species Source: World Bank 1998. Environmental Economics Series 17 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability 4.3 Traditional and Modern Fuels expenditure surveys, and therefore sub-national data are often missing. Since traditional fuels The energy and poverty linkages are reflected in are not often traded, they are also not captured the types of energy used, their impact on indoor in the energy/GDP elasticities estimated from and outdoor air quality, and the resulting health energy balance studies. The data also suffer outcomes. Considering the predominance of from gaps and inconsistencies, and there are traditional fuels in the domestic energy of most difficulties in extrapolating location-specific low-income countries, it is useful to examine the data from special surveys. Lack of a nodal PRSP countries in the context of solid or agency, inadequate policy support, data traditional fuels and their transition from scarcity, and lack of analytical studies on traditional to modern fuels. traditional energy issues are other impediments. 4.3.1 Traditional fuels Traditional fuels have recently been included in Dependence on traditional fuels is an important the energy modeling and forecast framework of indicator highlighting the significance of the International Energy Agency (IEA 1998, traditional energy to several MDGs such as 2002) under cumbustible renewables and income poverty - in terms of the time foregone wastes.24 The 19th Edition of the Survey of in collecting biomass energy fuels (MDG1); non- Energy Resources 2001 published by the World income poverty - in terms of health outcomes Energy Council also provides documentation of such as acute and chronic respiratory infections traditional energy sources of select countries (MDG 4&6); and degradation of natural (WEC 2001). FAO data on wood and other resources--loss of forest cover and biodiversity biomass energy sources is another major (MDG7). resource for country level data. The focus of global and national energy STATUS AND TRENDS OF TRADITIONAL ENERGY USE statistics has been mostly on the industrial solid Reduced availability of traditional fuels may not fuels such as coal. Biomass fuels comprising necessarily lead to growth in modern and fuelwood, agricultural wastes, animal wastes, conventional fuels, since the substitution and other derived fuels are the major sources of between traditional biomass fuels such as traditional energy in developing countries, often fuelwood, crop residues, and dung is a more accounting for more than 75 percent of the general phenomenon than substitution with domestic energy consumption. Despite its conventional fuels.25 From Table 9, it is clear importance to developing countries, the that the proportion of biomass energy is coverage on traditional biomass energy is often expected to decline in regions other than Africa, excluded from the national energy statistics, and while it is expected to grow in Africa because of the data on biomass energy are also either population growth and sluggish economic sparse or non-existent. outlook. DATA Biomass dependence is the highest in Sub- Most data on energy consumption at the Saharan Africa, mostly consumed as domestic national level are derived from energy balance energy. The proportion of population studies, sector studies, and budget and dependent on biomass energy for cooking and 18 Environment Department Papers Data Availability and Progress of PRSP Countries Toward MDG7 Table 9. Regional trends in biomass energy dependence (Mtoe) Annual growth rate 1995 2020 1995-2020 Source Biomass Total % Biomass Total % Biomass Total East Asia 106 422 25 118 931 13 0.4 3.2 South Asia 235 423 56 276 799 35 0.6 2.6 Latin America 73 416 18 81 787 10 0.4 2.6 Africa 205 341 60 371 631 59 2.4 2.5 World 930 6643 14 1143 10558 11 1.0 1.9 Source: D'Apote 2000. heating is particularly high in Kenya, Tanzania, the consumption of biomass fuels is dependent Mozambique, and Zambia, with nearly all upon the biomass supplies from forests and households using fuelwood for cooking in rural agriculture, seasonal influences, food areas and charcoal in over 90 percent of urban preferences, and access to modern energy households. A positive trend in the relationship sources, substantial national and local between poverty and traditional energy variations in biomass energy use are observed. dependence is observed in most PRSP countries, For example, in East Africa, biomass use however the extent of relationship varies accounts for 55 percent in cooking, 20 percent in significantly across countries (Figure 3). The water heating, 15 percent in space heating, and dependence on biomass is very low in Eastern 10 percent in other uses (WEC 2001). Europe, while it is significantly high in Africa; this explains the clear separation of countries PROGRESS ON TRADITIONAL ENERGY DEPENDENCE into distinct groups. Countries with very high IEA projections indicate that several PRSP (more than 50 percent) poverty show high countries will continue to be dependent on dependence on traditional energy, while traditional energy even after the MDG horizon. countries with poverty levels less than 50 Though the share of population relying on percent are distinctly clustered into two groups biomass for cooking and heating may decline in of low traditional energy dependence (Eastern several PRSP countries, population growth may Europe and Central Asia) and high traditional continue to drive the dependence on biomass energy dependence (Sub-Saharan Africa). Since fuels. Biomass consumption is expected to Figure 3. Poverty incidence and traditional energy dependence in PRSP countries 100.0 ni ygrenelan )tnec 80.0 erp( 60.0 yg er 40.0 io y = 14.926 + 0.8272x it enl adrT R 2 = 0.2625 ta 20.0 to 0.0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Population below poverty line (percent) Environmental Economics Series 19 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Table 10. Progress of traditional energy dependence in the PRSP countries of Asia Country 1990 2000 2005 2010 Cambodia 90 89 88 88 Lao PDR 90 89 88 87 Pakistan 21 19 18 17 Vietnam 48 48 50 51 Source: IEA 1998. remain high in Africa. A similar scenario is secondary sources are available for few projected for Asian countries that have high countries. The International Energy Agency, dependence on biomass energy (Table 10). United Nations, and the World Energy Council publish data on conventional energy for select 4.3.2 Modern fuels countries. Since our focus is on the pace of transition from traditional to modern and As countries move toward the MDG horizon, renewable sources in PRSP countries, we use rural energy consumption may become population with access to electricity as proxy for diversified with a mix of traditional fuels and examining the improvements in the access to modern sources such as kerosene, LPG, and modern energy sources. electricity. However the transition may get significantly delayed due to slow growth in STATUS AND TRENDS OF ELECTRICITY ACCESS income per capita. Considering the exclusive Though modern and renewable energy sources dependence of PRSP countries on traditional such as electricity directly contribute to human energy, there is an urgent need to explore the development by extending hours of work, options relating to the efficiency of modern preventing indoor air pollution, and supporting conventional fuels and renewables such as refrigeration and critical health care, the high hydro, wind, solar, and geothermal energy. The cost in creating initial capacity, dispersed rural WSSD declaration has also called for a settlements, and limited affordability of significant increase in the proportion of households are major constraints to the growth renewable energy in the total energy use of electricity access. Table 11 presents the worldwide, specifically in African countries. expected regional progress in electrification of over the MDG horizon. DATA National energy statistics present data on Rural electrification rate is still lower within conventional/modern energy with a breakdown each region, with significant rural and urban into major fuel groups such as thermal, oil, Table 11. Population with access to electricity across regions (percent) gas, hydro, and on Region 1990 2000 2015 renewable sources. North Africa 61 90 98 However, national Sub-Saharan Africa 16 23 33 statistics often do not South Asia 32 41 53 Latin America 70 87 94 report data pertaining East Asia 56 87 94 to population with Middle East 64 91 97 access to modern All developing countries 46 64 72 energy. Data from Source: IEA 2002. 20 Environment Department Papers Data Availability and Progress of PRSP Countries Toward MDG7 Table 12. Rural access to electricity across regions in PROGRESS ON MODERN AND RENEWABLE 2000 (percent) ENERGY SOURCES Region 1990 2000 Most rural electrification interventions until North Africa 35.0 79.9 now focus on grid. Decentralized renewable Sub-Saharan Africa 8.0 7.5 energy projects based on small-scale South Asia 25.0 30.1 Latin America 40.0 51.5 biomass, mini hydro, wind, and East Asia 45.0 81.0 photovoltaic units are other options for Middle East 35.0 76.6 remote areas. Small hydropower, although Source: IEA 2002. site-specific, can be a least-cost option, differences as observed from the comparison of while photovoltaic systems can support Table 11 with Table 12. lighting, refrigeration, water pumping, and telecommunication services of isolated loads in The cross-country analysis of electrification rural and remote areas. However, high capital rates reflects a negative relationship between expenditure, taxes, duties, and limited access to electricity and proportion of incentives for private sector participation limit population below poverty, with countries of the renewable energy penetration. Therefore, Eastern Europe and Central Asia (Albania, emphasis needs to be placed on market and Armenia, Moldova, and Georgia) at one end policy incentives that promote wind, with full access to electricity, while most photovoltaic, and household biogas energy countries of Sub Saharan Africa (Ethiopia, systems.26 Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, and Uganda) at COMPLEMENTARY INDICATORS the other end with less than 10 percent of Dependence on solid fuels is an important population with access to electricity (Figure 4). variable that reflects income and non- However, the relationship between poverty and dimensions of poverty. Indicators relating to access to electricity in the sample PRSP energy mix, relative proportions of household countries is less robust because electrification is energy, extent of renewable energy use, and influenced by several supply-side factors, lag energy efficiency provide insights into the effects of energy infrastructure, limited grid progress on this indicator. Complementary connectivity, poor distribution system, and indicators from country studies and household unrecorded connections. surveys, such as living standard Figure 4. Poverty incidence and access to electricity in measurement survey (LSMS), PRSP countries demographic and health survey (DHS), multiple indicator cluster survey 100 ytici (MICS), and relevant national energy 80 trcel surveys, can help to improve the E 60 assessment of solid fuels dependence to )tnecre ssecc (p (Table 13). 40 y = 82.413 - 0.9427x R2 = 0.244 A 20 4.4 Access to Safe Water 0 Access to water is a direct indicator of 0 20 40 60 80 100 environment and health outcomes and Population Below Poverty Line (percent) Environmental Economics Series 21 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Table 13. Complementary indicators for monitoring solid fuel dependence Indicator Significance of the indicator Data source Diversity of household energy Provides information on energy Country case studies, use alternatives household surveys Proportion of fuels collected and Indicates the relationship between income Country case studies, purchased and environmental health household surveys Proportion of top income Informs about availability of modern fuels Country studies, quintile using modern fuels in the market household surveys Per capita electricity Provides information on the shifts to Country studies, consumption (Kwh) modern energy sources household surveys Number of households using Informs about availability, alternatives, Country studies, purchased fuels willingness to pay, and market price household surveys No. of households with Provides information on energy efficiency Country studies, modern/improved cook stoves household surveys an indirect indicator of income poverty. Access collaboration of the World Health Organization to safe water refers to the proportion of (WHO) and UNICEF, provides the recent population dependent on piped water; public country level data on access to water. The report tap; borehole; protected well; protected spring; presents access rates for rural and urban water and rainwater, with the availability of at least 20 regimes in 1990 and 2000 for developing and liters/capita/day.27 Though access to water has developed countries.28 Though improvements gained attention during the last two decades in are needed to the WHO and UNICEF estimates part due to increased urbanization, on access to safe water and sanitation, in the development of rural and urban infrastructure, absence of alternative data and assessments, and the programs of international water and they serve as starting points to examine the sanitation, there is a significant gap between the progress at the global level. Therefore, data current access and the MDG target. Since the from the Global Water Supply and Sanitation issues of water quality, reliability, and service Assessment 2000 Report are used to examine delivery are not adequately captured in the the water supply and sanitation targets of PRSP definition of access, these important elements countries. cannot be assessed with the access definition alone and needs to be supplemented with STATUS AND TRENDSOF WATER SUPPLY ACCESS suitable indices to capture essential aspects of The MDG target relating to safe water supply is the access, quality, reliability, and service to halve the proportion of population without delivery. sustainable access to safe drinking water from the 1990 baseline. Several African countries such Data as Burkina Faso, Chad, Democratic Republic of Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Madagascar, 2000 Report published by the Joint Monitoring Mauritania, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone have Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation, a access rates lower than 50 percent. Table 14 22 Environment Department Papers Data Availability and Progress of PRSP Countries Toward MDG7 Table 14. Targets and outcomes on the access to safe water (percent) Rural Urban National Region 1990 2000 2015 1990 2000 2015 1990 2000 2015 Africa 44 47 74 84 85 93 57 62 82 Asia 67 74 87 94 93 96 76 81 91 Latin America 56 62 81 92 93 96 82 85 93 Europe 100 87 94 100 100 100 100 96 100 Global 66 71 85 95 94 97 79 82 91 Source: WHO 2000. presents the WHO estimates on regional reported in Asia. Though the MDG target for baselines corresponding to 1990 and targets for water supply is likely to be achieved in several 2015. countries, for several countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, universal access still remains a distant RURAL AND URBAN COVERAGE goal, and Sub-Saharan Africa continues to hold There is significant regional variation in the 28 percent of the world population without access to water supply. Baselines and targets access to water supply. presented at the national level often mask regional variations. However, the gaps between To assess the progress on water supply over its rural and urban access rates are low in Sub- 1990 baseline, country specific targets for 2015 Saharan Africa (World Bank 2002e). Urban in terms of halving the proportion of population populations have relatively better access to without access to safe water at 1990 level were improved water sources in most PRSP constructed. Access rates between 1990 and countries. The rural and urban water access 2000 were estimated and converted into annual outcomes in Rwanda illustrate the dichotomy of growth rates of access to compare the progress source-wise access. In Rwanda, private tap with respect to targets. Similarly, the gap water supply is non-existent in rural areas, between the access rates of a country in 2000 while it contributes to about 30 percent of urban and the country target for 2015 was estimated water supply. Open and unprotected sources and converted into required annual growth in account for about one-third of rural water access for each country. Figure 5 on the access, in comparison to less than 10 percent achieved annual access growth rates of PRSP urban access (Table 15). countries during 1990-2000 and the required annual rates during 2000-2015 indicates slow PROGRESS ON ACCESS TO SAFE WATER progress, with current access regimes of very During the last decade, significant few countries in line with the required rates. improvements in access to safe water are Table 15. Rural and urban differences in the source-wise access to water in Rwanda Protected Marsh, Tap in Public wells and Unprotected wells river, & Percent Region home standpipe springs and springs lake Other safe access Rural 0.3 41.9 24.8 9.4 23.2 0.3 67.0 Urban 29.6 52.5 9.5 2.2 4.8 1.5 91.5 Total 2.0 42.5 23.9 9.0 22.1 0.3 68.5 Source: Rwanda PRSP. Environmental Economics Series 23 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Figure 5. Achieved and required access rates in reaching capita availability, usage, reliability, the water supply target cost recovery, and service delivery. In 3 addition, information on bacterial and ) chemical contamination and the %( 0002-0991 2.5 periodicity of disinfecting mechanisms that are under implementation needs 2 to be considered (Table 16) . ssecc A ni 1.5 Access to water is generally assessed e at from the censuses conducted at R ht 1 national and sub-national levels using w or either data on population or service G delivery. Evidence suggests that the 0.5 nnual A census-based data are less reliable since they only provide information on 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 aggregate coverage and not on the Required Annual Growth Rate in Access 2000-2015 (%) type of access, quality, reliability, and Source: Authors' calculations based on WHO (2000). service delivery. Disaggregated data from the household surveys such as Considerable investment, policy support, and LSMS, DHS, and relevant national level surveys private sector interventions are required to are expected to provide additional insights into enable countries to be on track and to proceed the access to safe water and its relationship to towards the targets. poverty and health outcomes. With expected population growth and 4.5 Access to Adequate Sanitation urbanization, closing the gap between the Access to adequate sanitation refers to the current access and the required access remains a proportion of population disposing human challenge. However, opportunities to promote waste through facilities such as flush latrines, private sector investment, cost recovery, sewer, septic tank, and simple pit or improved institutional capacity, and improvement in the pit latrines properly constructed, maintained operation and maintenance need to be explored. and used (WHO 2000a).29 Epidemiological A major issue that needs attention is the close evidence suggests that improved sanitation relationship between water supply and confers significant benefits. The benefits of sanitation. Divergence between the water improved water supply are also strongly supply and sanitation access regimes can also observable, particularly when sanitation is affect the efficiency of their individual coverage. improved (Esrey 1996). However, empirical observation and access data draws attention to COMPLEMENTARY INDICATORS low priority and often extreme neglect of Water quality is an important aspect that is not sanitation in low income countries. In contrast generally reflected in the access to safe water to water supply, sanitation shows significant target. A more complete picture would require a rural-urban divergence, with rural sanitation combination of indicators relating to source, per lagging far behind the urban sanitation. Lack of 24 Environment Department Papers Data Availability and Progress of PRSP Countries Toward MDG7 Table 16. Complementary indicators for monitoring the access to safe water Indicator Significance of the indicator Data source Per capita consumption in liters/day Indicates the relative abundance of safe water Country, province, resources household surveys Flow rating (actual discharge/design Provides information on capacity and service Country, province, discharge) municipal bodies Time spent in water collection Provides information on the distance to safe Country, province, water source household surveys Periodicity of water supply Informs about the efficiency, abundance and Country, province, service delivery household surveys Diversity of water sources and Indicates the source-wise dependence for Country, province, corresponding uses drinking and non-drinking purposes. household surveys Chemical (arsenic and fluoride) & Provide information on water quality WHO, country case biological contaminants (E.coli) studies Percent of under-5 children with Indicates quality of water sources Country, province, diarrhea household survey Marginal cost of improvements to Informs about the additional costs to achieve Country, province, source, access, and quality and maintain access and quality household surveys Periodicity and O&M costs of Indicates the attention and investment on Country, province, infrastructure and rehabilitation service delivery municipal bodies Reliability, cost recovery, user Provides information on service delivery Country, province, satisfaction municipal bodies Source: WHO 2000b, Billig and others 1999. infrastructure, inadequate capacity of local the differences in the definitions of access across governments, and low priority to hygiene countries and also within a country. The World contribute to low sanitation coverage in most Health Organization continues to be the major PRSP countries. Additionally, inadequate water source of data pertaining to sanitation. The supply and improper design, maintenance, and Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment operation of sanitation systems are the major 2000 Report published by the Joint Monitoring causes of surface and ground water pollution. Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation, a collaboration between WHO and UNICEF, DATA presents the recent country-wise data on Data on sanitation are relatively scanty in sanitation with 1990 baselines and 2015 targets. comparison to data on water supply. Similar to the data on water supply access, data pertaining STATUS AND TRENDS OF SANITATION ACCESS to sanitation are reported using census or A striking observation is the lower baselines provider sources. Even when the data are and targets for sanitation in comparison to available, there exist significant gaps because of those of water supply. The data also show a Environmental Economics Series 25 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Table 17. Targets and outcomes on the access to sanitation (percent) Rural Urban National Region 1990 2000 2015 1990 2000 2015 1990 2000 2015 Africa 49 45 73 85 84 92 61 60 82 Asia 23 31 65 67 78 89 37 48 76 Latin America 39 49 74 85 87 93 72 78 90 Europe 100 74 100 89 98 99 100 92 97 Global 35 38 69 82 86 92 55 60 81 Source: WHO 2000a. strong urban bias in the sanitation coverage, shown the least progress, while countries in infrastructure, and service delivery (Table 17). Sub-Saharan Africa have stagnated. With the current access regimes, a significant portion of PROGRESS ON ACCESS TO SANITATION PRSP countries may not be able to meet their Progress on sanitation is examined using the sanitation targets by 2015. same approach as that followed in assessing the progress on water supply. In comparison to Unless the pace of sanitation coverage data on water supply, baseline data on improves, the population without coverage is sanitation in 1990 are sparse and are not expected to increase sharply. WHO (2000a) available for several countries. Therefore, only estimates that to achieve the required access countries that have base line data are rate, annual average investment of the 1990s considered. In comparison to water supply needs to be doubled. access rates, the average access rates of sanitation during 1990-2000 indicate significant Excessive dependence on provider-based data, divergence (Figure 6). Countries in Asia have use of multiple data sources, and inadequate definition of access regime and service Figure 6. Achieved and required access rates in delivery are the factors that inhibit reaching the sanitation target accurate measurement of the progress. 3 Most countries in Africa, Asia and Latin ) America also do not have a national body %( 2.5 to oversee either rural or urban sanitation 2000 2 (WHO 2000a). Fragmented institutions, 1990- lack of regional planning, limited ssec 1.5 capacity, inadequate resources, and Ac inefficient operation and maintenance are ni 1 eta the major factors contributing to the slow R 0.5 ht progress. w or Gla 0 COMPLEMENTARY INDICATORS u -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 n -0.5 The definitions of access, type, and quality An of sanitation facilities vary among rural -1 and urban areas within a country. Required Annual Growth Rate in Access 2000-2015 (%) Therefore, there is a need for adopting Source: Authors' calculations based on WHO (2000). 26 Environment Department Papers Data Availability and Progress of PRSP Countries Toward MDG7 objective criteria on sanitation access and through surveys conducted in 1993 and 1998 in service delivery. Additional data on the quality 237 cities around the world. The 1993 survey and reliability of sanitation services from used 46 indicators, and the 1998 survey used 23 provider and household surveys can help to indicators to document the status of slums. improve the monitoring. In addition, Inadequate information, response bias, information on infrastructure, investment, differences in the definition of indicators, and service delivery, operation and maintenance dissimilar sample frames yielded results that expenditure, and regulatory framework can were not comparable. Wide variation in the strengthen the monitoring process. definition of tenure also resulted in the systematic underestimation of slum population 4.6 Slum Improvement in both surveys.30 Slums are unplanned, informal, and often squatter settlements with minimal or non- The recent methodology of United Nations existent basic services. The lack of secure tenure Human Settlement Program assesses slum is reflected in quality of basic services, social population using secure tenure index based on infrastructure, and size and quality of housing, five indicators: (i) percent households with which manifest in squatter (illegal occupancy) access to improved water source within 200 and slum (uncertain tenure) settlements. The meters; (ii) percent households with access to MDG target for improving the lives of 100 adequate sanitation; (iii) percent households million people in slums is modest considering with access to electricity; (iv) percent the estimated slum population of 837 million households living in permanent structures; and and its expected growth in the coming decades (v) percent houses complying with local (United Nations 2002a). regulations. DATA Secure tenure index assumes that improvement The first major effort to undertake a to permanent housing and investment in basic comprehensive assessment of slums was under services is possible only in situations of non- the Urban Indicators Program (UIP) of the alienable legal tenure to land or dwelling. Herr United Nations Human Settlement Program, and Karl (2002) present methodology to Table 18. Complementary indicators for monitoring the access to sanitation Indicator Significance of the indicator Data source Hygiene behavior Indicates the awareness and Country, province, case studies, attention to sanitation household surveys Periodicity and O&M costs of Provides information on service Country, province, municipal infrastructure maintenance delivery bodies Periodicity on the collection and Informs the efficiency of Country, province, municipal disposal of solid waste sanitation services bodies, household surveys Reliability, cost recovery, and user Provides information on service Country, province, municipal satisfaction delivery bodies, household surveys Source: WHO 2000b, Billig and others 1999. Environmental Economics Series 27 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Table 19. Regional trends of slum population Tenure index Estimate of slum population Region Secure Insecure 1993 2001 Africa 44 56 126 148 Asia & Oceania 63 37 423 498 Europe 96 4 21 24 Latin America & Caribbean 74 26 87 103 Global 71 29 712 837 Source: UN-HABITAT estimates based on Global Urban Indicators 1993 and 1998. (See Herr and Karl (2002) on methods of estimation.) estimate secure tenure index using the UIP 1993 starting point to address a fast moving target and UIP 1998 survey data, and Herr (2002) that will require significant commitment of proposes methods to combine data from UIP resources far beyond the 2020 horizon. surveys and household surveys to estimate the proportion of slum population. COMPLEMENTARY INDICATORS United Nations Human Settlement Program is Status and trends in slum improvement in the process of developing and refining Most initiatives for slum improvement are at methodologies to combine the census and the municipal and city levels and are often demographic health survey data. Herr and Karl fragmented because of the legal and data (2002) and Herr (2002) methodologies could be constraints in defining the tenure status. More extended to estimate the proportion of urban than half of the urban population in Africa and population with and without secure tenure in one-third of the urban population in Asia are the PRSP countries. estimated to be living in slum environment (Table 19). Slum growth in developing countries Since basic services such as access to safe water, is expected to follow the annual population sanitation, and electricity form important growth of 2.4 percent (UN 2002a), making it one variables in estimating the tenure index, of the most challenging targets to demonstrate household surveys, such as LSMS, DHS, and progress. Therefore, the MDG target of MICS, and relevant municipal surveys could be improvement in the lives of 100 million slum utilized to assess the access to basic services and dwellers, originally proposed under the Cities to the tenure status at municipal, city, and Without Slums Initiative, should serve as a province levels. Table 20 provides the examples Table 20. Complementary indicators for monitoring the secure tenure indicator Indicator Significance of the indicator Data source Size of dwelling in sq ft. and material Provides insights into the tenure Census, municipal used in construction records Nature of roofing Informs about the temporary and Census, municipal permanent nature of the structure records Owned, rented, squatted occupancy Informs about the property rights Household surveys Number of persons per room Indicates crowding Census, household surveys Source: UN -HABITAT 2001. 28 Environment Department Papers Data Availability and Progress of PRSP Countries Toward MDG7 of complementary indicators that could of urbanization, rural-urban migration, improve the measurement and monitoring of conflicts, regional development, land prices, this indicator. cost of construction, and availability of housing finance also provide insights into the Additionally, non-environmental indicators occurrence, growth, and proliferation of slums. such as population growth, urban planning, rate Environmental Economics Series 29 Monitoring and Evaluation 5 of the Progress on MDG7 We have shown that existing data and MDG targets.32 The ongoing Bank-supported information can be a starting point of analysis to program on Evaluation Capacity Development in assess the progress on MDG7. While existing 40 countries, which currently includes several data can certainly be better utilized, there are PRSP countries such as Madagascar, Niger, gaps that need to be addressed, and the Tanzania, Uganda, and Kyrgyz Republic, needs statistical capacity of countries needs to be to be scaled up and extended to other strengthened to utilize the data efficiently. countries.33 Monitoring of annual and intermediate targets Several countries have taken the lead in can also serve as early warning to identify the reporting the status and progress on the MDGs. factors affecting the progress. The UN Sectary Of the 50 countries that have prepared PRSPs, General is authorized to present an annual 12 countries (Albania, Armenia, Bolivia, report to the General Assembly on the progress Cambodia, Cameroon, Chad, Guinea, Kyrgyz made towards achieving the MDGs (UN 2002b). Republic, Mozambique, Senegal, Tanzania, and Countries are expected to report their progress Vietnam) have taken the lead and submitted to enable the Secretary-General's global round their country progress reports to the UNDP, the up on Millennium Development Goals progress nodal organization monitoring the progress on in 2005. Considering the long-term commitment MDGs. Countries that prepared full PRSPs have of countries to MDGs, adequate capacity needs also been in the forefront, with 12 out of 28 full to be built to measure, monitor, and report on PRSP countries preparing progress reports on the progress made by countries. The UN MDGs. However, the treatment of the MDGs in agencies, the World Bank, the IMF, OECD, the full PRSPs is uneven. regional development banks, and bilateral agencies are expected to play a major role in Analysis of MDG progress reports indicates monitoring the progress. uneven and often poor coverage of MDG7 indicators (Table 21). Albania, Armenia, Bolivia, Country-level MDG Monitoring and Kyrgyz Republic, Mozambique, and Vietnam Evaluation provide an overview of indicators relating to With growing emphasis on the achievement of forests, protected area, safe water, and the MDGs, focus on results based strategies has also supporting policies proposed to address the increased.31 Assessing the PRSP targets and relevant issues. While Cambodia, Cameroon, their implementation is crucial to evaluate the Chad, and Tanzania provide generic progress on PRSP implementation and to commitment to reverse the loss of support the monitoring and evaluation of the environmental resources in the context of their Environmental Economics Series 31 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Table 21. Country progress reports on MDG7 Data & PRSP status monitoring interim (I) / Country Coverage of MDG7 indicators Supporting policies capability full (F) Albania Area under forests, NEAP, sector strategies - water; Weak to fair F protected area, safe water waste, biodiversity, Env. health Armenia Area under forests, safe NEAP, biodiversity, forestry, Ozone I water, other (air pollution) substances, water, Lake Sevan and Lake Gilly action plans Bolivia Protected area, safe water Forests, mining code, hydrocarbon Weak F law, environmental law Combodia Reverse the loss of env. NEAP (1999) Weak F resources Cameroon Reverse the loss of env. Forests, desertification, pollution Weak I resources Chad Reverse the loss of env. NEAP I resources Guinea Safe water NFAP, NEAP Weak F Kyrgyz Area under forests, Legislation, compliance, taxation, Fair F Republic protected area, CO2 forest management, network of PAs, emissions, energy use, water, pollution standards, institutions access to water and capacity Mozambique Forests, protected area Environment framework, forests and Weak to fair F wild life, water resources, and land law Senegal Safe water NEAP Fair F Tanzania Implement the national NEAP, national env. policy, NSSD Weak to fair F strategy for SD to reverse the loss of env. resources; safe water Vietnam Forests, water, sanitation, F secure tenure, other (air & water pollution) Source: Country progress reports on Millennium Development Goals, UNDP. national environmental action plans. With In addition to the assessment of country level improved data and statistical capacity, it is progress, monitoring of the sub-national, hoped that future country progress reports will provincial, and city level progress on the MDG present a more holistic perspective of the indicators can help to improve the regional progress on MDG7. planning priorities of countries. Vietnam has 32 Environment Department Papers Monitoring and Evaluation of the Progress on MDG7 already initiated the sub-national system to There is a strong need to enhance the network monitor the progress on MDGs (Box 2). and efficiency of national statistical departments to support regular monitoring and reporting of the MDG outcomes. Monitoring Box 2 systems should expand to improve the quality Province level MDG Index: Vietnam and coverage of data. The Nicaragua and Building on the methodology of human develop- ment index, Vietnam has constructed a prelimi- Rwanda PRSPs emphasize the role of nary MDG index to assess the progress on MDGs monitoring and evaluation systems to assess the at the province level. The MDG index indicates the annual progress on intermediate indicators. relative progress of provinces on 17 MDG targets. The MDG index ranges from 0.794 (highest) to Rwanda PRSP presents a preliminary list of 0.171 (lowest). High proportion of ethnic minori- performance indicators categorized into ties, rural population, geographic, social, linguis- outcome, access, process, and proxy indicators, tic, and cultural isolation are the factors that pre- and proposes surveys to generate additional dominantly influence the lowest performing provinces on the MDG index. information to assess the progress. Zambia PRSP proposes to utilize geographic Source: Bringing the MDGs Closer to People (United Nations 2002). information systems to monitor the progress. Ghana PRSP has set objectives for five thematic areas with detailed targets and proposes input, Statistical Capacity Building process, output, outcome, and impact indicators Gaps in the data and inadequate knowledge to monitor the progress. management are major factors affecting the assessment of progress on MDGs and are also Collaboration and shared responsibility among reflected in the limited focus on the PRSP countries and multilateral agencies are crucial targets. In several countries, monitoring is done for making progress on MDG7 as several targets independently at the level of line ministries and such as biodiversity, energy use, and CO2 departments, resulting in inconsistencies and emissions have transboundary significance. poor data utilization. Therefore, statistical Adequate emphasis also needs to be placed on capacity envisaged as part of the PRSP capacity developing integrated monitoring systems for development should help to enhance the linking the PRSP outcomes with the MDGs. The timeliness, data quality, monitoring, and monitoring systems should be designed to reporting systems. correct for sector bias to promote uniform coverage of indicators. Environmental Economics Series 33 6 Conclusions PRSP countries have committed to achieve the access, thereby precluding cross-country MDGs. This paper has assessed PRSPs in the comparisons based on common definitions. context of MDG7--ensuring environmental Since the information on rural and urban sustainability--its targets and indicators. It is separation of access, quality, and reliability of noted that environment cuts across sectors and water supply and sanitation is not often is relevant to several other MDGs as well. provided, assessments may also be influenced by measurement bias. The targets are also often Our analysis of 50 interim and full PRSPs ambitious in comparison to past achievements indicate that even for indicators with apparent and proposed resource commitments. poverty links such as traditional fuels, safe Therefore, the realism of targets needs to be water, sanitation, and slums, attention is often evaluated through annual implementation not given to how the poverty strategies relate to reports. the commitment as embodied in the MDG7. This is clearly a disappointing result. We However, there is also good news: the focus on attribute the limited attention to MDG7 in the MDG7 has improved significantly from the interim PRSPs to: to the full PRSP stages. This is an encouraging trend and needs to be supported in countries that are in the · The high proportion of PRSPs still in interim process of revising their PRSPs from interim to full stage stages. In countries that already have full PRSPs, · Recent adoption of the MDGs (September refinement of indicators and their monitoring 2000) through the annual implementation progress · The more or less weak poverty-relevance of reports provide opportunities to enhance the the indicators in some countries alignment with MDG7. · Lack of good quality data and capacity to monitor them It is also encouraging that available data can be · Emphasis on a medium-term perspective in effectively utilized to analyze the status and PRSPs trends of environmental targets with particular · Limited influence of the environmental attention to those with strong links to poverty. constituency on the PRS process. While this will vary across countries, we believe that access to safe water, improved sanitation, In the few cases where targets coinciding the modern fuels, and slum improvement has MDG horizon are reported in the PRSPs, they significance in this respect. The existing data usually pertain to water and sanitation and sources can be effectively utilized, and relevant often in terms of country-specific definitions of complimentary databases can be developed and Environmental Economics Series 35 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability monitored without significant cost and capacity in JSAs needs to be placed on the achievement constraints. of MDGs, and improvements in the use of existing data and monitoring systems could The principle of country-ownership of the PRSP improve the integration of MDG7 into PRSPs. In process is paramount. However, in the dialog the long run, further work is needed to improve with stakeholders, country teams preparing and data quality, statistical capacity, and methods to revising PRSPs should be encouraged to make track the progress on the alignment of PRSP and full use of available data for baseline definition MDG7 targets. and target setting. In the short run, more focus 36 Environment Department Papers Appendix A -- EnvironmentalTargets Adopted at the World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002 The country specific environmental targets and the MDG7 indicator relating to sold fuels, they the newly adopted environmental targets at the are not revisited here. World Summit on Sustainable Development are often referred to as part of "MDG Plus." Of the Restoring Fisheries WSSD targets, access to sanitation has been A major WSSD target that has significance to covered in the previous section as the PRSP countries relates to fisheries. Since complement of the MDG7 target relating to safe fisheries contribute to more than 10% of food water. The new targets relating to fisheries, consumption and employment in several marine protected areas, renewable energy, and countries of Asia and Africa (FAO 2000), one harmful chemical substances emphasize would expect attention to fisheries in the PRSPs. environmental aspects that are not formally covered under the MDG7 (Table A1). Indicators Data for these targets have also not been adopted. FAO is the nodal organization overseeing the data on fish production, trade, and stock Since the WSSD targets are of recent origin and assessments. The FAO Code of Conduct on were adopted after the initiation of PRSP Responsible Fisheries adopted in 1993 provides preparation, we do not expect reference to them guidelines for sustainable management of in the PRSPs, although a discussion on the fisheries. Global production of fish and issues relevant to specific country context can be aquaculture during 1999 was 126 MT, valued at expected. Since the issues relating to US$ 125 billion, and provided livelihood to 200 biodiversity are discussed as part of the MDG7 million people (FAO 2000). More than two- indicator relating to protected areas, and issues thirds of production is from marine and inland pertaining to renewable energy are examined in waters, and one-third from aquaculture. Table A1. Environmental targets adopted at the WSSD, 2002 Targets Indicators Maintain or restore depleted fish stocks to levels that can produce the maximum To be determined sustainable yield by 2015 Reverse the loss of biodiversity by 2010 - " - Establish a representative network of marine protected areas by 2012 - " - Increase the share of renewable energy in the total energy supply, and provide 35% of - " - African households with modern energy within 20 years Phase out by 2020, production and use of chemicals that harm health and environment - " - Source: United Nations 2002d. Environmental Economics Series 37 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability National fishery agencies report annual catch building the fish stocks. However, there exist and composition data under three major several empirical difficulties in assessing the categories: marine fishery, inland fishery, and MSY and the fishing effort required to reach it. aquaculture. Inland fishery statistics are vastly In most marine and inland ecosystems, catch under reported with actual catch at least twice often exceeds the stock growth. Measures such as high as reported figures. as abundance and fishing pressure are quick reference points to assess the state of fish Status and trends of fisheries resources across regions and over time period.35 Fish consumption shows marked regional and Since MSY is estimated with reference to target national differences. Though Africa accounts for species, sole reliance on MSY may not ensure only 4% of the world fish consumption, fish sustainable harvest, since it does not fully reflect accounts for 50 percent of total protein intake in the dynamics of non-target species. Therefore, a Ghana, Guinea, Senegal, and Benin (FAO 1996). range of criteria such as spawning and virgin In several African countries such as Mauritania, biomass has been suggested.36 For example, a Senegal, Madagascar, Mali, Ghana, Seychelles, 30% deficit in virgin biomass impairs the and Mozambique, fishery makes significant reproductive capacity of stock (FAO 1999b). contribution to GDP and export revenue. Marine fishery Periodic assessment of stock, fishing effort, discards, and composition provide useful Global marine fishery production is estimated insights into the state of fish resources of a at 82 MT, a value close to the landings of 1990- country. The fish production trends show high 94 of about 83 MT. Accounting for 27 MT of potential for aquaculture (Table A2). unwanted catch comprising juveniles and species of low value leads to an estimated catch Widely accepted reference points in assessing of 110 MT, higher than the estimated the fishery productivity are the maximum production potential of 80 MT to 100 MT. As sustained yield (MSY) and spawning biomass observed from Table A3, most marine per recruit (SSB/R). Other criteria such as ecosystems are over fished. The East Central fishing effort, profitability, employment, and Atlantic, West Central Atlantic, Western Indian per capita consumption also provide Ocean, and West Central Pacific marine regions information on the status and trends of fish that adjoin the PRSP countries are production. Maximum sustainable yield overexploited. The marine protected areas are (MSY)34 is a reference point adopted under the expected to have positive influence in 1982 United Nations Law on Seas (UNLOS) for conserving the fish stocks of these regions. Table A2. State of global fisheries production (million tons) Source 1990 2000 2010 Marine 82.0 86.0 Inland water 7.0 8.8 Aquaculture 16.0 40.0 47.0a Tot al 105.0 122.8 Note: a. Estimate for 2010. Source: FAO 2000. 38 Environment Department Papers Appendix A -- Environmental Targets Adopted at the World Summit on Sustainable Development 2002 Table A3. Status of marine fisheries during 1990s (million tons) Estimated Year Degree Landings Dif- PRSP countries potential potential of 1990-94 ference Region of the region (A) reached reliability (B) (A-B) Status E.C. Atlantic Chad, Ghana, Guinea, 4 1984 ** 3 1 O Gambia, Senegal, Mauritania, Guinea Bissau, Cameroon, Cote d'Ivoire N.E. Atlantic 12 1983 * 10 2 O N.W. 4 1971 ** 3 1 O Atlantic S.E. Atlantic 3 1978 ** 1 2 O W.C. Atlantic Guyana, Honduras, 2 1987 * 2 0 O Nicaragua E. Indian 10 2037 Unreliable 3 7 I W. Indian Djibouti, Kenya, Ethiopia, 13 2051 Unreliable 4 9 I Tanzania, Madagascar, Mozambique, Pakistan E.C. Pacific 3 1988 ** 1 1 O N.E. Pacific 4 1990 * 3 1 O N.W. Pacific 26 1998 ** 24 2 I S.E. Pacific 29 2001 * 15 14 I S.W. Pacific 1 1991 ** 1 0 O W.C. Pacific Vietnam, Cambodia 11 2003 ** 8 3 I Antarctica 0.2 1980 ** 0.3 -0.1 O All Oceans 100 83 17 Notes: *Less reliable regression, unreliable regression, **reasonably reliable regression; Status: O = Overfished, F = Fully fished (rate of stock increase is zero), and I = Increasing, Source: FAO 1997. Inland fishery Aquaculture Inland waters occupy less than 1 percent of the Aquaculture production is expected to play a global surface area but contribute to 8 percent of major role in the future fish production and the global fish production, with actual capture reach 47 MT by 2010 (FAO 2000).37 Because of estimated to be twice that of 8.8 MT produced at the high initial investment, aquaculture may the cost of aquatic ecosystem degradation. Asia, continue to be a costly option for several with 20 percent of the continental area, African countries. It also has strong adverse contributes to 64 percent of the inland capture. impacts on land use, inland waters, and input Since 1990s, Asia and Africa, with an annual intensity of the production system. Accurate growth rate of 7 percent and 2 percent, assessment of the environmental impacts, respectively, contributed to the rapid growth of relevant ameliorative measures, and regulation inland fisheries (FAO 1999a). Tanzania and should receive attention in countries such as Uganda are the major African countries in Vietnam that have large aquaculture inland fishery production. production. Environmental Economics Series 39 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Integrating the WSSD targets into PRSPs strategies. Where feasible they should be linked to MDG7 monitoring so that holistic treatment The WSSD targets relating to fisheries, of environment issues receives attention in the renewable energy, and harmful chemical PRSP implementation. substances may be incorporated into environmental sector priorities of poverty 40 Environment Department Papers Appendix B -- Coverage of MDG7 Environmental Baselines andTargets in the Full PRSPs Proportion of population using solid Complementary Area under forest cover (a) /Annual fuels/switch to modern fuels (access to environment deforestation (b) (%) Protected area (%) electricity) (%) policy/regulation Complementary Complementary Complementary indicators Base PRSP programs/ Base PRSP programs / Base PRSP programs / presented in the Country line Target indicators line Target indicators line Target indicators PRSP Albania 36.0 Community 6.0 Increase in Reduction in the National plan for management protected areas electric power environment; law and transfer of to 15% by 2003; supply on carbon tax; ownership to designation of disruptions and norms for land, municipalities Shkoder lake and losses; collection water & air and local Vlore Bay as PAs; of bills; demand quality; legal and government; management management and regulatory cadastre & plan for Dajti alternatives framework to registration of national park; sources for promote land forests; reclassification cooking and market; management of and expansion of heating monitoring of fish fire damaged protected areas resources; forests in watershed coastal areas management Azerbaijan Planting 4000 New protected Implementing ha of indigenous areas (Ordubad, national program species; Shabuz, Talyash); of soil planting 5000 increase in the conservation; ha along Kura number of regulation and and Araz coasts sturgeons; management of restoring pastures; Shahdag national environmental park; 4 nurseries education in and 5 biological secondary schools stations Benin Electricity R-20.0; U-55.8 Rural land code to R-10.7 by 2005; Rural improve women U-21.9 electrification access to land; and energy drafting fishing control agency; code; solar and environmental hydropower information development system and capacity; village development plans for poor areas Bolivia 48.0 6 million ha out National Electricity Rural Implementation of of 35.6 million protected area R-23.0 electrification to laws on agrarian ha forest area system; reach 40.0% by reform, under % increase in 2006 environment, and sustainable funds to PAs; water; biodiversity management; % increase in strategy forest income from development; certification wildlife flood control plan process; management management plans Burkina Electricity Implementation of Faso R-1.0 environment code, U-34.0 forestry code, water code, and mining code Environmental Economics Series 41 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Proportion of population using solid Complementary Area under forest cover (a) /Annual fuels/switch to modern fuels (access to environment deforestation (b) (%) Protected area (%) electricity) (%) policy/regulation Complementary Complementary Complementary indicators Base PRSP programs/ Base PRSP programs / Base PRSP programs / presented in the Country line Target indicators line Target indicators line Target indicators PRSP Ethiopia Biomass R- 76.0 U-41.0 Kerosene U-22.0 Electricity 13.0 Ghana 11.0 Forest Implementation Households using Implementation of development of forest and LPG; woodlots national master plan; wildlife policy; and tree planting; environmental Forest loss conservation of action plan; from logging, northern consolidation of 10% reduction savannah laws relating to in fire and biological land, forest, encroachment resources and wildlife, and by 2005; medicinal plants; mining; land community community tenure reform; management of management of environmental forests wildlife and resource savannah degradation from woodlands mining and manufacturing reduced by 20% Guinea Implementation Regulation and Electricity Increase bill Implementation of of forestry code protection plan; 16.4 65.0 collection rate to environmental national more than 85%; action plan; environmental share of rural integrated land action plan population with register access to management renewable system geographic energy; ensuring development reliable power information supply; access to system renewable energy Honduras 50.7 56.0 Percent forest No. of ha under Biomass Support to solar National program area with sustainable 75.0 energy; energy on sustainable management management and plantations development; land plans; wood community tenure reform and exports; forest participation; rural property law and eco-tourism registry; certification; Territorial revenue from classification law carbon market; to minimize agro-forestry; ecological pastures; and vulnerability rehabilitation of degraded forests Kyrgyz 4.2 6% by 2005; Inventory and Setting up energy Environment Rep. forest quality, mapping of passports to set code; reduce mature and biological financial and degraded land by over mature resources; consumption 5% per year; law forests protection of limits of thermal to promote land snow leopard energy; funding market and and other for utility cadastre, pasture endangered services; hidden land management species energy subsidies; and grazing conversion of vehicles to LPG and network of LPG refueling stations 42 Environment Department Papers Appendix B -- Coverage of MDG7 Environmental Baselines and Targets in the Full PRSPs Proportion of population using solid Complementary Area under forest cover (a) /Annual fuels/switch to modern fuels (access to environment deforestation (b) (%) Protected area (%) electricity) (%) policy/regulation Complementary Complementary Complementary indicators Base PRSP programs/ Base PRSP programs / Base PRSP programs / presented in the Country line Target indicators line Target indicators line Target indicators PRSP Mauritania Biomass Implementation Implementation of 80.0 of butane fuel national Electricity program in rural environmental 18.0 areas. action plan; farming code; mining code; land ownership law Malawi 21.0 Control of Co-management Electricity Extension of New land policy, forest fires to & private sector 4.0 grid; Promotion Community based limit erosion & management of of mini-hydro, NRM; disaster Lake Malawi PAs, wildlife solar, and wind preparedness; pollution; farming, tax on energy vulnerability forest licensing, park users; eco- assessment and inventory, tourism mapping; education, prevention of over extension; and fishing; mining tree planting regulation Mali Number of ha. Biomass Increase in Adoption of water reforested; 91.0 population with code number of rural Modern electricity wood markets fuels 8.0 Mozambique Control of bush Restocking of Laws on fisheries, fires and wildlife with water and mining; deforestation community land tenure support reform; Compliance of environmental regulation; strategy on waste management; early warning systems and capacity to respond to natural disasters Nicaragua The 7.4 Biomass Implementation of deforestation 94.0 environmental estimated at policy and action Electricity 2.5% per plan; forest, 47.0 annum fishery, and biodiversity law Niger Reforestation of Protected area Biomass 10,000 ha of 1500 km of wind 3000 ha for to be increased 95.0 energy breaks and 1000 agriculture; from 84,000km2 plantations; ha of sand dunes planting 50 to 140,000km2 households using to be stabilized by million by 2005. non-wood fuel; 2005 seedlings; agro- implementation forestry; 300% of national increase in gum strategy for Arabic renewable production; energy and rules for natural integrated village resource solar energy management Rwanda Biomass Implementation of 90.2 mining code Electricity 1.0 Environmental Economics Series 43 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Proportion of population using solid Complementary Area under forest cover (a) /Annual fuels/switch to modern fuels (access to environment deforestation (b) (%) Protected area (%) electricity) (%) policy/regulation Complementary Complementary Complementary indicators Base PRSP programs/ Base PRSP programs / Base PRSP programs / presented in the Country line Target indicators line Target indicators line Target indicators PRSP Senegal Development Protection of Electricity Diversification of Access to land and of forest flora and fauna; 25.0 fuels; access to natural resources; resources; community alternative environmental protection of management of energy management; forests from protected areas resources; rural mining policy; clearing and electrification; land development fires; charcoal and occupation regeneration terminals plans and reforestation; agro-forestry Sri Lanka 28.0 Halve the 13.0 Private sector & Modern Rate of coastal annual community fuels erosion to be deforestation based eco- R-14; reduced from rate to reach tourism U-51 current 10 ha per 0.75% by Electricity annum 2005; private R-57; sector U-84 participation & value addition of forest products Uganda R-12.0% rural land act to electrification by improve access to 2010 land for poor; compliance with environmental standards Vietnam 33.0 43.0* * Proportion of Species diversity country under in protected protected forests forests by 2010; 5 million ha of afforestation Yemen Integrated plan Electricity R-22.2% and U- Environmental for Jalabajous R-17.0; 98.2% by 2005; action plan for area; declaration U-65.7 reduce losses to water land, of Jabal Bara and 25%; sanctuaries and Houf Forest as waste protected zones; management; plan Sharmat- to combat Jathmoun desertification; coastline as regulation on protected area fishing and for sea turtles exports; fish cooperatives; integrated water management with user groups 44 Environment Department Papers Appendix B -- Coverage of MDG7 Environmental Baselines and Targets in the Full PRSPs Proportion of population using solid Complementary Area under forest cover (a) /Annual fuels/switch to modern fuels (access to environment deforestation (b) (%) Protected area (%) electricity) (%) policy/regulation Complementary Complementary Complementary indicators Base PRSP programs/ Base PRSP programs / Base PRSP programs / presented in the Country line Target indicators line Target indicators line Target indicators PRSP Zambia 42.0 Plans for forest Upgrading Biomass R-22.2% and U- Implementation of inventory; agro- national parks; 73.0 60.0% by 2005; national forestry, joint community households using environmental forest participation in biomass fuels to action plan, management; wild life be reduced to environmental national and conservation; 63% in 2004; investment plan; provincial increase in game Promoting industrial pollution forestry action management efficient wood prevention programs; areas from 36 to fuel production program; improved 40 by 2004; and use to environmental revenue increase in achieve 10% management collection; wildlife wood savings; plans; land rights population; substitution of to women revenue sharing charcoal with with local millennium gel communities fuel and LPG; solar energy projects in schools, health centers, and homes Environmental Economics Series 45 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Table A2. Coverage of MDG7 environmental baselines and targets in the full PRSPs Access to safe water (%) Access to adequate sanitation (%) Tenure (%) Complementary programmatic / Base Complementary Base Complementary PRSP Base Complementary PRSP operational indicators Country line Target PRSP indicators line Target indicators line Target indicators presented in the PRSP Albania R-45.0 Construction of Land market and Reduction in air U-90.0 two sewage changes in legal, pollution; treatment facilities regulatory, zoning, neutralization of toxic and construction substances codes; low cost dwellings Azerbaijan 50.0 Rehabilitation of Completion of Definition of air Baku water supply sewerage system pollution standards system for Ganja city, and their monitoring; Sumgait and Shabuz reduction of oil and district mercury contamination in soil; treatment of Caspian pollution; waste management; treatment of radioactive pollution Benin R-49.0 100.0 R-64.7 by 2005; 32.2 67.0 by 2005 Housing policy; Reduce malarial deaths U-66.4 decentralization of improved housing from 10.7 in 1998 to supply; tariff for rural and urban 6.2 in 2005; access to policy, cost poor mosquito nets to sharing; 50.0% by 2005; community improvements in air management quality Bolivia Construction of Low-cost housing; wastewater & solid regulation of waste treatment property rights, plants rental housing, and tenant law Burkina Faso Establishment of Vulnerability mapping new water points; reduction in hand pump breakdown Cambodia R-29.0 R-40% and U- R-8.6 R-20% and U-90% Disaster management; U-69.5 87% by 2005; 50 U-49.0 by 2005; area and population percent women rehabilitation of old affected by flood and members in water facilities; sanitation drought; floodplain users associations master plan for zoning; land towns reclamation in Svay Rieng province; management of Stung Mean Chey landfill Ethiopia 30.0 100.0 R-31.4%, U- 29.0 35% by 2005 82.5% by 2005 Gambia R-75.0 R-20.0 Number of urban Adoption of U-95.0 U-60.0 poor with agricultural and natural ownership rights to resource strategy water, electricity, and sanitation at relocated sites 46 Environment Department Papers Appendix B -- Coverage of MDG7 Environmental Baselines and Targets in the Full PRSPs Proportion of population using solid Complementary Area under forest cover (a) /Annual fuels/switch to modern fuels (access to environment deforestation (b) (%) Protected area (%) electricity) (%) policy/regulation Complementary Complementary Complementary indicators Base PRSP programs/ Base PRSP programs / Base PRSP programs / presented in the Country line Target indicators line Target indicators line Target indicators PRSP Guinea 49.0 90.0 R-55% by 2005; % population Land tenure and Increase rate of benefiting reduction occupation security access to safe in infections related guaranteed; access water to 90% by to sanitary to appropriate 2010; Reduce conditions housing; land and deficit levels; For property code and Conarky, increase urban planning code per capita supply from 47litres to 63 liters per day; 5400 more water points by 2005 Guyana 92.0 100.0 97.5% safe water 88.4 93.5% by 2005; 6200 house lots and Enforce the provisions access and 62.3% Rehabilitation of 15,500 land titles to of environmental treated water sewer system, be distributed by protection act focusing access by 2005; construction of 2005; legislation for on air pollution, Improvements in sludge pre- autonomous land effluent discharge, land quality and treatment facility agency; targets for tenure reform; delivery services reducing squatter revenue from holdings; environmental accelerating titles to services; freehold environmental fund Honduras 81.0 95.0 Water and 70.2 95.0 Law for Early warning on sanitation sector modernizing environmental risks; law housing sector; no. preparedness and of owner titles management of issues; no. of natural hazards; settlements with reduce pm10 adequate norms; particulate air pollution self-help housing from 1100 ug/m3 in program; title 2000 to 200ug/m3 in regulation 2015 Kyrgyz Rep. R-15.0* * Refers to tap 40% by 2005; 1 National water U-90.2* water million tons of solid resources strategy and connections; waste treatment cadastre of land and volume of nitrite, per year water resources chloride, chromium, and sulfate contaminants Malawi 65.6 84% by 2005; 81.4 Fiscal incentives for rehabilitation of deep water fisheries rural gravity fed and forest plantations piped water schemes & multi- purpose earth dams Mali 57.0 Rate of villages 8.0 Collections and % of households Reduction of CO2 and benefiting from at processing of urban with rented housing lead emissions from least 1 water solid waste; and own housing transportation point; % increase % household with in population with sewage disposal drinking water system Environmental Economics Series 47 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Proportion of population using solid Complementary Area under forest cover (a) /Annual fuels/switch to modern fuels (access to environment deforestation (b) (%) Protected area (%) electricity) (%) policy/regulation Complementary Complementary Complementary indicators Base PRSP programs/ Base PRSP programs / Base PRSP programs / presented in the Country line Target indicators line Target indicators line Target indicators PRSP Mozambique R-12.0 R-40.0% and U- Increase the system Statutory Regulations on U-44.0 50.0% by 2004; of improved latrines instruments on the environmental legislative to 50% by 2004 use of urban lands; standards, CFC, and framework to housing support marine pollution support private fund; distribution of participation in 14,600 plots in rural water supply areas and 27000 plots in urban areas for low cost housing Nicaragua R-39.0 100.0 Increase national R-70.0 95.0 Increase national Construction of U-66.5 potable access U-64.8 sanitation access by floor and roof for coverage by 1.4% 4.0% and urban 100,000 and per year and 2.4% population by reconstruction of per year in rural 1.7% per annum damaged houses in areas hurricane Mitch Niger 52.0 100.0 Rural water R-7.0 Increase rural Improved housing coverage to U-75.0 sanitation to 50.0% 70.0% by 2005. by 2005 Radius of safe water coverage; coverage per water point; mini water supply system implementation rate Rwanda 52.0 72.0 Water source; 10.0 56.0 Access to basic volume of water services of water, used; time spent in sanitation, lighting water collection and energy Senegal R-83.3 R- Quality and U-37.0 Combined drinking New construction Restoration of U-93.3 100.0 accessibility; per water and sanitation code; fund to fisheries; protection of U- capita daily water access in rural support tenure of marine and coastal 100.0 from 28ltr (2000) areas; sanitation vulnerable groups; environment; anti- to 35ltr (2015); accounts for 1.2% low cost housing; desertification water accounts of infrastructure initiatives; restoration for 8.3% of expenditure; of fragile lands; dams infrastructure sanitation and and anti-salinization expenditure; hygiene promotion dykes; pollution desalination project control and solid facilities; waste management deepening wells; bore holes Sri Lanka R-74.0 100.0 70.0 by 2005; 79.0 R-72.0 0.78 million slum U-97.0 by 2010 U-91.0 population currently in Colombo with average dwelling size 20 sq.mts; one tap for 128 persons and one toilet for 36 persons Tajikistan 51.2 80.0 23.0 National environmental program and action plan; pollution control; regulatory framework; program to combat desertification 48 Environment Department Papers Appendix B -- Coverage of MDG7 Environmental Baselines and Targets in the Full PRSPs Proportion of population using solid Complementary Area under forest cover (a) /Annual fuels/switch to modern fuels (access to environment deforestation (b) (%) Protected area (%) electricity) (%) policy/regulation Complementary Complementary Complementary indicators Base PRSP programs/ Base PRSP programs / Base PRSP programs / presented in the Country line Target indicators line Target indicators line Target indicators PRSP Uganda Boreholes drilled, Sanitary facilities in springs and schools and markets shallow wells protected; quality of water sources Vietnam 85.0 Water and air % towns and cities 100.0 % households living Rate of poor falling quality with 100 percent in slums; % towns back into poverty due waste water treated and cities with to natural disasters and 100 percent more than 5 solid waste disposal; percent land area rate of households covered under with hygiene slums; % towns and latrines cities with more than 10 percent under temporary houses by 2010 Yemen R-55.0 R-65% and U- R-6.2 R-8.0% and U- Fishery management U-64.0 69% by 2005; cost U-33.0 44.0% by 2005; and fishery promotion recovery; waste water fund; coral reef restructuring sanitation in rural protection; water water sector and urban areas database Zambia R-37.0 R-75.0 No. of water R-68.0 R-80.0 Volume of water Air pollution - 500 U-89.0 U- points; distance to U-73.0 U- treated µg/m3 100.0 water supply; 100.0 Water pollution (NO3, volume of water DO & PH) 6.36 mg treated; no. of people trained; D-WASHE committees Environmental Economics Series 49 Appendix C -- Countries in the Interim PRSP/PRSP Preparation and Implementation Stages Implementation S. No Country Region IPRSP PRSP progress report 1 Albania Europe & Central Asia Dec 4, 2001 April 2002 2 Armenia Europe & Central Asia Jan 11, 2001 3 Azerbaijan Europe & Central Asia May 22, 2001 May 14, 2003 4 Benin Sub Saharan Africa July 13, 2000 Feb 23 2002 5 Bolivia L. America & Caribbean Jan 27, 2000 June 5, 2001 6 Bosnia & Herzegovina Eastern Europe Oct. 2, 2002 7 Burkina Faso Sub Saharan Africa June 30, 2000 Dec 6, 2001, Sept 2002 8 Chad Sub Saharan Africa July 25, 2000 9 Cameroon Sub Saharan Africa Oct 10, 2000 10 Cambodia East Asia Jan 18, 2001 Feb 2003 . 11 Cape Verde Sub Saharan Africa April 8, 2002 12 Central African Rep. Sub Saharan Africa Jan 18, 2001. 13 Congo, DR Sub Saharan Africa June 11, 2002 14 Cote D'Ivoire Sub Saharan Africa March 28, 2002 15 Djibouti Middle East & N. Africa Feb 27, 2001 16 Ethiopia Sub Saharan Africa Mar 20, 2001 Sept 17, 2002 17 Gambia Sub Saharan Africa Dec 14, 2000 July 16, 2002 18 Georgia Europe & Central Asia Dec 19, 2000 19 Ghana Sub Saharan Africa Aug. 24, 2000 March 4, 2003 20 Guinea Sub Saharan Africa Dec. 22, 2000 July 25, 2002 21 Guinea Bissau Sub Saharan Africa Dec. 14, 2000 22 Guyana L. America & Caribbean Nov 14, 2000 Sept 17, 2002 . 23 Honduras L. America & Caribbean July 6, 2000 Oct 11, 2001 24 Indonesia East Asia May, 2003 25 Kenya Sub Saharan Africa Aug 1, 2000 26 Kyrgyz Rep. Europe & Central Asia July 5, 2001 Jan 23, 2003 27 Lao PDR East Asia April 24, 2001 28 Lesotho Sub Saharan Africa March 6, 2001 29 Mali Sub Saharan Africa Sept 7, 2000 Feb 27, 2003 30 Malawi Sub Saharan Africa Dec 21, 2000 Aug 29, 2002 31 Madagascar Sub Saharan Africa Dec 19, 2000 32 Mauritania Sub Saharan Africa Feb 6, 2001 Sept 25, 2001 June 18, 2002 33 Moldova Europe & Central Asia Dec 14, 2000 34 Mongolia East Asia Sept 27, 2001 35 Mozambique Sub Saharan Africa April 6, 2000 Oct 1, 2001 April 2003 36 Nicaragua L. America & Caribbean Dec 21, 2000 Sept 25, 2001 . 37 Niger Sub Saharan Africa Dec 20, 2000 Feb 7, 2002 38 Pakistan South Asia Dec 4, 2001 Environmental Economics Series 51 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability Implementation S. No Country Region IPRSP PRSP progress report 39 Rwanda Sub Saharan Africa Dec 21, 2000 Aug 6, 2002 40 Sao Tome & Prin. Sub Saharan Africa April 27, 2000 41 Senegal Sub Saharan Africa June 20, 2000 Nov 20, 2002 42 Sierra Leone Sub Saharan Africa Sept 25, 2001 43 Sri Lanka South Asia March 7, 2003 44 Tajikistan Europe & Central Asia June 8, 2000. Oct 10, 2002 45 Tanzania Sub Saharan Africa April 4, 2000 Nov. 30, 2000 Nov 27, 2001, March 2003 46 Uganda Sub Saharan Africa Nov. 30, 2000 March 2001, 2002 47 Vietnam East Asia April 12, 2001 July 2, 2002 48 Yemen Middle East & N. Africa Nov 27, 2001 Aug 2002 49 Yugoslavia, FR Europe & Central Asia June 20, 2002 50 Zambia Sub Saharan Africa August 4, 2000 May 22, 2002 52 Environment Department Papers Notes 1. We use "PRSPs" as shorthand for both interim and World Bank and IMF (2002g): An Issues and full PRSPs when the distinction is not Paper for the January 2002 Conference. important. 7. However, see Markandya et al (forthcoming) for 2. The targets of the MDG were first set out by a regional perspective (Eastern Europe and international conferences held in the 1990s, and Central Asia) on MDG7. later compiled as a joint UN, World Bank, and 8. The eight pre-WSSD Millennium Development IMF publication, A Better World for All: Progress Goals form a framework that comprises 18 Towards International Development Goals in June targets and 48 indicators. Additional targets and 2000. The UN General Assembly adopted these indicators are expected to evolve as exemplified goals in September 2000, as part of the by the WSSD Plan of Implementation. Millennium Development Declaration. In 2001, The 9. The World Development Report 2003 (World UN General Assembly recognized the Bank 2002f, p. 166) shows how the forces of Millennium Development Goals as part of the deforestation vary considerably across regions. Road Map Towards Implementation of the United Smallholders in Africa now use most of the Nations Millennium Declaration for implementing closed canopy forest cleared 1990-2000, while the 8 goals supported by 18 targets and 48 large-scale agriculture is practiced in most indicators. See worldbank.org/mdg for details. cleared forest areas of Latin America. 3. See DFID, EC, UNDP, and World Bank (2002): 10. Some 1 billion people worldwide depend on Linking the Poverty Reduction and Environmental drugs derived from forest plants for their Management for a discussion. medicinal needs. 4. In a broader context, the World Bank 11. In most national level energy statistics, solid systematically monitors all the MDGs (formerly fuels are described in the context of coal, lignite, known as International Development Goals, and other raw materials. Though biomass fuels IDGs) and presents overviews on a special form part of solid fuel usage, data on biomass website: http://sima/mdg/ (internally) and energy is not reported in the national energy http://www.developmentgoals.org statistics due to lack of time series data on (externally). This monitoring is not directly biomass production and consumption. In this linked to the PRS-process. study, we consider biomass fuels under solid 5. A comprehensive introduction to PRSPs is and traditional fuel sources. contained in Klugman (2002) 12. The indicator is interpreted here as reasonable 6. See World Bank and IMF (2002h): Review of the access, i.e. per capita water availability of at Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Approach: Early least 20 liters/day from a source within one Experience with interim PRSPs and Full PRSPs, kilometer (World Bank 2002b). Improved water Environmental Economics Series 53 Poverty Reduction Strategies and the Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability source refers to household connection, public countries over two decades, 1980-90 and 1990- standpipe, borehole, protected well or spring, 2000. or rainwater collection, while unimproved 20. Protected areas are classified on the basis of sources include vendors, tanker trucks, and IUCN management categories I (strict unprotected wells and springs (WHO 2000a). protection) to VI (sustainable use) to distinguish 13. The targets adopted at the WSSD 2002 and their according to the degree of protection. Category relevance to PRSPs are discussed in Appendix IV (protected area established to maintain the A. habitat of species of interest) is significant in 14. Though demands on interim PRSPs are lower terms of the number, and accounts for about than those for full PRSPs, commitment to MDGs half the total number of protected areas, while is explicitly suggested in the IMF and World Category II (national park) is significant in Bank Guidelines for the Joint Staff Assessment of terms of the area, and accounts for about one- interim PRSPs: "It would be desirable if the third of area under protection. government could indicate its commitment to 21. Protected areas of at least 1,000 ha as per legal progress towards the International statutes in a country. Development Goals." (World Bank and IMF 22. According to WCMC estimates, proportion of 2000, p. 3) land area protected globally has increased from 15. The national definitions of income poverty 7.5% of (about 1 billion ha) in 1990 to 9.5% (1.28 differ. International estimates define poverty billion ha) in 2000. incidence as per capita income of less than $1/ 23. Though current area under protection (9.5% of day in constant 1985 purchasing power parity the geographical area) is close to the informal (PPP), updated to $1.08 in constant 1993 PPP target of 10 percent land area under protection, dollars, and is conventionally referred to as $1/ it is not uniformly distributed in each major day per capita (Chen and Ravallion 2000). For a ecological region as envisaged. discussion on the role of poverty indices in 24. See IEA/OECD (1998) World Energy Outlook policy analysis, see Myles and Picot (2000). 1998. 16. The coverage and treatment of environment 25. The traditional energy dependence reflects three issues in PRSPs is examined separately, see major trends: volume ­ constant per capita Bojö and Reddy (2002) consumption linked to population growth, 17. Albania PRSP notes that forests occupy 36% of efficiency ­ transformational processes decrease land area and over the last 20 years, and the the demand through improved efficiency, and sector has been plagued with uncontrolled substitution ­ of traditional fuels with modern deforestation. fuels due to changes in income and pricing. 18. The PRSP of Ethiopia notes that biomass is a Most energy assessments of countries focus major source of energy for 76 percent rural only on volume trend. households that collect fuelwood and for 41 26. Good practice examples of private initiatives in percent of urban households that use purchase renewable energy are beginning to emerge in fuelwood. About 22 percent and 1 percent of several African countries. In Kenya, the urban households, respectively, use decentralized off-grid systems developed by kerosene and electricity for cooking. eight private sector companies provide 19. The negative deforestation rates in Figure 1 electricity to more rural households than those indicate net increase in the forest area of PRSP from the grid. About 20,000 rural households 54 Environment Department Papers References have purchased solar systems totaling more 34. MSY is the maximum yield that can be obtained than 1 MW of installed capacity. In Senegal, perpetually. adoption of 2000 rural solar home systems and 35. Abundance is the ratio of spawning biomass (B) additional demand encouraged private and to virgin biomass (Bv). It is used to measure the public sector collaboration for building a state of marine resources and is estimated using photovoltaic solar panel factory. trawl and acoustical surveys. Under logistical 27. Sources of water received from vendors, model, MSY conditions occur when the stock tankers, unprotected wells, and springs are not size is 50 percent of virgin stock. An abundance included in the definition on safe water, and are ratio of 0.5 to 1.0 is rated good; 0.3 to 0.5 fairly therefore considered unimproved. good; 0.2 to 0.3 average; and 0.1 to 0.2 as poor. 28. Data presented in the World Development Fishing pressure is the ratio of fishing mortality Indicators 2002 is also based on the Joint (F) to fishing mortality at MSY (FMSY). It may be Monitoring Program database. decomposed into catch structure reflecting the size, composition, and quantity of production. 29. Unimproved sanitation refers to public latrines, Downward shift in fishing pressure indicates bucket latrines, and open pit disposal systems. fishing down the food chain. Assuming a target 30. The systematic differences in the estimates of reference point of F to be 60 to 80% of (FMSY), a UIP surveys may be observed from the World fishing pressure ratio of 0.6 to 0.8 is rated good; Development Indicators 2002, p 174-77 0.8 to 1.0 fairly good; 1.0 to 1.3 average; and 1. 31. 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