65980 V I E T N A M D E V E L O P M E N T R E P O RT 2 0 1 2 MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM Joint Donor Report to the Vietnam Consultative Group Meeting December 06, 2011 Consultation Draft Vietnam Development Report 2012 MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM Joint Donor Report to the Vietnam Consultative Group Meeting December 06, 2011 VIETNAM GOVERNMENT FISCAL YEAR January 1 to December 31 CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS (Exchange rate effective as of November 30, 2011) Currency Unit US$1.00 = VND21,008 Weights and Measures Metric System ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ADB Asian Development Bank MOT Ministry of Transport ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian MOU Memorandum of Understanding Nations MPI Ministry of Planning and Investment BIDV Bank for Investment and PFM Public Finance Management Development of Vietnam PIM Public Investment management CAMS Changing Attitudes toward Market and State PMB Provincial Management Board CEOs Chief Executive Officers PMS Performance Monitoring Systems CIEM Central Institute for Economic PPC Provincial People Committee Management ODA Official Development Assistance CPSEs Central Public Sector Enterprises SCIC State Capital Investment CPI Consumer Price Index Corporation CPV Communist Party of Vietnam SEDP Socio-Economic Development Plan EGs Economic Groups SEDS Socio-Economic Development Strategy EVN Electricity of Vietnam SEG State Economic Group EZ Economic Zone SOCB State-Owned Commercial Bank VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 FDI Foreign Direct Investment SOE State-Owned Enterprise GCs General Corporations TEU Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit GDP Gross Domestic Product VCCI Vietnam Chamber of Commerce and Industry GSO General Statistics Office VDR Vietnam Development Report IMF International Monetary Fund VND Vietnam Dong IP Industrial Park VNPT Vietnam Post and Telecommunication IPO Initial Public Offering WTO World Trade Organization JSB Joint Stock Bank JSC Joint Stock Company 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Vietnam Development Report (VDR) 2012 is a Joint Report of Development Partners, prepared to serve an one of the inputs for the 2011 Consultative Group meeting. It has been prepared by a World Bank team in close collaboration with the ‘Donor Working Group,’ comprising of the following members: Dominic Mellor, Dao Viet Dung and Tomoyuki Kimura (ADB), Andy Isbister and Nguyen Quang Anh (AusAID), Joanne Pindera and Andrew Smith (CIDA), Nguyen Thi Ngoc Minh and Renwick Irvine (DFID), Bryan Fornari and Sion Morton (EU), Sylvain Fourriere and Nguyen Thi Vinh Ha (French Embassy), Rainer Stachuletz, Vera Wohlgemuth-Lohse, Nguyen Thanh Hai and Carlos Jahnsen-Gutierrez (GIZ), Mags Gayor (Irish Aid), Toshio Ngase and Murooka Naomichi (JICA), Steven Collet and Job Runhaar (Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands) and Adam Ross (US Embassy). The VDR 2012 partnered with a number of academic and research institutions to prepare several of its background studies. The valuable contributions of the following researchers and scholars are gratefully acknowledged: Bill Allan, Prof. Dr. Le Xuan Ba, Mr.Tran Kim Chung, Mr.Tran Tien Cuong, Mr. Nguyen Canh Nam (CIEM), Mdm. Pham Chi Lan (Economist), Mr. Truong Dinh Tuyen (Advisor to Prime Minister), Mr. Tran Huu Huynh, Mr. Dau Anh Tuan and Mr. Tran Van Hai (VCCI), Johnathan Pincus and Nguyen Xuan Thanh (Fulbright Economics Teaching Program), Claudio Dordi (MUTRAP III), Mr. Nguyen Viet Hung, Mr. Nguyen Huu Hieu, Mr. Nguyen Quang Thuan (Nexus Group). In addition, the preparation of the report involved consultations with a number of researchers and practitioners including Mr. Le Dang Doanh (Economist).The team benefitted from discussion with a number of government officials including MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM Mr. Nguyen Hong Long (SAV), Mr. Le Manh Hung (MPI), Mr. Hoang Hai (MOF), and Mr. Le Long (SCIC). The World Bank team was led by Deepak Mishra, and comprised of Bo Thi Hong Mai, Chul Ju Kim, Dinh Tuan Viet, Doan Hong Quang, Habib Rab, Ivailo V. Izvorski, James Anderson, Keiko Kubota, Nguyen Nguyet Nga, Nguyen Phuong Anh, Nguyen Tam Giang, Pham Minh Duc, Sameer Goyal, Sunita Kikeri,Tran Thi Lan Huong, Trieu Quoc Viet, Valerie J. Kozel, Vu Hoang Quyen. Nguyen Lan Phuong provided excellent research support and coordinated the translation and printing of the report. Nguyen Hong Ngan provided support and advice on the communication strategy. The report was edited by Diane Stamm and peer reviewed by Mr. Nguyen Dinh Cung (CIEM), Vikram Nehru (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace), and Ahmad Ahsan (World Bank). It also benefitted from helpful comments and inputs from a number of colleagues including Christian Bodewig, Cung Van Pham, Douglas Graham, Lan Van Nguyen, Mel Blunt (Consultant), Myla Taylor Williams and Steven Jaffee. VDR 2012 was prepared under the overall guidance and direction of Victoria Kwakwa, Country Director of the World Bank in Vietnam. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 Transition, Transformation, and Tribulations...............................................................................................................................9 I. Context and Key Findings.........................................................................................................................................................10 II. Factors Underpinning the Initial Success..........................................................................................................................11 II.A Different Initial Conditions ........................................................................................................................................................12 II.B A Bottom-up, Gradualist Approach......................................................................................................................................13 II.C Policy Reforms and Incentive Structure .............................................................................................................................14 II.D Using External Commitments to Shape Domestic Reforms................................................................................14 II.E Role of Human Capital, Entrepreneurship, and the Party-State System .......................................................15 III. Changes, Challenges, and Contradictions ........................................................................................................................16 III.A Declining Productivity...................................................................................................................................................................16 III.B Macroeconomic Stability............................................................................................................................................................17 III.C Fragmented Development and Institutional Inertia...................................................................................................18 IV. Organization of the VDR...........................................................................................................................................................19 V. Embracing Markets......................................................................................................................................................................20 Chapter 2 A Level Playing Field: Reforming the State-Owned Sector..........................................................................................................................................23 VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 I. Context and Key Findings.........................................................................................................................................................24 II. The State Sector: Size, Importance, and Efficiency.....................................................................................................26 II. A Large but Declining Importance ...........................................................................................................................................26 II. B Is State Ownership Larger Than We Think? A Case Study of the Banking Sector.....................................28 II. C Intensive but Inefficient User of Resources .............................................................................................................31 III. Public Attitude Toward State Ownership in the Enterprise Sector ..................................................................34 IV. Government’s Approach to SOE Reform ......................................................................................................................35 V. Ten Reasons in Favor of Restructuring..............................................................................................................................37 VI. Reform Options .............................................................................................................................................................................42 VI.A More Disclosure..............................................................................................................................................................................44 VI.B Improved Regulation and Corporate Governance.....................................................................................................45 6 VI.C Accelerating Equitization..........................................................................................................................................................46 VI.D Strengthening Monitoring and Oversight........................................................................................................................47 VI.E Making SOEs Accountable......................................................................................................................................................48 VI.F Pace and Sequence of the Reform Program................................................................................................................50 Chapter 3 Doing More for Less: Improving the Effectivness of Public Investment .................................................................53 I. Context and Key Findings.........................................................................................................................................................54 II. Industrial Parks: Boon or Bane?..............................................................................................................................................59 II.A Build It and They Will Come ....................................................................................................................................................60 II.B What is Driving the IP Boom? ................................................................................................................................................62 III. The Relocation of the HCMC Port System: Why The Gridlock?.......................................................................66 IV. Underutilized Port! The Case of Cai Mep–Thi Vai Port Complex...................................................................69 IV.A What Explains the Underutilization of Port Capacity?............................................................................................70 V. Policy Options .................................................................................................................................................................................72 MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM Chapter 4 Feeding a Market Economy: Role of Information and Transparency .......................................................................77 I. The Context ...................................................................................................................................................................................78 II. The Importance of Transparency For Market Economies .....................................................................................80 III. Fiscal Transparency in Vietnam................................................................................................................................................82 II.A Current Status ................................................................................................................................................................................82 III.B Areas in Need of Greater Attention....................................................................................................................................83 IV. Making Access to Information Fast and Fair ......................................................................................................................85 V. Conclusion.........................................................................................................................................................................................87 References ................................................................................................................................................................................................88 7 Chapter 1 TRANSITION,TRANSFORMATION, AND TRIBULATIONS Vietnam Development Report 2012 MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM I CONTEXT AND KEY percent annual growth in per capita income over the next decade—requiring the country to FINDINGS replicate and sustain the economic success it achieved in the last 10 years. The Socio-Economic Development Strategy goes on to identify the country’s key priorities to meet this ambitious 1. Vietnam’s transition to a market economy target: stabilize the economy, build world-class has transformed the country and the lives of its infrastructure, create a skilled labor force, and people. In 1986, Vietnam launched Àöíi Múái—a strengthen market-based institutions. homegrown, political and economic renewal campaign—that marked the beginning of its 3. Meeting these aspirations will not be easy. transition from a centrally planned economy to a The country has experienced bouts of socialist-oriented market economy. At that time, macroeconomic turbulence in recent years— Vietnam was one of the poorest countries in the double-digit inflation, depreciating currency, capital world, and with many problems: hyperinflation, flight, and loss of international reserves—eroding famine, drastic cuts in Soviet aid, and a trade investor confidence. Rapid growth has revealed embargo by the west.1 For most Vietnamese, life new structural problems. The quality and was harsh and the future looked bleak. When sustainability of growth remain a source of concern, measured against this backdrop, the economic given the resource-intensive pattern of growth, high performance of the last 20 years has been levels of pollution, lack of diversification and value impressive. Between 1990 and 2010, Vietnam’s addition in exports, and the declining contribution of economy has grown at an annual average rate of productivity to growth. Vietnam’s competitiveness is 7.3 percent, and the per capita income almost under threat because power generation has not kept quintupled. The rapid expansion of the economy pace with demand, logistical costs and real estate has been accompanied by high levels of growth prices have climbed, and skill shortages are becoming of international trade; large-scale inflows of more widespread (National Competitiveness Report foreign direct investment; a dramatic reduction in 2010; SEDS 2011; VDR 2010). The country also poverty; and almost universal access to primary faces many new social challenges: vulnerability is education, health care, and life-sustaining increasing, poverty is becoming concentrated among infrastructure such as paved roads, electricity, ethnic minorities, rural-urban disparity is growing, and piped water, and housing. Vietnam’s transition the pace of job creation is slowing. These problems, from a centrally planned economy to a market taken together, pose a serious threat to Vietnam’s economy and from an extremely poor country medium-term socioeconomic aspirations. to a lower-middle-income country in less than 20 years—is now a case study in development 4. Vietnam has a strong track record of textbooks.2 formulating successful policy as a pragmatic response to national circumstances. Vietnam’s 2. But Vietnam’s other transition—to becoming VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 success of the past 25 years, as discussed below, an industrialized and modern economy—has is due to a number of factors: (a) starting the barely begun. According to its recently approved transition from a low base and with fewer Socio-Economic Development Strategy for distortions, (b) pursuing a gradual and bottom- 2011–2020, Vietnam aspires to achieve a per up reform process, (c) getting the broad policy capita income level of US$3,000 (in current U.S. reforms and incentive structure right, (d) dollars) by 2020. This translates into a nearly 10 embracing outward-oriented trade and investment policies, and (e) the enabling role of human capital, entrepreneurship, and the party- 1 With a per capita gross domestic product of US$98 (in current state system. With the low-hanging fruit already U.S. dollars), Vietnam was indeed the poorest country in the world in 1990. The next two countries with the second- and harvested, however, the issues that remain third-lowest per capita income were Somalia (US$139) and unaddressed—the “unfinished agendaâ€? of Sierra Leone (US$163). In terms of per capita gross domestic product adjusted for purchasing power parity, Vietnam was transition—deal with the more complex issues of among the 20 poorest countries in the world. building market-based institutions and rebalancing 10 2 See, for example, Growth Commission (2009). the equilibrium between the state and the mature market economies must constantly market.3 Can Vietnam face its next set of change, update, and fine-tune their policies and challenges? institutions to keep up with the changing times. Therefore, VDR 2012 does not have answers to 5. As the country celebrates the Silver Jubilee all the economic challenges facing Vietnam, nor of Àöíi Múái, this Vietnam Development Report does it contain an exhaustive list of policy (VDR 2012) looks ahead at some of the pressing suggestions for successful transition. Rather, it issues Vietnam needs to tackle to build a strong aims to contribute to the ongoing discussion on foundation for its quest to become an some of the most pressing and sensitive issues industrialized country by 2020. According to the involving Vietnam’s future. recently approved five-year plan, three areas that need urgent attention are restructuring of the 7. The rest of the Report is organized as state-owned enterprises (SOEs), improving the follows. The rest of Chapter 1 discusses the effectiveness of public expenditure and stabilizing factors that have contributed to Vietnam’s success the financial sector. The analysis undertaken in this and explores the emerging challenges. Chapter report focuses on first two of these priorities. 2 explores the issue of restructuring SOEs. First, it shows that the SOEs, which own fixed Chapter 3 examines the challenges of the public capital (land and credit) disproportionate to their investment program and how to raise its size, are less efficient at using them than nonstate effectiveness. Chapter 4 discusses the low level and foreign enterprises—requiring restructuring of transparency to support Vietnam’s middle- of the state-owned sector. Second, the analysis income status—a critical issue that needs to be finds that Vietnam is allocating its public resources tackled if Vietnam is to achieve its socioeconomic in a way that is creating a suboptimal and aspirations. fragmented infrastructure at the local level that does not always contribute to building an effective II infrastructure system at the national level, thus justifying changes to the allocation mechanism. FACTORS The report then identifies the reasons for SOE UNDERPINNING THE inefficiencies and ineffectiveness in public INITIAL SUCCESS investment and offers some broad policy options for discussion.4 8. Vietnam’s transition to a market economy MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM 6. Transition is a journey and not a destination. has been subject to much research. During the While it is easy to define Vietnam’s initial point in last two decades, numerous books and reports its journey to becoming a market economy, there have been written documenting Vietnam’s is unlikely to be a finish line. Even the most transition to a market economy. Many multilateral organizations have commissioned reports and several national and international scholars have written on the topic.5 The discussion in this section draws lessons from past success to inform 3 While in the post-global financial crisis of 2008–09 the future debate, and is not meant to be an pendulum has swung away from the market to the state in most advanced economies, in Vietnam the state has always played the exhaustive exploration of factors explaining leading role. However, the disappointing economic performance Vietnam’s transitional success.6 of the last few years has led many Vietnamese policy makers and national scholars to ask whether, in the case of their country, the pendulum needs to swing away from the state and toward the market. Interestingly, many International Financial Institutions in Vietnam have taken a more cautious stand on this issue (preferring gradual change) compared to national scholars, who seem to be calling for far-reaching changes, including some who have called for a second Àöíi Múái. 4 The third area, consolidating the financial sector, is beyond the scope of this report. It will however be discussed by other 5 See the list of references at the end of the report. ongoing work including soon to be launched joint World- 6 For more comprehensive discussion on transition, see Arkadie and Mallon (2003), IMF (1996) and ADB (2006). 11 Bank/IMF Financial Sector Assessment Program Figure 1.1 Vietnam’s Output Performance Relative to other Transitional Economies Sources: WDI 2010; http://www.databasece.com/en/gdp-during-transition; WB estimates. 9. Vietnam stands out as a clear success story II.A DIFFERENT INITIAL among the transitional economies. The transition CONDITIONS in Eastern Europe proved to be a complex and problematic process, with recurrent economic 10. At the start of its transition,Vietnam was the crises, involving some combination of factors poorest and the least industrialized of all the including falling output, declining average incomes, transitional countries—which in hindsight sharp increases in poverty, rising mortality and seems to be an advantage.7 Its economy was falling birthrates, and rapid inflation (figure 1.1) never subjected to the same level of effective (World Bank 2002). However, Vietnam also centralized control as in the Former Soviet Union experienced high rates of economic growth, rising and Eastern European transitional economies investment, vigorous exports, and a sharp drop in (Arkadie and Mallon 2003). For example, the list inflation, with a program of limited and gradual of commodities allocated under plans was always reform. Moreover, the changes in Vietnam limited compared to the Soviet material balance occurred in the context of the continuation of system. Similarly, the SOE sector in Vietnam single-party rule, high levels of state intervention, accounted for a small part of nonagricultural and significant direct control of production VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 production, 29 percent, and an even smaller part through the SOEs. Why did Vietnam succeed of employment, 16 percent, unlike other while so many other countries failed? transitional economies where the share of SOEs in total output was 75 to 95 percent (IMF 1996). While the transitional economies of Eastern Europe had achieved a higher level of 7 Given our focus on Vietnam, there is much about other transition industrialization under the central planning system countries that may have been neglected here. For example, the former Yugoslavia broke into five (now seven) different countries with the development of heavy industry, much of and had a war. The Soviet Union broke into 15 countries, each of the existing capital stock was found to be which had to establish new sets of political institutions and legal frameworks. Some borders remain in dispute to this day. There uncompetitive. Thus, while Vietnam could were wars in Caucuses and Tajikstan. Czechoslovakia broke into continue to use a large part of its pre-transition two separate countries. The need to establish new political institutions and legal frameworks, dealing with international and capital, other transitional countries often had to domestic security, and addressing the collapse of the socialist rebuild new capital stock, thereby experiencing a trading system and soviet aid must have posed massive challenges to transition countries in Eastern Eurpoe, much of which Vietnam 12 was spared. significant drop in output, primarily in the 13. Agrarian collectivization was an important industrial sector, in the initial years.8,9 part of socialist strategy. This was particularly true in the North, where the cooperatives were 11. Another important feature was the relative developed both as productive units and as importance of the rural sector and the providers of social services. The experience of dominant role of household units in Vietnam’s the South, and in particular the Mekong Delta, agriculture production. Arkadie and Mallon was somewhat different. There were two (2003), Lin (2010), and others have argued that successive waves of collectivization in the Vietnam, like China, was largely an agrarian Mekong, in 1979–80 and then in the early 1980s, economy at the time of transition, so its although collectives never played as decisive a production structure was broadly consistent with role in the southern rural economy as they had its comparative advantage. Therefore, when in the North.11 As has been documented, many Vietnam opened its economy to domestic and of the agricultural reforms were inspired by the external competition, its agricultural sector resistance of farmers in the Mekong Delta to responded vigorously to changes that incentivized collectivization after reunification. In particular, it agriculture—offsetting any contraction in the relates to farmers’ refusal to grow rice beyond industrial sector. For example, Party Resolution the need to satisfy their household requirements. No. 10, passed in 1988, provided farmers with Some senior policy makers witnessed the benefits property rights (albeit limited), which the Party of household farming and later formulated Secretary-General, Do Muoi, argued was a turning point in agricultural development. The policies to encourage similar changes throughout limited property rights, along with price and trade the country (Dixon 2003; Rama 2009).12 They reforms, contributed to sustaining agricultural decollectivized agriculture, established land-user growth, generated the surplus necessary to rights, reduced the role of cooperatives, liberalized diversify into nonagricultural sectors, and agricultural prices, and encouraged farmers to strengthened the resilience of the economy.10 export—transforming the country from being chronically food deficient to the third-largest exporter of rice in two years. 13 II.B A BOTTOM-UP, 14. Another example of step-by-step reform GRADUALIST APPROACH can be seen in the development of market institutions. Unlike many other transitional 12. Reform in Vietnam, certainly in its early countries, Vietnam did not entirely do away with stages, was bottom-up and gradual, focusing MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM its pre-reform economic institutions and heavily on productive units. The incremental structures, but rather adapted and reoriented process meant that at each step the effectiveness them to changing times. Instead of complete of new institutions and policies were tested and destruction of old institutions as a prelude to the adjusted to Vietnamese conditions. This process installation of new mechanisms, many reforms was particularly evident in the agricultural sector, were directed at making existing institutions which was subject to a continuous crisis in the work better, while gradually introducing new years prior to the adoption of Àöíi Múái. market institutions. It is, therefore, not an accident that, among the economies closely linked to the 8 Critics have argued, however, that such an interpretation assumes that the problem was simply an overgrowth of the state sector and wrong investment in large capital-intensive projects. This ignores the deeper incentive problems associated 11 Even in Northern and Central Vietnam, farm households were with central planning and direct state involvement in production. an important element of the production system. 9 A possible variant of this hypothesis can be that it was sheer 12 It has been reported that Mr. Do Muoi, the General Secretary desperation—famine, hyperinflation, little or no aid—that responsible for unification, came from Hanoi to visit the farmers pushed Vietnam’s government to reform. In a humorous vein, and told them that what they had done was correct (Howie some call this period reform by the PhDs—the poor, the hungry, 2011). and the driven. 13 Others, however, have cautioned against bottom-up learning, 10 Other initial conditions that helped Vietnam avoid a sharp arguing that “references to grass-roots communities are better decline in output include the timing of natural resource (mainly translated as references to the base of an apparatus,â€? see Fforde oil) exploration, and its location in one of the most dynamic and and Vylder (1996). fastest growing regions in the world. 13 Former Soviet Union, Vietnam was unique for its l Price and trade liberalization: (a) Liberalizing swift adjustment with the least disruptions most industrial prices by the end of 1988, and (Dollar 1999).14 the few remaining prices that were controlled for official (state) customers, such as those of cement, steel, and electricity, were generally set II.C POLICY REFORMS AND close to free-market values; (b) devaluing the official exchange rate and aligning it closely to INCENTIVE STRUCTURE the rate in the parallel market; (c) eliminating export subsidies; (d) allowing retention of 15. Perhaps the most fundamental change foreign currency earnings; (e) liberalizing trade, during the first few years of its transition is the in particular by allowing production slew of policy changes aimed at raising the enterprises to trade directly abroad, thereby efficiency of the enterprise sector, boosting dismantling the tight and bureaucratic grip of production in agriculture, opening the economy the trading companies; (f) creating export to foreign trade and investment, and reforming the processing zones and industrial parks; and (g) government. Several of the key policy changes in abolishing internal customs checkpoints (ADB each of these areas include (ADB 2006; IMF 1996): 2006; IMF 1996). l State-Owned Enterprises: (a) Replacing central l Labor market liberalization. (a) reducing planning powers with substantial state restrictions on the mobility of labor enabled enterprise autonomy; (b) giving enterprises underemployed people in rural areas to move the authority to set most prices, select to new jobs in urban and peri-urban areas; and appropriate mixes of inputs and outputs, and (b) successive modifications to the labor code determine their own investment; (c) giving formalized labor hiring practices and managers the right to lay off excess workers eliminated obstacles to free labor mobility. based on prescribed guidelines; (d) allowing enterprises the freedom to sell their excess 16. Many of these policies, aimed at boosting production (beyond a centrally planned supply, provided the basis for a successful amount) at market prices for all outputs; and transition. Vietnam’s physical and human capital was (e) imposing hard budget constraints on SOEs. underused as a result of controlled prices and an incentive system that discouraged more production. l Private Business. (a) Reducing restrictions on By rapidly liberalizing prices and instituting an private enterprises; (b) allowing private sector incentive system, the market economy succeeded enterprises equal access to credit and creating where central planning had failed. a legal framework more supportive of their operation; (c) subjecting all enterprises to uniform rules of taxation; (d) allowing all enterprises to establish direct trade links or to II.D USING EXTERNAL VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 use trade companies of their own choice COMMITMENTS TO SHAPE rather than a specific trade channel; (e) DOMESTIC REFORMS15 exposing all enterprises to foreign competition by liberalizing the import regime; and (f) 17. The commitments undertaken by Vietnam in decollectivizing agriculture and establishing a number of regional and multilateral trade land-use rights. agreements—the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Free Trade Area (FTA) in 1995 (including ASEAN FTAs with Australia, China, India, Japan, the Republic of Korea, and New 14 Critics of the gradualist approach to reforms have depicted it as a reflection of a limited understanding of the market, reinforced by inefficiency, corruption, internal opposition, lack of human resources, and the “trial and errorâ€? or “gropingâ€? approach 15 This section draws on a background note prepared by the EU- funded MUTRAP III project. 14 followed by the government. Zealand); Bilateral Trade Agreements with the in explaining the rapid improvements in United States in 2000 and with Japan in 2008; economic performance over the last two and becoming a member of the World Trade decades (Arkadie and Mallon 2003). Vietnam’s Organization (WTO) in 2007—have provided a ability to rapidly exploit existing knowledge was considerable boost to domestic reforms during aided by solid performance in promoting literacy, the transition period. Some of the benefits of numeracy, and broader human development in trade liberalization include (a) a predictable and the pre-reform period. In fact, at the beginning transparent regime for international trade, (b) a of the reform period, Vietnam had much higher substantial reduction of tariffs for domestic literacy rates, life expectancy, and education than manufacturers and exporters, (c) elimination of most other countries with similar levels of per all export subsidies considered illegal by the capita income. The strong human capital base WTO, and (d) liberalization of services such as was complemented by the energy, liveliness, and banking, distribution, construction, health care, entrepreneurial skills of the population and the tourism, insurance, and business services quality of Vietnamese workforce. (auditing, legal, information technology, and research and development). 20. Some economic historians have argued that the Vietnamese party-state system played an 18. Trade liberalization has had a huge positive important role in the country’s smooth impact on Vietnam’s economy. Some of the transition (Dixon 2003). The pre-reform period visible benefits of trade liberalization include a party-state bureaucracy was a complex system significant boost to foreign direct investment, a that connected the central state to all elements resilient export sector, lower prices, and improved of society, extending through many layers to the quality of goods and services. Bilateral trade workplace and small community groupings. These agreements and WTO commitments have led systems enabled decrees, quotas, and policies to Vietnam to introduce important modifications in be transmitted through the systems and were its institutional and administrative systems. For extremely effective in mobilizing people and example, as part of its WTO commitments, organizations at all levels. It is apparent that at all Vietnam publishes an official journal of all the laws, levels, considerable administrative and regulations, and administrative procedures of organizational capacity existed, which explains general application before enforcing them. Vietnam’s remarkable achievements in terms of MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM Moreover, the full texts of the legal acts are such measures as literacy rates, life expectancy, posted on a government website at least 60 days and infant mortality rates even before the onset prior to approval so agencies, organizations, and of the transition. Therefore, Vietnam entered the individuals can submit comments. A study reform period with the ability to focus on long- conducted by the Multilateral Trade Assistance term national goals, and with considerable Project concluded that the impact of ASEAN, plus administrative, managerial, and implementation liberalization on almost all the main trade and capacity, which contributed to its initial success.16 economic indicators, has been largely positive. But as discussed later, with the expanding private sector, the party-state system has found it increasingly difficult to attract and retain talent— II.E ROLE OF HUMAN CAPITAL, causing gradual erosion of its administrative and ENTREPRENEURSHIP, AND management capacity. THE PARTY-STATE SYSTEM 19. Vietnam’s transition to a market economy reduced the barriers to the adoption of existing 16 However, there are others—Fforde and Vylder (1996) and Pike knowledge, which, along with improved 2000, for example—who have suggested that post-1990 growth in Vietnam owed little to the state. incentives and increased competition, is crucial 15 III CHANGES, CHALLENGES, AND CONTRADICTIONS III.A DECLINING PRODUCTIVITY 22. If Vietnam’s initial transition years were marked by “growth with limited resources,â€? the last five years can be labeled as “abundant 21. Vietnam’s economy has grown so rapidly in resources with limited growth.â€? It is well recent years that it is easy to overlook some of documented that the sharp acceleration in growth its lingering challenges. In a span of five years, in Vietnam during the 1990s is not explained by any between 2003 and 2008, Vietnam’s economy sharp increase in capital formation. As shown in more than doubled from US$40 billion to US$90 figure 1.2, nearly 40 to 60 percent of growth during billion, and its exports more than tripled from the 1990s came through productivity growth and US$20 billion to US$63 billion. During this time, the rest through factor accumulation. The situation Vietnam also became a member of the WTO— changed during the 2000s, a period when Vietnam triggering an unprecedented flow of private received record flow of external capital. During this period, productivity accounted for only 15 percent external capital, which reached its peak of 18 of growth, with the remaining accounted by percent of GDP in 2007. Domestically, this period accumulation of physical and human capital. And in coincided with the establishment of State the last four years (2007-10) almost entire growth Economic Groups (SEGs)—a loose alliance of came from factor accumulation. SOEs with similar business interests—and decentralization of investment decisions to the 23. Excessive reliance on factor accumulation to local governments. This period also saw booming support rapid growth is bound to be unsustainable. investment, thriving stock market, escalating real There is a limit to how fast factors can grow to estate prices and rising prosperity all around. It is support a rapidly growing economy. Though Vietnam therefore easy to overlook that this period also has a large population, people with necessary coincided with declining contribution of education and skill to work in industry and services productivity to growth, increased macroeconomic are getting increasingly scarce. This has led the SEDP instability, fragmented development and inability to identify “skills and human capitalâ€? as one of the breakthroughs for the next five years. At the same of public institutions to keep pace with a rapidly time, rapid growth in credit, which is the basis for globalizing economy. brisk growth in capital accumulation, has led to macroeconomic instability, forcing the government to pursue a tighter monetary policy in recent months. Figure 1.2 Growth Has Been Increasingly Based on Factor Accumulation and Not Productivity VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 Sources: CIEM (2010). Note: The estimates for 2009 and 2010 are done by the World Bank. 16 Figure 1.3 Vietnam Has Lower Investment Target and Is Receiving Less FDI Panel A Panel B Sources: SEDP 2011–15; MPI, WB estimates. 24. The government’s recent decision to slash III.B MACROECONOMIC the target investment rate for the next five years makes productivity increase an imperative. STABILITY With no visible improvement in the external 25. Another sign of weakness in Vietnam’s environment and continued macroeconomic economy is its persistent macroeconomic turbulence at home, Vietnamese leaders reached instability. For four years in a row, Vietnam has a decision that the country has to do more with had one of the highest inflation rates in Asia, less, that is, it must maintain its high growth rate, averaging nearly 16 percent a year between 2008 but with a lower investment rate. Therefore, the and 2011. Along with high inflation, Vietnam has government slashed the target investment rate also been coping with persistent pressure on its for the next five years from the current 40 currency, falling levels of foreign exchange percent of GDP to 35 percent of GDP while reserves, an underperforming stock market, high maintaining the growth rate of the economy at 6 MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM sovereign spreads and domestic capital flight. It to 6.5 percent (panel A, figure 1.3). This is also has thus become an exception to the broader consistent with the trend in committed foreign trend of the rest of the emerging markets in Asia, direct investment (FDI), which has been on a which are dealing with appreciating currencies, declining path for some time (panel B, figure 1.3). rising foreign exchange reserves, and increasing Raising productivity will require a paradigm shift capital inflow.18 in the way Vietnam’s economy has operated in the recent past. Fundamental to this new 26. While Vietnam has addressed the symptoms approach will be the restructuring of SOEs, of its macroeconomic problems, it has yet to strengthening the effectiveness of public tackle their root causes. In both 2009 and 2011, investment, and reforming the financial sector— the government took bold measures to curb the three priorities set out by the Party, inflationary expectations and to stabilize the Government and the National Assembly in their economy. But those measures have relied almost recent announcements. (The first two issues are exclusively on tight monetary policy and the subjects of Chapters 2 and 3, respectively, in widespread price and interest rate controls. Some this Report). 17 17 The third issue, reforming the financial sector, will be dealt with 18 See various issues of Taking Stock, December 2010 and June 2011. 17 separately through the Joint World Bank-IMF Financial Sector Assessment Program, to be undertaken in 2012. Figure 1.4 Vietnam Has Seen Sharp Increase in the Level of Capital Flight in Recent Years Sources: WDI 2010; http://www.databasece.com/en/gdp-during-transition; WB estimates. of the root causes of the problems—such as 28. While decentralized,Vietnam’s development inefficiencies in the SOE sector, less effective public process has not been fragmented and localized, infrastructure programs, and the need for greater as it is now. Common purpose and strong transparency and disclosure of information—have leadership had meant the local and national gone unaddressed. Consequently, investors’ governments each contributed in their own ways confidence in the ability of government’s economic to common national goals. But overtime its new management has weakened, triggering economy has developed under a degree of considerable capital outflow—it is estimated that independence from the central system (Probert the cumulative errors and omissions (a proxy for and Young 1995, 520), where the center’s ability capital flight) in the balance of payments in the last to direct activity toward national development three years is equivalent to nearly 30 percent of goals and the means to establish the necessary GDP (figure 1.4) (IMF, 2011). institutional and regulatory framework for sustained growth has weakened. In combination, the reforms and the associated reduction in centralized control have promoted development III. C FRAGMENTED within and closely connected to the SOEs, the DEVELOPMENT AND local administrations, and subsectors of the INSTITUTIONAL INERTIA centralized system. The resulting networks and VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 localized “corporatismâ€? have become major 27. Vietnam has historically been a highly factors in economic change (Grabher and Stark decentralized economy. It has a long tradition of 1998). Thus, lower echelons of the state have relative autonomy of village and communities in emerged as a form of new business elite (Forsyth managing their local economies. This practice was 1997, 245, 257). While the majority of the new also consistent with the immediate requirement economic elite may neither wish for nor be in a of war-time economy. And decentralization has position to demand political change, they have had many virtues. It was the high degree of had a significant impact on decision making and practical autonomy that led Vietnam to avoid the policy (Dixon 2003). The localization of gigantism of Soviet-style industrialization. In development and control in Vietnam contrasts recent years, decentralization has been sharply with the highly centralized systems that responsible for more inclusive development and characterized such economies as Korea and Taiwan.19 healthy inter-provincial competition. 18 19 Dapice (2008). 29. The scope and pace of reforms have been policy formulation and implementation, and the influenced by differing views within the party credibility of the government’s commitment to and the state and the proliferation of interests. such policies—is relatively low compared to some The latter includes such broad sections as the of the better-performing countries in Asia. And military, police, trades unions, women, regional and its effectiveness has taken a slight dip in recent local administrations, SOEs, and the various years, while government effectiveness has risen in ministries and departments. There have also been other countries (The Worldwide Governance significant shifts in the importance of these Indicators, 2011). groupings, notably the increased representation and influence of local administrations and technocrats (Fforde and Goldstone 1995, 105). The major divisions are also variously reinforced and divided by the proliferation of the new economic interests. The result is that there are fewer fixed positions, with, for many individuals and groupings, the attitude to reform reflecting IV ORGANIZATION OF THE VDR particular measures rather than the process as a whole (Dixon 2003; Koh 2001, 537–38). The 32. One way to understand Vietnam’s deeper proliferation of interest groups and the nature of structural problems is to begin with a simple the Vietnamese legal and regulatory systems— analysis of ownership, allocation, and execution which operate on the basis of what is permitted of capital. Is Vietnam’s capital owned by those rather than what is not—has resulted in the who are most efficient at using it? Are the owners production of an enormous volume of decrees, of capital allocating it to the sectors where the regulations, and legislation. The operation of the social and economic returns are the highest? system has been further hindered by lack of Once capital is deployed to a sector or a firm, is professionals and technocrats at higher levels, the it being executed efficiently? These questions are ones who provide the cores of the bureaucracies examined in the next three chapters of Vietnam in such Asian developmental states as Korea; Development Report 2012 (VDR 2012). Three of Singapore; and Taiwan, China. its key findings are: 30. The fragmentation of development has also l Ownership. Vietnam’s state-owned enterprises been associated with the weakening of the (SOEs) are one of the least efficient users of quality of the country’s economic institutions. capital, but they are its largest owner (Chapter 2). The legacy of central planning still weighs heavily MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM l Allocation. The public investment program is on Vietnam’s economic institutions. Although markets are now the main mechanism of becoming increasingly unaffordable and resource allocation, they often function poorly inefficient since allocation is based on because the underlying institutions are missing, administrative considerations rather than poorly formed, or incomplete. Its public and strategic needs and market-based private sector economic institutions are highly mechanisms—creating excess supply in some fragmented. Fragmentation is a problem because areas and causing severe shortages in others it increases the costs of coordination, which can (Chapter 3). result in a loss of efficiency. A fragmented l Efficiency. Because of both the widespread use regulatory system generates conflicting rules. of administrative measures to control prices, Fragmentation of public investment results in and limited access to basic information, duplication and waste. Vietnam’s economy is being deprived of the “oxygenâ€? that keeps a market economy 31. The government’s effectiveness has also functioning efficiently (Chapter 4). deteriorated in recent years relative to its regional peers. The effectiveness of Vietnam’s 33. It then explores the factors underpinning government—measured in terms of perception the inefficient ownership, allocation and of the quality of public services, the quality of efficiency of capital. Among the several 19 V explanations, it focuses on ones that are common EMBRACING to all, namely weak institutions, distorted incentives and inadequate information—labeled MARKETS as the three “I’sâ€? of a market economy. Some of the key institutions that are found to be missing in Vietnam’s economy include an agency to clearly 34. Vietnam turned the crisis of the late-1980s specify property rights and a market in which to into one of the greatest development successes trade those rights, an autonomous agency to deal of our time. The country has shown itself to be with the state management of SOEs, and remarkably adaptable and has made impressive impartial regulators for infrastructure sectors such progress during the initial transition years under as ports and industrial parks. Creating the right extremely difficult conditions. It was the decision incentives includes valuing land at market prices to embrace market-based reforms and to change for all transactions involving government and the incentive structures to conform to market corporations, bringing an end to privileged access principles that played a critical role in its success. of SOEs to factor inputs, aligning local government interests with national priorities, 35. Vietnam can use the power of the market providing public finance incentives for regional and the facilitating role of the state to chart a coordination, and making cash transfers to poor new course to create a more efficient economy households directly rather than through and a more productive society. While Vietnam subsidized prices. Measures also need to be taken has embraced many policies of a market to lower the cost and improve the availability of economy, it has so far neglected the difficult task information, including a new disclosure policy for of creating and strengthening market-supporting SOEs; improving budget transparency, especially institutions. But the old forms of control are with regard to large public infrastructure projects; weakening and new activities are emerging that and creating awareness among users of the system is not accustomed to or effective at information to demand credible information from regulating are rapidly emerging. These changes the government. have to be matched by development of new institutions, new incentive structures and a more transparent and open society to support the strong and healthy market economy that has already evolved. With a new Congress, a new National Assembly and a new Administration in place, this is the ideal time for Vietnam to embark on its journey to developing a mature market economy that befits its status of a dynamic, emerging middle-income country in Asia. Such a journey is necessary, desirable and perhaps VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 already underway. 20 MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM 21 Chapter 2 A LEVEL PLAYING FIELD: REFORMING THE STATE-OWNED SECTOR20 Vietnam Development Report 2012 20 Ivailo V. Izvorski, Sunita Kikeri, and Chul Ju Kim provided written inputs for this chapter. The chapter also draws on two background studies MARKET ECONOMY prepared by CIEM and a third study prepared by Nexus Consulting. For details, see the list of references at the end of the report. FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM I CONTEXT AND KEY Party Central Committee suggests that its leaders did not necessarily see a contradiction between FINDINGS the existence of a large state economic sector and a market-oriented economy. But in recent years, as the country apprears to have veered toward a model of state capitalism in which the 1. Few issues have evoked more passionate SEGs have enjoyed privileged access to factor debate in Vietnam in recent years than the issue inputs and a high level of operational autonomy, of state ownership. Twenty-five years into the more questions have been raised about their transition to become a market economy, one usefulness. The situation was exacerbated when would think the country would have reached a few SOEs, taking advantage of weak oversight closure on this issue. And for a while it seemed and transparency in the system, expanded their it had. During the 1990s and the early 2000s, operation into areas beyond their core Vietnam equitized thousands of small and competency, mismanaged their finances, and medium-size state-owned enterprises (SOEs), concealed information from the government— and consolidated others into larger entities, called thereby tarnishing the reputation of the entire the General Corporations. But keen to emulate sector. As a result, the National Assembly in one the experience of Japan’s Keiretsus and the of its resolutions indicated that restructuring the Republic of Korea’s Chaebols, in 2005, Vietnam SOEs will be a top priority of the government in accelerated the process of creating State the next Socio-Economic Development Plan, Economic Groups (SEGs)—a loose alliance of spanning 2011 to 2015. several SOEs with similar business interests21— before the country’s accession to the World 3. What will emerge from the current debate Trade Organization. The SEGs initially did well, is unclear; possibilities range from cosmetic but their weaknesses were revealed when one of restructuring to radical equitization (including their members, the state-owned shipbuilder privatization). With sharp deterioration in the Vinashin, failed to pay its international lenders and health of some SOEs, the status quo is no longer the state inspectorate found widespread financial viable. Several options are being discussed by the irregularities and mismanagement in the company. government, although such discussions in the past It also brought to light Vinashin’s hundreds of have not always produced concrete actions. The subsidiaries and affiliated companies that key government agencies have been asked to operated across a wide range of sectors—often devise a restructuring plan for the enterprise and far removed from the parent company’s core banking sectors. This is an important initiative, but, business—with size and influence much bigger since state ownership is not just an economic than ever imagined. This spurred a nationwide issue but also a political choice, major debate about the role of the state and the future restructuring of SOEs is unlikely without strong of SOEs in Vietnam’s economy. political support. Any restructuring plan should VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 be firmly based on a clear consensus on the role 2. This chapter tries to understand why, 25 of the state in the economy and the desirable years after Àöíi Múái, state ownership remains a institutional arrangement to achieve that goal. It dominant feature of Vietnam’s economy. would have to involve a number of measures Vietnam aspires to become a market economy including what we call a “DREAMâ€? framework— with a socialist orientation. A reading of the Disclose, Regulate, Equitize, Account(able), and various resolutions of the Party Congress and the Monitor—a description of which follows. 21 An SEG is held together through a pyramid ownership structure in which the parent company is at the top of the pyramid with a controlling stake in a number of subsidiaries (the second layer of the pyramid). The parent company and the subsidiaries together control the affiliated enterprises that form the bottom layer of the pyramid. In certain cases, the affiliated enterprises associate themselves with the SEG to take advantage of the latter’s brand value, technology, market reach, and various 24 intangible assets. l Disclose. A new information disclosure policy l Accountable. Holding the SOEs accountable that requires SOEs, starting with the SEGs, to for their actions, including a reward for greater report their financial stakes in all their transparency and timely reporting of data and subsidiaries and affiliated members and to timely information and a penalty for noncompliance. and accurately disclose their annual reports, l Monitor. Overhauling the monitoring system audit reports, and earning statements through with a provision for mandatory, independent print and electronic media or the internet. annual audits and timely submission of financial l Regulate. A modern corporate governance data to the relevant ministries and agencies. system that separates state ownership rights from regulatory functions and implements an 4. The rest of the chapter is organized as objective and transparent mechanism for the follows. Section II begins with a discussion on selection of Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) the economic importance of SOEs and state- and board members. There is also a need to owned commercial banks (SOCBs) to the put an end to SOEs’ privilege access to factor national economy and their relative inputs and to value land at market price for all performance vis-à-vis their domestic private and government and corporate transactions. foreign counterparts. Section III presents the results of the survey “Changing Attitudes towards l Equitize. There is no more certain way to Market and State (CAMS 2011).â€? Section IV improve the internal functioning of SOEs than discusses the government’s ambivalent approach to subject them to the discipline of the market toward SOE reform. Section V makes the case for and oversight of the government. This would launching a new policy to restructure SOEs. Section require accelerating the equitization of SOEs, VI discusses policy options and suggests a way including selling up to 49 percent of charter forward. (Box 2.1 provides a glossary of the terms capital of the SEG parent company. used in this report.) Box 2.1 The “Transitionâ€? Vocabulary Following is a glossary of the terms used in this report, the definitions of which have evolved as Vietnam has gone through its economic transition process. Equitization. A process of selling part of the equity of an SOE or SOCB to the public or a strategic MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM investor. In recent years, equitization has mostly taken place through an Initial Public Offering (IPO) followed by listing of the company in the stock exchange. Divestment. A process by which the government sells a part of or all of its equity to the public or to the private sector after the initial equitization. In Vietnam, most SOEs are first equitized and then gradually divested by the State Capital Investment Corporation (SCIC). Joint Stock Company (JSC). A company with a diversified ownership structure and listed on the stock exchange. In theory, a JSC can be 100 percent privately owned or less than 99 percent government owned, though in practice state ownership in a JSC rarely exceeds 80 percent. Joint Stock Bank (JSB). The banking sector counterpart of a JSC. State Sector. The part of the economy that is owned by the state (the government). For the purpose of this report, the state sector comprises the following: (a) SOEs with 100 percent state ownership, (b) JSCs with more than 50 percent state ownership, (c) SOCBs with 100 percent state ownership, and (d) JSBs with at least 80 percent state ownership. In this report, we also use state economic sector, state-owned sector, and state-owned entities as synonymous with state sector. Nonstate Sector. The part of the domestic economy in which the state is not the dominant owner. For the purpose of this report, the nonstate sector comprises domestic enterprises with 100 percent private ownership and JSCs with less than 50 percent state ownership. 25 II THE STATE SECTOR: high.24 Between 1989 and 1992, thousands of small, loss-making and inefficient SOEs were SIZE, IMPORTANCE, closed or merged reducing their numbers from AND EFFICIENCY 12,084 to some 6000 (Griffen, 1998; World Bank, 1999, Dixon, 2003). The number of SOEs did not change much between 1992 and 1999—a period 5. Vietnam’s state sector has become smaller that was used to consolidate the sector by ending but is still relatively large and inefficient. The the system of direct subsidies, revising the incentive importance of the state sector in the economy structures for workers and managers and increasing has steadily declined as the domestic private and the level of autonomy. So in 2000, Vietnam had foreign sectors have rapidly grown over the last 5,759 SOEs of which 3,692 were owned by the two decades.23 However, the state sector still has local governments and 2,067 were owned by the a sizable presence in the economy. It is also highly central government (see panel A, figure 2.1). inefficient in its use of factor inputs such as land Through equitization, divestment, mergers, and capital relative to its counterparts in the acquisitions, and liquidation, the number of SOEs nonstate sector. rapidly declined between 2002 and 2005 and more slowly between 2006 and 2008.25 In fact, in 2009, the trend was reversed and 175 new SOEs were II.A LARGE BUT DECLINING added at the central level—a pattern that is likely IMPORTANCE to have persisted during 2010 and 2011. 6. While the number of SOEs has steadily declined, their absolute number remains very 24 The government defines an SOE as an enterprise with 100 percent state ownership; the General Statistics Office, however, uses a broader (internationally accepted) definition to include any enterprise in which the government has a controlling stake, that is, 51 percent or more of the charter capital. At the end of 2010, according to the government, there were 1,200 SOEs in 23 See Fforde (2004) for an interesting account of the nature of Vietnam. The General Statistics Office puts the number at property rights in SOEs in Vietnam. Fforde argues that 3,364. All the analysis involving the SOEs in this chapter is based Vietnamese SOEs are best viewed as “virtual share companies,â€? on the broader definition. with many SOEs being de facto privatized. His study is 25 Vietnam’s experience is similar to that of China, where the anecdotal; so when it comes to examining the importance of number of SOEs also declined after the late 1990s, but many SOEs in the economy, there is no substitute for official statistics, were reorganized as subsidiaries of large SOEs rather than even if the statistics may not fully capture the reality. “equitizedâ€? or “divested.â€? Figure 2.1 Number of SOEs Relative to Nonstate and Foreign Enterprises VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 Panel A Panel B Sources: GSO Enterprise Survey 2009; World Bank estimates. 26 7. The importance of SOEs in Vietnam’s economy declined by 40 percent during the same period (see has steadily decreased due to the rapid expansion panel B, figure 2.1). As can be seen in table 2.1, of privately owned enterprises. There has been a except for a few subsectors such as construction dramatic growth in the number new enterprises in and insurance, the number of enterprises under the nonstate and foreign sectors in the country state ownership is fairly small relative to the number during the last decade. Between 2000 and 2009, of firms operating in the nonstate and foreign there was a sevenfold increase in the number of sectors. As shown later, however, it is not the nonstate enterprises and over a fourfold increase in number but the size that matters when it comes to foreign enterprises, while the number of SOEs competing in the marketplace. Table 2.1 Number of Enterprises at the Subsector Level (2009) Unit (Enterprise) Share of Total (%) SOEs Nonstate Foreign SOEs Nonstate Foreign Wearing Apparel 32 2,697 547 1.0 82.3 16.7 Chemicals 31 1,216 268 0.9 80.3 17.7 Rubber and Plastics 22 2,080 447 1.5 81.6 17.5 Electricity 80 1,919 5 3.1 95.8 0.2 Construction 388 24,022 129 19.4 97.9 0.5 Water transport 35 869 3 3.9 95.8 0.3 Telecommunication 30 776 10 3.7 95.1 1.2 Insurance 16 43 20 20.3 54.4 25.3 634 33,622 1,429 6.7 85.4 9.9 Sources: GSO Enterprise Survey 2009; World Bank estimates. 8. The decline in the importance of SOEs can been in the employment share of SOEs—from also be seen through their steadily diminishing 59 percent to 19 percent—as labor-intensive share in factor inputs. In 2000, SOEs SOEs have been equitized and the domestic accounted for nearly 68 percent of capital, 55 private and foreign enterprises have expanded percent of fixed assets (such as land), 45 their labor force rapidly. As shown in figure 2.2, MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM percent of bank credit, and 59 percent of the by 2009, the share of SOEs in capital, fixed jobs in the enterprise sector (figure 2.2). Since assets, bank credit, and the employment in the then, these numbers have steadily fallen, albeit enterprise sector had fallen to 39, 45, 27, and at different speeds. The steepest decline has 19 percent, respectively. Figure 2.2 Share of SOEs in Selected Indicators for the Enterprise Sector Sources: General Statistics Office Handbookâ€? 2010; State Bank of Vietnam; WB estimates. Note: LT = long term. 27 9. Notwithstanding shrinking state ownership, the basis to justify a large state presence, Vietnam the state not only controls all the critical is unusual in not allowing its own domestic private sectors, but also has considerable presence in sector to invest in them. More surprisingly, the various commercial activities. As shown in figure state has also maintained its presence in several 2.3, the state sector enjoys near-monopoly status consumer goods such as cement (51 percent), in the production of several goods and services beer (41 percent), refined sugar (37 percent), including fertilizer (99 percent), coal (97 textiles (21 percent), and chemicals (21 percent). percent), electricity and gas (94 percent), Why does the state continue to invest in sectors telecommunications (91 percent), water supply where there are no market failures and the private (90 percent), and insurance (88 percent). sector has the resources and expertise to perform Though some of these sectors can be as well as the state sector? We look for the considered as critical and this has been used as answers in section IV. Figure 2.3 Share of SOEs in Output/Revenue for the Enterprise Sector (2009 or 2010) Sources: GSO Enterprise Survey 2009; World Bank estimates. II.B IS STATE OWNERSHIP JSBs.26 The share of SOCBs in credit allocation and deposit mobilization was between 70 and LARGER THAN WE THINK? 80 percent at the beginning of the last decade A CASE STUDY OF THE (figure 2.4). With increased equitization and BANKING SECTOR growth of domestic private banks and foreign VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 banks, these numbers decreased to 45 to 50 10. The diminished role of the state in the percent by 2010. At the level of individual enterprise sector is paralleled in the banking banks, the SOCBs are actually doing quite well sector. The number of SOCBs has progressively and their business is growing at a healthy pace. declined and the number of JSBs has steadily Collectively, however, their share is falling increased. Currently, there are only two banks because their numbers are declining as more of with 100 percent state ownership (Agribank and them get converted into JSBs. Bank for Investment and Development of Vietnam) and three banks with state ownership 26 For the purpose of this study, we count the recently equitized between 80 and 100 percent (Mekong Housing banks, Mekong Housing Bank,Vietcombank, and Vietinbank, along Bank,Vietcombank, and Vietinbank). The rest are with Agribank and BIDV, as the five SOCBs. The rest are counted as part of JSBs. 28 Figure 2.4 Share of SOCBs in Selected Indicators for the Banking Sector Sources: “General Statistics Office Handbookâ€? 2010; State Bank of Vietnam; World Bank estimates. 11. The number of JSBs with state ownership has some charter capital from the state. As shown in steadily increased during the last five years. As panel B of figure 2.5, the amount of state capital in shown in panel A of figure 2.5, in 2005, of the 14 the JSBs has steadily increased from nearly VND 1 banks for which ownership data are available, five had trillion in 2005 to VND 15 trillion by 2010. So both charter capital from the state. The number of JSBs in terms of number of banks and the absolute with state capital progressively increased to 22 by amount of charter capital, the state sector’s presence 2010, implying that nearly 60 percent of JSBs had in the banking sector has increased. Figure 2.5 Number of JSBs with State Charter Capital and Amounts Involved (2005–10) MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM Panel A Panel B Sources: State Bank of Vietnam; Nexus Consulting; World Bank estimates. 12. The state continues to exercise charter capital in as many as 19 JSBs. This is considerable ownership over a large number partly the result of government policy to of commercial banks. The size of state encourage SOEs and SOCBs to subscribe to the ownership in individual banks is reported in charter capital of the JSBs to make the figure 2.6. It shows that the government has equitization process successful. The state, direct ownership in only nine banks—five however, has a controlling stake in only one JSB SOCBs and four JSBs. Similarly, SOCBs have (that is, Bao Viet Bank). Thus, while the state some ownership in six JSBs. The large majority presence is large in terms of number of banks, it of state ownership in the banking sector, is relatively small in terms of the share of the however, comes through the SOEs, which hold charter capital in individual banks. 29 Figure 2.6 Size of State Ownership in Joint Stock Banks (2010) Sources: State Bank of Vietnam; Nexus Consulting; World Bank estimates. 13. But the share of state capital is relatively regulation, many small JSBs have been forced to small and declining. State ownership in the increase their equity capital in recent years. Some banking sector—measured by share of state of the SOEs that hold equity in these JSBs have capital to total charter capital—has been been unable to subscribe to additional equity progressively falling. As shown in panel A of figure because of their weak financial position, resulting 2.7, the share of state capital in the total banking in a gradual reduction in the state’s share of total system was 87 percent in 2005. It has rapidly charter capital. Moreover, with the ongoing stock declined since then and was 34 percent at the market slump, those who had invested in the end of 2010. For the JSBs, the state share was equity of JSBs have earned negative returns, much smaller to start with—only 19 percent in further discouraging SOEs from buying new 2005. This number further declined to 10 percent equity in the JSBs. However, when the financial by 2010, as shown in panel B of figure 2.7. situation of SOEs improves, state ownership in the banking sector will start to increase again, 14. The dilution of state ownership, however, is underscoring the need to have a clear policy on not the result of an intentional policy; rather, it state ownership that is independent of the is largely due to the poor financial health of the whims of stock market performance or SOE SOEs. Following State Bank of Vietnam’s balance sheets. Figure 2.7 Share of Charter Capital Held by the State Compared to Nonstate Sectors (2010) VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 Panel A Panel B 30 Sources: State Bank of Vietnam; Nexus Consulting; World Bank estimates. 15. If the overall share of state capital in JSBs is sector, implying that SOEs do not always require small and declining, why has the number of JSBs a controlling stake (that is, charter capital with state capital been increasing? In other exceeding 51 percent or more) in the JSB to words, why do SOEs prefer to spread their influence lending activities in favor of their sector.27 ownership capital so thin across so many JSBs? It is, however, important to reiterate that this is an Because ownership seems to carry benefits, even average relationship and there are many exceptions. when the SOEs do not have a controlling stake. In fact, there are a large number of JSBs with 30 to As shown in figure 2.8, there is a positive 40 percent state ownership but with less than 2 correlation between the ownership structure of percent exposure to the SOE sector. the banks and their loan exposure to the SOE Figure 2.8 Banks with Greater State Ownership also have Greater Exposure to SOEs (2010) Sources: State Bank of Vietnam; Nexus Consulting; World Bank estimates. II.C INTENSIVE BUT period. In the nonstate sector, average capital and fixed assets grew rapidly, albeit from a very low INEFFICIENT USER OF base. Since SOEs tend to operate in more MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM RESOURCES capital-intensive sectors (such as petrochemicals, energy, and telecommunications), it is not 16. SOEs use certain factors of production— surprising that their average capital and fixed asset especially capital and land—more intensively usages are higher than their nonstate and foreign than their peers in the private sector. One of counterparts. As shown in panel A of figure 2.10, the most intriguing features of the last few years the capital-to-employee ratio of SOEs in 2000 has been the dramatic acceleration in the capital was 0.4, which was not significantly different from and fixed asset base of SOEs. As shown in figure the industry average of 0.3. However, by 2008, 2.9, the average capital per SOE increased from the capital intensity between the SOEs and the VND 130 billion to VND 768 billion in 2008—a rest of the industry had widened considerably. number that must have increased to even higher What is surprising is that this rapid growth of level in 2009 and 2010 because of rapid credit factor accumulation has not been accompanied growth during those years. During the same by a proportionate increase in output or higher period, fixed assets (such as real estate and labor productivity. machinery) and investment in an average SOE increased six fold—from VND 110 billion to VND 27 What are the channels through which SOEs owning JSBs could 677 billion. The corresponding numbers for influence the latter’s lending decision is a critical question, but foreign enterprises remained stable during this goes well beyond the scope of our report. 31 Figure 2.9 Comparing Economic Performance of SOEs with the Rest of the Enterprise Sector Panel A Panel B Sources: GSO Enterprise Survey 2009; World Bank estimates. 17. SOEs use several times more capital to 18. The growth of labor productivity in SOEs produce one unit of output than the industry has not kept pace with the rest of the industry. average. In 2000, the average ratio of turnover Since SOEs have higher capital intensity than the to capital (a proxy for the productivity of capital) rest of the industry, and since this intensity has in SOEs was 1.6 compared to 8.8 for the rapidly increased in recent years, one would enterprise sector as a whole (panel A, figure 2.10). expect SOEs to experience higher and rising This implies that an average SOE required nearly labor productivity relative to the rest of the nine units of capital to produce one unit of output enterprise sector. The evidence, however, shows (turnover) compared to the industry average. This the opposite. As shown in panel C of figure 2.10, is not entirely unexpected since SOEs specialize in between 2000 and 2008, the turnover-to- more capital-intensive products. What is quite employee ratio in SOEs increased from 0.6 to 1.7. alarming, however, is that by 2009 the average ratio During the same period, the turnover-to- of turnover to capital for the SOEs fell to 1.1 while employee ratio for the overall enterprise sector it increased to 21.0 for the industry. So while the increased from 2.7 to 16.3, indicating that labor enterprise sector as a whole was getting better at productivity between SOEs and the rest of the using capital more economically, the SOEs were enterprise sector widened from 1:4 in 2000 to using it more extravagantly. 1:10 in 2008! VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 Figure 2.10 Economic Performance of SOEs Compared with the Rest of the Enterprise Sector 32 Panel A Panel B Figure 2.10 (contd.) Economic Performance of SOEs Compared with the Rest of the Enterprise Sector Panel C Panel D Sources: GSO Enterprise Survey (2009); World Bank estimates. 19. SOEs are also less efficient in their use of and 2009, the debt-to-equity ratio of SOEs fixed assets such as land and machinery. As averaged 307 percent relative to 183 percent for panel D of figure 2.10 shows, the turnover-to- nonstate firms and 145 percent for foreign firms. fixed asset ratio—a proxy for the productivity of The SOEs also had the highest debt-to-asset land and machinery—fell for SOEs between 2000 ratio among the three groups. Though the SOEs and 2008, while it remained unchanged for the registered relatively healthy returns on their enterprise sector during the same period. Thus, equity (17 percent), they were below the the SOEs have not only used factors inefficiently, nominal growth rate of the economy (19 but their level of inefficiency has greatly percent) and well below the return on equity of accelerated in recent years. foreign firms (27 percent) achieved during 2007– 09. Subsequently, the profitability of SOEs— 20. Along with being operationally less efficient, which were more leveraged relative to the rest SOEs are also found to be financially less of the enterprise sector—has deteriorated prudent. As shown in figure 2.11, between 2007 significantly due to high interest rates.28 MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM Figure 2.11 Financial Performance of SOEs Compared to the Rest of the Sector (2007–09; in %) Sources: GSO Enterprise Survey (2009); WB estimates. 28 There are increasing signs of deterioration in the financial health several SOEs in the cement sector failed to make payment on of the SOEs. Vinashin has gone from defaulting on its external their bank loans, forcing the government to bail them out. A loans to restructuring its local currency debt. EVN has incurred recent study by the Communist Party found that total SOE 33 losses for three consecutive years and has accumulated losses have been climbing rapidly in recent years and called for considerable arrears against a number of other SOEs. Recently, urgent attention. III PUBLIC ATTITUDE (CAMS 2011), to which 967 people from a broad cross-section of society responded, an TOWARD STATE overwhelming majority—7 out of 10 OWNERSHIP IN THE respondents—preferred private ownership as the ENTERPRISE SECTOR dominant ownership structure for the enterprise sector (see figure 2.12). Of the 967 respondents, 21. The large state ownership in the Vietnamese 666—fully 69 percent—said “private ownership economy seems to be at odds with the of enterprises is preferable to any other form of overwhelming majority of people who prefer ownership,â€? 120 (13 percent) said “state greater private ownership in the enterprise ownership of enterprises is preferable to any sector. In the World Bank-Vietnam Chamber of other form of ownership,â€? and 181 (19 percent) Commerce and Industry (VCCI) survey on said that the ownership structure did not matter “Changing Attitudes toward Market and Stateâ€? to them.29 Figure 2.12 Overwhelmingly, Respondents Prefer Private over State Ownership of Enterprises Figure 2.13 Many Respondents Believe that the State Remains the Dominant Owner of Enterprises VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 Sources: CAMS 2011. 29 It is ironic that the largest percentage of respondents who prefer state over private ownership of business work for private 34 domestic firms. For an explanation and detailed results of the survey, see CAMS (2011). 22. Despite two decades of equitization, there is 12,000 in 1991 to 1,200 in 2010 (and to 3,400 in a strong perception among the people that state which the government had 51 percent or more ownership remains the dominant ownership ownership). At the same time, however, structure in the enterprise sector. In section II we preservation (and expansion) has been the have discussed the declining importance of SOEs preferred approach toward the large SOEs that in the enterprise sector. However, in our survey, form the core of the state economic sector—the nearly 24 percent disagreed or strongly disagreed leading force of the economy. In fact, a close that private ownership remains the dominant form reading of the various resolutions of the Party of ownership structure in the enterprise sector, Congress and the Party Central Committee while 19 percent agreed or strongly agreed with makes it clear that since the early 1990s, the Party the statement (figure 2.13). There is, however, has been unequivocal in its stance on the considerable diversity in the views among the establishment of large economic groups. respondents on this issue; fewer respondents working in the National Assembly, the Communist 24. Some may see a contradiction between the Party of Vietnam (CPV), and the provincial existence of a large state economic sector and governments agree that state ownership is the a market economy, but in Vietnam the two goals dominant ownership structure compared with the were seen to be compatible.30 Since the early respondents from donors, civil society 1990s, along with developing a multisectoral organizations, and the national government. It ownership structure and moving toward a seems that those working for the state feel that the market economy, the resolutions of the Party state has already relinquished considerable Congress have always emphasized the leading ownership power over time, while those working role of the state economic sector (see table 2.2). in nonstate sectors feel that is not enough and In 1991, the VII Party Congress asked to more ownership needs to be transferred to the rearrange the enterprise unions and General private sector. Corporations (GCs) along a market-oriented economy and to build some big enterprise unions in order to attain sufficient prestige and IV competitiveness in foreign markets.31 In 1996, GOVERNMENT’S the VIII Party Congress gave clear direction to APPROACH TO SOE concentrate state economic development MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM REFORM resources on essential industries, such as social and economic infrastructure; the financial, banking, and insurance system; important 23. SOE reform in Vietnam can best be business production and service units; and characterized as one of simultaneous renovation enterprises in the national defense and security and preservation. The renovation approach has sectors. In 2001, the resolutions of the XI Party been applied to the small and medium-size SOEs Congress and the third plenum of the Party that were dissolved or merged with another “if they Central Committee issued instructions for the were inefficient or lacked capital or technology or establishment SEGs, by selecting some of the did not have sufficient demand for their outputsâ€? general corporations that are strong enough to (Vu 2002, 7). As a result, the number of SOEs with play a more catalytic role. 100 percent government ownership fell from 30 This view is perhaps best captured by a senior policymaker who once remarked that “we equitize SOEs to make the state sector stronger.â€? 31 Enterprise union is a way of grouping SOEs with similar production profiles into a big one which had legal status (unlike SEGs) and completely controlled the union members. 35 Table 2.2 Timeline of Selected Critical Pronouncements and Decisions Involving SOEs l "... to rearrange enterprise groups in consistent manner with production 1991:VII Party and business requirements of the new market mechanism ... to build some Congress big companies and enterprises with sufficient prestige and competitiveness to participate in international economic relations." 1994: Decisions l 18 general corporations, so-called general corporations 91, were established 91 and 94 of l Aimed at reducing "the power of line agencies to interfere in business the Prime management and capture profits and rents of SOEs." Minister l "To make a summary on state general corporations model, thereby, to build 1996:VIII Party measures for developing general corporations as strong economic groups Congress with good performance, high competitiveness, and acting as the backbone of the national economy ..." 2001: 3rd l "... forming some strong economic groups consisting of state general plenum of the corporations and others economic sectors, involving a multi-business model, Party Central in which a core business is defined for specialization, and the group plays Com. (IX Party dominating role in the national economy, holding large-scale capital, … Congress). establishing, on a pilot basis, some economic groups in some industries, which will have significant advantages, and are of development capacity for international competitiveness and integration…." l 2005: Vietnam Post and Telecommunications,Vietnam National Coal-Mineral 2005-10: Industries, and Vietnam National Textile and Garment Establishment l 2006: PetroVietnam, Vietnam Electricity, Vietnam Shipbuilding Industry, of pilot State Vietnam Rubber Economic l 2007: Baoviet; Groups l 2009:Vietnam National Chemical p, Industrial Construction; l 2010:Vietnam Housing and Urban Development. Sources: CIEM (2011a) 25. The government’s decision to create SEGs into a modern and prosperous country. Like seems to have been hastened by its desire to Korea; Singapore; and Taiwan, China, in order for VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 achieve competitiveness in an increasingly Vietnam to catch up and be competitive, it was globalized world. When Vietnam was preparing believed that Vietnam needs to develop strategic to join the World Trade Organization, officials industries—cement, oil, power, steel, realized that most domestic companies, including telecommunications, and so forth—and this can the GCs, were too weak to withstand be done only by large business groups with competition from foreign investors. The enough resources, capital, and technical capacity government, therefore, moved decisively to under close state control, given the absence of a establish SEGs and provide them with privileged strong private sector. access and autonomy to enable them to compete with foreign firms on an even footing. This move 26. The presence of SEGs has also been justified was further strengthened by the idea that with a as a tool for macroeconomic adjustment and to calibrated industrial policy in which the SEGs will perform social functions. During periods of high play a catalytic role, Vietnam can transform itself inflation, the government has controlled the price 36 V of commodities and services provided by SEGs— TEN REASONS IN such as by EVN (electricity), Petro Vietnam FAVOR OF (petroleum products), and VINACOMIN (coal)— and instructed the SEGs to reduce their RESTRUCTURING33 investment in order to curb excessive demand.32 The charter of all parent companies of the SEGs 27. As shown, instead of being the driving force lists a number of welfare and social responsibilities for the economy, SOEs have struggled to keep that have been assigned to them by the state. For pace with domestic private and foreign example, the Vietnam Post and enterprises. In recent months, the number of Telecommunication Group is responsible for SOEs experiencing financial difficulties has providing telephone and internet services to increased.34 There is a growing consensus that isolated and remote areas, thereby facilitating local some restructuring is now necessary. Opinion is and national socioeconomic development (VNPT divided, however, about the nature and extent of 2010). Similarly, Decree 101/2009/ND-CP has restructuring.35 There are some who believe that set several developmental goals for SEGs, only minor restructuring (such as trimming capital including introducing new and advanced expenditure) is enough to restore the health of technologies in the country and facilitating the SOEs and they can then go back to playing their development of other industries and sectors. leading role in the economy. There are others who think that a more radical restructuring, including equitization of SEGs, is in the country’s long-term interest. If the problems that led to the fall of Vinashin reflect some of the generic issues affecting the state sector, then SOEs do face serious challenges that can be addressed only through a comprehensive reform program (see box 2.2). We present below 10 reasons why restructuring of SOEs is an imperative. MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM 32 See Resolution No. 11/NQ-CP dated 24/02/2011 and 33 The term “restructuringâ€? has a very specific connotation, which Resolution No. 08/2008/NQ-CP dated 31/3/2008. does not necessarily include equitization, divesture, and privatization. In Vietnam, however, during the ongoing debate, this term has been increasingly used more broadly to imply “state enterprise reforms.â€? We too, therefore, use the word “restructuringâ€? loosely to include all forms of SOE reform. 34 See footnote 8. 35 One of the reviewers of this repor t—a national scholar— said in his written comments that “currently, there is a consensus that restructuring of SOEs including SEGs and corporations is a must.â€? 37 Box 2.2 The Rise and Fall of the Vinashin Shipbuilding Industry Group Until recently, the Vietnam Shipbuilding Industry Group (Vinashin) was one of the largest SEGs in Vietnam, with over 160 subsidiaries, including 39 shipyards offering shipbuilding, ship repair, shipping, heavy industries, and other services. It accounted for approximately 70 to 80 percent of ship- building capacity in the country and had nearly 70,000 employees. According to a report by the Office of Government, the mother company of Vinashin had grown 35 to 40 percent annually during 1997–2007 and consistently posted high profits. Reports indicate that Vinashin’s gross revenue was nearly US$1.5 billion in 2008. From 2006 to 2010, Vinashin signed 85 contracts worth US$2.84 billion, but completed only 15 of them. It ran into financial difficulties in 2008 because several of its clients cancelled their orders following the global financial and economic crisis. Terminated contracts accounted for about half of the group’s accumulated debt and interest, and fines further compounded the problem. It was only in mid-2010 that the extent of the problem became evident when more than 5,000 Vinashin workers lost their jobs and the company failed to pay US$12 million in salaries and social insurance. The total Vinashin debt was reported to be US$4.4 billion in July 2010–more than 300 percent of its annual sales and as much as 10 times its equity base. According to a report by the Government Inspection Committee, which was submitted to the National Assembly in July 2010, Vinashin’s problems can be traced to the following factors: (a) violating regulations on project formulation, approval, and bidding, and incurring huge debt; (b) falsifying financial reports; (c) establishing as many as 200 subsidiaries and expanding outside its core business operations (such as securities, real estate, and tourism); and (d) the Chairman committing serious violations and infringing regulations on the mobilization, management, and use of state capital. Key elements that led to the fall of Vinshin include weak corporate governance (including ineffective internal controls, limited transparency and disclosure, no independent external audits), lack of effective oversight and monitoring, and limited accountability and the excessive power of senior management to operate and expand the business without clear accountability. The day after the Government Inspection Committee report was submitted to the National Assembly, the Chairman of Vinashin was suspended and detained on mismanagement charges. Several other senior Vinashin officials were also subsequently arrested. A Steering Committee, chaired by the Deputy Prime Minister, was set up to restructure Vinashin. The Steering Committee has asked Vinashin to sell or transfer its stake in noncore businesses to other SOEs such as Petro Vietnam. The government said that it does not intend to make any debt repayments to the creditors on behalf of Vinashin, although it will help creditors recover and regain financially viability. Later, KPMG, Vinashin’s auditor, was appointed as the restructuring adviser. Although more than VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 18 months have passed since Vinashin’s problem first became public, Vinashin’s restructuring plan remains tentative and its future uncertain. Sources: Newspaper reports; meeting with Vinashin officials. (i) SOEs are less efficient than nonstate and all else being equal, the country’s total foreign firms. Evidence presented in section outstanding bank credit at the end of 2010 II.B shows that SOEs are inefficient users of would have been 102 percent of gross inputs such as land, bank credit, labor, and domestic product instead of 125 percent— other fixed assets relative to nonstate and which would have meant less rapid growth of foreign enterprises. This has a significant credit in recent years. Similarly, more economic cost. For example, during the last economical usage of land by SOEs could have decade, if capital usage by SOEs had grown at significantly increased the availability of land 38 the same pace as that of foreign enterprises, and kept real estate prices more affordable for the rest of the economy. Vietnam, still being a of firms equitized increased significantly—to poor country from a global perspective, needs 856 in 2003 and 813 in 2004 (panel A, figure to use its precious resources such as land and 2.14). Two studies show that indicators, such credit more efficiently. as turnover, profit, value added, and laborers’ income increased rapidly after equitization (ii) Equitization has been good for SOEs. Studies (CIEM 2002, 2005). The 2002 study also have shown that SOE performance has inferred that “if the entire SOE sector was changed positively after equitization. The pace reformed and grew as the equitized of equitization was slow until 1997, with only enterprises did, Vietnam’s growth rate could 17 SOEs equitized, mostly through selling be 0.6–0.7 percentage points per year higher. stakes at deeply discounted prices to workers And if this higher growth rate could be and management in small SOEs. However, the maintained for 11 years, the per capita income equitization process gained speed after 2000, of the Vietnamese people would be doubled.â€? with a series of legislative and administrative Similarly, the disinvestment process after some measures including a five-year SOE reform initial problems has shown encouraging results plan adopted in 2001. As a result, the number (see box 2.3) Figure 2.14 Equitization Has Slowed in Recent Years Panel A Panel B MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM Sources: Department of Enterprise Reform and Development, Office of the Government of Vietnam. (iii) Rethinking industrial policy. While industrial emulate were privately owned, were largely policy can potentially be a powerful tool for the result of business activities rather than developing an economy, carrying out an administrative measures, were international industrial policy does not necessarily mean market-oriented and, most important, using SEGs as a tool. Indeed, it will involve a functioned in different times. Furthermore, different set of policies from simply industrial policy loses relevance when SEGs aggregating companies under a single are asked to accumulate an increasing umbrella. The Japanese Keiretsus and the number of unrelated affiliated enterprises and Korean Chaebols that Vietnam has tried to financial institutions. 39 Box 2.3 State Capital Investment Corporation (SCIC) Officially established in August 2006 as a 100 percent state-owned, for-profit company, the SCIC is tasked with taking over the state capital in already equitized companies from line ministries and local governments, functioning as a government investor in charge of the state capital, and fully divesting nonstrategic SOEs. The SCIC also invests in projects outside its portfolio, purchases corporate equity and bonds, and manages a fund from the proceeds of divested enterprises under the instructions of the Prime Minister. After five years in operation, the SCIC have taken over the state stake in 933 equitized enterprises with a book value of VND 7,400 billion, representing 30 percent of SOEs but only 1.2 percent of the value of state capital in the economy. Of these, 466 have been divested, and the SCIC current portfolio consists of 461 companies, most of which are expected to be sold in the next few years. The SCIC intends to keep only a small number of companies categorized as “strategic investments.â€? The effectiveness of the SCIC has been limited by the lack of explicit criteria for handing over state shares in large enterprises (for example, GCs), which is done on a case-by-case basis by the Prime Minister’s Office, and an inadequate regulatory framework for financial management in the SCIC. To strengthen the SCIC, the Party Politburo apparently has decided that by 2015 the SCIC would take over the state shares of equitized GCs, and by 2020 of equitized SEGs. It is expected that by then, the management of equitized state capital will be done by only the SCIC. Sources: Meeting with SCIC officials. (iv) Too big to fail, too big to save. The ever (v) The changing role of the state in the increasing size of SEGs and the complex economy. The involvement of the state in cross-holding of charter capital across and the production of goods and services is within enterprises makes it difficult for the generally justified on three grounds: (a) state to assess inherent risks involved in their market failure, that is, the market fails to activities and the contingent liabilities arising provide the goods or services because the from them.36 The financial risks from the private return is lower than the social SOEs can easily spill over to the broader return;37 (b) the private sector is economy, given the strong links between underdeveloped and lacks capital or skill to them and some of the JSBs (see the deliver certain goods or services;38 and (c) discussion in section III.A). At the same time, during periods of unprecedented economic the total liabilities of the SOEs exceed the or financial crises, the government is VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 government’s own debt, thereby posing sometimes forced to temporarily bail out enormous fiscal risk for the government. insolvent or illiquid enterprises or banks in Thus, on one hand, the SEGs have become the national interest. In the case of Vietnam, too big to fail, while on the other hand, they as the discussion in section II shows, the are now too big to save. This poses both a SOEs are producing goods such as beer, milk, considerable risk to the macroeconomic and sugar, and textiles, and services such as financial stability of the country and a contingent burden on future taxpayers. 37 Primary education, space research, and developing green technologies are some of the activities where the returns on private investment may be lower than social returns, justifying 36 Currently, the total liabilities of SOEs far exceed the total debt government involvement. of the Government of Vietnam. 38 The private sector in Vietnam is rather new and has limited capacity and capital. Therefore, it may not be able to handle demanding infrastructure projects such as big hydropower dams 40 or operating railways, providing the basis for government involvement in the early stages. brokerage firms, hotels, and real estate timely operational and financial information, companies, that are in direct competition including their ownership structure, financial with privately owned companies. There is statements, and audit reports), and little justification for the state to remain protection of minority shareholders. involved in these areas, especially given its (viii) Weak and incomplete corporate inability to monitor SOE activities and framework. The initial legal framework for improve their corporate governance. the establishment and operation of SEGs (vi) An uneven playing field. The SOEs tend to can be traced to Article 149 of the 2005 get preferential access to banking credit, Law on Enterprises. Detailed instructions on procurement contracts, and research and implementing the law are described in development compared to their peers in the Decree 139/2007/ND-CP, promulgated private sector. For instance, the government nearly two years after the first pilot SEG was on-lent nearly US$2 billion from an established; and Decree 102/2010/ND-CP, international bond issuance and overseas promulgated nearly five years after the first development assistance to SOEs during pilot SEG was established. The legal 2010. The research and analysis undertaken framework provided by these three by more than 300 research institutes under regulations, however, is inadequate. Decree the control of government ministries are 139 defines SEGs as being of “big scaleâ€? exclusively used by the SOEs. Some even without defining “big.â€? Similarly, Decree 102 accuse the SEGs of influencing and interfering says SEGs will have a “parent-subsidiary with important government policy decisions. model,â€? but by that definition, many more Unlike the private sector, the SOEs face a SOEs, and not just the 12 established so far, soft budget constraint, meaning that the state should have been characterized as SEGs. bails them out when they are in financial Starting July 1, 2010, all SEGs have been stress. Under these circumstances, SOEs, registered as one-member limited liability despite their operational inefficiencies, can companies (except Bao Viet) and are out-compete and crowd out the private supposed to operate under the 2005 Law sector (USAID 2010). Since no country has on Enterprises. However, there is become a modern, industrialized country considerable confusion in interpreting without the private sector playing a various articles in the Law on Enterprises MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM dominant role, Vietnam’s long-term goal is and their applicability to the SOEs. best served by creating a level playing field (ix) Lack of vision and clarity regarding their for both state and privately owned roles. It is often said that SOEs have multiple enterprises. objectives and missions as: (a) an instrument of industrial policy, (b) a tool for regulating (vii) Slow to embrace modern corporate and stabilizing the macro economy, (c) a tool governance and transparency. Vietnam’s for meeting the social objectives of the SOEs cannot become industry leaders if they government, (d) a source of competition do not adopt sound corporate governance against foreign enterprises, and (e) the practices. SEGs and SOEs are subject to the foundation of the economic mechanism of 2005 Law on Enterprises, but for many, the the socialist-oriented market economy. administrative re-registration of type of However, in reality, SEGs and GCs do not enterprise is yet to be accompanied by have a clear vision and do not identify how adherence to the provisions of the law, their mission is consistent with the including those that mandate corporate development goals of the country. They are governance (for example, a Control Board expected to perform social functions, yet and a Board of Management), improved they do not show their social responsibilities transparency (for example, disclosure of 41 VI and values in their business strategy and REFORM OPTIONS operation. They are required to be a tool for stabilizing the macro economy, yet they are among the factors that have contributed to macroeconomic instability in recent years. They are required to concentrate on solving 29. Successful restructuring of SOEs is strategic problems of development, yet they predicated on finding appropriate technical tend to pursue short-term interests, seeking solutions that can foster a political consensus. financial gains and rent, where available. As discussed in Chapter 1, Vietnam has traditionally chosen a step-by-step, gradualist (x) Leveraging SOE reform to develop the approach to reform rather than “big bangâ€? private sector. If the government is solutions to address its economic problems. This committed to private sector growth, then approach is unlikely to change when it comes to the SOE portfolio can be used as a powerful reforming the SOEs, especially given the superior tool to support this policy. SOE reform status granted to the state sector in the creates both market and investment constitution. Therefore, reaching consensus on opportunities for the private sector. When extreme positions such as equitizing all SOEs will SOEs that compete with the private sector be difficult. At the same time, trimming the capital are divested, a more level competitive playing spending of SOEs is not a solution, either. Below field is often the result. Where full we present several ideas that try to balance the privatization is not feasible or desirable, the economic imperative of restructuring the SOEs contracting out of selected services by SOEs with the social and political imperatives of to the private sector can enable smaller local maintaining a dominant role for the state sector. firms, either on their own or in a joint venture with offshore parties, to bid for the 30. The government has announced several new services. Similarly, equitization and initiatives in recent months. It has established a public-private partnerships can help Steering Committee for restructuring SOEs, accelerate commercialization and increase headed by the Finance Minister (November 21, efficiency, provided there are robust 2011), improved the legal framework for governance arrangements, full transparency, equitization (Decree 59/2011/ND-CP, July 18, and arms-length relationships with 2011), and is in the process of formulating a government shareholders. decree to separate the state regulation function from state ownership rights.39 The recently 28. There are, of course, a number of reasons approved Socio-Economic Development Plan against radical restructuring, one of them being and the annual plan have identified three main VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 the impact on employment. During the early areas for SOE reform, including strengthening 2000s, when Vietnam equitized a number of its corporate governance, stepping up equitization, SOEs, the economy was booming and the private and developing the legal framework for SOEs. sector could absorb the retrenched workers from the state sector easily. Given the current economic uncertainty and the weak safety net in Vietnam, there are reasons to pursue a restructuring policy that is pro-cyclical in nature (more restructuring when times are good and vice-versa) and one that does not result in mass layoffs. 39 Decree 59 overcomes several rigid provisions of its predecessor, Decree 109/2007, and introduces more flexibility in selection of strategic investors, in determining share prices, and in 42 sequence of equitization and IPOs. 31.While such ad-hoc initiatives are welcome, sectors? In our view, it should not, given that it is agreement on the “broad principlesâ€? that will stifling the emergence of a strong private sector in define the restructuring plan is needed. There the country (see box 2.4 on Korea’s experience). are three major issues on which up-front Third, who should be given the responsibility for agreement is necessary. First, should SEGs be preparing the restructuring plan? There are two included in the restructuring plan? In our view, they contenders for this job: line ministries and an should be, given that SEGs have been the source autonomous agency. We believe that an of many of the problems described in section V, and autonomous agency with the right technical the ongoing restructuring of Vinashin has not gone expertise and one with strong support from the well. Second, should the state continue to run government, Party, and National Assembly will be businesses in nonstrategic, commercial-oriented better placed to carry out such an exercise. Box 2.4 Korean Experience of SOE Reform Like in many other developing countries, SOEs were important in the Korean economy, especially in network industries and the banking sector. But even a country like Korea, whose approach to SOE reform could be characterized as “managerial efficiency first, privatization later,â€? adopted a more aggressive approach to reform its SOE sector than Vietnam. In the initial years, the government sought to improve the performance of public enterprises while retaining majority control. A major reform came in 1983 (when Korea was still a low income country) with passage of the Government-Owned Enterprise Act, which sharply reduced political appointments at SOEs, gave managers greater autonomy, and introduced incentives linked to a rigorous system of performance evaluation. With the line ministries involved in management to a limited extent, the Korean SOEs managed to achieve the highest level of operating efficiency in industries such as telecommunications, electricity, natural gas, constructing expressways, and steel. With the increasing liberalization of the economy since the mid-1980s, Korea took the next step and began to draft a full-fledged privatization program. The financial crisis in 1997 further accelerated this process. Under the 1997 Act on the Managerial Structure Improvement and Privatization of SOEs, the government fully privatized large commercially run SOEs such as Korea Telecom, POSCO (an iron and steel company), Korea Tobacco & Ginseng, and many other SOEs. MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM Studies show that in most of the privatized SOEs, managerial performance improved significantly after privatization. 32. Constituting a commission with the reduced to under 51 percent; (b) those that need mandate to prepare a roadmap for restructuring to be restructured first and equitized later, with SOEs could be a useful starting point. Some government ownership kept at 51 percent; and have suggested appointing an autonomous (c) those that will always remain under 100 body—to be named the National Economic percent state ownership but that still need to be Restructuring Commission (NERC)—composed restructured and their corporate governance of technical experts with the mandate to identify strengthened.The commission could also be given and classify SOEs into three groups (irrespective the mandate to recommend a time-bound plan of the status of the SOE as a parent or of equitization, divestment, privatization, mergers, subsidiary):40 (a) those that need to be acquisitions, liquidation, and restructuring of SOEs immediately equitized, with the government stake according to the above classifications.41 40 Such an idea was discussed at a conference organized by the 41 The National Steering Committee for Enterprise Reform and National Financial Supervision Commission on October 17, Development (NSCERD) comes closest to having a mandate similar to one being envisaged for NERC, but it does not enjoy 43 2011, where a National Assembly Delegate made this proposal and several national scholars and experts seconded the idea. the autonomy that NERC would need to be successful. 33. Restructuring SOEs is not only technically independent audit of SOEs would be helpful. the correct thing to do, but also enjoys strong There seems to be equally strong support for popular support. In our CAMS 2011 survey, we accelerating the equitization program and for asked respondents to rate different measures that strengthening regulation of SOEs. Even could improve the functioning and efficiency of measures such as reducing financial support SOEs on a scale that goes from being highly from the government and ending privileged effective to being highly ineffective. The access to bank credit and guarantees to SOEs response of the 967 respondents is summarized seem to enjoy the support of more than half the in figure 2.15. It shows that 88 percent of respondents. While economic policies should respondents felt that improving the transparency not always be based on popular sentiment, in of SOEs can be a highly or moderately effective this particular case, good economics and good tool, while 86 percent believed that a more politics seem to go hand in hand. Figure 2.15 Strong Support from Respondents to Various Measures to Restructure the SOEs Sources: CAMS 2011. 34. The SOE reform efforts, therefore, need to Disclose, Regulate, Equitize, Accountable, and be more comprehensive. To date, the Monitor—that provides a broad range of ideas government has focused largely on equitization. to address various weaknesses in the current Equitization is an important step in a successful regime governing SOEs. SOEs cannot become transformation of SOEs and needs to be the leading sector of the economy by complemented, by a host of other steps, including administrative fiat; they must earn it. And to earn VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 strategic and business planning, corporate and such status they need to operate on a level financial restructuring, forming value-adding playing field, which would involve the elements of business partnerships or alliances, and the DREAM framework, discussed below. implementing more transparent governance. Enhancing the market education of management and staff, modernizing management information VI.A MORE DISCLOSURE systems and human resource development systems, and listing on the stock exchange are 36. Many of Vinashin’s problems could have been additional steps and challenges that need to be nipped in the bud had more information about addressed for effective and comprehensive the company been publicly available (see box transformation. 2.2). The creditors would have been less generous in lending money to Vinashin, and the 35. We propose a framework, referred to as the government could have taken preemptive “DREAMâ€? framework—an acronym for measures to limit Vinashin’s dizzy growth into 44 noncore activities. The same story applies to persons that have responsibility for SEG many other SOEs in similarly difficult situations. transparency, and establish and issue sanctions. Therefore, it is necessary to adopt a new These sanctions should not only be applied to information policy that makes it mandatory for SEGs and managerial positions, but also to the SOEs (including SEGs) to provide the same agencies, organizations, and persons in charge of level information that listed companies in managing and supervising SEGs, corporate Vietnam are required to disclose to the public. governance in SEGs, SEG transparency, and SEG Below is a list of some of the information that monopoly. should be published by economic groups in a timely manner : VI.B IMPROVED REGULATION l Audited half-yearly consolidated financial statements and annual financial statements, AND CORPORATE and annual reports of the parent company GOVERNANCE and of the overall group (if the SOE is an SEG) 38. A more comprehensive approach to SOE l Decisions of ownership agencies; resolutions, reform is needed that accelerates the decisions of Boards of Management, and commercialization process through the minutes of these decision meetings, development and implementation of sound l Investment portfolio and progress of current legal and regulatory frameworks. This investment projects, framework needs to provide SOEs with an l Large-scale transactions, large loans or debts, operating environment and performance and other contingent transactions, incentives similar to those of private sector firms, protect them from inappropriate political l Long-term targets, detailed annual targets, and interference, and ensure that they are fully earning guidance accountable for their financial results. Key l Information about the members of Boards of elements of the process include (a) Management and other core personnel of strengthening corporate governance—SOEs groups (personal information, professional should be managed by skilled and experienced qualification, experience, previous posts, directors who make decisions that are clearly in management area, salary payment method, the best commercial interests of the SOE, its and other benefits; kin and their positions, owners, and key stakeholders; (b) implementing robust frameworks for “public service MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM curriculum vitae, their annual evaluation as business managers, and other relevant obligationsâ€?—these should be delivered only on information), a full cost-recovery basis, which requires that noncommercial services are identified, costed, l Market information, forecasts on product contracted, monitored, and transparently markets, and related market risks, and financed. Where feasible the contract may be l Information on related stakeholders, and tendered to the private sector; and (c) imposing transactions with involved stakeholders. hard budget constraints—commercialized SOEs should operate under the same hard budget 37. Some would argue that asking SOEs to constraints as private sector firms. disclose more information is easier said than Strengthened governance practices and hard done, since many of them do not have the budget constraints will increase the necessary systems and practices in place to transparency and independence of SOEs, generate credible data that the market allowing governments to better assess their demands. Therefore, it is important to determine contributions and hold them accountable for the requirements of SEG transparency; establish performance. Some of the key guiding principles and issue detailed guidelines on SEG of a corporate governance framework for SOEs transparency; determine the organization and are presented in box 2.5. 45 Box 2.5 OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance of SOEs Ensuring an Effective Legal and Regulatory Framework for State-Owned Enterprises: The legal and regulatory framework for SOEs should ensure a level playing field in markets where SOEs and private sector companies compete in order to avoid market distortions. This implies clear separation between the state’s ownership function, simplified operational practices for SOEs, uniform application of general laws and regulations to all enterprises including SOEs, and no privileged access to SOEs for factor of production, including finance. The State Acting as an Owner: The state should act as an informed and active owner and establish a clear and consistent ownership policy, ensuring that the governance of SOEs is carried out in a transparent and accountable manner, with the necessary degree of professionalism and effectiveness (for example, no involvement of government in the day-to-day management of SOEs; the state should let SOE boards exercise their responsibilities and respect their independence). Equitable Treatment of Shareholders: The state and SOEs should recognize the rights of all shareholders and ensure their equitable treatment and equal access to corporate information (for example, SOEs should observe a high degree of transparency toward all shareholders, develop an active policy of communication and consultation with all shareholders, and protect the rights of minority shareholders). Relations with Stakeholders: The state ownership policy should fully recognize the SOEs’ responsibilities toward stakeholders and request that they report on their relations with stakeholders (for example, large SOEs, and SOEs pursuing important public policy objectives, should report on stakeholder relations). Transparency and Disclosure: SOEs should observe high standards of transparency such as developing consistent and aggregate reporting and an annual independent external audit based on international standards. Responsibilities of SOE Boards: SOE boards should have the necessary authority, competencies, and objectivity to carry out their function of strategic guidance and monitoring of management. They should act with integrity and be held accountable for their actions (for example, SOE boards should be assigned a clear mandate, responsibility for the company’s performance, and be fully accountable to the owners; they should be constituted in such a way that they can exercise objective and independent judgment). Sources: OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance of State-Owned Enterprises 2005. VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 VI.C ACCELERATING SOEs can generally be categorized into two EQUITIZATION groups:(a) purely commercial SOEs that are a poor use of public funds (they provide low rates 39. Most of the SOEs equitized to date are of return while crowding out the private sector); small; about 50 percent have capital of less than and (b) infrastructure service SOEs that are VND 5 billion. The challenge ahead is to equitize inefficient and produce disappointing financial and transform the General Corporations and results, in part because “public service obligationsâ€? SEGs into efficient and profitable entities, in order are not well managed. Purely commercial SOEs to fully unleash the potential value of their assets, should be equitized, and infrastructure service including their constituent companies. SOEs should be carefully restructured so that commercial discipline can be introduced into their 40. There is no surer way to improve corporate governance structures and management systems governance of SOEs than to subject them to and incentive mechanisms can be established. 46 market discipline and government oversight. This process may require further analysis of large, complex SOEs to prepare them for financial some have interpreted it in the Vietnam context. restructuring, and subsequent reforms to Implementing sound performance monitoring regulatory framework governing SOEs. systems (PMS) is in fact central to enhancing the transparency and accountability of SOEs. In 41. If the idea is to promote competition and general, a PMS includes (a) development of create a truly level playing field, the government strategies and objectives for each company, (b) might consider a more aggressive option of creation of key performance indicators (to equitizing many of the GCs and SEGs. Except measure the implementation of their strategy and for the BaoViet group, which has completed objectives), and (c) preparation of a “performance equitization, 100 percent of the charter capital of agreementâ€? that presents the high-level objectives the other 11 SEGs is held by the state. Instead of and establishes the targets for each indicator (see equitizing only the member companies, equitizing box 2.6). the parent companies might also be considered. With some groups, like Vinatex; Housing and 43. In Vietnam, efforts to develop a PMS for Urban Development and Investment; the SOEs will face two immediate challenges. First, Industrial Construction Group; and SOEs given the sheer number of SOEs (nearly 3,400 producing beer, sugar, and similar goods for in 2010), developing such a system for each SOE commercial purpose, for instance, the state will be time-consuming and laborious. Local could reduce its share in these industries to governments, which own nearly 60 percent of the below 50 percent in the near term and to zero SOEs, may not have the manpower and capacity in the long term. With other groups, the state to undertake such an exercise. Second, this may may hold a dominating share of capital (51 require SOEs to invest in establishing management percent) instead of 100 percent of capital in and supervision information systems consisting of parent companies. Finally, only in SEGs involved information on finance, business performance, and in national defense and security should the state related risks and changes, which can be both share remain at 100 percent. expensive and time-consuming. Vietnam, therefore, may not be able to develop a meaningful and effective PMS for SOEs unless the number of SOEs VI.D STRENGTHENING is drastically reduced. Therefore, in our view, MONITORING AND developing PMS should begin with a pilot phase MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM OVERSIGHT involving all 12 SEGs, which have better information systems, the necessary manpower, and account for 42. Giving more operational autonomy to SOEs more than half of the SOE sector (after taking into does not mean an end to monitoring and account their subsidiaries and affiliates), to oversight on the part of the government, as undertake such an exercise. Box 2.6 Developing SOE Performance Monitoring Systems Developing monitoring systems involves several steps. A first step is to clearly define the strategy and objectives of the company. Often, SOEs have multiple and conflicting objectives, making it difficult to measure and monitor performance. For example, an SOE must operate in a commercial manner and be profitable, but at the same time it is often required, either formally or informally, to provide social services and maintain employment, usually without compensation from the government. Such noncommercial objectives may not be easy to eliminate, but a first step is to define and acknowledge such objectives explicitly so that they are transparent and more easily monitorable. Once objectives are clearly defined, the next step is to develop key performance indicators to measure performance against expected results. Experience suggests several key principles in 47 selecting and designing appropriate indicators: (a) indicators should be specific, measurable, and achievable; (b) they should not distort incentive structures; (c) they should facilitate benchmarking against other companies, including international companies, while recognizing country differences in accounting rules, taxation policies, and cost structures; and (d) they should be simple to begin with and improved over time with increased experience and capacity. Good indicators are both financial and nonfinancial. Financial indicators typically include profitability, efficiency, solvency, and budgetary support. Many countries are beginning to use the concept of “economic value addedâ€? to measure the true economic profit produced by a company by accounting for the cost of capital. Nonfinancial indicators include strategy development, corporate governance, innovation, and learning and development. One way to assess overall performance is to use a “balanced score cardâ€? approach, which is more comprehensive and aims to strike a better balance between financial and nonfinancial indicators. Once objectives, indicators, and targets are agreed between owners and SOEs, they are typically formalized in an agreement document such as a Statement of Corporate Intent, a Performance Contract, a Memorandum of Understanding, or a Shareholders’ Agreement. Developing such a document is usually a collaborative process between owners and SOEs. In most cases, a regulation or a protocol specifies the process and the roles and responsibilities of the various parties. Developing agreements can be a complex task that requires the right industry and financial skills on the part of both boards and owners. To be an informed owner, SOE ownership entities sometimes bring in external experts to help draft the agreement. In most cases, agreements are developed on a yearly basis, although they may also cover longer time periods. Finally, SOE owners review and evaluate performance and take action based on any problems detected.This can be done through ongoing monitoring through information disclosure, an annual performance review, or both. A performance review includes an assessment of financial and nonfinancial results against the key performance indicators, and could also include a more general assessment of operating results, the company’s commitment to good corporate governance, and the performance of the board. Auditing and disclosure of key performance indicators is gaining traction as a way to ensure the reliability of the process. The assessment would also identify steps to be taken by SOEs and owners and provide the basis for discussing objectives for the coming year. Increasingly, countries are linking an annual review to performance-based compensation systems for SOE management. Sources: “Toolkit on State Enterprise Corporate Governance,â€? Finance and Private Sector Development, World Bank, forthcoming. VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 VI.E HOLDING SOEs function poorly. This creates competition among ACCOUNTABLE the SOEs and helps them produce better results. 44. Establishing clear accountability requires 45. Accountability needs to be developed at owners and boards to benchmark performance both the organizational and individual level. In against clear objectives. Therefore establishing a addition, the process through which monitoring system is key to holding SOEs performance is evaluated and accountability accountable. As discussed in box 2.7, some determined should be transparent and objective. countries have developed performance Therefore, along with proper monitoring, management systems and use it to reward SOEs transparency is key to holding SOEs accountable with good performance and penalize SOEs that (as discussed in section VI.A). 48 Box 2.7 Using PMS to Hold SOEs Accountable—An Example from India In India, Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSEs) are monitored and evaluated through the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) process, a performance agreement negotiated and signed between a CPSE and its administrative ministry. Established in 1986, the main goal was to improve CPSE performance by providing greater autonomy to the enterprises while holding them accountable for results through the MOU, which set out objectives, targets, and incentive-based rewards. The MOU system has steadily evolved and improved over the past 20-plus years, and has become a key tool for ensuring accountability of CPSEs and their directors. The MOU’s contents are set by government guidelines and include (a) a mission statement, (b) CPSE objectives, (c) areas where power has been delegated to the CPSE, (d) performance targets, and (e) commitments from the government to the CPSE. In practice, the primary focus of each MOU is the performance targets. Department of Public Enterprises guidelines specify particular financial and nonfinancial or dynamic targets, with different weights assigned to each, based on the broad sector the CPSE operates in (loss-making companies and those under construction have their own formats). A balanced scorecard approach is used, with 50 percent of the weight given to financial targets and 50 percent to nonfinancial targets. MOU negotiations are arranged by the Department of Public Enterprises and facilitated by 11 “Task Force Syndicates,â€? organized by sector. Each CPSE is assigned to a particular Task Force, which approves the MOU and evaluates how well the enterprise did in meeting the targets. Each Task Force consists of the convener, six members, and the Task Force members. The six members consist of retired civil servants, public sector executives, management professionals, and independent members with relevant experience. Task Forces were formed to bring technical expertise that was considered lacking in the government and the CPSE, and to bring independence to the process (no current government member can serve on the Task Force). Final MOUs must be approved by the High Powered Committee, which also assesses the performance of both CPSEs and administrative ministries in meeting their commitments. Performance is evaluated based on a comparison between actual achievements and the agreed annual targets. It is measured on a five-point scale, ranging from excellent (1) to poor (5) for MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM each target area. Typically, a majority of CPSEs receive scores between 1 and 2, indicating that they are top performers. Performance incentives are monetary and nonmonetary. Monetary payments are based on MOU scores. Nonmonetary incentives include Excellence Awards for the best-performing CPSEs, and Excellence Certificates for CPSEs with a final rank of 1.5 or better. The score is also taken into account in the evaluation of and bonuses for managing directors and other senior officers. (Companies are rated by their score, with high-scoring companies accorded the status of Navratna [royal jewel] and Miniratna [mini-jewel]). If high-status companies do not show consistent performance for three consecutive years, they can lose their status. The World Bank (2009) identified room for further improvement, including improving the capability of the task forces, including corporate governance, social objectives, and service delivery targets in the MOU, clarifying ownership obligations, and providing more disclosure. Sources: India: “Corporate Governance of Central Public Sector Enterprises,â€? World Bank, June 2010. 49 VI.F PACE AND SEQUENCE OF operating in the critical sector, the key is to start THE REFORM PROGRAM with a pilot exercise to develop a performance monitoring system for each of the 12 SEGs, 46. For effective results, the pace and sequence facilitate more disclosure about their operational of the SOE reform program should be activities, hold them accountable to the mutually calibrated to the urgency of the situation and agreed performance goals, and work on a the capacity of the implementing agencies. In modern corporate governance code. If a more the case of Vietnam, many of the ideas mentioned aggressive equitization and restructuring policy is above have been under discussion for a long time pursued, it should be complemented with and their implications are well understood. adequate investment in social safety net programs Nevertheless, it is important that adequate to avoid a sharp displacement of workers. There thought be given to the implementation is little doubt that once the political consensus on arrangements. One possibility is to adopt a two- the nature and extent of restructuring of SOEs pronged approach of kick-starting the equitization has been reached, the government will move process of enterprises operating in noncritical quickly to implement arrangements that will sectors (irrespective of size) and restructuring the define the appropriate pace and sequencing of ones operating in the critical sector. For those the reform program. VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 50 MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM 51 Chapter 3 DOING MORE FOR LESS: IMPROVING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PUBLIC INVESTMENT42 Vietnam Development Report 2012 42 This chapter draws on a number of background studies commissioned as part of the Vietnam Development Report 2012, including CIEM (2011), Thanh and Pincus (2011), and Tuyen (2011). For details, see MARKET ECONOMY the list of references at the end of the report. FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM I CONTEXT AND KEY length of paved roads in Vietnam quadrupled from 30,000 kilometers (km) to almost 120,000 FINDINGS km, connecting farms and firms with the market and lowering transaction costs. The number of households with access to a piped water network rose from 12 percent in 2002 to 76 percent in 1. Vietnam has been highly successful in 2009. Similarly, container throughput (a measure mobilizing huge investment to support its rapid of volume of international trade) grew by more growth. During the past two decades, its than 20 percent per year on average between economy has grown at an annual average rate of 2000 and 2009—the fastest container volume around 7.5 percent, making Vietnam one of the growth rate in Asia during the period. It is these fastest growing countries in the world. This successes that partly underpin Vietnam’s ability to successful growth story has been driven primarily simultaneously achieve impressive growth and by rapid factor accumulation—physical and extraordinary poverty reduction. human capital—with productivity growth playing a secondary role.43,44 Its track record in mobilizing 3. But Vietnam’s investment regime, especially investment—both at home and abroad and from its public investment component, is being private and official sources—has been impressive. As shown in panel A of figure 3.1,Vietnam has the increasingly viewed in the last few years as highest investment rate after China among the unaffordable, inefficient and, therefore, select group of large emerging markets in the unsustainable. There are three commonly cited world. It is also one of the highest recipients of concerns against the current investment regime:45 foreign direct investment, which averaged over 7 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) during l Affordability. Because the strategy has relied 2005–10 (panel B of figure 3.1). At the same time, almost exclusively on raising the “levelâ€? of Vietnam remains the highest recipient of net investment rather than improving its Official Development Assistance (panel C of “efficiency,â€? the amount of financial resources figure 3.1) outside the group of low-income required to meet Vietnam’s future countries. Undoubtedly, the country’s ability to infrastructure needs has reached an attract considerable capital from diverse sources unaffordable level. For example, according to has been a key part of its development success. the Ministry of Planning and Investment (MPI), Vietnam needs around US$25 billion a year to 2. Equally important has been Vietnam’s ability invest in infrastructure (more than 20 percent to translate the high level of investment into of GDP), while the annual funds available from basic infrastructure services, making the both the public and private sectors are less development process extraordinarily inclusive. than US$16 billion—creating an annual Consider the following facts. The ratio of rural shortfall of US$9 billion (Thanh and Dapice households connected to electricity grids 2008). With government debt at 57 percent VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 increased from 14 percent in 1993 to almost of GDP and domestic credit at 120 percent universal access by 2010. From a mere 8.8 billion of GDP, there are concerns that continuing the kilowatt hours of electricity production in 1990, current trend in public investment, often using output soared to 80 billion kilowatt hours in borrowed funds from expensive sources, will 2009—a remarkable annual average growth rate be fiscally unsustainable and add to of 13 percent. Between 2000 and 2010, the total macroeconomic vulnerability.46 43 Vietnam’s growth experience mirrors the experience of other 45 A fourth concern is its environmental sustainability, which was countries in the region that have achieved similar growth records discussed in Vietnam Development Report 2011. in the past. See Young (1995), who described the sources of 46 There are affordability issues at the micro level, as well. First, the growth for East Asia’s then Newly Industrialized Countries— debt-to-equity ratio of most enterprises, especially the SOEs, has Hong Kong SAR, China; the Republic of Korea; Singapore; and increased rapidly in recent years, and a further increase in their Taiwan—as “99 percent perspiration (factor accumulation) and debt level is not advisable. Second, following Vinashin’s default, 1 percent inspiration (total factor productivity).â€? Also see World the cost of borrowing for Vietnamese firms has risen considerably, Bank (1993) and World Bank (2006). making it prohibitively expensive for them to borrow in the 54 44 See CIEM (2010) and Porter (2011) on the calculation of total international markets. Third, the user fees associated with many factor productivity for Vietnam. infrastructure projects are below cost, making them financially unsustainable without government support. Figure 3.1 Vietnam’s Success in Mobilizing Investment from Various Sources (2005–10) Panel A Panel B MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM Panel C Sources: World Development Indicators, World Bank (2011). l Impact. Despite huge investment, Vietnam’s airports, and poor quality of infrastructure in infrastructure bottleneck remains a industrial areas.47 While critics concede that significant constraint to future growth. Along the infrastructure problem could have with macroeconomic stability, other factors become worse without the higher cited by investors as some of the main investment, they also point to the high cost constraints to operating in Vietnam are lack and time delay in building infrastructure as of adequate and reliable electricity, congestion on the roads and at seaports and 55 47 See Japanese External Trade Organization, 2007 Survey of Japanese-Affiliated Firms. more binding constraints than availability of 4. While the unsustainability of the investment financial resources. regime has long been recognized, it is only l Link to growth. A strong positive correlation recently that the government seems determined between investment rate and growth over a to make the effectiveness of public investment sustained period is one of the well-known its top priority. With no visible improvement in stylized facts in the literature on growth (Levine the external environment and continued and Renelt,1992). This relationship appears to macroeconomic turbulence at home, the have weakened in Vietnam in recent years. realization has dawned that Vietnam must do Figure 3.2 shows the actual and four-year more with less, that is, it must maintain its high moving average of the ratio of investment to growth rate, but with a lower investment rate. GDP and the real GDP growth rate.48 It shows Therefore, the government has shifted the that during the last five years, there has been a paradigm: it has slashed the target investment rate steady increase in the investment rate, initially for the next five years from the current 40 fueled by a sharp increase in foreign direct percent of GDP to 35 percent of GDP while investment (a dividend from joining the World maintaining the growth rate of the economy at 6 Trade Organization) and later by the stimulus spending (in the wake of the global economic to 6.5 percent—signaling that a larger part of crisis). But this is also the period when growth growth will now have to come from higher started to decelerate. A significant part of the efficiency. This sentiment was echoed by the growth deceleration, at least initially, was due to Central Party Committee, which in one of its a sharp drop in exports and a slowdown in recent communications said: global demand. Since then, exports have rebounded, but not growth. In fact, even under “To renew the thinking on investment, gradually optimistic assumptions, Vietnam’s growth is adjust the public investment structure in the direction expected to remain at around 6 percent in the of reducing the proportion of public investment and foreseeable future. The fact that growth is improving the efficiency; resolutely overcoming the becoming less responsive to investment, widespread investment and promoting the capital especially to public investment—which mobilization for development. In 2012, to strictly accounts for as much as 30-40 percent of total implement the conclusion of the third Central investment—has, therefore, emerged as a key Conference and the instruction of Prime Minister on concern for policy makers. Figure 3.2 Recent Investment Boom Has Not Delivered Proportionate Growth( variables are in %)) VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 Sources: World Development Indicators, World Bank (2011) 48 Given the lag between investment and growth and the annual 56 fluctuations in data, the comparison using the four-year moving average is perhaps more meaningful. strengthening the management of investment from relative to the size of its economy. Building more the state budget, public bond, strictly controlling infrastructure is often a virtue, especially in an investment of state enterprises. To renew the interdependent, globalized world, where a mechanism of investment allocation; focus capital on country like Vietnam can use its low-cost urgent projects to finish soon, quickly putting into use advantages to transact goods and (tradable) to promote the efficiency. Put priority on funding the services many times higher than its GDP—a project already completed and put into use, the strategy that has been deployed in the past by projects planned to be completed in 2012 and smaller economies in the region such as Hong reciprocal capital for ODA [Official Development Kong SAR (China) and Singapore. But Vietnam’s Assistance] projects. The new projects and problem is that, while it is thinking “big,â€? it is construction must be strictly controlled; the capital building “small.â€? Consider the following facts. resources must be clearly identified, ensuring efficiency and investment procedures.â€? l There are nearly 260 industrial parks (IPs) that have been built or are under construction 5. Vietnam’s existing public investment regime in Vietnam and 239 more have been approved can be best described as one in which the parts to be built in the next 10 years (panel A, figure do not add up to the whole. In Vietnam’s highly 3.3). Of these 260 IPs, nearly 50 have a zero decentralized administrative structure, developing occupancy rate, accounting for 20 percent of infrastructure is the responsibility of local the total land area occupied by IPs. The governments. By putting its 62 provincial average nationwide IP occupancy rate is only governments and two city administrations in 46 percent. charge of screening, appraising, selecting, and l There are 18 economic zones (EZs) in executing their own infrastructure projects, Vietnam, occupying about 765,000 hectares Vietnam has unleashed tremendous energy and (ha). In contrast, all 260 IPs occupy less competition among its local governments— than 72,000 ha (panel B, figure 3.3). While certainly a positive move. But as discussed later the EZs have a slightly higher occupancy in this chapter, this has been done without rate than the IPs, many EZs are finding it connecting the infrastructure to the strategic difficult to attract enough investors to be priorities of the country (such as improving financially sustainable. competitiveness) or using the market as a means l Vietnam has 24 deep-sea ports and many MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM of allocating resources. Consequently, each province has worked in isolation to create more are planned (panel B, figure 3.3). Some fragmented, suboptimal infrastructure projects, of the new ports being built are actually many of which have become idle. clusters of ports such as the Cai Mep–Thi Vai Port complex, which consists of nine ports 6. If all the approved projects in Vietnam were with a combined realized capacity of 8.1 built, the country would have one of the highest million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU). numbers of deep-sea ports, international However, the current utilization rate in the Cai airports and industrial parks in the world Mep–Thi Vai port is less than 30 percent. 57 Figure 3.3 Location of Existing and Under-Development Infrastructure in Vietnam Panel B Economic Zones Panel A Industrial Parks Panel D Growth Poles Panel C Deep-sea Ports VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 Sources: Authors’ compilation from Vietnam government development plans for port location, the Vietnam Economic Times, and Thanh and Pincus (2011) l There are 20 airports operating in Vietnam adequate air traffic to these airports and keeping and a few more on the drawing boards. The them operational will be much more expensive median capacity of these airports is around 1 in the long-run than building and maintaining a million to 1.5 million passengers. Ensuring few large airports in strategic locations. 58 7. While the decision to build life-sustaining of nonmarket means to allocate resources, infrastructure throughout the country— especially land; (b) poorly specified and enforced electricity, roads, drinking water supply—was a property rights; (c) weak coordination among brilliant move, the logic behind building growth- governments, line agencies, and state-owned sustaining infrastructure in every province— enterprises (SOEs); (d) lack of impartial regulating airports, seaports, IPs, EZs, and so agencies; and (e) weak implementation of existing forth—appears less persuasive. Experience of laws. These case studies also reflect the problems countries shows that “economic growth is associated at different stages of the public unbalanced, but development can still be investment cycle—strategic planning, screening, inclusiveâ€? (World Development Report 2009). appraisal, selection, implementation, and Vietnam, knowingly or unknowingly, pursued this evaluation—and discusses potential ways to approach during the 1990s and early 2000s when address them.50 it invested heavily in building basic infrastructure for its population, making development inclusive. But in recent years, especially after approval of II Law on Investment (2005), which devolved all investment-related decisions to local INDUSTRIAL PARKS: governments, the logic of building life-sustaining BOON OR BANE? infrastructure was extended to build growth- enhancing infrastructure. But such a move had two limitations. First, as shown in panel D of figure 3.3, nearly 70 percent of Vietnam’s output 9. IPs have played a critical role in Vietnam’s is generated around two growth poles—the Red transformation from an agriculture-based River Delta region and the area surrounding the economy to a low-cost exporter of manufactured Mekong Delta, including Ho Chi Minh City products. Political stability, a young and educated (HCMC). Second, with an average size of labor force, the relatively low cost of doing business, 200,000 households and a GDP of less than and strategic location are some of the factors that US$1 billion per province, most provinces have have made Vietnam a magnet for foreign direct neither the financial capacity to build globally investment.51 Many of these foreign investors, and competitive infrastructure nor enough internal a large number of domestic investors, have found a demand to ensure their full utilization. There is home in the ubiquitous IPs that dot the length and no doubt that as Vietnam becomes more breadth of the country. At the end of 2010, prosperous and a bigger economy, all of its Vietnam’s 261 IPs (see table 3.1) occupied 71,394 infrastructure will be fully utilized,49 but in the MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM medium term it will suffer from the opportunity ha in 57 of its 62 provinces. Of these, 173 IPs are cost of building infrastructure that the market fully operational and 88 are at various stages of currently does not need. construction. In recent years, these IPs have attracted nearly 8,350 projects with a registered 8. We use three case studies—one on capital of US$74 billion, of which US$24 billion has industrial parks and two from the port sector— been disbursed. In 2010, the enterprises operating to identify the problems that have contributed in the IPs produced nearly US$34 billion worth of to an inefficient public investment regime and products, of which US$19 billion was exported (40 what can be done to address them. These case percent of total manufacturing exports from studies were chosen because they illustrate the Vietnam). There are more than 1.6 million workers generic nature of the problem facing many employed in these IPs. By most criteria, the IPs in infrastructure projects in Vietnam, namely (a) use Vietnam should be considered a huge success. 49 The current flooding in Thailand has forced some investors to 50 Also see MPI (2009). look for alternative sites, and Vietnam, with its underutilized IPs 51 The net foreign direct investment in Vietnam during 2006–10 and EZs, may be an attractive alternative. However, Vietnam’s exceeded the cumulative net foreign direct investment in infrastructure policy should not be driven by providence, but by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand combined market forces. (World Development Indicators 2011). 59 Table 3.1 Selected Statistics on Vietnam’s IPs (at the end of 2010) Indicator Foreign Invested Domestic Invested Total Number of IPs 40 221 261 IPs currently operational 23 150 173 Number of projects (enterprises) 3,962 4,377 8,339 Amount of registered capital US$53.6 billion VND 336,078 billion US$74 billion Amount of disbursed capital US$17.1 billion VND 135,950 billion US$24 billion Production turnover US$30.5 billion VND 57,251 billion US$34 billion Exports n.a. n.a. US$19 billion Imports n.a. n.a. US$18.5 billion Number of employees n.a. n.a. 1.6 million Sources: Department for Economic Zones Management, MPI. Note: n.a. = not applicable. 10. Yet, instead of being a source of pride, the IPs 2000s. On January 25, 1991, the Prime Minister are increasingly viewed as a symptom of a issued a permit to establish the Tan Thuan problem, namely, excessive investment that is not Processing and Expor t Zone, which is yielding commensurate growth. As discussed in considered to be the first modern IP in section I, the country is now scattered with Vietnam, following which more IPs were built, fragmented, suboptimal-size infrastructure projects though the pace of expansion was interrupted with low utilization rates. This problem is most by the East Asian Crisis in the late 1990s. As acute with the IPs where the average occupancy figure 3.4 shows, the rate of approval and rate is only 46 percent. To add to the problem, construction of IPs increased in 2002 and went nearly 239 new IPs have been approved for into overdrive after the approval of the Law construction during the next 10 years! What led on Investment in 2005. In 2008 alone, the Vietnam to build so many IPs that it cannot afford amount of land approved for IPs exceeded the or does not need in the foreseeable future? cumulative land allocated for IPs between 1991 and 2003. Even at the height of the global economic crisis in 2009, 30 new IPs II.A BUILD IT AND THEY WILL were approved. The deluge of foreign COME investment, signing of various trade agreements, and incentives provided by the 11. Encouraged by the initial success, Vietnam government created a feeling that if you build an went into overdrive to build IPs during the mid- IP, the investors are sure to come. VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 Figure 3.4 Approval of New Industrial Parks in Vietnam (1991–2010) 60 Sources: Authors’ estimates based on data published by the Department for Economic Zones Management, MPI. Figure 3.5 Utilization Rate of Existing IPs (at the end of 2010) Sources: Authors’ estimates based on data published by the Department for Economic Zones Management, MPI. 12. The speed at which industrial parks are being 14. But some IPs are doing much better than built exceeds any reasonable demand for them, others, especially ones closer to the growth with the global economic crisis in 2009 poles. Location of the IPs appears to be a exacerbating the problem. According to the significant factor behind their performance. IPs Ministry of Planning and Investment (MPI), at the in the two economic hubs of the country end of 2010, the nationwide vacancy rate in (Hanoi and HCMC) and some of the surrounding provinces (Hai Phong, Hai Duong existing IPs was less than 50 percent. Data available and Hung Yen in the North and Dong Nai, Binh from the Department for Economic Zones Duong and Ba Ria Vung Tau in the South) Management in MPI show that the fully operational outperform their counterpar ts in the other IPs have an occupancy rate of 63 percent, while for locations in terms of turnover and expor t those under construction, the occupancy rate is 15 revenues (table 3.2). While these 8 cities and percent. The overall nationwide occupancy rate is provinces accounting for less than half the estimated to be 46 percent (figure 3.5). number of IPs, they contribute 84 percent of International experience shows that a 75 percent export turnover in 2010. occupancy rate is required for an IP to be economically sustainable in the long run. 15. The problem of underutilized IPs will MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM certainly worsen if all the IPs included in the 13. The occupancy rate is not only low, it has master plan are built. Despite the low utilization steadily declined. For example, nationwide rate of current IPs, nearly 239 more, amounting to 54,882 ha of land, have been approved for utilization rate peaked at 62 percent in 2007 but implementation during 2011–20. In addition, the then fell rapidly to 46 percent by 2010. The overall approved master plans of national and local low occupancy rate has been adversely affected by governments include construction of 3 national the large number of non-performing IPs. Among economic zones with the combined area of 260 IPs, about 50 IPs have zero occupancy rate, 265,000 ha and 1,643 provincial-level industrial accounting for 20 percent of the total IP land areas. clusters with a land area of 73,000 ha. It is The decline in the occupancy rate has been uniform estimated by MPI that the country would require across most provinces. For example, between 2007 nearly US$40 billion in investment in the next 10 and 2010, the utilization rate in Hai Duong fell from years just to construct the infrastructure for these 66 to 35 percent, in Hung Yen from 60 to 25 approved IPs and economic zones.52 percent, in Long An from 53 to 31 percent, and in Tien Giang from 34 percent (in 2006) to 31 percent. A large part of this decline can be attributed to a boom in the approval of IPs between 2006 and 2009, the construction of 52 MPI estimates that the investment rate for IP infrastructure is which has since slowed due to weaker demand. US$300,000 per hectare. 61 Table 3.2 Successful IPs in terms of export turnover (2010) Export turnover in leasable industrial land Rate of occupancy Export turnover Number Provinces Export turnover of IPs Rate (USD mil.) Ranking (USD mil./ha) Ranking Ranking (%) Hanoi 11 1.83 1 64.6 16 2,118 3 HCMC 18 1.24 2 48.4 30 3,100 2 Hai Phong 5 1.13 3 39.2 38 717 7 Dong Nai 30 0.86 4 58.6 22 5,476 1 Can Tho 6 0.85 5 50.1 27 515 9 Hai Duong 10 0.78 6 35.0 44 980 5 Phu Tho 2 0.69 7 73.7 11 211 11 Hung Yen 9 0.61 8 25.3 50 757 6 Dong Thap 3 0.60 9 73.0 12 119 19 Binh Duong 25 0.38 10 58.7 21 2,020 4 Sources: Department for Economic Zones Management, MPI II.B WHAT IS DRIVING THE IP land, converting the land to industrial use can BOOM? bring added revenues to the province. In addition, corporate income tax and VAT (for goods bound 16. While the proliferation of IPs has had many for the domestic market) are shared taxes, influences, institutional factors and the meaning the province gets to keep some of the tax incentives they generate have contributed to it. revenue collected from firms. Indeed, regardless of In particular, the system of intergovernmental where the good are sold in Vietnam, the province fiscal relations provides incentives for provinces where the firm is headquartered collects the VAT to prefer industrial production, and the system of and all of the shared revenues associated with those land management provides a further (invisible) collections accrue to that province. [PER 2005, p. subsidy to the cost of IPs (see Box 3.1). In the 89] In Long An province, with 24 industrial zones, current decentralized environment, the MPI, 48 percent of revenues come from the shared which is responsible for approving IPs, does not revenues and those that are designated for local have enough political capital to reject proposals governments, including the land-related revenues. made by the provinces. And even if the central In contrast, only 22 percent of revenues from are VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 government promulgates regulations to slow new from such sources in Bac Lieu, a province with only IP development, those regulations have been a single IP.53 While many of the fiscal benefits from creatively sidestepped. industrializing accrue to the provinces, many of the costs of building associated infrastructure are (A) Incentives for the Provinces subsidized by an allocation from the central government. Taken together, it is clear to see why 17. Vietnam's system of taxation provides that IPs are attractive from the perspective of the virtually all land related tax revenue accrue to provinces. the local governments, including 100 percent of land and housing taxes, tax on the transfer of land use rights, tax on the use of agricultural 53 While there has been little research conducted into the relationship between land/property taxation and government land, land rent and the fees from the use of land finances in Vietnam, studies have shown that local governments (see box 3.1). Since agricultural land is valued, are operating in an unsustainable manner by converting and selling valuable agricultural land to underpin their operation rented, and taxed at lower rates than industrial 62 budget needs (WB study, 2008). Box 3.1 Inter-Governmental Fiscal Transfers in Vietnam The level of fiscal decentralization in Vietnam, which has been historically high, has continued to increase in recent years. In 2000, nearly 40 percent of investment from the state budget was executed by the local government; by 2010 this number has increased to 51 percent. Revenue assignment between central and local governments is currently stipulated by the Budget Law 2002. According to the Law, all revenues collected from taxes and fees related to international trade must be transferred to the central budget. On the other hand, local governments retain 100 percent of the revenues they collected from land (e.g., renting, tax on land use transfers, land use tax), from natural resource tax, registration fees and from lottery. Specific land price brackets will be determined by provincial People’s Committee. Another source of revenue for provinces is part of the revenues collected from VAT, corporate income tax, personal income tax, and gasoline fee. There exists a sharing mechanism between central and provincial government for these revenues, but the majority of provinces can retain 100 percent for their own budget. Richer provinces (HCMC, Hanoi, Quang Ninh etc) have to transfer a part of these revenues to the central budget. The sharing mechanism is kept stable for 3-5 years. Overall, the central government keeps about 60 percent of total revenues collected from fees and taxes, and provinces received about 40 percent of these revenues. However, the central government transfers about half of its tax revenues to provinces. So the final share of central- provincial tax and fee revenues after the transfers is around 30:70. Sources: Budget Law and The State Budget Budget Accounts for 2010 (MOF Website). (B)Land-Use Planning and Property Rights (C) Strategic Guidance for Investment 18. The system for land management indirectly 19. The current IP policy lacks credible strategic provides incentives favoring industrial parks. As guidance that anchors government decisions IPs are large projects, they qualify for compulsory and guides sector-level and province-level MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM land acquisition, meaning that the state acquires decision makers. While Vietnam has Five Year the land, with compensation, from those with Plans and separate Master Plan for IPs and for existing land use rights, and then converts the land Economic Zones, that establish economywide to industrial use for the IP, renting it to the new broad development priorities and action plans to users. The level of compensation for those who implement those priorities, there seems to be lose their land is in general based on the market price of the land's former use (usually agriculture), limited connection between them (see box 3.2). rather than being based on the value of industrial A simple, back-of-the envelope calculation shows land. Moreover, the level of compensation does that the IP approval process has little bearing on not reflect the loss of livelihoods experienced by the rest of the economy. For example, with farmers whose primary skill is farming. All this for 140,000 ha planned for industrial parks, the state projects those are essentially private in nature. As will be required to invest approximately US$40 the land is taken in a compulsory way, it is likely billion to build supporting infrastructure such as that the value of the land to those who lose it is wastewater treatment plants, hazardous waste higher than the value of the land to those who disposal systems, emission treatment facilities, and acquire it, generating an economic efficiency. It roads connecting the IPs to the nearest highways also means that a key input for the creation of IPs, or ports. In addition, the IPs will need to attract land, is implicitly subsized by those who lose the around US$300 billion in investment projects and land, usually farmers. 63 Box 3.2 China’s Experience with Industrial Zones China has more than 1,000 industrial zones (IZs) following a central government policy encouraging the development of such zones. Most cities and counties have followed the models set by the large zones developed by the central and provincial governments. The local governments are motivated to develop industrial zones to get tax revenues and revenues from selling land, as well as nice records of administrative performance. These industrial zones have played a critical role in facilitating the growth of Chinese SMEs from family operations catering to the local market to global powerhouses. These zones not only provided Chinese SMEs with good basic infrastructure (e.g. roads, energy, water and sewage), security, streamlined government regulations (e.g. government service centers) and affordable industrial land, they also provided technical training, low cost standardized factory shells allowing Chinese entrepreneurs to "Plug and Play" as well as Chinese workers with free and decent housing accommodations. But not all Chinese industrial zones have been successful. The better ones were built on existing or potential industrial strengths, in other words, local comparative advantages. Most of these zones specialize in particular industries, letting market forces drive the organic development of specialized clusters. China's success also relied a great deal on intense competition (domestic producers as well as export markets), its decentralized implementation and ensuing competition between local governments as well as with the key role devoted to the banks and private sector developers. By contrast, most of Vietnam’s IPs are not specialized clusters.There are limited linkages between IPs and the vast majority of small, informal SMEs which focus on the domestic market and remain small. Export growth in Vietnam does not bring about as much value addition as one finds in China (20 percent vs 33 percent in China from manufacturing value added) as the large firms also suffer from not being plugged into local clusters and value chains—they import most of their inputs. Sources: http://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/blogs/vandana-chandra. hire 9 million industrial workers to be financially 1997, management of IPs was the responsibility sustainable in the long term. Even less thought of the Vietnam Management Board, which has gone into issues such as accommodations for reported directly to the Prime Minister. In 2000, the workers; equipping the labor force with basic the Vietnam Management Board came under the training; or developing supporting infrastructure, authority of the MPI. In 2003, the MPI was given such as wastewater treatment plants, emission a greater mandate to oversee the state VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 treatment systems, hazardous waste and solid management functions of IPs. But such a waste disposal systems, and connectivity with the centralized arrangement appeared infeasible, nearest urban center or port. There is a need to forcing MPI to gradually assign greater state link the IP approval process with the annual management functions to the IP Provincial budget preparation process so that the planning Management Boards (PMBs). Following approval and financing part of IPs are jointly determined. of the Law on Investment (2005), which dramatically accelerated the decentralization of (D) Inconsistent Laws, Weak Implementation investment to local governments, PMBs became almost entirely responsible for the management 20. The authority to develop and manage IPs has of IPs and for Export Processing Zones and Hi- undergone several changes in recent years. A tech Zones. Decree No. 29/2008/ND-CP selection of the key regulations involving introduced further decentralization and the one- establishment and management of IPs between stop shop, and outlined procedures for handling 64 1997 and 2010 are presented in table 3.3. In issues such as environmental and labor standards. Table 3.3 Selected Key Regulations Involving Establishment and Management of IPs, 1997–2010 Name of the Issuing Authority Key Provisions Regulating Instrument and Year Issued Decree Central Development and management of IPs rested with No. 36/ND-CP/1997 Government, 1997 the Vietnam Management Board, which reported to the Prime Minister Decision Central Govern-ment, Sept. Vietnam Management Board for IPs came under No. 99/QD-TTg 2000 the authorization of MPI Decree Government MPI was put in charge of strict management of IPs, No. 61/ND-CP/2003 June 6, 2003 but by applying the decentralization mechanism, it gradually assigned most of its function to the Provincial Management Boards Law on Investment 2005 National Assembly, 2005 Dramatically accelerated decentralization of Decision Prime Minister, investment No. 1107/ 2006/QD-TTg August 21, 2006 Plan for IP development in Vietnam to 2015 and Decree Government 2020 vision No.29/2008/ ND-CP March 14, 2008 Establishment, operation, regulation, and state management of IPs and Export Zones consistent with World Trade Organization regulations Sources: MPI; MOF; various sources. 21. While regulations have been constantly new IPs even when the occupancy rate of existing revised, their implementation has been uneven IPs is lower than 60 percent, or they can phase land and weak. For example, although Decree transfer to existing IPs into different periods, and 29/2008/ND-CP was approved in 2008, many calculate the occupancy rate based on the authorized ministries had not provided detailed transferred area rather than the total area of the IPs. instructions to the local governments as late as mid-2011. Thus, some PPCs have hesitated to 23. The legal document guiding the master delegate certain tasks to PMBs, causing an uneven planning process for spatial development lacks mandate for PMBs across provinces. enforcement power. The main strategic MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM document for the nation-wide development of 22. Regulations concerning the setting up of IPs IPs is the Master Plan for IPs development, which are not always consistent with each other. Take is supposed to be reviewed by a National for example Decree No. 29/2008/ND-CP, which Appraisal Committee and then approved by the states that one of the conditions for establishing PM. There is another master plan for economic new or expanding existing IPs is that the average zones and a number of other related master plans occupancy rate of IPs in a province reaches 60 such as Land Use Master Plan, Urban percent.54 This is a sensible regulation intended to Development Plan, Transport Master Plan and maintain an appropriate balance between demand Power Master Plan. The inter-linkages between and supply of IPs within a province. But there are them are vague and the current consultation other regulations that help provinces sidestep this process for achieving coherence remains a restriction. If the occupancy rate of existing IPs is formality rather than a strategic tool. The only less than 60 percent, provinces need to “find a legal document guiding the master planning nicheâ€? to overcome such regulation. PPCs can also process for spatial development is Decree ask for “special approvalâ€? to allow them to establish 92/2006,55 which clearly lacks enforcement power 54 This provision applies to all provinces and top-tier cities under 55 Some of the articles of Decree 92 were amended by Decree 65 central management in the country. 04/2008. to deal with other closely related laws such as operated by different companies. As shown in Construction Law or Land Law. As a result, the table 3.4, there are nine port operators, each current spatial planning has largely been driven by operated by a state agency (a total of four SOEs, infrastructure development plans with inadequate the People’s Committee of HCMC, the People’s attention given to the overall efficiency.56 Navy, and the Ministry of Defense), and in two cases there are joint ventures with foreign companies. While there are 37 berths spanning III over 6,000 meters, they are scattered across nine THE RELOCATION OF operators, with four berths and less than 500 THE HCMC PORT meters berth length per operator—quite modest by global standards. SYSTEM: WHY THE GRIDLOCK? 25. Relocating the HCMC port system to a new location makes perfect sense. All the ports in 24. The HCMC port system shares many of the HCMC are river ports, occupying riverfront land characteristics of a typical infrastructure project in the central business district and nearby areas. that are unique to Vietnam: multiple owners, The rapid growth of exports and imports and the large presence of state enterprises, and shift toward containerization in ocean shipping in suboptimal scale. The HCMC port is not a single the early 2000s have created critical challenges port but a cluster of numerous port terminals for HCMC ports. Draft and length limits prevent Table 3.4 Ho Chi Minh City Ports Number of Total Berth Area (ha) Vessel Size Port Terminal Port Operators Berths Length (m) (DWT) Sai Gon Port (Nha Rong Vinalines (SOE) 10 1,750 32.2 10,000– and Khanh Hoi terminal) 30,000 Sai Gon Port Vinalines (SOE) 5 995 13.6 10,000– (Tan Thuan terminal) 30,000 Ben Nghe port People’s Committee of HCMC 4 816 32.0 10,000– 30,000 Vietnam International Southern Waterborne Transport 4 678 28.3 15,000– Container Terminal Co (SOE), NOL Group 20,000 (Singapore) and Mitsui & Co (Japan) Sai Gon New Port People’s Navy 4 733 31.9 5,000 VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 Ba Son Shipyard Ministry of Defense’s General 6 754 26.4 6,000– (ship building facility) Department of Military Industry 10,000 Tan Thuan Dong Port Sai Gon Transport Services 1 149 2.9 15,000 (SOE) Vegeport (Rau Qua) 1 222 7.2 20,000 Lotus Port Viettrans (SOE),Vosa, and 2 275 6.0 30,000 (Blassco) Ukraine Sources: Thanh and Pincus 2011; Note: DWT = pennyweight. 56 The on-going formulation of a Spatial Planning Law is expected 66 to reduce the inconsistency among different laws for spatial development and improve the coherence and efficiency. large vessels from calling at these ports. As a 27. But one year after the deadline, all but one result, export and import goods have to be port in HCMC remain at their original location. transshipped on feeder ships via ports in Why? Sai Gon New Port is the only facility that Singapore and other Asian countries, raising the moved further downstream from the city center cost of shipping to and from Vietnam in terms of when the relocation deadline passed. Reasons time and money. Furthermore, the location of cited by other port operators for not relocating the ports deep inside the city center causes major include the need to receive assurances that new traffic problems since trucks have to traverse busy sites are economically viable, and financial urban districts to get to the ports. The city is also constraints on new investments. As the discussion undertaking large urban development projects on below shows, the absence of coordination among the eastern side of the Saigon River at Thu Thiem. agencies, clear lines of authority and accountability, When bridges are built across the river, it will be and well-defined property rights have resulted in a effectively impossible for large vessels to pass situation in which firms and government agencies under them. Perhaps most important, the land act in accordance with short-term interests that under the existing ports has risen in value over often generate socially suboptimal outcomes. the last decade. The failure to redevelop this land for commercial and residential use represents a (A) Land Use Planning and Property Rights missed opportunity for the city in terms of revenue generation and positive externalities in 28. Lack of well-defined property rights and the the form of demand for complementary inability to transfer land-use rights are major investment and services. causes for the current stalemate. Port operators hold land-use rights that give them authorization 26. The relocation of the port system was first to use state land for the specific purpose of proposed in the late 1990s, with the consent of operating a port. They do not own the land in key stakeholders. With container handling the sense of having the right to sell, lease, or facilities operating close to full capacity and little mortgage it, or to develop the land for other room for expansion at existing sites, it had purposes, such as commercial and residential use. become increasingly clear that sustaining rapid The current operators, therefore, have an growth in trade required the development of a incentive to maintain some nominal maritime new port complex with modern facilities, and that activities at their existing locations in order to the new ports would be located outside of the control the land. Sai Gon Port already has a city center (APL 2007, 49).57 In 2005, a decision “land-conversionâ€? plan to redevelop its port area was taken by the central government to identify so that revenue generated can be used to finance MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM Ba Son Shipyard and four ports—Saigon New its new port in Hiep Phuoc. Similarly, the HCMC Port, Sai Gon Port (Nha Rong and Khanh Hoi People’s Committee in 2009 decided to develop terminals),Tan Thuan Dong Port, and Vegeport— the cruise ship terminal further downstream in as the specific facilities that were to be moved out the Phu Thuan Park Project. But getting approval of the city by 2010 at the latest. At the same of the land conversion plan has been complicated. time, the Cai Mep–Thi Vai River in Ba Ria–Vung Tau (BRVT) was identified as the preferred site 29. The HCMC People’s Committee is both one for Vietnam’s main international gateway port. of the port operators and the agency that The HCMC port relocation policy had the strong approves the land-use plan—mixing its interest support of both the business community and all as a player and its responsibility as a regulator. the state agencies involved. 57 Globally, ports have been moving out of cities because of the need to accommodate larger vessels, the rising opportunity cost of inner-city land, and traffic congestion caused by port operations. Recent examples of port relocation and new port developments in Asia include Busan Port to Busan New Port in Korea; Waigaoqiao to Yangshan Port in Shanghai, China; Bangkok to Laem Chabang Port in Thailand; and Mumbai to Nhava Sheva Port in India. 67 In order for Sai Gon Port to proceed with its authorities. First, logistics firms and other port- project, a detailed land-use plan must be in supporting businesses will move out of HCMC to place.58 As of mid-2011, the HCMC People’s be nearer to the new container terminals. Having Committee had not approved the plan. Only declared that its future development will rely in 2009 did the City’s Department of Planning more heavily on services than on manufacturing, and Architecture star t the land-use planning HCMC is keen to maintain its status as the process covering the por t area in the city country’s center of logistics services.60 Second, the center. Like many government effor ts to large revenues from trade taxes generated by implement policies, a steering committee imports through HCMC’s ports are at risk. In involving all relevant agencies was set up in April 2010, HCMC collected VND 57 trillion (US$2.8 2008 to “direct and coordinate the activities of billion) in export and import duties, accounting central and local agencies in carrying out the for 40 percent of its total budget revenue. And, implementation of the port relocation plan.â€?59 since 2005, this ratio has been around 40 to 46 The land-use planning issue was raised in every percent.61,62 While it is true that a substantial meeting of the steering committee during portion of the trade taxes goes to Ha Noi, 2008–11. Table 3.5 shows the series of deputy HCMC People’s Committee relies on using its prime ministerial/prime ministerial directives large trade tax base to keep more tax revenues setting deadlines for HCMC to finalize its land- in the city. use planning of the city center. However, as each deadline was missed, a new directive was 31. The case study shows that most announced setting a new one. stakeholders are acting in their own self- interest, while the national interest is (B)Distorted Incentives for Local Governments compromised. Facing the prospect of not being able to control the land after relocation, Sai Gon 30. The relocation of the HCMC port system Port’s best strategy is to stay put. At the same poses two major concerns for HCMC time, HCMC has every incentive to proceed Table 3.5 Timeline of Central Government Directives to HCMC Involving Land-Use Planning Date Specific Directive 28 Apr 2008 Port Relocation Steering Committee was established 12 May 2008 First Steering Committee Meeting with the Transport Minister stressed the importance of land-use planning for future inner-city ports 01 Apr 2009 Transport Minister officially requested that the Prime Minister order HCMC People’s Committee to approve inner-city port land-use plans soon 18 Jun 2009 DPM directive set the land-use planning deadline for Sept. 2009 VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 13 Jan 2010 DPM directive set the land-use planning deadline for Feb. 2010 10 Aug 2010 DPM directive set the land-use planning deadline for Q4 2010 29 Mar 2011 DPM directive set the land-use planning deadline for June 2011 29 Mar 2011 PM directive reiterated the land-use planning deadline as Jun 2011 Sources: Official documents 219/TB-BCD dated 27 May 2008, 1949/BGTVT-KHDT dated 1 September 2009, 178/TB-VPCP dated 18 June 2009, 11/TB-VPCP dated 13 January 2010, 217/TB-VPCP dated 10 August 2010, 70/TB-VPCP dated 29 March 2011, and 132/TB-VPCP dated 2 June 2011. 58 By law, local government authorities are responsible for 60 HCMC People’s Committee, Five-year Socio-economic preparing, ratifying, and enforcing detailed land-use plans at the Development Plan 2011–2015. 1:2,000 scale. Only with the completion of these land-use plans 61 HCMC Statistics Office, HCMC Statistical Yearbook 2010. can investors prepare detailed land-use plans at the 1:500 scale 62 The total revenue does not include nontax sources such as and make investment proposals. revenue of crude oil export or transfers. 68 59 Prime Minister’s Decision 458/QD-Ttg dated 28 April 2008 establishing the HCMC port relocation steering committee. slowly and cautiously with its detailed land-use regrouping the complex into four port areas and planning. The city does not have an alternative identifying sites for several general cargo and revenue stream to replace the loss in trade taxes container terminals.67 In 2001 and 2002, the Japan and fees that would result from relocation of the International Cooperation Agency conducted its Port ports. Their decision, however, is not only delaying Development Study in the South, which proposed a the much-needed relocation of the port system plan of general cargo and container ports with moderate capacities in Cai Mep–Thi Vai. Six general from the central business district, but is also cargo berths with 3.3 million to 6 million tons resulting in poor utilization of the new port being throughput were planned for the Thi Vai section. The built in the vicinity, which we discuss next. 2005 master plan for port development in the Southeast, covering HCMC, Dong Nai, and BRVT, significantly increased the number of ports in the complex. There are now 19 ports in the plan, of IV which four are dedicated container terminals with 18 UNDERUTILIZED PORT! berths. As shown in table 3.6, the port has managed THE CASE OF THE CAI to attract some of the best-known port operators in the world, and in all but one, the port terminals’ MEP–THI VAI PORT Vietnamese partner is an SOE. In short, the COMPLEX fragmented port ownership structure in the HCMC port group appears to have been replicated in the 32. Located in the vicinity of HCMC, the Cai BRVT port complex. Mep–Thi Vai River in Ba Ria–Vung Tau (BRVT) has been identified as the preferred site for 34. Despite significant investment, the container Vietnam’s main international gateway port. With volume in the port has fallen well short of expectations. The Official Development Assistance a depth of 14 meters and the absence of project proved to be pivotal in attracting private significant sedimentation, the site could investors to the location. Within a very short time accommodate dedicated deep-sea container span—from October 2006 to February 2007— terminals to handle post-Panamax vessels63 for five investment licenses were issued for the direct shipment to North America and Europe.64 development of dedicated container terminals. However, it needs supporting infrastructure, Domestic port operators in HCMC, under particularly connecting roads, from HCMC. pressure to relocate, were also quick to secure land in the port area. As soon as the terminals were 33.The number of ports planned in the BRVT opened, 16 post-Panamax vessels started direct port complex has gradually increased. In the late service to the ports. But the container volume has MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM 1980s, the Ministry of Transport (MOT) started remained abysmally low. As reported by the port to look for new port locations in the greater operators, actual container throughput was 28 HCMC area. In 1991, Tedi South consultants65 percent of total capacity in 2010 and only 12.9 produced the first study of the Thi Vai–Vung Tau percent in the first eight months of 2011 (see table Deepwater Port System, which led to the first 3.6).68 In May and June 2011, four shipping line master plan of the port complex in 1992.66 In services (out of the original 16) were cancelled due early 1998, the port master plan was adjusted, to insufficient demand. 69 63 Panamax is the term used to describe the size limits for ships 67 Decision 50/Ttg/1998/QD-Ttg of the Prime Minister on the traveling through the Panama Canal. The term post-Panamax is approval of the adjustment and addition to the Master Plan of the the term used to describe ships that do not fall within the Thi Vai–Vung Tau Deepwater Port System, 28 February 1998. Panamax sizes. 68 Data reported by the ports to the Vietnam Port Association. 64 Container terminals in the area can be constructed to receive 69 Cosco, Kline, Yangming, and Hanjin announced the Cai Mep “mother shipsâ€? capable of carrying 8,000 TEU to 10,000 TEU suspension for their Asia-Europe route in May 2011, and CSAV (100,000 DWT to 120,000 DWT). withdrew from its Cai Mep–U.S. West Coast direct route in 65 The port unit within Tedi South, which undertook the study, later June 2011. became the independent Portcoast Consultant Corporation. 66 Decision 55/Ttg of the Prime Minister on the approval of the 69 Master Plan of the Thi Vai–Vung Tau Deepwater Port System, 5 November 1992. Table 3.6 Dedicated Container Terminals at BRVT Port Complex Terminal Opening Vietnamese International Partner Capacity (mil TEU) Year Partner Planned 2010 Aug 2011 SP-PSA International May 09 PSA International 1.1 0.182 0.114 Port (SP-PSA) Port (Singapore) SP-SSA International 2012 Sai Gon Port SSA Holdings 1.2 — — Terminal (SSIT) (Vinalines) International (U.S.) Cai Mep International March 11 APM Terminals 1.1 — 0.032 Terminal (CMIT) (Denmark) Tan Cang–Cai Mep Jun 09 0.6 0.295 0.204 Container Terminal Sai Gon New Port — (TCCT) (People’s Navy) Tan Cang–Cai Mep Jan 11 Wanhai Lines, MOL 1.2 — 0.084 International Terminal and Hanjin Shipping (TCIT) Sai Gon International Aug. 10 Sai Gon Hutchison Port 1.2 0.025 0.045 Terminals Vietnam Investment Holdings (SITV) Construction and (Hong Kong) Commerce (JSC) Cai Mep International 2013 PMU 85 JBIC 0.75 — — Container Terminal (MOT) (Japanese ODA) Terminal Link Cai Mep — Gemadept CMA-CGM 1.2 — — (Gemalink) Sources: Thanh and Pincus 2011. Note: According to the latest plan, six more container-dedicated and multipurpose terminals will be built. — = not available IV.A WHAT EXPLAINS THE Official Development Assistance terminals are UNDERUTILIZATION OF expected to be completed in 2013. Another joint- PORT CAPACITY? venture container terminal between Gemadept and France-based CMA–CGM, which currently has the largest land area and longest berth length, is still under (A) Lack of a Market Mechanism to Foster construction.71 Competition VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 35. Critical decisions like total port capacity were 70 In the final report on the detailed plan made by Portcoast in April continuously altered with little regard to market 2011, there was only one reserve area left in the entire complex, supply and demand. As the Cai Mep–Thi Vai detailed and this was designated as a maritime services base. In August 2011, when the plan was approved, even this reserve area had plan was repeatedly updated, more ports were been turned into another general cargo port. Therefore, according added and almost all of the harbor-front land was to the detailed plan of 2011, the Cai Mep–Thi Vai Complex now has 34 ports in total, of which 14 are already under operation, allocated. As illustrated in figure 3.6, the original plan including container terminals, multipurpose terminals, general called for four container terminals with a total cargo ports, and specialized ports. 71 A comparison of port capacity at BRVT with Thailand and India capacity of only 3.3 million TEU by 2015.70 Over time, illustrates the extent of excess capacity that has been planned the number of investment licenses granted exceeded in the former. When Thailand started developing its new deep- sea seaport in Laem Chabang to replace the Klong Toey Port in the initial plan. By early 2011, the four container Bangkok in the late 1980s, only one container terminal was built, terminals under operation (CMIT, SITC, and SP–PSA, with a capacity of 0.6 million TEU. Over time, more terminals were added, and the port complex now has seven container TCCT–TCIT) had a combined capacity of 5.2 million terminals and one multipurpose port. It is now ranked 22nd TEU (see table 3.5). The construction of SSIT is due among the world top container ports, and handled 5.2 million TEU in 2010. Nhava Sheva Port, developed to relieve pressure to be finished in early 2012, increasing the total on Mumbai Port in 1989, currently has only three terminals with 70 capacity of the complex to 6.4 million TEU. The two five berths. It handled 4.3 million TEU in 2010. Figure 3.4 Development of Container Terminals: Original Planned Capacity Compared to Realized Capacity Sources: The original plan’s capacity is from the Vietnam Maritime Administration (Vinamarine); realized capacity is from table 3.6. 36. The license to develop multiple container (B) Provision for Supporting Infrastructure terminals was allocated on administrative grounds, divorced from market principles. The 37. The problem of capacity underutilization has government’s decision to segment the port into been exacerbated by the government’s failure several terminals, and then award development to complete the necessary supporting and operation rights to different investors, was infrastructure. The BVRT port complex is 50 km justified on both theoretical and practical grounds. from Bien Hoa, Dong Nai, and 80 km from The existence of multiple operators would foster HCMC. Although the construction of container competition, which would ensure good services terminals in BVRT began in early 2007, it was not and low costs (World Bank 2007, 24). The until late 2009 that the project improving problem in this case was not one of not using the National Highway (NH) 51 was launched. Even market to promote competition. Rather, it is the when completed, widened NH51 will still be ability of numerous state agencies and state- inadequate. The HCMC–Long Thanh–Dau Giay owned companies to extract favors from the Expressway, which promises to cut travel MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM government, and the absence of coordination distances and increase speed, was scheduled to among these entities. Unable to achieve greater be completed at the end of 2012. However, this efficiency, the ports are forced to engage in will likely be pushed back to late 2013 or early destructive pricing to survive, particularly in a 2014. The Bien Hoa–Vung Tau Expressway also context of slow growth in world and regional must be started soon to complete the road trade. As reported by the Vietnam Port network. Not only the expressways are behind Association, the operators are pricing their schedule; so is the connecting infrastructure. services so low that they are unable to cover Nothing could be more obvious than the need costs.72 To generate revenue, some of the to finish a connecting road between the Cai Mep container terminals even used their underutilized Port complex and NH51 (so-called Road 965) in container terminals for general cargo handling and time for the operation of the container terminals. cruise ship docking (Thanh and Pincus 2011). As of October 2011, this 8.5-km road was still several months from completion. The existence of many terminals in the complex points to the 72 At the Annual General Meeting of the Vietnam Port Association need to build a high-capacity interport road. This in September 2011, it was revealed to the media that the was also recognized by the government and service fee charged by the container terminal operators in Cai Mep–Thi Vai to shipping lines was only US$32 per TEU, while financed by government bonds, but construction the terminals needed to collect US$88 per TEU to break even has been delayed. A freight rail line between Bien (Tuoi Tre Newspaper, “Caãng biïín löî nùångâ€? (Sea ports suffering Hoa and Cai Mep–Thi Vai has been proposed, but heavy losses), 21 September 2011. 71 the economic and financial viability of the project larger role in screening the projects, especially on is open to question because of its short distance the availability of resources (Directive 1792/2011 (less than 80 km). issued in October 2011); (iii) substantially reducing the level of public investment in SEDP 38. The relocation of the HCMC port group 2011-15; (iv) issuing a Resolution on Land Use and underutilization of the BVRT port complex Master Plan to 2020 and Land Use Plan to 2015, are part of the same problem. While only a which aims to tighten the land use for sustainable fraction of the new container terminals boasting development, including fix area for rice growing state-of-the-art facilities at the BVRT port (3.8 million ha now), and list of eight major tasks complex is being used, most of the container and solutions that the central and provincial cargo remains with existing HCMC ports governments have to implement, including: their operated by the same domestic investors. The land use master plans must follow National Assembly’s one, clearly identifying the borders of decision to continue operating ports in HCMC is land reserved for different purposes, and publicly rational from the perspective of the individual releasing the information;75 and (v) recently investors, since these ports were profitable even putting a ban on approval of new IPs. during the slow growth years of 2009–10.73 However, this is costly from a societal perspective 40. These steps constitute a good beginning, but due to negative externalities such as traffic more needs to be done, especially putting in congestion and pollution, which is the place institutions, incentives and information opportunity cost of using prime urban land for that will ensure repeat of the past problem. In ports rather than commercial and residential this section we propose four such ideas to development. If some of the 4 million TEU strengthen the effectiveness of public investment: currently transported through HCMC ports were (a) clarifying and strengthening property rights to to be moved to Cai Mep–Thi Vai, the force competition for land into the market and undercapacity problem would be reduced. 74 out of the political arena, (b) creating impartial agencies in key sectors to regulate infrastructure development, (c) creating a mechanism to share revenues among local authorities to encourage V POLICY OPTIONS development of regional and national infrastructure, and (d).strengthening the public investment management cycle. (A) Clarifying and strengthening property rights 39. Vietnam has overstretched its public 41. Land is the most important asset in Vietnam. investment budget by starting too many Studies in Vietnam have shown that state agencies fragmented, suboptimal infrastructure projects and SOEs enjoy an advantage over private that lack market demand. Fortunately, the companies and individuals in gaining control over VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 government and National Assembly have already land. However, even these state entities do not have started taking several corrective actions in recent clearly specified property rights to the land. Land- months: (i) initiating the process of formulating a use rights generally allow use of the land for a specific new law to improve the legal framework for purpose, such as for residential use, manufacturing, public investment and public procurement; (ii) mining, or agriculture. Maintaining control over the tightening the oversight and supervision land while transferring the right of use from one procedures for existing projects, giving MPI a sector to another is an important means of creating and transferring wealth in Vietnam. 73 After-tax profits of Sai Gon Port and Cat Lai New Port in 2010 were VND 64 billion and VND 73 billion, respectively. (Source: 2010 financial statements of the port companies.) 74 Laem Chabang Port in Thailand took off only when Thai 75 Any adjustment of land use must be reported and get approved authorities imposed a cap of 1 million TEU on the Klong Toey by the National Assembly, and the government must report to Port in 1996, so that shipping lines were forced to switch to the the National Assembly every year about the implementation of 72 new container terminals (ADB 2009, 17). the Land Use Master Plan. 42. Because land-use rights are administrative between regulators and market participants, in nature, the solution to the problem is sought central government ministries and local by the government through administrative authorities, and even among units of one agency. means rather than through market mechanisms. Under these conditions, the rules of the game One way to address the problem is to create an are unclear and unenforceable. The imposition of agency that will be responsible for specifying and simple, enforceable rules would go a long way awarding property rights to businesses and toward reducing fragmentation. This problem could enterprises, starting with the ones involving be addressed through the creation of a national or disputes between state agencies. This needs to regional Infrastructure Regulatory Authority for key be accompanied by (a) allowing more flexibility sectors such as the Port Authority of the Southeast, with land-use planning and letting buyers covert with responsibility for regulating the port system in land use after paying an appropriate fee to the the region. Many countries have established state, and (b) creating a market for trading land- governmental or quasi-governmental authorities for use rights among the existing users.76 This would airports, seaports, and Economic Zones to transform the competition for land from a zero- administer and regulate infrastructure systems that sum political contest into a market transaction in serve more than one province or region (see box which the various parties would be compensated 3.3 for the experience of Singapore with the for surrendering their control over land. Such a corporatization of its port and creation of the Port policy will increase the supply of land in the Authority). In Vietnam, such regulatory agencies market, resulting in lower prices, and ultimately exist, but they often are part of a line ministry, lower the cost of creating new infrastructure in blurring the line between ownership and regulation. the country. Such agencies need to be upgraded to the status of authority, with powers equivalent to those of a (B) Creating impartial regulators for key central ministry and given sufficient financial infrastructure sectors resources and operational autonomy. Their main responsibilities would be to approve new projects, 43. A second cause of institutional set industry standards, create a level playing field to fragmentation is the absence of clear boundaries ensure fair competition among operators, protect citizens’ interest, and set user fees. Box 3.3 Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM The Port of Singapore is a very successful container port and, since 1986, the busiest port in the world in terms of shipping tonnage, most of it containerized transshipment cargo. Singapore was a service port, combining land ownership, statutory functions and cargo operations within one organization, and one of the few successful public service ports in the world. In 1996, however, the Government of Singapore decided to fundamentally change the management structure of the port. The Government changed the port’s structure by creating a corporatized entity (PSA Corporation) whose structure would be sufficiently flexible to permit it to operate and invest in the region, especially in container terminals located on major shipping lanes. Corporatization of part of the Port Authority’s business meant increased financial autonomy and generated greater cash flows. It also enhanced Singapore’s position as a hub port and was expected to contribute to the economic development of Singapore and the surrounding region. 76 Selling land use certificates is permissible as long as land is used for the same purpose. But such transactions are less frequent and often take place in private. A market along the lines of 73 carbon trading, if created, would lower the transaction cost considerably for the buyers and sellers of land use certificates. Since the PSA Corporation has a monopoly position in Singapore, it is regulated. The Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore was established by an Act of Parliament (The Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore Act 1996) to provide that oversight. The main tasks of the new Authority are to promote the use, improvement and development of the port, to control vessel movements and ensure navigational safety, to license and regulate marine services and facilities including conventional cargo terminals, and to regulate the port industry’s economic behavior. The Act states that no person shall provide marine or port facilities without a public license or exemption from MPA. The Authority may control and fix the tariffs charged by licensees for handling and storage of origin-destination cargo (i.e., non-transshipment cargo). Sources: World Bank (2009) “Port Reform Tool Kit.â€? (C) Public finance incentives for regional investment budget allocation should give priority coordination to national projects, followed by those that involve multiple provinces and city administrations, and 44. Many local governments are keen to build only then to single-province projects, as a way to infrastructure since it becomes a source of a encourage local authorities to work together to future revenue stream. The absence of a regional build infrastructure that enables Vietnam to be revenue sharing mechanism creates competition globally competitive. among local authorities to attract infrastructure projects to their locality, sometimes at a cost to (D) Strengthening the Public Investment the national or regional economy. A regional or Management Cycle national Infrastructure Regulatory Authority, if established, would collect relevant taxes from the 45. A more rigorous public investment infrastructure projects and reinvest them in management (PIM) cycle, synchronized with the supporting infrastructure to overcome the budget process, will help Vietnam avoid approving coordination failure within the government. All inefficient and cost-ineffective public investment revenue not invested in supporting infrastructure projects. A typical PIM cycle involves eight stages: would be distributed among the provinces in such (a) strategic guidance and screening, (b) formal a way that it strikes a balance between preserving project appraisal, (c) appraisal review, (d) project the provinces’ incentive to create infrastructure selection and budgeting, (e) implementation, (f) and reducing unhealthy inter-provincial project changes, (g) service delivery, and (h) project competition. Similarly, the national government’s evaluation (see figure 3.7). Figure 3.7 The Eight “Must-Haveâ€? Core Public Investment Management Features VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Guidance Formal Appraisal Project Impementation Project Service Project & Project Review Selection & Changes Delivery Evaluation Screening Appraisal Budgeting 74 Sources: Rajaram et al (2010) 46. In Vietnam, the stages that need appraisal. For this function, on occasion, the strengthening seem to be the initial stages of the responsibilities can be delegated to line ministries PIM cycle, namely, strategic guidance and and local governments. screening, formal project appraisal, appraisal review, and project selection and budgeting. 47. Projects or programs that meet the first Local governments and line ministries initiating screening test should be subject to appraisal of projects for public investment should prepare a their viability, which requires a feasibility analysis. project profile with basic project information, This requires a regulated set of project including relevant strategic priority and sub- preparation steps, such as a pre-feasibility study program or program, specific problem to be and a feasibility study, including preliminary design addressed, project objective, main activities, and environmental and social impact assessments expected results, and estimated budget. In that must be completed before a project can be addition, it is important at this stage that options approved for funding. It is always sound practice for addressing the problem with and without a to subject project appraisals to an independent project are considered, and demand, supply, and review. This can be performed by the Ministry of gap analysis is undertaken. First-level screening of Finance, a planning ministry, or another specialized project proposals should be undertaken to agency. Finally, it is essential that the process of ensure that they meet both the minimum criteria appraising and selecting public investment of consistency with the strategic goals of projects is linked in an appropriate way to the government, and the budget classification tests for budget cycle, even though the project evaluation inclusion as a project rather than as a recurrent cycle may run on a different timetable. Without spending item. An appropriate institutional adequate skill and manpower in the government, arrangement to ensure that all major project implementing the above steps can be onerous, so proposals (exceeding, say, VND 1,000 billion, or its application should be tailored to Vietnam’s US$50 million) are screened so that resources context and can start with a pilot in one of the are not wasted on more detailed project key sectors, such as ports. MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM 75 Chapter 4 FEEDING A MARKET ECONOMY: THE ROLE OF INFORMATION AND TRANSPARENCY77 Vietnam Development Report 2012 77 This chapter draws on background policy notes prepared by Bill Allan, MARKET ECONOMY Nga Nguyet Nguyen and Habib Rab. FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM I THE CONTEXT 1. Vietnam has come a long way in the last 15 2. However, progress has been slower than years in promoting the public availability of expected due to the absence of a generalized economic data and information. The preparation law on access to information. Vietnam and release of macroeconomic data in Vietnam Development Report 2010 – Modern Institutions has gradually become more systematic. catalogued some 30 laws, decrees, and other legal Information available on the State Budget in the normative documents that call for certain kinds public domain has also improved. Increasing of information to be made public. Yet, many of numbers of government agencies are using their those provisions have not been implemented. A websites to communicate information.78 As figure 2010 study on land transparency found that for 4.1 shows, most respondents to the World Bank- Vietnam Chamber of Commerce and Industry some pieces of land-related information, as few (VCCI) 2011 survey on “Changing Attitudes toward as 9 percent of provinces had made the Market and Stateâ€? (CAMS 2011) agree with such information available, as mandated by law an assessment. Of the 967 respondents, 53 percent (Nguyen et al. 2010). There were several reasons felt that the level of transparency has increased in for the poor implementation of transparency the past five years compared to 4 percent who provisions, ranging from organizational culture and thought it has decreased. While those affiliated with poor record keeping, to the simple fact that many the provincial and national governments seem to officials did not know that the law required that hold a more positive view than those who work in they make the information available. Without a media, the donor community, and civil society generalized access to information law, which organizations, there is little doubt that Vietnam is would make access to information the default making progress toward becoming a more open rather than the rule and would establish and transparent nation. monitoring and enforcement mechanisms, there Figure 4.1 Level of Transparency Has Increased in Vietnam in Recent Years VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 Sources: CAMS 2011. 78 See 2010 Vietnam Development Report for an in-depth discussion of 78 some of the achievements in promoting transparency across a wide range of public policy areas. is insufficient motivation for offices and officials to 4. Given its current low level of transparency, freely provide that information. Indeed,Vietnam’s the marginal benefit to the Vietnamese economy low score (zero) for access to information from increased transparency can be huge. The according to the Global Integrity Index stems amount of fiscal, financial, and economic directly from the fact that there is no generalized information that the Government of Vietnam law on access to information in Vietnam. currently collects and releases to the public is inadequate for the smooth functioning of a 3. The impact of weak transparency has been middle-income country. Even basic statistics such costly for Vietnam’s development. A 2011 study as sectoral composition of state spending, off- of corruption in land management (Embassy of budget expenditure, international reserves, and Denmark, World Bank, and the Embassy of balance sheets of state-owned enterprises are Sweden 2011) identified lack of transparency as either not collected, not disclosed, or disclosed one of the core drivers of corruption in Vietnam, only after a considerable lag. But market a finding that is borne out by the data. While participants such as equity investors, exporters, corruption has many causes, it is clear that importers, foreign exchange dealers, provinces with lower levels of transparency when bondholders, banks, enterprises, and even it comes to a range of land-related documents farmers need information on almost a daily basis also have, on average, higher levels of corruption to operate in a market economy. And if such (figure 4.2.) The value of information can also be information is not available, market participants seen from the results of a survey of land officers resort to speculation, rumors, and even carried out by the Government Inspectorate: 76 unscrupulous means to obtain information. That percent of land officers said that a key reason they is why it has been argued that one of the like their job is that they have early access to sources of the current economic turbulence in information on land (GIRI and T&C Consulting Vietnam can be traced to lack of credible and 2010). The same study found that citizens often use timely availability of economic data and poor intermediaries in dealing with land-related issues, communication of policy changes to the market and half of the time the intermediaries are land (see Taking Stock, various issues). Therefore, in officials themselves. While the public would gain our view, improving transparency is one of the from freer access to information, there are private “low-hanging fruit of transitionâ€? that has yet to benefits to keeping information closely held. be fully harvested in Vietnam. Figure 4.2 Provinces with More Transparency Have Lower Levels of Corruption MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM Sources: PCI 2010; World Bank Land Transparency Database 2010. 79 Figure 4.3 Overwhelming Support for Transparency in State Decisions-making Process Sources: CAMS 2011. 5. There is overwhelming support among the comprehensiveness, reliability, and timeliness Vietnamese for increased transparency in the of information, and suggest some next steps. decision-making process. In the World Bank-VCCI 2011 survey on “Changing Attitudes toward Market 7. There are several important aspects of and Stateâ€? (CAMS 2011), 92 percent of the 967 information and transparency that are not respondents agreed with the statement that a “high discussed in this chapter, which constitute a work level of transparency in the state decision and program for the future. These are: (a) the policy-making process is essential for importance of acting on information once it is development.â€? As shown in figure 4.3, the benefit made available. The capacity of users to analyze of transparency for development is widely shared information is currently low in Vietnam and among all sections of the society, including the 84 requires strengthening; (b) the role and capacity percent of respondents of the National Assembly of the media to effectively and accurately report and Party and the 97 percent in the media and on information; (c) the role of audits and provincial governments. The survey results indicate disclosure of audit reports, although this is briefly that Vietnamese throughout society seem ready to discussed in Chapter 2 in relation to reform of move to a more open and transparent society. the SOEs; (d) some of the transparency issues involving the land market are analyzed in 6. This chapter looks at the importance of Chapter 3; and (e) the critical issue of why transparency and focuses specifically on the information is not disclosed—an area that VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 budget and release of financial information. It requires deeper analysis than was possible while provides an overview of the importance of preparing this report. transparency for market economies, particularly the need to ensure the systematic release of II economic data to build credibility of and confidence in economic policies. It then looks at THE IMPORTANCE OF the current state of budget and fiscal transparency TRANSPARENCY FOR in Vietnam and ways to improve it. It also MARKET ECONOMIES examines the information being made available to some of the important stakeholders such as the 8. Information is the lifeblood of markets. The National Assembly and media and explores ways importance of information flows for the to strengthen the demand side of information. functioning of markets has been well documented The final section summarizes several ongoing (Stigler 1961; Stiglitz and Weiss 1981, among others). 80 reforms and key areas of focus to further improve Improvements in information can reduce the magnitude and consequences of principal-agent transparency as a means of both strengthening the problems, leading to more efficiency in the allocation international financial architecture and enhancing of resources in economic and financial markets. individual country performance.79 Improved transparency in a number of East Asian and Latin 9. Public disclosure of information can mitigate American countries has enabled them to manage market inefficiencies. Transparency reduces the current global economic crisis from a position market uncertainty about policy makers’ of relative strength. Vietnamese policymakers saw preferences, resulting in more predictable first-hand the benefit of transparency when the monetary policy and more efficient financial State Bank of Vietnam in 2008 made its markets (Bellver and Kaufmann 2005). Lack of international reserves position known to the transparency in policy making and limiting market, thereby significantly reducing the speculative disclosure of information that otherwise helps to pressure against its currency. set rational expectations, adversely impacts asset prices, consumption, and investment, increasing the 11. Cross-country evidence on the benefits of risk of investment. This translates into higher risk fiscal transparency is growing. Good transparency premiums and thereby the cost of investments. practices, as defined in the IMF Fiscal Transparency Public disclosure of information can, therefore, Code, should confer direct benefits to countries mitigate market inefficiencies and provide easier by giving them greater access to capital markets access to capital markets and better terms for and lowering debt servicing costs. Published fiscal government financing. This is highly relevant in Reports on Observance of Standards and Codes Vietnam’s context: despite its high growth rate and data provide some evidence to support this view. strong economic fundamentals, it consistently Hameed (2005) showed that countries that were receives lower sovereign ratings and faces higher more transparent according to these indexes had risk premia in the international market than better credit ratings, better fiscal discipline, and less corruption after allowing for other socioeconomic countries that exhibit similar characteristics (see variables. In a study that focused particularly on figure 4.4). A more transparent regime would help disclosure of fiscal risks, Cebotari et al. (2009) find Vietnam mobilize significantly higher resources in that countries improving disclosure of fiscal risks on the international market and at a much lower cost all four disclosure attributes could improve credit than currently. ratings by a significant margin. MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM 10. Transparency and accountability can also play 12. More transparent countries also seem to be a big role in reducing macroeconomic instability. more competitive in the global market. A more The economic crises of the late 1990s and early transparent institutional environment can contribute 2000s in emerging market and transition to higher rates of return on investments. When economies were in part caused by a lack of policies and administrative procedures that guide transparency (Rahman 1998). Mehrez and investment decisions are clear and transparent, Kaufmann (1999) show that an increase in uncertainty and business costs are lower, leading to transparency of fiscal and monetary policy or more efficient investment decisions. Figure 4.4 shows macroeconomic data reduces the probability of a that the global competitiveness index published by crisis following financial liberalization. These provide the World Economic Forum for 104 countries is a strong impetus for establishing international strongly correlated with the overall transparency standards for fiscal, financial, and monetary index constructed by Bellver and Kaufmann (2005). 79 The Standards and Codes Initiative was launched in 1999 by 80 The Fiscal Transparency Code was produced in 1998, and the the IMF, the World Bank, the Organization for Economic Co- Code and the Manual on Fiscal Transparency were published in operation and Development, and other international financial 2001 and updated in 2007. Country compliance has been organizations. Under the Standards and Codes Initiative, the assessed through fiscal transparency modules of the Reports on IMF aimed to promote fiscal, monetary, and statistical standards Observance of Standards and Codes. See among its member countries in line with its surveillance http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pn/2011/pn1138.htm for mandate. updated Board review. 81 Figure 4.4 Transparency and Competitiveness Are Positively Correlated Sources: Bellver and Kaufmann 2005; World Economic Forum 2004. III FISCAL delivery units, the courts, and the media and civil society. The pace of PFM reform thus needs to TRANSPARENCY IN be assessed in the context of these objectives, VIETNAM some of which are complementary but others of which are potentially competitive. A realistic PFM reform strategy must take into account links 13. Fiscal transparency plays a particularly between PFM reform and other relevant national critical role in Vietnam’s economic transition, objectives as explicitly as possible. given the public sector’s relatively big role in the economy. Fiscal management reforms initiated in the late 1990s have enabled the government to III.A CURRENT STATUS take important steps toward international standards for fiscal transparency. Early reforms 15. The government has made a good start in were based on technical advice, initially from a establishing the legal and institutional joint IMF-World Bank review in 1999 (IMF-World framework for fiscal transparency. The State Bank 1999), a Public Expenditure Review in 2004 Budget Law (2002), which came into effect in (GoV and World Bank 2004), and then a Country 2004, stipulates that “budget plans, budget final Financial Accountability Assessment in 2007 (GoV accounts, and auditing results of the central and World Bank 2008). Recognizing that it budget, local budget, budget planners, and started from a very low base against international organizations financed by state budget, must be Public Financial Management (PFM) standards, the VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 made public.â€? While the government is planning government has approached the application of to amend the State Budget Law (2002) in the these standards cautiously and within its own coming period to address a number of pending institutional context. issues, the law does provide clarity on transparency issues. The government further 14. Fiscal management in Vietnam has become broadened and deepened the scope of financial more complex. The evolution of the PFM system disclosure requirements through a Prime has involved a great deal more than establishing Ministerial Decision (192) and guiding circulars a stable, transparent, and accountable national issued between 2004 and 2006.81 The institutional PFM system. As described in Vietnam framework is clear on who is responsible for Development Report 2010, institutional development has emphasized increasing reliance on market mechanisms and, more recently, 81 PM’s Decision 192/2004/QD-TTg, November 16, 2004, and devolution of authority not only to economic guiding circulars 03, 10, 19, 21, 29 (2005) and 54 (2006), Ministry 82 actors but to lower levels of government, service of Finance. reporting what information, including reporting Expenditure and revenue assignments across all formats and frequency. Although the quality of four tiers of government (center, province, district, reporting varies, the 2007 Country Financial and commune) are clearly set out in the State Accountability Assessment noted good Budget Law (2002). The Provincial People’s compliance with reporting requirements across Councils also have the authority to decide on all agencies and units. specific tax assignments at the subnational level. To promote equitable distribution of resources, 16.Information available on the State Budget in the Prime Minister issued Decisions 59 and 60 in the public domain has improved. The State 2010 with allocation norms based on Budget is published on the Ministry of Finance socioeconomic criteria for the transfer of website just before the start of the fiscal year; it resources from the national to subnational presents the economic background and shows governments. There are detailed provisions on key budget aggregates but not details. The reporting requirements for spending and revenue website also publishes summary quarterly budget mobilization at all levels of government. The State execution reports, which include information on Treasury is responsible for compiling and spending at the central, provincial, and district publishing all budget execution reports. While the level, and estimated revenue collection.82 Audited State Budget Law defines the role of the National financial statements are published within 18 Assembly, given it limited oversight role, months of the end of the fiscal year. supplementary budgets (e.g. recent stimulus package) are not approved by the National 17. Vietnam’s State Budget has a detailed Assembly. As discussed later, strengthening the classification structure, but it has yet to capacity of National Assembly to fulfill its systematically publish information using the oversight role for domestic accountability is an Government Finance Statistics standards.83 The important issue for Vietnam. budget released to the public is presented at a relatively aggregate level by functional and administrative categories, not economic II. B AREAS IN NEED OF GREATER categories, although it is broken down by central ATTENTION and subnational governments. Budget execution reports provide detailed reports on spending 19. Greater compliance with fiscal transparency across economic, functional, and program principles could further improve fiscal categories. The absence of a clear connection management and analysis. The budget already MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM between budgeting and accounting data makes it embodies a number of transparency difficult to assess the execution of budget policies improvements; for example, carryovers from in detail. The government has, however, integrated underspending in the previous fiscal year are the Chart of Accounts for budget and treasury, reported in budget outturn data and included in and is upgrading its Management Information the next year’s budget. Some important Systems, which should help strengthen accounting management issues that could be better and reporting. addressed by applying the principles of the fiscal transparency code are as follows: 18. With increased decentralization in recent years, the transparency of intergovernmental l The separation of the capital and recurrent fiscal relations has gradually been strengthened. budgets makes it difficult to estimate medium- term recurrent implications of capital spending and to establish a sound long-term balance between the creation of public assets and their 82 See http://www.mof.gov.vn/portal/page/portal/mof_en/sbd?p_pers_ operations and maintenance. id=2421305&p_recurrent_new_id=24736364 82 The IMF’s “Government Finance Statistics Manual 2001â€? is an internationally accepted methodology for compiling fiscal data. l A number of off-budget expenditures are not It provides “economic and accounting principles to be used in compiling the statistics and guidelines for the presentation of accounted for in the aggregate budget or deficit calculations. For instance, there are over 20 83 fiscal statistics within an analytic framework that includes appropriate balancing itemsâ€?. extra-budgetary funds that carry out These reform measures are set out in the government functions in infrastructure, social government’s PFM Single Strategy Document sectors, SOE restructuring and other areas. But approved in early 2008 for the period through their non-inclusion in the budget makes it difficult end-2010. An updated Financial Development to obtain a consolidated picture of fiscal risks. Strategy is being finalized for 2011–20. Examples of important reforms to improve fiscal l With regard to assessment of broader fiscal transparency include: risks, although there are detailed provisions on financial reporting by state enterprises,84 the l Treasury and Budget Management Information capacity to analyze this information and inform System: This is an integrated computerized government responses is still limited. financial management information system. It will be rolled out to all budget units across the l As one would expect with such high levels of government so that there is a common decentralization, the quality of reporting is system for loading budget appropriations, mixed. Sector agencies at each tier of standardized budget execution procedures, government provide regular financial reports and standardized accounting and reporting to the Treasury Office at that level of arrangements. This will be a major step government, which are then aggregated up toward ensuring a more timely and reliable through the Treasury structures. A formal picture of the government’s budget and requirement for upward financial reporting budget implementation. within sectors should facilitate setting priorities on sector resource allocation. l International Public Sector Accounting Standards: Although an accounting law was passed in 2004, 20. Improved data quality through technical the accounting system across the government reforms should allow much more openness in is quite fragmented. A new State Accounting the release of detailed budget data. For example, General System is being developed, and a even though Vietnam’s Open Budget Index score roadmap is being prepared for the adoption of has increased in recent years, it remains very low International Public Sector Accounting at 14 out of 100 in the most recent Open Budget Standards. This should improve the accuracy Survey.85 Areas where Vietnam falls particularly and integrity of accounting and reporting. short in relation to the Open Budget Index include publication of the Pre-Budget Statement l Disclosure of public debt information: On April and the Executive Budget Proposal, and 27, 2011, the government issued Decree 53 preparation of A Citizens’ Budget Mid-Year expanding the scope of the Debt Bulletin, Review. As discussed above, however, if the data which at present covers only external debt. It are improved to give a reliable fiscal and financial will now include actual borrowing and debt picture, publication of data should present few service payments and annual projections of VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 risks. In the case of Open Budget Index criteria, borrowing and debt-servicing flows for the Vietnam can make important gains at little cost central government including guarantees, through publication of the Pre-Budget Statement subnationals, on-lending, and total public and and the Executive Budget Proposal. private external debt. 21. The government is implementing PFM l Monitoring State Enterprises: The government reforms to address these challenges and to has stepped up its efforts to monitor the further improve the comprehensiveness, performance of state enterprises through reliability, and timeliness of fiscal information. independent audits and stricter enforcement of financial reporting to the Ministry of Finance. The Ministry is now looking to take stock of the financial situation of state 84 PM Decision 224/2006/QD-TTG (October 6, 2006) and Circular 115/2007/TT-BTC (September 25, 2007) on supervision and enterprises, establish a database to report assessment of SOE performance. financial information, develop indicators of 84 85 Open Budget Index 2010:Vietnam. financial vulnerability and fiscal risk, train staff to compile and analyze these indicators; and 24. The release of macroeconomic data in publish reports on the Ministry of Finance Vietnam has gradually become more systematic. website. The indicators will be set out in a law Most agencies use their websites to to be issued by the Prime Minister. communicate information. The State Bank of Vietnam provides regular and timely information 22. Another area that needs improvement is on exchange rate adjustments on a daily basis. strengthening the capacity of the oversight However, the publication of interest rate decisions institutions.Transparency is key to developing the is less predictable now than it was a year ago. The oversight systems. Even those officially entrusted Ministry of Finance systematically announces with oversight duties, such as the National weekly bond auctions. Release of Consumer Assembly, lament that they often do not have the Price Index (CPI) data by the Government information they need to do their jobs. Ironically, Statistics Office provides another good example. they also feel they have too much information. The data are e-mailed to the foreign media with The need to strengthen the system of support a 30-minute embargo time. This allows reporters staff and research institutions under the National sufficient time to prepare stories, which are Assembly, noted in Vietnam Development Report released at the same time to the market. In 2010 - Modern Institutions - remains true now theory, there is a penalty for breaking the that a new National Assembly has been elected. embargo. More recently, the Government At the same time, oversight bodies would have Statistics Office has started e-mailing the CPI data potentially millions of allies in sorting through with a 10-minute embargo prior to publication information if it were made publicly available. Civil on its website, but this leaves less time for society organizations, the media, and citizens can reporters to prepare their analysis. be adept at managing such tasks including monitoring public investment and developing a 25. Further improvement of the predictability score card for basic service providers, if the of macroeconomic data release by key agencies information is available to them. in Vietnam could easily be achieved, and with a beneficial impact. The release of much other economic information is on a more ad-hoc basis and does not follow a set timetable. The Office IV FASTER AND FAIRER of the Government uses its website to communicate economic information. It holds a ACCESS TO monthly press conference attended by local INFORMATION86 MARKET ECONOMY FOR A MIDDLE-INCOME VIETNAM media. The Government Statistics Office could also take steps to further strengthen the way it 23. A transparent and rules-based system for releases CPI data by (a) fixing the time and day releasing macroeconomic data across of the month when the information is released government can help minimize market volatility (currently, it takes place during the same week and economic shocks. Ensuring predictability by each month), and (b) preventing leaks to the local controlling when and how data are released helps media ahead of the official release. to set and manage expectations. A state agency that releases economic data at fixed times and in 26. A range of options is available to fixed formats projects an image of credibility and strengthen the arrangements for sharing reliability. Numbers released in an ad-hoc fashion macroeconomic data. At one extreme, agencies or leaked by unidentified sources fuel speculation can adopt “lockupâ€? arrangements where data and create uncertainty. Being systematic about are shared electronically with journalists behind releasing data is also a good way to help ensure closed doors with no external communication that the information is kept secure until the government wants it to be made public, and allowed until a specified time. A variation on this reduces the likelihood of mistakes and confusion. would be to have a simple in-room embargo controlled by officials who hand out hard copies of data reports simultaneously to all journalists 86 This section was prepared with assistance from Reuters news present, who then communicate the information agency. 85 to their offices by phone for publication. Other preferred method will, of course, vary according agencies electronically communicate information to the type of information and market sensitivity. at a fixed time by e-mail, fax, or through their The key, however, is to ensure that the websites, which is a predictable and low-cost information flows are systematic, equitable, and way of sharing economic information. The transparent (see box 4.1). Box 4.1 Different Ways to Release Data to the Mass Media The U.S. Department of Labor’s “Lockupâ€? System This system is the most air-tight method for releasing data. In a lockup, journalists are invited to the government agency, locked in a room with the data, and only allowed to communicate with the outside world at a predetermined time, after the embargo time. Here’s how the system works at the U.S. Department of Labor. In the lockup room, each news outfit has an assigned desk with a permanent company computer. Journalists are allowed to arrive a few minutes before the data release to set up their system. Then the door is closed, nobody is allowed in or out, and the reporters are required to switch off their mobile phones and hand them in. Internet connections to the computers in the room are cut by a master switch controlled by a Department of Labor official and then a press release and CD containing the data are distributed. The journalists have a half hour to prepare their stories and the department has at least one economist on hand to answer questions. When the embargo time has expired, the labor department official flips the Internet switch back on and everyone is allowed to send their news story. In some cases, agencies do not control the Internet connection or the use of personal phones in a lockup, but they enforce the embargo with the threat of a severe penalty for breaking it. (A few years ago, a news agency broke an embargo at the Federal Reserve in Washington and that agency was banned from receiving embargoed data for six months.) A modification of the lockup is a simple in-room embargo controlled by officials. Simultaneous Physical Delivery of Data (Australia and the Philippines) At the Australian Statistics Office in the mid-1990s, for instance, journalists in a designated press room were allowed to call an editor and keep the phone line open ahead of the end of the embargo, and then when the embargo expired, an official standing behind them handed over the data report. The Philippines uses this method today, passing reporters hard copies of the information simultaneously and considering it live. This method is secure in that it ensures that the data are never in the hands of anyone other than VIETNAM DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2012 an official until it is allowed to go public, and thus reduces the risk of leaks. On the downside, though, releases like this are highly stressful for the reporters involved. Reporters are under pressure to locate the key data in the report as quickly as possible and then read it over the phone to a colleague who will publish it instantly. By email, fax, and website Many government agencies around the world e-mail or fax data at a fixed time with no embargo. This increases predictability, because the information reaches the market at roughly the same time each month. However, it, too, leaves reporters scrambling to pluck out the key numbers. Moreover, emails do not always land in inboxes simultaneously, which may disadvantage one or more of the journalists reporting the information. Some government offices post information on their website at regular times or hold press conferences at set times each month with no embargo. This is predictable (and better than doing so randomly), but, again, forces reporters to scramble, which can lead to errors. 86 V CONCLUSION 27. Vietnam has made steady progress on target high-priority areas for transparency in transparency in the last 10 years, but further Vietnam, including public debt and state advances in transparency should confer enterprises. A genuine commitment to reform significant benefits for economic (and practical ownership) should involve management. A clear commitment by the development of a clear strategy to improve Government of Vietnam to provide more objectively assessed good practice standards while giving priority to addressing basic economic information more systematically, weaknesses and environmental factors specific to more in depth, and in a fast and fair manner the country system. would both help address some key macroeconomic challenges facing the country 29. The Financial Development Strategy (2011- and send strong signals to the financial 20) offers a real opportunity to regain markets. Explaining the rationale for key policy momentum on the PFM reform agenda in changes through regular press briefings by general, and fiscal transparency in particular. As professional spokesperson will also help. the PFM landscape becomes increasingly Providing more information to the public in an complex, it will be important set clear priorities easily understood form would gain support for for transparency, including managing competing government reform program and improve objectives around: (a) devolution of authority; (b) market perceptions. For example, addressing application of technical controls and assurance of hidden fiscal risks associated with state-owned data quality by all levels of government; (c) enterprises is of direct benefit to policy increasing openness and distribution of fiscal data to the public and the international community; (d) making, will lead to a more sustainable fiscal increasing public participation in the budget policy and greater public suppor t for such process; and (e) establishing strong, independent reforms. and open oversight of PFM processes. As evidenced in other transition economies, careful 28. 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