Indonesia: Land National Account and Extent Account for Sumatra & Kalimantan Wealth Accounting and the Valuation of Ecosystem Services (WAVES) Program in Indonesia 2018 October 21 1 Abstract Land account This report presents the pilot land and extent accounts for Indonesia based on the methodology of the SEEA, where land is defined as a unique environmental asset that delineates the space in which economic activities and environmental processes take place and within which environmental assets and economic assets are located. The land account displays the changes in land cover over time, differentiating between the main land cover classes in Indonesia such as paddy, perennial crops, plantation forestry, natural forests, urban area and open water. The policy relevance of the land account is to facilitate the monitoring and understanding how land cover has changed in Indonesia since 1990, which is essential for spatial planning at both national and provincial levels. It also provides basic information for development of other SEEA accounts such as ecosystem extent account, ecosystem services supply and use account, and carbon and biodiversity thematic accounts. The land account is based on government data only, and all figures are consistent with earlier produced government data on land cover. The report uses data from the Ministry of Environment and Forestry (MOEF or, with the Indonesian abbreviation: KLHK), since data is available from 1990 onwards covering the whole country. Therefore, the accuracy of the data presented is similar to the accuracy of the government data on land cover. In terms of classifications, 22 classes of land cover were included (with an additional, minor, class related to ‘Cloud Cover’, i.e. representing areas for which no data are available in a given year). The land account has been developed for the period 1990-2015, and clearly shows how land cover has changed in Indonesia during this period. Maps and tables are included at the national scale, as well as for seven (groups of) islands: Sumatera, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Papua, Java, Bali and Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku. It is demonstrated that land cover change clearly differs in these island groups. One key finding from the account is the high rate of change in classes related to forest cover of Indonesia. Indonesia lost about 33 million ha of its natural forests (about 0.02% of Indonesian land area) from 1990 to 2014, with an average annual rate of 1.4 million ha. The highest rate of change in forest cover took place from 1996 to 2000, in which 14.5 million ha of natural forests have been converted to other land cover (an average rate of 3.6 million ha/year). The rate of change in forest cover slowed down after 2010. In Papua, however, deforestation seems to be accelerating in recent years. Compared to other natural forest types, dry-land forest suffered the worse land cover change from 1990 to 2014, where about 58% of the Indonesian forest conversion took place in this forest type. Note that the analyses conducted for the Extent account indicate that forest loss may be underestimated in the land cover maps and hence in the Land account. Another major finding is the rapid grow of perennial crop areas in Indonesia. Perennial crops, which are currently dominated by oil palm plantation, were rapidly expanding from 1990 to 2014, with additional area of 6 million ha. The expansion of perennial crops can be linked to the high rate of forest conversion. About 60% of the additional perennial crop areas were actually forested in 1990. All types of natural forest areas decreased from 1990 to 2015. While the rests of land cover types, including plantation forest, have positive net changes during the period. 2 The account also shows that land cover change clearly varies in different island groups. In Sumatra, there has been a major transformation from forest land to plantation forestry (such as acacia) and perennial crops (such as oil palm), starting already in the early 1990s. Sumatra experienced the second largest conversion of Indonesian forest during 1990-2014 (about 9.5 million ha). The highest rate of Indonesian deforestation took place in Kalimantan, with about 10.6 million ha of natural forests have been converted during 1990-2014. However, the change started somewhat later, and appears to be still ongoing. In Sulawesi, conversion of forests sharply increased in the period from 1996 to 2000, slowing down after 2006. In Sulawesi, there is an increase of shrub dry cultivation, of about 2 million ha during 1990 to 2014. In Papua, deforestation started much more recently, and seems to be accelerating at the moment. Java, Bali and Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku experienced a relatively low forest conversion from 1990 to 2014, at less than 600 thousand ha. However, the conversion of forests is still the main land cover change. Other major land cover changes in those islands during the same period are the high expansion of settlement areas (in Java, about 230 thousand ha) and the high conversion agricultural areas (in Bali and Nusa Tenggara, about 500 thousand ha). Extent accounts for Sumatra and Kalimantan In addition to the land account, this report also presents the extent account produced for Sumatra and Kalimantan, using the SEEA Central Framework and SEEA EEA (Experimental Ecosystem Accounts). SEEA EEA is designed to go beyond individual resources and account for natural resources that are not traded or marketed. Ecosystem accounting presents an overview of ecosystem capital, including various services provided by diverse land use and administrative units, indicating interdependencies between ecosystems and economic activities and allows for measuring changes in time. The ecosystem extent account, therefore, focusses on providing information on the use of land and ecosystems rather than the land cover. For instance, a distinguishing feature of the ecosystem extent account (compared to the land account) is that different types of perennial crops (e.g. oil palm, coffee, acacia) are identified, where feasible. This is useful because these crop types indicate different economic outputs of the ecosystem and crop type also influences other ecosystem services (e.g. carbon sequestration, water regulation), income levels for local people, and pressures exerted on the environment (e.g. from water, pesticide or fertilizer use). It is also relevant to separate these crops for the compilation of income and production accounts as part of the system of national accounts. The policy relevance of the land extent account is similar to that of the land account. A mapping component is essential to measure ecosystem services to a nation’s economy through space and time. Compared to the land account, the extent account provides much greater detail of land use and is therefore more broadly applicable to support policy making, for instance in terms of planning land use, monitoring if actual land use is in agreement with provided permits, or planning development interventions (e.g. on planning investments in crop processing capacity). The extent account links spatial information on land resources to the economic sectors, particularly the agriculture sector, and thereby may support also the compilation of agricultural statistics (e.g. by providing areas cultivated by specific crops by administrative unit). One of the important inputs to ecosystem accounts is remotely sensed data. Spatially explicit quantitative estimates of biophysical parameters in the ecosystem accounting framework need a substantial remote sensing input. The Indonesia extent account is based on a land and ecosystem use classifications based on freely available high resolution (10 – 30 m) imagery, from ESA (Sentinel 1), NASA (Landsat) and JAXA (ALOS Palsar). Very high resolution optical imagery, such as SPOT, WorldView or 3 Planet data, is used in a complementary manner, for calibration and validation purposes. Additionally, GIS data on land cover provided by KLHK is used, in order to produce a map that is consistent with government data. A specific element of this report is to differentiate and successfully map the land cover classes of Perennial crops and Plantation forests into the different crop and forestry tree species that are the spatial components of the extent account. These classes were selected by BPS and other stakeholders, including BAPPENAS and KLHK, because of their economic importance and the various sustainability challenges related to these land uses. For the perennial crop class, the differentiation between oil palm, hevea, coffee, banana, and coconut plantations was investigated while for the plantation forest class the acacia and eucalyptus plantations were analyzed. Some plantation areas did not give a distinguishable backscatter or multispectral response and could not be classified into a plantation type with sufficient accuracy. This occurred when the crop or tree seedlings are too small to provide a clear reflection that can be observed with remote sensing. They were mapped as young/unidentified plantations. This class may also involve other types of plantation forestry species, or perennial crop species. A very small area (several % depending upon the island) was mapped as forest. It corresponds to small patches of residual forests within plantations (including areas set aside because of high conservation value). Oil palm is the dominant perennial crop in both islands, acacia the main plantation forestry species. The tables below present the findings of the extent account for respectively Sumatra and Kalimantan. Note that these tables indicate the area and percentages of land use within the area classified in the MOEF map as perennial crop or plantation forestry area. Hence, the analyses, for instance, do not show that only 3% (Kalimantan) or 7% (Sumatra) of the land is covered by forests – but it shows that within the land cover classes perennial crop or plantation forestry combined there is 3% respectively 7% of forest area. In both islands, oil palm is the dominant land use in these land cover classes, followed by acacia (mainly for pulp and paper production). The young/unidentified plantations class represents some 8% of the total perennial crops and plantation forests area in Kalimantan – which is related to the rotation period of oil palm (typically around 25 years) and acacia (typically around 4 years). In Kalimantan only around 0.1% of land is identified as young/unidentified plantation. This is related to the more recent land conversion to plantations in Kalimantan: less plantations have as yet reached the end of their productive life span and are being replanted. Note that the area of bare land is higher in Kalimantan compared to Sumatra, this may partly include land that has been cleared in preparation of new plantation development. The remote sensing analyses also allowed looking into land use outside of the classes of perennial crops and plantation forestry in Sumtra and Kalimantan. Although these analyses are indicative only, they point to the possibility that at present there are significant areas of plantations outside of the MOEF land cover classes perennial crops and plantation forestry. Further analyses are required to assess this, and to discuss if and how these findings could support designing pathways to further enhance the land cover classification approaches applied in Indonesia. 4 Glossary BPS: Badan Pusat Statistik EEA: Experimental Ecosystem Accounting ESA: European Space Agency GFW: Global Forest Watch GIS: Geographic Information System JAXA: Japanese Space Agency KLHK: Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan (see also MOEF) MOEF: Indonesian Ministry of Environment and Forestry MRF: Markov Random Fields (graphical model of a joint probability distribution) NIR: Near Infra Red SAR: Synthetic Aperture Radar SEEA: System of Environmental Economic Accounting SLC: Single Look Complex (Single Look Complex (SLC) products are images in the image plane of satellite data acquisition SWIR: Short Wave Infra Red WAVES: Wealth Accounting and the Valuation of Ecosystem Services 5 Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 2 Land account .............................................................................................................................. 2 Extent accounts for Sumatra and Kalimantan ............................................................................ 3 Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... 5 1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 10 2. Principles and Methodologies of Land and Extent accounting ........................................... 13 2.1 Principles of land and extent accounting in the SEEA ........................................................................13 2.2 The Land account ................................................................................................................................16 2.3. The Extent account ............................................................................................................................17 2.3.1 Target area and data sources ......................................................................................................17 2.3.2 GIS data........................................................................................................................................20 2.3.3 Classification methodology .........................................................................................................23 2.3.4. Analysis of backscatter and multispectral signatures of plantations types ...............................24 2.3.5 Classification ................................................................................................................................25 2.3.6 Post-processing ...........................................................................................................................25 2.3.7 Accuracy assessment ...................................................................................................................25 3. Results .................................................................................................................................. 26 3.1 The Land account ................................................................................................................................26 3.2 The Extent account .............................................................................................................................30 3.2.1. Sumatra ......................................................................................................................................30 3.2.2. Kalimantan ..................................................................................................................................33 3.3. Land use classification statistics ........................................................................................................35 3.3.1. Sumatra ......................................................................................................................................35 3.3.2. Kalimantan ..................................................................................................................................35 3.3.3 Accuracy ......................................................................................................................................36 4. Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 41 4.1 Uncertainties and robustness in Land accounting..............................................................................41 4.2. Uncertainties and robustness in Extent accounting ..........................................................................42 4.2.1 Sumatra .......................................................................................................................................42 4.2.2 Kalimantan ...................................................................................................................................48 4.3 Policy applications ..............................................................................................................................53 5. Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 54 5.1 The Land account ................................................................................................................................54 5.2 The Extent account .............................................................................................................................54 6 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 58 Annex 1. Land cover account (Sumatera)................................................................................ 59 Annex 2. Land cover map of Sumatera 1990 .......................................................................... 60 Annex 3. Land cover map of Sumatera 2014 .......................................................................... 61 Annex 4. Land cover account (Kalimantan) ............................................................................ 62 Annex 5. Land cover map of Kalimantan 1990 ....................................................................... 63 Annex 6. Land cover map of Kalimantan 2014 ....................................................................... 64 Annex 7. Land cover account (Sulawesi) ................................................................................ 65 Annex 9. Land cover map of Sulawesi 2014 ........................................................................... 67 Annex 10. Land cover account (Papua) ................................................................................... 68 Annex 12. Land cover map of Papua 2014 .............................................................................. 70 Annex 13. Land cover account (Java)...................................................................................... 71 Annex 14. Land cover map of Java 1990 ................................................................................ 72 Annex 15. Land cover map of Java 2014 ................................................................................ 73 Annex 16. Land cover account (Bali and Nusa Tenggara) ...................................................... 74 Annex 17. Land cover map of Bali and Nusa Tenggara 1990 ................................................. 75 Annex 18. Land cover map of Bali and Nusa Tenggara 2014 ................................................. 76 Annex 19. Land cover account (Maluku) ................................................................................ 77 Annex 22a. Land cover change matrices of Indonesia 1990-1995/1996 (Area in km2) ......... 80 Annex 22b. Land cover change matrices of Indonesia 1995/1996-2000 (Area in km2).......... 81 Annex 22c. Land cover change matrices of Indonesia 2000-2005/2006 (Area in km2) .......... 83 Annex 22d. Land cover change matrices of Indonesia 2005/2006-2009/2010 (Area in km2) 85 Annex 22e. Land cover change matrices of Indonesia 2009/2010-2014/2015 (Area in km2). 86 Annex 23a. Land cover change matrices of Sumatera 1990-1995/1996 (Area in km2) .......... 88 Annex 23b. Land cover change matrices of Sumatera 1995/1996-2000 (Area in km2) .......... 89 Annex 23c. Land cover change matrices of Sumatera 2000-2005/2006 (Area in km2) .......... 90 Annex 23d. Land cover change matrices of Sumatera 2005/2006-2009/2010 (Area in km2) . 91 Annex 23e. Land cover change matrices of Sumatera 2009/2010-2014/2015 (Area in km2) . 92 Annex 24a. Land cover change matrices of Kalimantan 1990-1995/1996 (Area in km2) ....... 93 Annex 24b. Land cover change matrices of Kalimantan 1995/1996-2000 (Area in km2) ...... 94 Annex 24c. Land cover change matrices of Kalimantan 2000-2005/2006 (Area in km2) ....... 95 Annex 24d. Land cover change matrices of Kalimantan 2005/2006-2009/2010 (Area in km2) .................................................................................................................................................. 96 Annex 24e. Land cover change matrices of Kalimantan 2009/2010-2014/2015 (Area in km2) .................................................................................................................................................. 97 Annex 25a. Land cover change matrices of Sulawesi 1990-1995/1996 (Area in km2) ........... 98 Annex 25b. Land cover change matrices of Sulawesi 1995/1996-2000 (Area in km2)........... 99 7 Annex 25c. Land cover change matrices of Sulawesi 2000-2005/2006 (Area in km2) ......... 100 Annex 25d. Land cover change matrices of Sulawesi 2005/2006-2009/2010 (Area in km2) 101 Annex 25e. Land cover change matrices of Sulawesi 2009/2010-2014/2015 (Area in km2) 102 Annex 26a. Land cover change matrices of Papua 1990-1995/1996 (Area in km2).............. 103 Annex 26b. Land cover change matrices of Papua 1995/1996-2000 (Area in km2) ............. 104 Annex 26c. Land cover change matrices of Papua 2000-2005/2006 (Area in km2).............. 105 Annex 26d. Land cover change matrices of Papua 2005/2006-2009/2010 (Area in km2) .... 106 Annex 26e. Land cover change matrices of Papua 2009/2010-2014/2015 (Area in km2) .... 107 Annex 27a. Land cover change matrices of Java 1990-1995/1996 (Area in km2) ................ 108 Annex 27b. Land cover change matrices of Java 1995/1996-2000 (Area in km2) ................ 109 Annex 27c. Land cover change matrices of Java 2000-2005/2006 (Area in km2) ................ 110 Annex 27d. Land cover change matrices of Java 2005/2006-2009/2010 (Area in km2) ....... 111 Annex 27e. Land cover change matrices of Java 2009/2010-2014/2015 (Area in km2) ....... 112 Annex 28a. Land cover change matrices of Bali and Nusa Tenggara 1990-1995/1996 (Area in km2) ........................................................................................................................................ 113 Annex 28b. Land cover change matrices of Bali and Nusa Tenggara 1995/1996-2000 (Area in km2) ........................................................................................................................................ 115 Annex 28c. Land cover change matrices of Bali and Nusa Tenggara 2000-2005/2006 (Area in km2) ........................................................................................................................................ 116 Annex 28d. Land cover change matrices of Bali and Nusa Tenggara 2005/2006-2009/2010 (Area in km2).......................................................................................................................... 118 Annex 28e. Land cover change matrices of Bali and Nusa Tenggara 2009/2010-2014/2015 (Area in km2).......................................................................................................................... 119 Annex 29a. Land cover change matrices of Maluku 1990-1995/1996 (Area in km2) ........... 121 Annex 29b. Land cover change matrices of Maluku 1995/1996-2000 (Area in km2)........... 122 Annex 29c. Land cover change matrices of Maluku 2000-2005/2006 (Area in km2) ........... 123 Annex 29d. Land cover change matrices of Maluku 2005/2006-2009/2010 (Area in km2).. 124 Annex 29e. Land cover change matrices of Maluku 2009/2010-2014/2015 (Area in km2) .. 125 Annex 30. Land area of provinces in Sumatera and Kalimantan .......................................... 126 8 Table S1: class area and proportion of the land use map of Sumatra Land use class Area (in hectares) % Forest and other high biomass natural vegetation 625,026 7.3% Low biomass natural vegetation 46,483 0.5% Plantation-Acacia 1,098,042 12.9% Perennial-Oilpalm 4,545,181 53.2% Perennial-Hevea 924,827 10.8% Perennial-Coconut 434,309 5.1% Plantation-Eucalyptus 70,932 0.8% Perennial-Banana 39,303 0.5% Perennial-Coffee 1,512 0.0% Young/Unidentified plantations 712,839 8.3% Bare land 10,352 0.1% Water 20,280 0.2% Built-Up areas 5,488 0.1% No data (slopes) 8,206 0.1% Total 8,542,780 100.0% Table S2: class area and proportion of the land use map of Kalimantan Land use class Area (in hectares) % Forest and other high biomass natural vegetation 175,086 3.2% Low biomass natural vegetation 215,350 3.9% Plantation-Acacia 677,873 12.3% Perennial-Oilpalm 4,298,889 77.9% Perennial-Hevea 57,019 1.0% Perennial-Coconut 23,284 0.4% Plantation-Eucalyptus 31,365 0.6% Young/Unidentified_plantations 6,010 0.1% Bare land 25,729 0.5% Water 1,349 0.0% Built-up areas 6,863 0.1% No data (slopes) 1,828 0.0% Total 5,520,645 100.0% 9 1. Introduction Background. The Land and Extent accounts are part of the System of Environmental Economic Accounting (SEEA)1. The SEEA comprises the SEEA Central Framework (SEEA CF) and the SEEA Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EEA). SEEA CF comprises a compartmental approach to measuring renewable and non-renewable natural resources (plus associated information such as environmental expenditure), whereas the SEEA EEA applies a more holistic, integrated approach to measure renewable natural resources. The SEEA CF has been applied in Indonesia for around two decades under the term ‘SISNERLING’, which is derived from the Indonesian abbreviation for the system of environmental economic accounts. The SEEA CF is now a statistical standard. The System of Environmental Economic Accounting – Experimental Ecosystem is described in a Framework (UN et al., 2014) and further worked out in a guideline labelled ‘SEEA EEA Technical Recommendations’ (UN, 2017). The Land accounts are part of the SEEA Central Framework but are also relevant for the SEEA EEA, as further described below. A Land account presents basic information on land cover change in a country, formatted according to the principles of the SEEA. In the application of the SEEA, it is important that data are used that are aligned with government information. This facilitates exchange of information on ecosystems and land, and is also mandated by the various government agencies. Therefore, this pilot land account for Indonesia uses the land cover classes of the Ministry of Environment and Forestry. The account itself is produced on the basis of the data from this ministry and are completely in line with information from this ministry. The Land accounts for various years clearly indicate how land cover has been changing over time in Indonesia. The process and rate of land cover change has differed markedly between the main islands of Indonesia, therefore the land accounts are specified for each of the main islands in Annexes. The Extent account differs from the Land account because it classifies ecosystems on the basis of a mix of ecological and land use properties, such as land cover, vegetation type, ecosystem use (e.g. protected forest versus production forest), soil type, hydrology (e.g. wetland versus dryland). Hence, an extent account is typically more detailed (has more classes) compared to a Land account. For instance, a major distinguishing feature of the ecosystem extent account (compared to a land account) is that, where feasible, different types of perennial crops (e.g. oil palm, coffee, acacia) are identified. It is useful in accounting to distinguish between these different crops, because they lead to different possibilities for crop production and other ecosystem services (e.g. carbon sequestration, water regulation), different income for local people and lead to different pressures exerted on the environment (e.g. from water, pesticide or fertilizer use). It is also relevant to separate these crops for the compilation of income and production accounts as part of the system of national accounts. Furthermore, the extent 1 See also seea.un.org; and www.wavespartnership.org 10 account differentiates between areas with different hydrological properties that affect ecosystem use, for instance between land with peat or mineral soils. Objectives. This report presents (i) a Land account for Indonesia, developed on the basis of the land cover maps of the Indonesian Ministry of Environment and Forestry; and (ii) an Extent account for the islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan. The Land account specifies land cover change in Indonesia, at the national scale and for 8 (groups of) islands, for the period 1990- 2014/2015. It has specific policy uses and applications that relate to informing the users of the accounts on land cover changes, including also information presented by period and by region. The land account serves as the basis for the SEEA Ecosystem Extent account, which is developed for Sumatra and Kalimantan (and which provides more specific information on ecosystem use). These areas were selected because of their importance in terms of providing areas for plantation forestry and perennial crops. The extent account specifically focusses on providing more detailed information on two types of land cover, i.e. perennial crops and forestry plantations. These two types of land cover are, in the Extent account, divided into respectively different types of perennial crops, and different types of plantation forestry crops. Only the main types of different crops are differentiated, in particular: oil palm, hevea rubber, coffee and coconut (in the category perennial crops) and acacia spp and eucalyptus spp in the category of forestry crops. Audience and policy relevance. The Land account presents a clear overview of land cover change that has taken place in Indonesia since 1990, and up to 2014/2015, both at national scale and for different (groups of) islands. The account shows the differences in land cover changes between these islands, including in terms of timing of land cover change. The land account will be useful for policy makers and technical staff of ministries interested in obtaining a more in-depth insight in how land cover has changed in Indonesia in the past decades. The land account is based upon government data – all numbers presented in these accounts are consistent with official government datasets. The Extent account provides further insights in the types of crops grown in Indonesia in particular in perennial cropping and plantation forestry systems. These crops are main sources of economic development and revenue for the country, yet their rapid expansion has also been linked to sustainability issues. For land use planning and management including economic development, inclusive growth and dealing with sustainability concerns it is important to know where these crops are grown. The policy relevance of the specific findings of the accounts are further analyzed in section 4.3 Contents. This report describes: (i) the methodological background and principles of land and extent accounting, based on the SEEA Framework; (ii) the land account of Indonesia produced on the basis of government land cover data including strengths and weaknesses of the produced account, policy applications and steps for further refinement; and (iii) the extent accounts for Sumatra and Kalimantan. The main report comprises the Land account for the whole country, but a specific Land account for different islands/groups of island is provided in Annexes. The Land account includes a land cover change matrix, which shows land cover at different points in time. It 11 shows the area of different land cover types at the beginning of the reference period (opening area), the net increases and decreases of this area according to the land cover type it was converted from (in the case of increases), or what it was converted to (in the case of decreases), and finally, the area covered by different land cover types at the end of the reference period (closing area) (UN et al., 2016). In addition, land cover change matrices have been prepared, at both the national scale and for the different islands/groups of islands. This also follows the statistical standard of the SEEA CF. Since the data is based on government data the accuracy of the account is similar to the accuracy of these government data. The extent account shows the land use (types of crops or plantation forestry species) within the units identified as perennial crop respectively plantation forestry within the KLHK land cover map. In this sense this map is also fully consistent with government data. At the same time, selected checking of the accuracy of the map were made, which are also reported. The main objective of the work was to produce a partial ecosystem extent account for the priority classes of perennial crops and plantation forests. These classes have been selected by BPS and the other stakeholders (Bappenas, KLHK, World Bank) during consultation meetings in the beginning of the project, because of the economic importance of perennial crops and plantation forestry, and the various sustainability challenges related to these land uses. For the perennial crop class, the differentiation between oil palm, hevea, coffee, banana, coconut and cacao plantations was investigated while for the plantation forest class the acacia and eucalyptus plantations were analyzed. 12 2. Principles and Methodologies of Land and Extent accounting 2.1 Principles of land and extent accounting in the SEEA Land is a unique environmental asset that delineates the space in which economic activities and environmental processes take place, and within which environmental assets and economic assets are located (UN et al., 2016). In principle, the SEEA land accounts’ scope is the total area of a country, including areas covered by inland water resources, such as rivers and lakes and, in certain applications, may also be extended to include areas of coastal water and a country’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). However, for policy support purposes, it may be helpful to have specific accounts developed at the sub-national scale. The land account is an element of the SEEA Central Framework (UN et al., 2014) but is also relevant for the SEEA Experimental Ecosystem Accounting framework (UN et al., 2013). It can incorporate both land use and land cover. Land use reflects both (i) the activities undertaken and (ii) the institutional arrangements put in place; for a given area for the purposes of economic production, or the maintenance and restoration of environmental functions (UN et al., 2014). Land cover refers to the observed physical and biological cover of the Earth’s surface and includes natural vegetation and abiotic (non-living) land and water surfaces (UN et al., 2014). The area of coastal waters is generally excluded from land accounts but these may be extended to include the EEZ. It is noted that land cover and land use are interrelated. For example, agricultural production is closely aligned to crop area. However, while land use and land cover are closely related, this is not always the case. For example, tree covered areas can be used for forestry, for the maintenance and restoration of environmental functions, or may not be used at all (i.e. land not in use) (UN et al., 2016). In principle, land cover is easier to account for then land use, and land cover accounts can be seen as the basic, first step towards developing ecosystem accounts (UN et al., 2013). Therefore, and in line with available data at national scale (See below) and consistent with the agreed scope of work, this report provides a Land account on the basis of Land Cover. When produced for a specific year, the land account identifies and delineates the ecosystems in the area for which the account is produced, in this case the land area of Indonesia – as defined by land cover. Where land cover accounts are produced for multiple points in time, e.g. for multiple years or depicting ecosystems in the beginning (e.g. January) and end (e.g. December) of a year, the changes in ecosystems between these points in time can also be provided. In this latter case, the ecosystem land accounts include an opening and a closing stock for the period covered between two points in time, showing changes in ecosystems over time. This is shown in Table 1. 13 Table 1. Ecosystem extent account (hectares) (source: Draft SEEA EEA Technical Recommendations, UN et al., 2017) In principle, the units including spatial delineation of the land account are fixed: they are defined by the Government of Indonesia and cannot be changed. However what is possible – in the ecosystem extent account - is to provide additional detail, nested within the original land cover classes. For example, for specific parts of the country, it may be possible to use remote sensing information to delineate specific perennial crop types such as coffee, rubber, oil palm or acacia. This would provide important additional information on ecosystem uses and productivity, see for example Table 2 that compares the land cover map of Indonesia with the related ecosystem types that could be included in an extent account. However given that the areas involved are very large, in the pilot extent account to be developed in this project the focus will be on the perennial crops and agroforestry, and will focus on Sumatra and Kalimantan. This is reported in a separate report. 14 Table 2 Land cover classes and ecosystem types (adapted from the draft SEEA EEA Technical Recommendations, UN et al., 2017). Description of general land Indonesia land cover classes* Examples of ecosystem types from the cover classes following the draft SEEA EEA TR (UN et al., 2017) SEEA classification Artificial areas (including urban Settlement Urban / Residential and associated areas) Transmigration Urban park Airport/seaport Industrial Road infrastructure Waste deposit sites Herbaceous crops Rice field Irrigated rice Dry cultivation Other irrigated crops Shrubby dry cultivation Rainfed annual croplands Woody crops Perennial crops (oil palm Fruit tree plantations plantation, rubber plantation Coffee and tea plantation, etc.) Oil palm plantation Rubber plantation Multiple or layered crops Agroforestry** Two layers of different crops (e.g. wheat fields with olive trees in the Mediterranean area) One layer of natural vegetation (mainly trees) that covers one layer of cultivated crops (e.g. coffee grown under shade trees) Grassland Savan Natural grasslands Improved pastures Steppe Savanna Tree-covered areas (forests) Primary dry land forest Deciduous forest Degraded dry land forest Coniferous forest Primary peat swamp forest Plantation (planted) forest Degraded peat swamp forest Plantation forest Mangroves Primary mangrove Inland mangroves Degraded mangrove Nearshore mangroves Shrub-covered areas Shrub Natural dryland shrubland Degraded dryland shrubland Shrubs, and/or herbaceous Wetland shrub Wetland shrubland vegetation, aquatic or regularly flooded Sparsely natural vegetated - Periglacial vegetation areas Terrestrial barren land Bare land Sandy dunes Mining area Permanent snow and glaciers - Inland water bodies Water bodies (lakes, rivers) Lakes Swamp Rivers 15 Coastal water bodies and Coastal fish pond Coral reefs intertidal areas Seagrass meadows Sea and marine areas * Based on land cover classes produced by The Indonesian Ministry of Environment and Forestry (MOEF) ** Not listed in the MOEF’s land cover classes 2.2 The Land account This report presents land account of Indonesia for the period of 1990 to 2014/2015, analyzed per five years. This report selects land cover map from the MOEF as the basis for calculation, since the map is regularly updated and covers the whole country area. The classes identified in the MOEF map are also well aligned with the principles of land accounting as described above. The MOEF’s land cover map consists of 23 classes (of which one class pertains to cloud cover), generated from a classification of Landsat satellite images, and based on a basic map with an accuracy level corresponding to a scale of 1 : 250,000. This report maintains all the 23 classes and calculates their cover in 1990, 1995/1996, 2000, 2005/2006, 2009/2010, and 2014/2015. The areas are calculated in Excel based on the dbf file of the map, and then presented in an accounting table. All tables are added to this report. The type of change of a land cover class per five years is also identified, presented in the following way: opening stock, additions, reductions, and closing stock. Both additions to stocks and reductions in stock can, in principle, be based on natural processes as well as due to human management. However, clearly, this depends upon the type of ecosystem. Plantations increase due to human interventions only, and natural forests usually expand due to natural processes (although reforestation is also possible). However, based on the data, we are not able to differentiate between managed and natural processes. In order to describe the spatial distribution of each land cover type and its change during 1990-2015, this report also presents the land cover maps of 1990 and 2014/2015, prepared using ArcGIS 10. In addition, change matrices are added (Annex 23 to Annex 30), that show how land cover changes from one land cover unit to the next. The land cover change matrices are also prepared for the years 1990 to 2014/15. They show which land cover type is converted into which other types of land cover, following the standards of the SEEA CF. 16 2.3. The Extent account 2.3.1 Target area and data sources The target area is the perennial crops and plantation forests layers of the 2015 KLHK map over the areas of Sumatra and Kalimantan. Figure 1: Plantation forests and perennial crops layers of the KHLK land cover map 2015 The preferred data source for land cover/land use mapping of large areas such as Sumatra and Kalimantan is high resolution (10 – 30 m) imagery, freely available from ESA (Sentinel), NASA (Landsat) and JAXA (ALOS Palsar). Very high resolution optical imagery, such as SPOT, WorldView or Planet data, is used in a complementary manner, for calibration and validation purposes. Sentinel-1 C-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), operating a C band at 5.406 GhZ with dual polarization (VH, VV), acquired within an incidence angle range of 20° to 45° is freely available from the European Space Agency (ESA). Data was processed from the Single look complex 17 products (SLC), and was processed at 15m resolution. Images were converted into gamma nought γ° values using the GAMMA software. All available data on the ESA server for the years 2016 and 2017 was processed. The total extension of the target area is covered by 8 orbits in Sumatra and 5 orbits in Kalimantan. Each orbits consisted of about 21 acquisition dates (each with double polarizations VH-VV) acquired during 2016 and 2017. To reduce the amount of data and to capture the temporal variations between the acquisitions dates, multi-temporal statistic over the total stack of acquisition dates were calculated for each of the orbits. The multi-temporal statistics included the Mean, Minimum, Maximum, Standard deviation, Variation and Range, for both the VH and VV polarizations separately. In total 2.5 Terabytes of data were processed. Images were mosaicked and used for the assessment of the maps. Figure 2: Sentinel-1 Mosaic for Sumatra. ALOS PALSAR-2 JAXA Mosaic The global PALSAR-2 mosaic, L-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR), operating at 1.27 GhZ, VV and VH polarized, is freely available from the Japanese Space Agency (JAXA). The mosaic is a global SAR image created by mosaicking the individual PALSAR strips acquired during one complete year. Data is being corrected for geometric distortion specific to SAR (ortho- rectification) and topographic effects (slope correction). The size of one pixel is 25m. 43 Gygabytes of data, for 2015 and 2016 were downloaded and processed for Sumatra and Kalimantan. Images can be downloaded from the following link: http://www.eorc.jaxa.jp/ALOS/en/palsar_fnf/data/index.htm A detail analysis of the ALOS PALSAR-2 mosaic data revels that the composite is created using he processed strips for one complete year, meaning that each mosaic has information on both the dry and the rainy seasons. In addition each of the mosaics consists of strips with different incidence angles. This variability on the data dates and the incidence angle increases the variability on the radar backscatter and makes difficult the analysis of individual signatures. 18 For that reason, the PALSAR mosaic was only used when the assessment of the data showed consistency on the radar signatures for each of the plantation types. Figure 3: PALSAR Mosaics for Sumatra (left) and Kalimantan (right) Landsat 8 Landsat 8 data was preprocessed in multiple steps. Landsat 8 surface reflectance products are utilized, which include masks for clouds and cloud shadows. Data is extracted for the six most relevant bands for land cover/land use classification available at 30 meters ground resolution: blue, green, red, NIR, SWIR-1, SWIR-2. Data for the year 2016 over the entire areas of Sumatra and Kalimantan was used. Due to the strong presence of clouds, often times just one or two clear observations for the entire year are available. Hence, extraction of time series information like phenological gradients is not feasible. Instead, mosaics are built using a straight-forward approach: considering a stack of the entire dataset of all scenes acquired in 2016, any available cloud free observations for each pixel are targeted to derive an aggregating statistic for each band. As cloud and cloud shadow masking still inhibits errors, not the mean or median are chosen, which are overall too bright and not representative of the data, but a 10th percentile. While clouds and atmospheric effects remain clearly visible, and also cloud shadows have to be taken into account, this calculation has shown to offer the most applicable results. The final product is a mosaic of six bands, which appears to be generally free of clouds, yet which consists of a mixture of pixels over the entire span of 2016 (Figure 4). Spot-6 High resolution SPOT -6 (1.5 meter in the panchromatic spectrum and 6 meter multispectral) was expected to provide the necessary information to delineate an extended calibration and validation dataset. The SPOT-6 data for Kalimantan and Sumatra, was recently acquired by BPS. SarVision made an official request but access to the requested data was not granted. For that reason other available remote sensing and GIS data was used. 19 Figure 4: Real-color composite of the generated mosaics for Sumatra and Kalimantan 2.3.2 GIS data KLHK map The Indonesian Ministry of Environment and Forestry (KLHK) provided SarVision with a shape file containing the 23 land cover classes of the Land Cover map created for the year 2015. Among these 23 classes, the work presented in this report consisted of further detailing the perennial crop and forest plantation layers per plantation type. Global Forest Watch (GFW) plantation dataset (created for the period 2013-2014) This dataset is an open source free dataset available on the GFW website. It is a dataset created by Transparent World, with the support of Global Forest Watch. This shape file contains polygons digitized over different types of plantations all over the world. The shape file contains information, on the type of crop or plantation and whether it is a mixed or single plantation type. The data base also shows the remote sensing data that was used as the basis for the interpretation, mainly Landsat was used, supported by high resolution imagery (Google Maps, Bing Maps and Digital Globe), where available. In addition there is a column with an indication of how certain the interpretation and labelling of the polygon is. We used this file for the area of Kalimantan and Sumatra, as a guide to digitize the calibration and validation dataset. However in view of uncertainties in the GFW map and dataset each validation area was verified with Google earth engine (and where available and relevant Google street view). This procedure is explained in details below. Calibration and validation dataset 20 A calibration and validation dataset is required to (1) train the classification algorithm with plantation types signatures extracted over calibration polygons and (2) assess the accuracy of the map by comparing map classes with reference classification of validation polygons. These processes are explained in the section on methodology. A set of polygons were digitized using the GFW labelled polygons and the high resolution images in Google Earth. A careful screening of the GFW data was done in order to select the polygons that have 100% certainty of being labelled correctly. All polygons labelled as mixed plantations or with lower certainty of correct labelling were deleted. For this dataset a total of 2,812 polygons were digitized over the Oil Palm, Eucalyptus, Acacia and Hevea plantations (Table 3Table ). Table 3: Number of polygons digitized for each of the plantation or crop types for both study sites. KLHK Legend Type Number of Polygons Forest Plantations Acacia 590 Eucalyptus 87 Perennial Crops Fruit 13 Hevea 375 Oil Palm 2247 Total 2812 Figure 5 shows the location of the digitized polygon dataset over both study sites. Figure 5: Location of all digitized polygons, to be used as a training/validation dataset in Kalimantan and Sumatra. Detail of the polygons. For the purpose of calibration, polygons should be homogenous representative areas of a given plantation type, and allow to extract “pure” radar backscatter and multi spectral reflectance values associated to this plantation type. Polygons are digitized in homogenous areas with same texture and colour, avoiding boundaries, and with a minimum size of 50 pixels. Variations in densities and ages of plantations are recorded because they have an impact on the radar backscatter and multispectral reflectance values, as illustrated on radar images presented in Figure 6. 21 Mature, dense oil palm on Sparse oil palm identified on Young oil palm identified on Google Earth data Google Earth data Google Earth data Mature, dense oil palm on radar Sparse oil palm on radar image Young oil palm on radar image image Dense acacia plantation on Google Young acacia plantation on Old acacia plantation on Google Earth data Google Earth data Earth data 22 Dense acacia plantation on radar Young acacia plantation on Old acacia plantation on radar image radar image image Figure 6: Examples of polygons digitized over the different plantations/crops, at different development stages. Duplets are presented for each of the crop/plantations for both the optical high resolution (above) and the radar image (below). 2.3.3 Classification methodology The image classification has been carried out according to the following workflow (Figure 7): 1. Satellite images acquisition and processing 2. Multi-dates stacking of ALOS PALSAR and Sentinel-1 images to create multi-temporal statistics of the backscatter values in both polarisations 3. Production of a cloud free mosaic of Landsat 8 images 4. Production of the calibration and validation dataset 5. Co-registration of Sentinel-1, ALOS PALSAR and Landsat-8 stacks 6. Analysis of backscatter and multispectral signatures of plantations types 7. Selection of optimal radar and optical data bands for the classification 8. Run unsupervised and supervised MRF classification algorithm 9. Classification results analysis and post-processing 10. Accuracy assessment Steps 1 to 4 are described above in the data sources section. 23 Figure 7: Image classification workflow 2.3.4. Analysis of backscatter and multispectral signatures of plantations types The selection of the optimal bands for the classification is made on the basis of the plantations signature analysis. For that purpose, a calibration dataset is selected randomly from the digitized polygons. Statistics of backscatter and multispectral values are extracted from the available satellite images (ALOS PALSAR stack, Sentinel-1 stack, Landsat mosaic) for each plantation type. Figure 8 shows the radar signatures extracted for hevea and oil palm plantations. It can be seen that there is a large variation on the signatures for one crop. That is because for each crop we have included areas with different stages of development. 0 0 phh phv phh phv minvh minvv meanvh menavv maxvh maxvv 1 PHH phv phh phv minvh minvv meanvh menavv maxvh maxvv 1 2 2 3 3 -5 4 4 5 -5 5 6 6 7 7 -10 8 8 9 9 10 -10 10 11 11 12 -15 12 13 13 14 14 15 -15 15 16 -20 16 17 17 18 18 19 19 20 -20 20 -25 21 22 21 23 22 24 23 -30 -25 Figure 8: Signatures extracted for Hevea (left) and Oil Palm (right). The graph shows the mean backscatter value extracted for each of the training polygons, from the PALSAR-2 data (phh/phv 2015 and 2016) and the Sentinel-1 data (Minvv/minvh/meanvv/meanvh/ max/vv/ max vh). These signatures are used for the selection of optimal bands and the subsequent classification of the images. The next section will show and example of the classification of the images and the validation process for the northern part of Sumatra 24 2.3.5 Classification Unsupervised and supervised classifications are implemented using SarVision in-house MRF Classifier. The output is an intermediate map, where plantation classes are disaggregated into sub-classes based on age and/or plantation densities. Moreover, as the classifier is pixel- based, classification results contain speckle. 2.3.6 Post-processing The objective of post-processing is to: (1) Merge sub-classes corresponding to variations in age and/or plantation densities within a single plantation type class; (2) Remove the speckle through re-classification of (small groups of) isolated pixels to the dominant neighbouring class. A minimum mapping unit of 1.875 hectares was used: groups of pixels representing an area less than 1.875 hectares were reclassified to the dominant neighbouring class. 2.3.7 Accuracy assessment A validation dataset of 2172 polygons of the 4 main classes (acacia:435, eucalyptus: 72, hevea: 297, oil palm: 1368) is used for validation. It represents a sample of 2.8% of the total plantation layers area (around 2 to 4% per main class). For each pixel in these polygons the “mapped plantation type” is checked against the “validation polygon plantation type”. A confusion matrix describes agreement and disagreement between the maps and the validation polygons. Based on this, several quality indicators can be derived: - Overall accuracy: % of pixels where the map and validation polygons are in agreement; - Class-specific accuracy (F-score): harmonic mean of producer and user accuracies for each class. 25 3. Results 3.1 The Land account Table 4 shows the land accounts of Indonesia for the years 1990, 1995/1996, 2000, 2005/2006, 2009/2010 and 2014/2015, including an analysis of additions and reductions in stock. Changes between land cover units (i.e. from one land cover class to another) were not differentiated in managed versus natural changes since this is not revealed by the available information. This report also provides the accounting tables of seven Indonesian big islands / island groups: Sumatera, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Papua, Java, Bali and Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku as listed in Annex 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, and 19. The land cover maps of Indonesia both for the opening year (1990) and the closing year (2015) are presented in Figure 9 and Figure 10, and the maps for the seven islands are presented in Annex 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 20, and 21. All maps are also available at high resolution, i.e. with a pixel size of 30 by 30m (corresponding to the Landsat pixel size). Note that these maps correspond to the maps of the MOEF and the criteria for sharing the maps at this high resolution with external stakeholders requires prior consent of the MOEF (and should preferably be done directly through MOEF). 26 Table 4. Land cover account (Indonesia) Area (rounded Degraded dry land forest Shrubby dry cultivation Primary dry land forest Disturbed peat swamp in 1000 ha) Primary peat swamp Disturbed mangrove Primary mangrove Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Settlement Bare land Rice field Swamp Savana Mining Water forest forest Shrub Cloud Total Opening stock 51310 38175 1868 6493 3164 14938 4508 2191 1885 335 2388 3748 1680 13500 6464 7713 21965 6907 521 15 234 270 1429 191701 (1990) Additions 7 389 0 0 261 716 1267 40 371 0 0 15 20 70 1304 171 785 197 5 0 21 26 311 Reductions 371 1622 12 91 31 460 81 5 313 5 0 18 76 2044 436 116 252 8 2 0 0 1 33 Land cover in 50945 36942 1856 6402 3394 15195 5695 2226 1943 330 2388 3745 1623 11525 7331 7767 22498 7096 525 15 255 296 1707 191701 1995/1996 Additions 9 5447 0 0 654 3332 2031 178 784 83 1113 39 18 70 1776 1379 4296 557 174 1 74 54 286 Reductions 6184 5384 81 364 159 3458 320 29 358 269 223 28 119 2376 1178 320 1163 139 4 0 11 6 184 Land cover in 44770 37005 1776 6038 3889 15069 7407 2375 2369 145 3277 3756 1522 9220 7929 8826 25631 7514 695 16 319 344 1809 191701 2000 Additions 1 3883 1 61 615 1417 907 152 904 6 58 1 47 472 1346 324 979 117 124 1 1 78 110 Reductions 3763 2171 217 303 253 820 96 3 335 39 57 2 181 1474 866 256 341 96 4 0 1 2 323 Land cover in 41008 38717 1559 5797 4251 15665 8218 2524 2938 111 3278 3754 1388 8217 8410 8894 26269 7534 815 17 319 420 1596 191701 2005/2006 Additions 21 1380 0 2 493 1157 1437 38 788 0 153 1 53 225 774 1575 1654 255 27 1 4 63 4 Reductions 1357 1636 49 310 257 1640 141 3 731 82 99 2 60 1124 468 303 1648 156 2 0 2 7 28 Land cover in 39672 38461 1510 5489 4487 15182 9513 2559 2995 30 3332 3753 1381 7318 8716 10165 26275 7634 840 18 321 476 1572 191701 2009/2010 Additions 38 724 37 5 859 1548 1034 69 1130 0 16 6 62 125 463 445 1614 94 17 0 4 106 43 Reductions 567 1603 16 155 301 1538 93 37 521 30 208 4 37 1048 740 324 987 139 9 0 38 1 45 Land cover in 39143 37583 1531 5339 5044 15193 10455 2591 3603 0 3140 3756 1405 6395 8439 10287 26902 7588 848 18 287 582 1570 191701 2014/2015 27 Figure 9. Land cover map of Indonesia 1990 28 Figure 10. Land cover map of Indonesia 2014 29 There are two main work streams that follow from the land accounts presented in this report. First, the land accounts will be updated to 2017. The spatial datasets for this update are not available with SarVision, but BPS has access to these data. Since they cannot share the data with SarVision experts, BPS will produce the updated land accounts. This will be published in a separate report. Second, for Kalimantan and Sumatra, an Extent Account has been developed, and is integrated in this report. This specifies types of perennial crops within the category ‘perennial crop’ (eg. oil palm, rubber) and types of plantation forest trees within category ‘platation forest’ (acacia and eucalyptus) based on remote sensing images as elaborated in the next section. 3.2 The Extent account 3.2.1. Sumatra The pixel size of the extent account is 25 by 25 meter (hence it has a finer resolution compared to the Land account map). The following perennial crops and plantation forest classes could be successfully mapped (Figure 11): - Acacia - Eucalyptus - Hevea - Oil Palm - Coconut - Banana - Coffee Some plantation areas did not give a distinguishable backscatter or multispectral response and could not be classified into a plantation type with sufficient accuracy. The main reasons for this are: - Plantations were too young; - Plantations had a too low density; - Plantations were a mix of very small patches of different plantations types and other land uses. 30 Figure 11: Land use map of Sumatra - Overview 31 Small areas were mapped as forest and other high biomass natural vegetation (woodlands) and low biomass natural vegetation (shrubs, grasses), 7.3% and 0.5% respectively. It corresponds to small patches of residual forests or degraded land areas within plantations. These may be patches of forest that have grown back in abandoned plantations, could be areas set aside by plantations as High Conservation Value (HCV) forest areas in line with the requirements of the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), or potentially could be false classifications. Figure 92: Land use map of Sumatra – detail over the area of Jambi (see legend in Figure 9) 32 3.2.2. Kalimantan The following perennial crops and plantation forest classes could be successfully mapped (figure 13): - Acacia - Eucalyptus - Hevea - Oil Palm - Coconut Some plantation areas did not give a distinguishable backscatter or multispectral response and could not be classified into a plantation type with sufficient accuracy. The main reasons for this are: - Plantations were too young; - Plantations had a too low density; - Plantations were a mix of very small patches of different plantations types and other land uses. Figure 103: Land use map of Kalimantan - Overview 33 Small areas were mapped as forest and other high biomass natural vegetation (woodlands) and low biomass natural vegetation (shrubs, grasses), 3.2% and 3.9% respectively. It corresponds to small patches of residual forests or degraded land areas within plantations. These may be patches of forest that have grown back in abandoned plantations, could be areas set aside by plantations as High Conservation Value (HCV) forest areas in line with the requirements of the RSPO, or potentially could be false classifications. Figure 114: Land use map of Kalimantan – detail over the area of East Kalimantan (see legend in Figure 11) 34 3.3. Land use classification statistics 3.3.1. Sumatra Table 5 below presents areas (in hectares) per class and distribution of classes in percentages. The young/unidentified plantations class represent 712,839 hectares, corresponding to 8.3% of the total perennial crops and plantation forests area. The Forest and high biomass natural vegetation class represents 625,026 hectares, corresponding to 7.3% of the total perennial crops and plantation forests area. The dominant perennial crop is oil palm (4,545,181 hectares, 53.2%) followed by hevea (924,827 hectares, 10.8%), coconut (434,309 hectares, 5.1%), banana (39,303 hectares, 0.5%) and coffee (1,512 hectares, 0.0%). The dominant plantation forest crop is acacia (1,098,042 hectares, 12.9%) followed by eucalyptus (70,932 hectares, 0.8%). Table 5: class area and proportion of the land use map of Sumatra Land use class Area (in hectares) % Forest and other high biomass natural vegetation 625,026 7.3% Low biomass natural vegetation 46,483 0.5% Plantation-Acacia 1,098,042 12.9% Perennial-Oilpalm 4,545,181 53.2% Perennial-Hevea 924,827 10.8% Perennial-Coconut 434,309 5.1% Plantation-Eucalyptus 70,932 0.8% Perennial-Banana 39,303 0.5% Perennial-Coffee 1,512 0.0% Young/Unidentified plantations 712,839 8.3% Bare land 10,352 0.1% Water 20,280 0.2% Built-Up areas 5,488 0.1% No data (slopes) 8,206 0.1% Total 8,542,780 100.0% 3.3.2. Kalimantan The Table 6 below presents areas (in hectares) per class and distribution of classes in percentages. The Forest and high biomass natural vegetation class represents 175,086 hectares, corresponding to 3.2% of the total perennial crops and plantation forests area. The low biomass natural vegetation class represents 215,350 hectares, corresponding to 3.9% of the total perennial crops and plantation forests area The dominant perennial crop is oil palm (4,298,889 hectares, 77.9%) followed by hevea (57,019 hectares, 1.0%), and coconut (23,284 hectares, 0.4%). The dominant plantation forest crop is acacia (677,873 hectares, 12.3%) followed by eucalyptus (31,365 hectares, 0.6%). 35 Table 6: class area and proportion of the land use map of Kalimantan Land use class Area (in hectares) % Forest and other high biomass natural vegetation 175,086 3.2% Low biomass natural vegetation 215,350 3.9% Plantation-Acacia 677,873 12.3% Perennial-Oilpalm 4,298,889 77.9% Perennial-Hevea 57,019 1.0% Perennial-Coconut 23,284 0.4% Plantation-Eucalyptus 31,365 0.6% Young/Unidentified_plantations 6,010 0.1% Bare land 25,729 0.5% Water 1,349 0.0% Built-up areas 6,863 0.1% No data (slopes) 1,828 0.0% Total 5,520,645 100.0% 3.3.3 Accuracy The objective of the accuracy assessment is to estimate accuracy of map classes and areas. We carried out a complete state of the art validation for those plantation classes for which it was possible and relevant to create a validation dataset: acacia, eucalyptus, hevea and oil palm. The method to create the validation polygons is detailed earlier in section 2. Other plantation classes, e.g. banana and coffee, are usually too small and sparse to be visually interpreted with reliability on Google earth data. Moreover, they account for a marginal proportion of the land use map (0.2% of the total map area of Sumatra, not mapped in Kalimantan). Coconut is a more significant class, accounting for 5.1% of the total map area of Sumatra. However, we could not find adequate data sources for validating this class. Coconut only accounts for 0.4% of the total map area of Kalimantan. The non-plantation classes represent together 8.4% of the total map area of Sumatra and 7.7% of the total map area of Kalimantan. The class young/unidentified plantation correspond to plantations which are too young, sparse or mixed to be assigned to one plantation class with reliability. It is very marginal in the case of Kalimantan, accounting for only 0.1% of the total map area. However, it is not the case in Sumatra, where it represents 8.3% of the total map area. For each class of validation polygons (acacia, eucalyptus, hevea, oil palm), we counted the number of map pixels per class of the land use map. Results are presented in Table 7 below, where rows correspond to the classification of pixels in the land use map, and columns to the classification of pixels in the validation polygons. 36 Table 7: number of map pixels per class of the land use map for each class of validation polygons - Sumatra Validation polygons Land use class Acacia Eucalyptus Hevea Oil palm Total # pixels of the class in the land use map Forest and other high biomass natural vegetation - - - - 10,000,421 Low biomass natural vegetation 1,171 - 1,438 4,132 743,734 Plantation-Acacia 285,581 2,275 - 3,264 17,568,670 Perennial-Oilpalm 8,374 - 3,041 3,018,255 72,722,892 Perennial-Hevea 904 - 221,182 124 14,797,224 Perennial-Coconut - - 62 1,490 6,948,946 Plantation-Eucalyptus 751 16,652 419 1,955 1,134,915 Perennial-Banana - - - - 628,843 Perennial-Coffee - - - 6 24,199 Young/Unidentified plantations 69,027 1,967 19,031 60,057 11,405,427 Bare land - - - - 165,627 Water - - - - 324,487 Built-Up areas - - - 108 87,800 No data (slopes) - - - - 131,298 Total # of pixels of the class in the validation polygons 365,808 20,894 245,173 3,089,391 From this table, we computed the % of validation pixels per class of the land use map (Table 8). The percentage of validation pixels which are mapped as young/unidentified plantation are: - Class acacia: 18.87% - Class eucalyptus: 9.41% - Class hevea: 7.76% - Class: oil palm: 1.94% Table 8: % of validation pixels per class of the land use map - Sumatra Land use class Acacia Eucalyptus Hevea Oil palm Forest-High_biomass 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% Forest-Medium_biomass 0.32% 0.00% 0.59% 0.13% Plantation-Acacia 78.07% 10.89% 0.00% 0.11% Perennial-Oilpalm 2.29% 0.00% 1.24% 97.70% Perennial-Hevea 0.25% 0.00% 90.21% 0.00% Land use map Perennial-Coconut 0.00% 0.00% 0.03% 0.05% Plantation-Eucalyptus 0.21% 79.70% 0.17% 0.06% Perennial-Banana 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% Perennial-Coffee 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% Young/Unidentified_plantations 18.87% 9.41% 7.76% 1.94% Open_Bare 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% Water 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% Build-Up 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% Slopes 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% The numbers presented above do not indicate the plantations included in the class of young/unidentified plantations, since validation samples may not be representative. It is likely that most of the young/unidentified plantation class corresponds to types of land use: (i) young acacia plantations; and (ii) young oil palm plantations. Oil palm plantations are the largest ecosystem type within the class perennial crops, and therefore contribute substantially to young plantations. However, after around two years crops can already be identified as oil palm in the maps. The class acacia is also an important ecosystem type. It needs to be noted here that acacia is usually on a 4 or 5 years rotation (versus 25 to 30 for oil palm, other perennial crops are also on longer rotation than acacia) – hence there is much likely relatively a larger proportion of acacia compared to other ecosystem types such as oil palm in the young/unidentified plantations class. 37 The two following sections present the validation results for the 4 main plantation classes in each island. From Table 6, a confusion matrix for the 4 main plantation classes can be extracted: Table 9. Table 9: confusion matrix for the 4 main plantation classes - Sumatra Validation polygons Acacia Eucalyptus Hevea Oil Palm Total Acacia 285,581 2,275 - 3,264 291,120 Eucalyptus 751 16,652 419 1,955 19,777 Map Hevea 904 - 221,182 124 222,210 Oil palm 8,374 - 3,041 3,018,255 3,029,670 Total 295,610 18,927 224,642 3,023,598 3,562,777 Rows count the number of pixels per class of the land use map. Columns count the number of pixels per class of the validation polygons. Pixels with the same class in the land use map (row) and validation polygons (column) are correctly classified. They correspond to the diagonal cells. The proportion of correctly classified (diagonal) pixels is 99.4%, which is the overall accuracy of the map for the four main plantation classes. From the confusion matrix, user’s accuracy, commission error, producer’s accuracy, omission error, and F-score per class can also be estimated. Results are presented in the Table below. User’s accuracy is the proportion of the land use map pixels correctly classified for this class. Its complementary measure, the commission error, is the proportion of land use map pixels classified in another class than the reference class. Producer’s accuracy is the proportion of the validation polygons correctly classified by the map for this class. Its complementary measure, the omission error, is the proportion of validation pixels classified in another class by the land use map. F-score is the harmonic mean of user accuracy and producer accuracy and represents class specific overall accuracy. Table 10: User’s accuracy, commission error, producer’s accuracy, omission error and F -score per land use class - Sumatra Land use class User accuracy Commission error Producer accuracy Omission error F-score Acacia 98.1% 1.9% 96.6% 3.4% 97.3% Eucalyptus 84.2% 15.8% 88.0% 12.0% 86.0% Hevea 99.5% 0.5% 98.5% 1.5% 99.0% Oil palm 99.6% 0.4% 99.8% 0.2% 99.7% All classes have an accuracy superior to 97% except for eucalyptus, at 86%. This is explained by confusions with the acacia class (reference eucalyptus pixels mapped as acacia) and the oil palm class (reference oil palm pixels mapped as eucalyptus). It is important to note that – according to the objective of the analysis, i.e. to be consistent with government data, we only analyzed ecosystem type in areas within boundaries of land classified by the government as plantation areas or perennial crops. These areas almost exclusively comprise estates and not smallholder plantations. It is likely that the accuracy for smallholder plantations would be somewhat lower since these plantations are usually more diverse. However, the accuracy of the classification for the selected areas can be considered to be very high. The accuracy is further analyzed in Section 4 below. 38 For Kalimantan, also a confusion matrix for the 4 main plantation classes was elaborated: Table . Table 11: confusion matrix for the 4 main plantation classes - Kalimantan Validation polygons Acacia Eucalyptus Hevea Oil Palm Total Acacia 211,037 - 7,883 17,942 236,862 Eucalyptus 398 33,504 - 994 34,896 Map Hevea - - 16,936 - 16,936 Oil palm 13,636 15,669 - 1,958,614 1,987,919 Total 225,071 49,173 24,819 1,977,550 2,276,613 Rows count the number of pixels per class of the land use map. Columns count the number of pixels per class of the validation polygons. Pixels with the same class in the land use map (row) and validation polygons (column) are correctly classified. They correspond to the diagonal cells. The proportion of correctly classified (diagonal) pixels is 97.5%, which is the overall accuracy of the map for the four main plantation classes. From the confusion matrix, user’s accuracy, commission error, producer’s accuracy, omission error, and F-score per class can also be estimated. Results are presented in Table below. User’s accuracy is the proportion of the land use map pixels correctly classified for this class. Its complementary measure, the commission error, is the proportion of land use map pixels classified in another class than the reference class. Producer’s accuracy is the proportion of the validation polygons correctly classified by the map for this class. Its complementary measure, the omission error, is the proportion of validation pixels classified in another class by the land use map. F-score is the harmonic mean of user accuracy and producer accuracy and represents class specific overall accuracy. Table 12: User’s accuracy, commission error, producer’s accuracy, omission error and F-score per land use class - Kalimantan Land use class User accuracy Commission error Producer accuracy Omission error F-score Acacia 89.1% 10.9% 93.8% 6.2% 91.4% Eucalyptus 96.0% 4.0% 68.1% 31.9% 79.7% Hevea 100.0% 0.0% 68.2% 31.8% 81.1% Oil palm 98.5% 1.5% 99.0% 1.0% 98.8% The classes acacia and oil palm have an accuracy superior to 90%. The classes eucalyptus and hevea have around 80% accuracy. For eucalyptus, this is explained by confusions with the oil palm class (reference eucalyptus pixels mapped as oil palm). For hevea, this is explained by confusions with the acacia class (reference hevea pixels mapped as acacia). It is important to note that – according to the objective of the analysis, i.e. to be consistent with government data, we only analyzed ecosystem type in areas within boundaries of land classified by the government as plantation areas or perennial crops. These areas almost exclusively comprise estates and not smallholder plantations. It is likely that the accuracy for smallholder plantations would be somewhat lower since these plantations are usually more diverse. 39 However, the accuracy of the classification for the selected areas can be considered to be very high. The accuracy is further analyzed in Section 4 below. 40 4. Discussion 4.1 Uncertainties and robustness in Land accounting. The main advantages of using land cover maps from the MOEF as the approach for land accounting is their availability both in term of coverage area and in terms of the regularity of updates. The map covers the whole area of Indonesia, produced from the year 1990. The map was regularly updated, per five years in the beginning periods (1990, 1996, and 2000), and then per three years in the next periods (2003, 2006, 2009, 2012), and annually after 2012. Hence, the MOEF’s map provides guarantee for the comprehensiveness and the continuity of land accounting in Indonesia. In term of data quality, the MOEF’s land cover map can be classified to have a medium level of accuracy. The map is generated from the interpretation and classification of Landsat 8 satellite images with a spatial resolution of 30 meter. The map uses a basic map with an accuracy level at the scale of 1 : 250,000. With this level of detail, the map is sufficient for the basis of Indonesian land accounting either for national or provincial scale. A quick, rough comparison using the more detail maps (plantation maps and Google Earth) in some areas in Jambi and Central Kalimantan also indicates the appropriateness of the 2014/2015 MOEF’s map – generally the classes and contours of the MOFF map well reflect the land cover as recorded in Google Earth and detailed maps. Another strength of the MOEF’s land cover map is the classes. The map covers 23 land cover types (including cloud covered class). For example, the MOEF’s map provides a detailed differentiation of forest type, which is classified into seven classes: primary dryland forest, degraded dryland forest, primary peat swamp forest, degraded peat swamp forest, primary mangrove, degraded mangrove, and plantation forest. In the context of ecosystem extent accounting and its link to the ecosystem services account, the use of the MOEF’s land cover map is suited to analyze ecosystem services. However additional information for example on density or degradation status of the forest is highly useful.For example, well preserved forest may have a higher supply of some services (carbon storage, possibilities for tourism, non- timber forest products) and biodiversity compared to degraded forest. However, some limitations of the use of the MOEF’s land cover map for land accounting should also be acknowledged. The main point is the lack of detail on perennial crops type. Since the map is produced by the MOEF, it is logical that it provides more detail information on the forest types. However, considering the diversity of Indonesian crop types (e.g. oil palm, rubber, coconut, and coffee), and that the crops have been developed at large scale and significantly contribute to Indonesian economy, the crop diversity should be incorporated in the ecosystem extent account including in maps (as is planned in this project for Kalimantan and Sumatra). 41 Regarding its current level of detail, the MOEF’s land cover map is not always suitable for a land accounting at district level. This depends on the area of district to be analyzed. For many districts in Papua, which typically have large coverage area (an average area of 1.1 million ha/district, ranging from 53,700 ha to 4.4 million ha), the map can still be adequately used as the basis for land accounting. However, this does not seem the case for land accounting at district level in Java (with an average area of only around 100,000 ha/district), which has a more heterogeneous landscape with for example smaller plot sizes. Hence, in terms of supporting policy applications the map is least suitable for Java and other islands with high population density and small-scale landscape elements (such as Bali). Additional information on the area of provinces in Sumatera and Kalimantan is listed in Annex 30. 4.2. Uncertainties and robustness in Extent accounting Though the scope of this project was to provide a detailed land use map for the perennial crops and forest plantations land cover layers, the classification algorithm was implemented on the total areas of Sumatra and Kalimantan before extracting results for the targeted areas. Classification results outside the perennial crops and forest plantations land cover layers give interesting insights on the extent of plantation crops development. We discuss these findings for Sumatra and Kalimantan below. 4.2.1 Sumatra As illustrated by Figure 12, significant areas are classified with our algorithms as plantations outside the perennial crops and forest plantations land cover layers (Acacia: 723,049 hectares, Eucalyptus: 115,735 hectares, Hevea: 785,487 hectares, Oil palm: 3,483,951 hectares, Coconut: 406,695 hectares). However, as no accuracy assessment was carried out outside the perennial crops and forest plantations land cover layers, these figures should be taken with caution. 42 1 4 2 3 Figure 12: overlay of the plantation forests and perennial crops layers on the land use classification over the whole areas of Sumatra. Areas appearing in green (acacia), yellow (hevea), purple (oil palm) and orange (coconut) correspond to plantations not included in the plantation forests and perennial crops layers. Nevertheless, visual check of these areas with Google Earth imagery show clear examples of plantation areas not included in perennial crops and forest plantations land cover layers (Figure 136, Figure 147, Figure 158 and Figure 169). 43 Position in the land use map Legend KHLK 2015 map layers Sumatra land use map layers 1 Plantations of the Sumatra land use map mapped inside the KHLK perennial crops layer Total plantations of the Sumatra land use map, including outside the KHLK perennial crops layer Figure 136: oil palm plantations outside the perennial crops layer. Map above: KLHK map and Google earth image. Map below: SarVision classification 44 Position in the land use map Legend KHLK 2015 map layers Sumatra land use map layers 2 Plantations of the Sumatra land use map mapped inside the KHLK perennial crops layer Total plantations of the Sumatra land use map, including outside the KHLK perennial crops layer Figure 147: hevea plantations outside the perennial crops layer. Map above: KLHK map. Map below: SarVision classification 45 Position in the land use map Legend KHLK 2015 map layers Sumatra land use map layers 3 Plantations of the Sumatra land use map mapped inside the KHLK perennial crops and forest plantations layer Total plantations of the Sumatra land use map, including outside the KHLK perennial crops and forest plantations layer Figure 158: acacia plantations outside the plantation forests layer. Map above: KLHK map and Google earth. Map below: SarVision classification 46 Position in the land use map Legend KHLK 2015 map layers Sumatra land use map layers 4 Plantations of the Sumatra land use map mapped inside the KHLK perennial crops layer Total plantations of the Sumatra land use map, including outside the KHLK perennial crops layer Figure 169: coconut plantations outside the perennial crops layer. Map above: KLHK map and Google earth image. Map below: SarVision classification 47 4.2.2 Kalimantan As illustrated by Figure 20, significant areas are classified with our algorithms as plantations outside the perennial crops and forest plantations land cover layers (Acacia: 139,367 hectares, Eucalyptus: 43,830 hectares, Hevea: 767,510 hectares, Oil palm: 1,798,409 hectares, Coconut: 56,476 hectares). However, as no accuracy assessment was carried out outside the perennial crops and forest plantations land cover layers, these figures should be taken with caution. 4 1 2 3 Figure 20: overlay of the plantation forests and perennial crops layers on the land use classification over the whole areas of Kalimantan. Areas appearing in green (acacia), yellow (hevea), purple (oil palm) and orange (coconut) correspond to plantations not included in the plantation forests and perennial crops layers. Nevertheless, visual check of these areas with Google Earth imagery show clear examples of plantation areas not included in perennial crops and forest plantations land cover layers (Figure 21, Figure 172, Figure 183 and Figure 194). 48 Position in the land use map Legend KHLK 2015 map layers Kalimantan land use map layers 1 Plantations of the Kalimantan land use map mapped inside the KHLK perennial crops layer Total plantations of the Kalimantan land use map, including outside the KHLK perennial crops layer Figure 21: hevea plantations outside the perennial crops layer. Map above: KLHK map and Google earth image. Map below: SarVision classification 49 Position in the land use map Legend KHLK 2015 map layers Kalimantan land use map layers 2 Plantations of the Kalimantan land use map mapped inside the KHLK perennial crops layer Total plantations of the Kalimantan land use map, including outside the KHLK perennial crops layer Figure 172: oil palm plantations outside the perennial crops layer. Map above: KLHK map and Google earth image. Map below: SarVision classification 50 Position in the land use map Legend KHLK 2015 map layers Kalimantan land use map layers 3 Plantations of the Kalimantan land use map mapped inside the KHLK forest plantations layer Total plantations of the Kalimantan land use map, including outside the KHLK forest plantations layer Figure 183: acacia plantations outside the forest plantations layer. Map above: KLHK map and Google earth image. Map below: SarVision classification. 51 Position in the land use map Legend KHLK 2015 map layers Kalimantan land use map layers 4 Plantations of the Kalimantan land use map mapped inside the KHLK perennial crops layer Total plantations of the Kalimantan land use map, including outside the KHLK perennial crops layer Figure 194: coconut (and oil palm) plantations outside the perennial crops layer. Map above: KLHK map and Google earth image. Map below: SarVision classification 52 4.3 Policy applications The Land account has several policy applications. First it facilitates monitoring and understanding how land cover has changed in Indonesia since 1990. One of the main factors has been a strong increase in plantations, in particular but not only oil palm. Clearly, as expressed in the Annexes, the different islands have followed a different time path in this developed, which started in Sumatra, then moved to Kalimantan and now has started in Papua. As a basis for spatial planning at for example the provincial level information on land cover is essential. The Land account is not providing any new information since this information was already provided by the MOEF. The added value of the Land account is that it shows, using the structure of the SEEA, in tables how land cover change has taken place in the country. Development of a land account also facilitates the further analysis of land cover and changes therein in other SEEA accounts, in particular the extent account and the ecosystem services supply and use account. Also the carbon and biodiversity thematic accounts require information on land cover. Further detail on land use, ecosystem services and monetary information on changes in ecosystem services supply as a function of land use change greatly enhance policy applications, by providing more detailed as well as monetary information on aspects relevant for land use planning and natural resource management. A specific policy lesson that may be drawn is that there is a better need to understand how land cover change is progressing in Papua at the moment. The developments in Sumatra show how fast and how intensive land cover change can be, and that there is a need for sufficient control by the government in order to ensure that the economic growth is long term sustainable and that it is also taking place in such a way that a broad group of people are able to benefit from it. Once forests have been converted and land ownership has changed it is very difficult to revert this. Hence understanding the impacts of land cover change before it actually happens helps to mitigate the risks and negative impacts, and maximize the benefits that can be obtained from land cover change for society at large. The Extent account shows where oil palm, hevea, coffee, banana and coconut, as well as acacia and eucalyptus plantations are located. It also shows area covered by young (still unproductive) plantations. In this way, the Extent account permit monitoring of the actual land use of Indonesia in greater detail. This has a broad range of applications. For instance, maps can be compared with permits provided to land holders to verify if land use is still in line with these permits. In addition, maps can be compared with BPS production statistics by district or province to verify the accuracy of these statistics. The maps can also be used for land use planning. For example, acacia trees and to a somewhat lesser extent oil palm trees are very sensitive to flooding. Climate change related sea level rise and soil subsidence in peat may affect low lying plantations, and the account can be used to identify high risk areas. 53 5. Conclusions 5.1 The Land account This land account shows how land cover has changed in Indonesia in the period 1990 to 2014/2015, based on data from the Ministry of Environment and Forestry. Based on the analysis conducted for this project, the map of MOEF appeared suitable as a basis for Land accounting, based on the alignment of MOEF classes with those required for SEEA EEA. Also the MOEF map is regularly updated and available for the whole country. It is therefore proposed to use the MOEF map as the basis for land accounting in Indonesia. The land accounts show the rapid land cover change that took place in Indonesia since 1990. The major type of land conversion has been from forest to plantations including both perennial crops (e.g. oil palm) and plantation forestry (e.g. acacia for pulp and paper production). The accounts also show that this development took place in different periods. It started in Sumatra, where most of the lowlands were converted between 1990 and 2000. Kalimantan followed from the late 1990s and land conversion is now accelerating in Papua. The land accounts show these trends clearly, in the format of both maps and tables, and facilitate the further construction of SEEA accounts as well as demonstrate to policy makers the current trends and the areas of concern. 5.2 The Extent account The perennial crops and forest plantations land cover layers were detailed in an ecosystem extent (land use) map, where the following perennial crops and plantation forest classes could be successfully mapped: Plantation forest types: - Acacia - Eucalyptus Perennial crop types: - Hevea - Oil Palm - Coconut - Banana (Sumatra) - Coffee (Sumatra) Some plantation areas did not give a distinguishable backscatter or multispectral response and could not be classified into a plantation type with sufficient accuracy. This is the case, in particular, where crop or tree seedlings are too small to provide a clear reflection that can be observed with remote sensing. They were mapped as young/unidentified plantations. This class may also involve other types of plantation forestry species, or perennial crop species. 54 Observations on the maps show that these area occur often inside plantation or perennial crop polygons, indicating replanted plantation forests or perennial crops. We conclude that these are mostly young plantations, and relatively few of these areas consider other forestry or perennial crop species. A small area (7.8% in Sumatra, 7.1% in Kalimantan) was mapped as natural vegetation classes (forest, woodlands, shrub land, and grassland) within the land cover classes of perennial crop or plantation forestry land. This may correspond to degraded land, small patches of residual/HCV forests within plantations, or plantation areas not yet converted, or reverted to forest following earlier use as plantation. In Sumatra, the dominant perennial crop is oil palm (4,545,181 hectares, 53.2%) followed by hevea (924,827 hectares, 10.8%), coconut (434,309 hectares, 5.1%), banana (39,303 hectares, 0.5%) and coffee (1,512 hectares, 0.0%). Note that there may be more land covered with these crops in Sumatra, but we didn’t detect such land within the boundaries of perennial crops or plantation forestry identified on the KLHK land cover map. The dominant plantation forest crop is acacia (1,098,042 hectares, 12.9%) followed by eucalyptus (70,932 hectares, 0.8%). The young/unidentified plantations class represent 712,839 hectares, corresponding to 8.3% of the total perennial crops and plantation forests area. Natural vegetation classes represent 671,509 hectares, corresponding to 7.8% of the total perennial crops and plantation forests area. The overall accuracy of the map for the 4 dominant land use classes (acacia, eucalyptus, hevea, oil palm) is 99.4%. Very high class specific accuracies, superior to 97%, are obtained for acacia, hevea and oil palm. Eucalyptus is classified with a high accuracy of 86%. In Kalimantan, the dominant perennial crop is oil palm (4,298,889 hectares, 77.9%) followed by hevea (57,019 hectares, 1.0%), and coconut (23,284 hectares, 0.4%). The dominant plantation forest crop is acacia (677,873 hectares, 12.3%) followed by eucalyptus (31,365 hectares, 0.6%). The young/unidentified plantations class represent 6,010 hectares, corresponding to 0.1% of the total perennial crops and plantation forests area. Natural vegetation classes represent 390,436 hectares, corresponding to 7.1% of the total perennial crops and plantation forests area. The overall accuracy of the map for the 4 dominant land use classes (acacia, eucalyptus, hevea, oil palm) is 97.5%. Very high class specific accuracies, superior to 90%, are obtained for acacia, oil palm. Eucalyptus and hevea are classified with a high accuracy of about 80%. Classification results outside the perennial crops and forest plantations land cover layers show that significant plantation areas are not included in those layers ( 55 Table 13). 56 Table 13: areas classified as plantations and not included in the KHLK perennial crops and forest plantations land cover layers Sumatra Kalimantan Acacia 423,049 139,367 Eucalyptus 115,735 43,830 Oil palm 3,483,481 1,798,409 Hevea 740,902 767,510 Coconut 406,695 56,476 These figures should be interpreted with some caution since no validation outside of plantation and perennial crop boundaries was done. The discrepancy may also be due to the more up to data analysis of the SarVision classification (based on 2016 and 2017 images) compared to the KLHK map (images of 2015 and 2016). There may also be an error in the SarVision classification, which could not be assessed as there was no systematic analysis of the accuracy of the classification outside of the relevant KLHK boundaries (i.e. of perennial crops and plantation forestry) – except for spot validations as shown in figures 14 to 17 and figures 19 to 22 above. On the other hand there may also be young oil palm plantations outside of the KLHK perennial crop areas, which could not yet be identified as oil palm in our classification. Hence it appears as if the amount of perennial crops and plantation forestry may be significantly underestimated in official statistics. 57 Bibliography Andrew M., W. A. (2014). Potential contributions of remote sensing to ecosystem service assessments. Progress in Physical Geography 38(3): 328 – 353. Hein L., B. K. (2016). Defining Ecosystem Assets for Natural Capital Accounting. PLoS ONE 11(11): e0164460. UN (United Nations) et al. (2016). Land accounting. SEEA Technical Note: Land accounting. SEEA Workshop Materials. https://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/workshops/Uganda2013/R- P3.pdf UN (United Nations) et al. (2014). System of Environmental Economic Accounting – Central Framework. UN (United Nations) et al. (2013). System of Environmental Economic Accounting – Experimental Ecosystem Accounting UN (United Nations) et al. (2017). Technical Recommendations for the System of Environmental Economic Accounting – Experimental Ecosystem Accounting World Bank (2017). Waves Annual Report. URL:https://www.wavespartnership.org/en/knowledge- center/waves-annual-report-2017. 58 Annex 1. Land cover account (Sumatera) Area (rounded Degraded dry land forest Shrubby dry cultivation Primary dry land forest Disturbed peat swamp in 1000 ha) Primary peat swamp Disturbed mangrove Primary mangrove Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Settlement Bare land Rice field Swamp Savana Mining Water forest forest Shrub Cloud Total Opening stock 4469 9649 218 587 389 3534 2891 689 395 14 315 514 467 5689 2712 3619 9474 1437 80 4 73 141 285 47645 (1990) Additions 0 2 0 0 154 89 779 15 171 0 0 3 11 22 120 69 210 18 1 0 0 4 2 Reductions -1 -390 -11 -31 -1 -85 0 0 -19 -3 0 -1 -8 -807 -163 -29 -116 -5 0 0 0 -1 0 Land cover in 4468 9261 208 555 542 3538 3670 704 547 11 315 516 470 4904 2669 3660 9568 1449 81 4 73 144 287 47645 1995/1996 Additions 0 362 0 0 277 508 1667 57 383 61 196 1 11 1 829 585 1231 128 99 0 17 30 27 Reductions -374 -2127 -12 -130 -19 -744 -60 0 -58 0 -38 -1 -53 -1547 -747 -29 -428 -12 0 0 0 -2 -88 Land cover in 4094 7496 195 425 800 3302 5277 761 873 72 474 516 428 3359 2751 4215 10371 1566 180 4 89 172 226 47645 2000 Additions 0 11 0 56 282 244 162 1 521 0 1 0 1 21 334 18 97 16 15 0 0 17 1 Reductions -16 -443 -1 -21 -9 -14 -15 0 -117 -7 -10 -2 -19 -758 -316 -3 -45 -1 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 4078 7064 195 460 1073 3531 5424 762 1277 65 464 514 410 2621 2769 4230 10423 1581 195 4 89 189 227 47645 2005/2006 Additions 0 8 0 0 260 350 467 5 236 0 1 1 28 45 397 1248 257 32 8 0 2 11 0 Reductions -12 -753 -30 -137 -17 -75 -1 0 -240 -58 -6 -2 -25 -641 -121 -59 -1170 -1 0 0 -1 -6 -3 Land cover in 4066 6320 165 323 1316 3805 5890 767 1274 7 459 513 413 2025 3045 5420 9509 1612 202 4 91 193 223 47645 2009/2010 Additions 0 25 0 0 541 218 346 8 405 0 0 0 5 29 182 46 900 16 4 0 0 11 32 Reductions -48 -570 -5 -57 -7 -756 -1 0 -95 -7 -27 -2 -7 -516 -492 -35 -60 -49 -5 0 -6 0 -24 Land cover in 4019 5775 161 266 1850 3268 6236 774 1583 0 432 512 411 1539 2736 5431 10349 1580 201 4 85 204 231 47645 2014/2015 59 Annex 2. Land cover map of Sumatera 1990 60 Annex 3. Land cover map of Sumatera 2014 61 Annex 4. Land cover account (Kalimantan) Area (rounded Degraded dry land forest Shrubby dry cultivation Primary dry land forest Disturbed peat swamp in 1000 ha) Primary peat swamp Disturbed mangrove Primary mangrove Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Settlement Bare land Rice field Swamp Savana Mining Water forest forest Shrub Cloud Total Opening stock 12460 15354 100 223 384 4755 904 174 709 125 0 575 676 6427 2197 928 6212 507 148 1 64 120 555 53599 (1990) Additions 0 228 0 0 78 515 422 23 164 0 0 9 7 21 1106 45 489 177 3 0 21 23 298 Reductions -265 -1148 0 -59 -1 -267 -32 -3 -257 -2 0 -15 -66 -1206 -196 -35 -55 0 -2 0 0 0 -22 Land cover in 12195 14435 100 164 461 5004 1294 193 617 123 0 570 617 5241 3107 939 6647 683 149 1 85 142 831 53599 1995/1996 Additions 0 1093 0 0 29 1207 94 5 41 4 0 16 3 5 416 239 424 33 22 0 3 14 16 Reductions -1239 -1425 -18 -37 -40 -61 -60 -2 -23 -99 0 -15 -8 -414 -49 -3 -132 -17 0 0 0 -2 -18 Land cover in 10956 14102 82 127 450 6150 1328 197 634 28 0 570 612 4832 3474 1175 6939 700 171 1 88 155 828 53599 2000 Additions 0 1170 0 0 183 509 643 15 210 0 0 0 14 11 648 118 178 72 93 0 1 57 9 Reductions -1179 -918 -18 -11 -4 -446 0 -1 -46 -28 0 0 -139 -445 -230 -137 -81 -3 0 0 0 0 -243 Land cover in 9777 14354 64 116 630 6213 1971 210 798 0 0 570 487 4398 3893 1155 7036 768 263 1 88 211 594 53599 2005/2006 Additions 0 68 0 0 35 296 843 3 233 0 0 0 2 1 248 35 871 27 13 0 1 49 2 Reductions -71 -591 -2 -8 -3 -1082 -1 0 -95 0 0 0 -19 -431 -212 -16 -174 -1 0 0 0 0 -24 Land cover in 9706 13832 62 108 662 5427 2813 213 936 0 0 570 470 3968 3929 1174 7733 795 276 1 89 261 573 53599 2009/2010 Additions 0 30 0 0 39 940 536 1 378 0 1 2 1 0 153 45 154 2 8 0 2 90 5 Reductions -49 -726 -1 -8 -22 -144 -2 -3 -119 0 0 -1 -18 -435 -116 -2 -716 -7 0 0 0 0 -15 Land cover in 9657 13135 61 100 679 6223 3347 212 1195 0 1 571 454 3533 3966 1217 7171 789 284 1 90 351 563 53599 2014/2015 62 Annex 5. Land cover map of Kalimantan 1990 63 Annex 6. Land cover map of Kalimantan 2014 64 Annex 7. Land cover account (Sulawesi) Area (rounded Degraded dry land forest Shrubby dry cultivation Primary dry land forest Disturbed peat swamp in 1000 ha) Primary peat swamp Disturbed mangrove Primary mangrove Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Settlement Bare land Rice field Swamp Savana Mining Water forest forest Shrub Cloud Total Opening stock 7590 3320 61 7 16 2706 199 97 104 55 299 201 162 62 64 735 2169 675 122 1 14 0 0 18660 (1990) Additions 0 98 0 0 0 4 18 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 4 7 0 1 0 0 0 0 Reductions -99 -21 -1 0 0 -1 0 0 -3 0 0 0 -1 -4 0 0 -3 0 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 7492 3397 61 7 16 2709 217 97 101 55 299 201 162 58 64 739 2173 676 123 1 14 0 0 18660 1995/1996 Additions 0 1891 0 0 0 460 55 9 56 0 16 2 1 1 22 123 1668 229 31 0 1 5 0 Reductions -2078 -777 -9 -6 0 -1508 -2 -1 -17 -55 -13 -3 -17 -31 -41 -1 -6 -1 0 0 -2 0 0 Land cover in 5414 4511 51 1 16 1660 269 105 140 0 302 200 145 27 46 861 3835 903 153 1 13 5 0 18660 2000 Additions 0 1222 0 0 1 280 10 1 7 0 0 0 4 0 3 69 303 9 12 0 0 2 0 Reductions -1246 -448 -6 0 0 -154 -1 0 -2 0 -1 0 -7 -2 -4 -3 -49 -1 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 4168 5285 45 1 16 1786 278 105 145 0 301 200 143 25 45 928 4090 911 165 2 13 7 0 18660 2005/2006 Additions 0 94 0 0 0 60 17 8 6 0 29 0 2 0 12 16 95 20 4 0 0 1 0 Reductions -98 -116 -2 0 0 -57 -2 0 -32 0 0 0 -3 -11 0 -18 -17 -4 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 4070 5263 43 1 16 1789 293 113 119 0 330 200 141 14 57 925 4167 927 169 2 13 8 0 18660 2009/2010 Additions 0 203 0 0 2 73 4 0 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 45 1 1 0 0 1 0 Reductions -232 -108 0 0 0 -2 0 0 -8 0 0 0 -2 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 3837 5358 43 1 18 1860 297 113 126 0 331 200 140 14 57 934 4212 928 170 2 13 8 0 18660 2014/2015 65 Annex 8. Land cover map of Sulawesi 1990 66 Annex 9. Land cover map of Sulawesi 2014 67 Annex 10. Land cover account (Papua) Area (rounded Degraded dry land forest Shrubby dry cultivation Primary dry land forest Disturbed peat swamp in 1000 ha) Primary peat swamp Disturbed mangrove Primary mangrove Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Settlement Bare land Rice field Swamp Savana Mining Water forest forest Shrub Cloud Total Opening stock 24190 3332 1195 5637 2 1055 48 44 445 56 735 2341 217 1238 1426 61 463 12 0 1 69 9 578 43156 (1990) Additions 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Reductions 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 24190 3332 1195 5637 2 1055 48 44 445 56 735 2341 217 1238 1427 61 463 12 0 1 69 9 578 43156 1995/1996 Additions 0 1526 0 0 0 381 15 5 61 4 388 19 0 17 375 10 269 1 0 0 13 1 185 Reductions -1842 -338 -38 -188 0 -172 0 -8 -83 -19 -22 -1 -35 -320 -179 -1 -1 0 0 0 -4 -1 -18 Land cover in 22348 4519 1157 5449 2 1264 63 41 423 41 1100 2359 183 935 1623 70 731 13 0 1 78 9 745 43156 2000 Additions 0 1212 0 0 0 47 11 2 13 4 35 0 22 257 84 5 170 0 0 0 0 0 21 Reductions -1256 -183 -22 -265 0 -17 0 0 0 -2 -2 0 -10 -86 -40 -1 -1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 21092 5548 1135 5184 2 1293 74 43 436 43 1134 2359 195 1107 1667 75 901 13 0 1 78 9 766 43156 2005/2006 Additions 0 812 0 0 0 49 12 4 19 0 49 0 9 150 28 3 79 0 0 0 0 1 0 Reductions -829 -70 -9 -163 0 -48 0 0 -2 -21 -3 0 -1 -12 -51 -1 -4 0 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 20263 6289 1126 5021 2 1294 87 47 453 23 1180 2359 203 1244 1644 77 975 14 1 1 78 10 766 43156 2009/2010 Additions 7 184 1 5 0 25 46 2 50 0 0 0 7 44 1 6 8 1 0 0 1 1 0 Reductions -210 -50 -7 -55 0 -28 0 0 0 -23 0 0 -1 -8 -1 -3 -2 0 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 20059 6423 1119 4971 2 1291 133 49 503 0 1180 2359 209 1281 1644 80 982 15 1 1 79 11 766 43156 2014/2015 68 Annex 11. Land cover map of Papua 1990 69 Annex 12. Land cover map of Papua 2014 70 Annex 13. Land cover account (Java) Area (rounded Degraded dry land forest Shrubby dry cultivation Primary dry land forest Disturbed peat swamp in 1000 ha) Primary peat swamp Disturbed mangrove Primary mangrove Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Settlement Bare land Rice field Swamp Savana Mining Water forest forest Shrub Cloud Total Opening stock 394 667 16 0 2338 349 405 1078 52 3 10 73 23 0 31 1694 2159 4019 159 7 0 1 2 13478 (1990) Additions 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Reductions 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 394 667 16 0 2337 349 405 1077 53 3 10 73 23 0 31 1694 2159 4019 159 7 0 1 2 13478 1995/1996 Additions 0 29 0 0 250 48 9 75 46 0 1 0 0 0 0 143 14 79 18 0 0 1 1 Reductions -73 -161 -2 0 -14 -120 -6 0 -1 0 -2 -5 -1 0 -31 -114 -157 -27 -1 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 321 535 14 0 2573 277 408 1152 98 3 9 68 22 0 0 1724 2017 4071 175 7 0 1 2 13478 2000 Additions 0 28 0 0 38 39 9 131 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 34 144 1 2 1 0 0 0 Reductions -32 -50 0 0 -122 -2 -3 0 -22 0 0 0 0 0 0 -58 -64 -79 -1 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 289 513 14 0 2489 314 414 1284 82 3 9 68 21 0 1 1700 2097 3993 176 7 0 1 3 13478 2005/2006 Additions 0 267 0 0 7 4 6 8 0 0 0 0 1 0 7 105 18 19 1 0 0 0 0 Reductions -266 -6 -1 0 -46 -12 -1 0 -4 -3 0 0 -7 0 0 -2 -20 -75 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 23 773 13 0 2450 306 419 1292 78 0 9 68 16 0 7 1804 2094 3937 176 7 0 1 3 13478 2009/2010 Additions 0 0 0 0 11 6 11 19 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 104 20 5 1 0 0 1 0 Reductions 0 -10 0 0 -8 -34 -19 -2 -17 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 -54 -35 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 23 764 13 0 2453 278 411 1308 62 0 9 68 15 0 8 1908 2061 3907 177 8 0 3 3 13478 2014/2015 71 Annex 14. Land cover map of Java 1990 72 Annex 15. Land cover map of Java 2014 73 Annex 16. Land cover account (Bali and Nusa Tenggara) Area (rounded Degraded dry land forest Shrubby dry cultivation Primary dry land forest Disturbed peat swamp in 1000 ha) Primary peat swamp Disturbed mangrove Primary mangrove Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Settlement Bare land Rice field Swamp Savana Mining Water forest forest Shrub Cloud Total Opening stock 1072 1907 21 0 20 1787 50 78 75 0 899 12 19 1 10 417 711 244 12 1 0 0 8 7344 (1990) Additions 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Reductions 0 -2 0 0 0 -1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 1072 1905 21 0 20 1787 50 78 76 0 899 12 19 1 10 417 711 244 12 1 0 0 8 7344 1995/1996 Additions 0 275 0 0 3 148 1 5 56 0 260 0 0 0 2 64 153 2 2 0 0 1 0 Reductions -309 -179 -1 0 -10 -393 0 0 -1 0 -50 -1 -1 0 0 0 -24 -1 0 0 0 0 -2 Land cover in 763 2000 21 0 13 1543 51 83 131 0 1108 10 18 1 12 481 840 246 14 1 0 1 6 7344 2000 Additions 0 8 0 0 0 96 0 1 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 31 2 7 0 0 0 0 0 Reductions -12 -35 0 0 -8 -22 -4 0 -3 0 -36 0 0 0 0 -6 -26 0 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 751 1973 20 0 5 1618 47 83 128 0 1078 10 18 0 12 506 817 252 14 1 0 1 6 7344 2005/2006 Additions 0 60 0 0 0 96 0 7 3 0 46 0 0 0 0 45 163 110 1 0 0 0 0 Reductions -60 -4 0 0 0 -17 -46 0 -55 0 -46 0 0 0 0 -75 -28 -1 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 692 2029 20 0 5 1696 1 91 76 0 1078 11 18 0 12 476 952 361 15 2 0 2 6 7543 2009/2010 Additions 13 172 1 0 2 87 0 5 5 0 1 4 1 0 0 105 227 17 0 0 0 0 1 Reductions 0 -11 -1 0 0 -394 0 0 -1 0 -152 0 0 0 -6 -68 -6 0 0 0 0 0 -1 Land cover in 705 2189 20 0 6 1333 1 95 77 0 920 14 19 0 6 491 1089 353 15 2 0 2 7 7344 2014/2015 74 Annex 17. Land cover map of Bali and Nusa Tenggara 1990 75 Annex 18. Land cover map of Bali and Nusa Tenggara 2014 76 Annex 19. Land cover account (Maluku) Area (rounded Degraded dry land forest Shrubby dry cultivation Primary dry land forest Disturbed peat swamp in 1000 ha) Primary peat swamp Disturbed mangrove Primary mangrove Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Settlement Bare land Rice field Swamp Savana Mining Water forest forest Shrub Cloud Total Opening stock 1136 3945 255 39 15 753 10 31 104 82 131 32 115 84 23 257 777 12 1 0 15 0 1 7819 (1990) Additions 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Reductions 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 1136 3945 255 39 15 753 10 31 104 82 131 32 115 84 23 257 777 12 1 0 15 0 1 7819 1995/1996 Additions 0 219 0 0 19 196 0 6 11 0 153 1 0 0 2 43 123 3 0 0 39 0 0 Reductions -261 -323 0 -2 0 -75 0 -1 -45 -82 0 0 -1 -18 -2 0 -3 0 0 0 -2 0 -1 Land cover in 875 3841 255 37 35 874 10 37 70 0 284 32 115 65 23 300 897 16 1 1 51 0 0 7819 2000 Additions 0 192 0 0 1 41 0 0 1 0 7 0 0 0 0 1 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 Reductions -22 -54 -170 0 0 -5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -2 0 0 0 0 0 0 Land cover in 853 3979 85 37 35 910 10 37 71 0 291 32 114 65 23 300 906 16 1 1 51 0 0 7819 2005/2006 Additions 0 0 0 0 0 37 0 0 3 0 13 0 5 0 0 12 30 0 0 0 0 0 0 Reductions 0 -24 -5 0 0 -26 0 0 -13 0 -22 0 0 0 0 0 -7 -1 0 0 -1 0 0 Land cover in 852 3956 80 37 35 921 10 37 61 0 282 32 119 66 23 312 928 14 1 1 50 1 0 7819 2009/2010 Additions 0 11 35 0 0 22 19 3 2 0 0 0 39 0 1 2 115 3 0 0 0 3 0 Reductions -9 -29 0 -35 0 -2 0 0 -6 0 -14 0 0 -37 0 -86 -5 0 0 0 -30 0 0 Land cover in 843 3938 114 2 35 941 30 40 57 0 268 32 158 29 24 227 1039 17 1 1 20 3 0 7819 2014/2015 77 Annex 20. Land cover map of Maluku 1990 78 Annex 21. Land cover map of Maluku 2014 79 Annex 22a. Land cover change matrices of Indonesia 1990-1995/1996 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1990) (1996) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 513102 -3267 -177 -2 -11 -3 -77 -43 -18 -18 -5 -2 -25 509454 dryland forest Degraded 381750 3267 -1 -1329 -5520 -2775 -59 -672 -2 -1 6 - -156 - - -15 -98 -149 -185 369422 dryland forest 1376 2255 1006 Primary 18679 1 1 -113 1 -4 18564 mangrove Primary peat 64929 -44 -6 -22 -65 -60 -376 -313 -10 -1 -11 64020 swamp forest Plantation 31643 1329 44 345 -12 -2 436 16 -2 146 -1 33944 forest Shrub 149380 177 5520 -1 6 -345 -983 -99 -621 5 2 6 312 -559 -263 -418 -61 -26 -26 -61 151946 Perennial crops 45082 2 2775 22 12 983 1 215 -1 7 3679 2725 231 1461 -264 -2 -1 21 56949 Settlement 21914 59 99 -1 7 3 121 44 7 33 2 -30 -1 2 22259 Bare land 18849 11 672 65 2 621 -215 -7 2 7 5 1455 364 68 - -10 -1 39 19430 2496 Cloud 3347 3 -5 -2 -28 -10 -1 3303 Savana 23876 -2 3 23877 Water 37484 77 2 1 -3 -7 5 4 -4 29 -105 1 -1 -35 37449 Degraded 16796 1 113 60 -6 -7 -5 -5 1 -687 -5 -2 -21 16233 mangrove Degraded peat 134995 43 -6 -1 376 -436 -312 -3679 -121 - -4 -1 - -623 - -266 -1 -29 - 115255 swamp forest 1455 9127 1453 2644 Wetland shrub 64639 18 1376 4 313 -16 559 -2725 -44 -364 -3 4 687 9127 -120 -197 -69 -7 -23 154 73313 Dry cultivation 77126 156 10 2 263 -231 -7 -68 -29 623 120 -70 -193 -4 -24 -4 77670 Dry cultivation 219649 18 2255 1 -146 418 -1461 -33 2496 28 105 5 1453 197 70 -19 -3 -19 -9 -29 224976 & shrub Rice 69066 1006 1 61 264 -2 -1 2 266 69 193 19 16 70960 Coastal fish 5215 15 21 7 4 3 -16 5249 pond Airport/seaport 152 1 153 Transmigration 2339 5 98 26 2 30 10 24 19 2553 Mining 2701 2 149 26 1 1 1 10 1 29 23 4 9 2958 Swamp 14294 25 185 11 61 -21 -2 -39 1 35 2644 -154 29 17071 Total 1917006 1917006 80 Annex 22b. Land cover change matrices of Indonesia 1995/1996-2000 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1996) (2000) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 509454 -53926 2 -206 -4333 -150 -24 -239 -10 -72 -146 -5 -172 -336 -140 - -65 -51 -33 -33 447703 dryland forest 1814 Degraded 369422 53926 1 - -21597 -7130 -184 -1543 -108 -553 -12 1 -8 -368 - - -223 -13 -504 -111 -11 370055 dryland forest 3080 2924 1492 7 Primary 18564 -2 -1 -40 -3 -2 -29 -5 -19 -2 -99 -1 -372 -10 -8 -2 -196 -2 -12 17760 mangrove Primary peat 64020 -241 -321 -4 -70 -7 -90 -1 -45 - -49 -80 -14 -14 -45 -277 60382 swamp forest 2380 Plantation 33944 206 3080 38 9 -1 120 62 203 6 255 -10 361 613 7 1 -4 38891 forest Shrub 151946 4333 21597 40 241 -38 -1452 -627 -971 359 - -2 -5 1078 377 - - - -63 -23 -115 18 150689 4186 2942 1675 2123 2 Perennial crops 56949 150 7130 3 321 -9 1452 -17 276 111 57 153 19 4227 1405 -496 2238 78 -1 -3 3 22 74067 Settlement 22259 24 184 2 4 1 627 17 77 39 5 4 4 28 124 85 100 130 10 -1 25 2 3 23755 Bare land 19430 239 1543 29 70 -120 971 -276 -77 125 -683 26 47 1525 364 -46 285 -188 -6 -8 12 431 23693 Cloud 3303 10 108 5 7 -62 -359 -111 -39 -125 -547 -2 2 22 -30 -310 -357 -11 -16 -9 -56 22 1445 Savana 23877 72 553 19 90 -203 4186 -57 -5 683 547 2 200 645 2228 -14 126 -93 -86 5 -3 32771 Water 37449 146 12 2 1 -6 2 -153 -4 -26 2 -2 -2 9 -7 -6 -4 -18 -3 -1 -2 173 37561 Degraded 16233 5 -1 99 5 -19 -4 -47 -2 -200 2 8 -279 -18 -42 -46 -473 -2 15218 mangrove Degraded peat 115255 172 8 1 45 -255 -1078 -4227 -28 -1525 -22 -645 -9 -8 - -475 -714 -224 -36 -1 -15 - 92196 swamp forest 1254 1480 3 Wetland shrub 73313 336 368 372 2380 10 -377 -1405 -124 -364 30 - 7 279 1254 - - -627 -601 -2 -24 -163 79294 2228 3 1286 3140 Dry cultivation 77670 140 2924 10 49 -361 2942 496 -85 46 310 14 6 18 475 1286 2593 -304 -21 -51 -3 108 88259 Dry cultivation 224976 1814 14927 8 80 -613 16752 -2238 -100 -285 357 -126 4 42 714 3140 - -581 -1 12 -132 149 256306 & shrub 2593 Rice 70960 65 223 2 14 -7 2123 -78 -130 188 11 93 18 46 224 627 304 581 -160 20 -2 19 75140 Coastal fish 5249 13 196 14 -1 63 1 -10 6 16 86 3 473 36 601 21 160 4 17 6950 pond Airport/seaport 153 3 1 1 1 159 Transmigration 2553 51 504 45 23 -3 -25 8 9 1 2 51 -12 -20 3187 Mining 2958 33 111 2 4 115 -2 -12 56 -5 2 2 15 24 3 132 2 -4 3437 Swamp 17071 33 11 12 277 -18 -22 -3 -431 -22 3 -173 1480 163 -108 -149 -19 -17 18088 Total 1917006 1917006 81 82 Annex 22c. Land cover change matrices of Indonesia 2000-2005/2006 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2000) (2006) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 447703 -36700 -2 -22 -557 -72 -3 -29 -33 -1 -9 -190 -1 -1 410082 dryland forest Degraded 370055 36700 1698 - -10888 - -18 - -8 -50 -1 -1 -22 -357 - -11 -3 -2 -201 387168 dryland forest 1712 1403 1841 4768 Primary 17760 2 -1698 -1 1 -1 -408 -27 1 -35 15593 mangrove Primary peat 60382 63 3 -6 -1 -1 -2882 377 35 -1 57970 swamp forest Plantation 38891 22 1712 426 -12 -9 618 18 3 1454 612 -47 - -4 -1 -24 42507 forest 1152 Shrub 150689 557 10888 1 -426 - -14 -283 120 340 2 50 3 -598 - -15 -2 -5 -262 -1 156654 2367 2024 Perennial crops 74067 72 1403 -63 12 2367 -4 817 20 26 1033 1269 518 534 -37 -1 -5 148 82176 Settlement 23755 3 18 -3 9 14 4 45 2 1 1 34 560 461 330 6 -1 2 -2 25239 Bare land 23693 29 1841 6 -618 283 -817 -45 13 97 6 13 2695 2009 4 293 14 -133 -23 18 29377 Cloud 1445 33 8 -1 -18 -120 -20 -2 -13 -1 -5 -21 -64 -90 -1 -10 -2 -2 1115 Savana 32771 50 -340 -1 -97 5 332 3 70 -6 -2 32784 Water 37561 1 1 1 1 -6 -1 -13 -4 37542 Degraded 15218 408 1 -3 -2 -26 -1 -13 1 1 - -4 -2 -2 -625 -7 -66 13878 mangrove 1002 Degraded peat 92196 1 2882 - -50 - - 5 -5 - -29 -123 -10 -8 -18 -188 82175 swamp forest 1454 1033 2695 7296 Wetland shrub 79294 22 27 -377 -612 -3 - -34 - 21 -332 13 1002 7296 -486 -116 -112 -365 -52 2190 84096 1269 2009 Dry cultivation 88259 9 357 -1 47 598 -518 -560 -4 64 -3 4 29 486 870 -584 -4 -1 3 -113 88940 Dry cultivation 256306 190 4768 -35 1152 2024 -534 -461 -293 90 -70 2 123 116 -870 238 -7 -51 262687 & shrub Rice 75140 1 11 4 15 37 -330 -14 1 6 4 2 10 112 584 -238 -20 -5 -1 25 75344 Coastal fish 6950 3 35 1 2 1 -6 133 10 2 625 8 365 4 7 20 -4 8155 pond Airport/seaport 159 1 1 5 4 171 Transmigration 3187 2 5 -2 2 -3 3191 Mining 3436 1 201 1 24 262 5 23 7 18 52 113 51 1 2 4198 Swamp 18088 1 -148 2 -18 2 66 188 - -25 -2 15964 2190 Total 1917006 1917006 83 84 Annex 22d. Land cover change matrices of Indonesia 2005/2006-2009/2010 (Area in km2) Primary peat Airport/seap Transmigrati stock (2006) peat swamp stock (2009) Shrubby dry Primary dry Coastal fish Settlement land forest cultivation cultivation Plantation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Disturbed Degraded Perennial Bare land Rice field Wetland Opening dry land Primary Swamp swamp Closing Savana Mining Water forest forest forest forest Shrub Cloud shrub crops pond Dry ort on Primary 410082 -13030 -1 -241 -33 -2 -14 1 2 -2 -31 -11 396719 dryland forest Degraded 387168 1303 -1 -841 - -1518 -9 -2334 6 -7 -3 -66 29 -294 -3603 -32 -22 -157 384613 dryland forest 0 6734 Primary 15593 -3 -470 3 -14 -1 -3 15104 mangrove Primary peat 57970 1 -36 -5 -592 -55 - -488 -1 -14 -1 54894 swamp forest 1886 Plantation 42507 1 841 36 193 -32 -22 247 10 -1 5 1118 310 -153 -96 -138 -1 38 3 44867 forest Shrub 156654 241 6734 5 -193 -2566 -19 14 182 389 -1 66 -373 -8897 -172 -1 -239 151825 Perennial 82176 33 1518 592 32 2566 -22 2373 78 45 -1 14 2204 1657 413 1360 -106 -1 -4 20 95134 crops 8 Settlement 25239 2 9 22 19 22 3 2 1 4 81 112 71 3 2 -1 25591 Bare land 29377 14 2334 3 55 -247 -14 -2373 -3 106 -767 15 79 1232 201 -229 234 -43 -1 -1 9 -35 1 29947 Cloud 1115 -6 -10 -182 -78 -2 -106 -409 -9 -17 297 Savana 32784 7 -389 -45 767 488 -96 -160 -25 -12 6 -1 33324 Water 37542 3 1 1 -15 3 1 -5 1 2 37534 Degraded 13878 47 -5 -14 -79 -3 -1 -300 -3 -13 -2 -122 -2 13805 mangrove 0 Degraded peat 82175 -1 66 -3 1886 - 1 -2204 -1 -1232 -1 1 - -169 -184 -11 -14 -43 - 73180 swamp forest 1118 5939 28 Wetland shrub 84096 -2 -29 14 488 -310 -66 -1657 -4 -201 -488 5 300 5939 -116 -596 -148 -75 -18 34 87164 Dry cultivation 88940 2 294 1 153 373 -413 -81 229 409 96 -1 3 169 116 11446 -66 -2 -8 -25 16 101651 Dry cultivation 262687 31 3603 1 14 96 8897 -1360 -112 -234 9 160 13 184 596 -11446 -311 -9 -5 -61 1 262752 & shrub Rice 75344 32 138 172 106 -71 43 17 25 -2 2 11 148 66 311 -7 -1 -1 3 76336 Coastal fish 8155 3 1 1 1 -3 1 12 122 14 75 2 9 7 2 8403 pond Airport/ 171 -2 1 5 175 seaport Transmigration 3191 22 -9 -6 8 1 3208 Mining 4198 11 157 1 -38 239 4 35 1 2 43 18 25 61 1 1 4758 Swamp 15964 -3 -208 1 -1 28 -34 -16 -1 -3 -2 -1 15724 Total 1917006 1917006 85 Annex 22e. Land cover change matrices of Indonesia 2009/2010-2014/2015 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2009) (2014) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 396719 -4423 -376 -49 -2 -284 65 -1 -1 -6 -12 -187 -12 -3 391427 dryland forest Degraded 384613 4423 -2 -371 -3890 -1245 -35 - 32 7 -3 -10 -20 -21 - -51 -1 -6 -222 -1 375827 dryland forest 3971 3400 Primary 15104 2 347 -2 -2 -7 6 2 -84 -27 -8 -9 -4 -4 -3 3 15313 mangrove Primary peat 54894 -347 -135 -126 -174 46 -711 -45 -1 -5 -3 53393 swamp forest Plantation 44867 371 135 250 -32 -5 387 11 -1 8 2285 2191 -40 -66 -4 -74 158 50443 forest Shrub 151825 376 3890 2 -250 -1357 -19 -395 56 86 -8 5 38 932 - - -44 -6 -181 3 151928 5 1126 2676 Perennial crops 95134 49 1245 126 32 1357 -15 1587 7 9 -1 15 1239 1895 124 979 471 -1 196 -13 113 104545 Settlement 25591 2 35 2 5 19 15 -7 5 2 3 -3 47 189 -3 25 1 2 -20 4 25914 Bare land 29947 284 3971 7 174 -387 395 -1587 7 10 24 3 49 2805 350 -151 123 45 -10 2 -52 27 36034 Cloud 297 -65 -32 -6 -46 -56 -7 -10 -1 -3 -70 Savana 33324 1 -7 -2 -11 -865 -9 -5 -24 -15 -3 -79 -136 -607 3 -1 -161 31404 Water 37534 3 1 8 1 -3 15 2 7 4 1 -11 2 37563 Degraded 13805 10 84 -8 -5 -15 -2 -49 3 363 -90 -9 -10 -10 -19 9 -10 1 14049 mangrove Degraded peat 73180 1 27 711 -2285 -38 -1239 -3 - 1 -2 -363 - -69 -109 -2 -16 -35 -53 63955 swamp forest 2805 2946 Wetland shrub 87164 6 20 8 45 -2191 -932 -1895 3 -350 3 79 90 2946 -148 -178 -152 -30 -23 -73 84394 Dry cultivation 101651 12 21 1 40 1126 -124 -47 151 13 -7 9 69 148 -517 211 -1 8 -10 -5 102869 6 Dry cultivation 262752 187 3400 9 5 66 2676 -979 -189 -123 70 60 -4 10 109 178 517 -21 -2 111 -356 -7 269017 & shrub 7 Rice 76336 51 4 4 44 -471 3 -45 -3 -1 10 2 152 -211 21 -1 -1 18 -33 3 75881 Coastal fish 8403 4 6 1 -25 10 1 19 16 30 1 2 1 11 8480 pond Airport/seaport 175 1 -1 1 177 Transmigration 3208 6 -196 -2 -2 -9 -8 -111 -18 2869 Mining 4758 12 222 3 3 74 181 13 20 52 11 10 35 23 10 356 33 5816 Swamp 15724 3 1 -3 -158 -3 -113 -4 -27 16 -2 -1 53 73 5 7 -3 -11 15705 1 Total 1917006 1917006 86 87 Annex 23a. Land cover change matrices of Sumatera 1990-1995/1996 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1990) (1996) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 44687 -8 2 -1 -1 0 44680 dryland forest Degraded 96493 8 -1 -948 -645 -1098 -26 -440 10 -11 -97 -627 -1 -4 92612 dryland forest Primary 2183 1 1 -107 1 -2 2076 mangrove Primary peat 5869 -44 -1 -31 -216 -22 5554 swamp forest Plantation 3889 948 44 104 -6 -4 427 16 1 5419 forest Shrub 35339 -2 645 -1 1 -104 -518 -12 39 1 6 178 21 -131 -79 1 -1 35384 Perennial crops 28914 1098 6 518 0 152 8 3289 1312 210 1143 52 36703 Settlement 6895 26 12 0 3 87 20 1 0 7044 Bare land 3954 1 440 31 4 -39 -152 3 6 1067 104 47 5 0 3 5474 Cloud 142 -1 0 -28 113 Savana 3151 0 3 3154 Water 5137 1 -3 -3 -1 -2 28 0 5158 Degraded 4672 107 -6 -8 -6 -2 -37 0 -5 -12 0 4704 mangrove Degraded peat 56886 -10 -1 216 -427 -178 -3289 -87 - 0 1 2 - -431 - -145 -1 -24 -14 49038 swamp forest 1067 1122 1270 Wetland shrub 27122 11 2 22 -16 -21 -1312 -20 -104 0 -3 2 37 1122 -24 -90 -35 0 -4 26689 Dry cultivation 36195 97 131 -210 -1 -47 -28 0 431 24 4 36595 Dry cultivation 94736 0 627 -1 79 -1143 0 -5 28 0 5 1270 90 -6 95678 & shrub Rice 14366 -1 -52 145 35 14493 Coastal fish 798 0 12 0 810 pond Airport/seaport 40 1 41 Transmigration 726 726 Mining 1409 1 1 -3 0 24 4 -4 6 1439 Swamp 2850 4 14 2868 Total 476453 476453 88 Annex 23b. Land cover change matrices of Sumatera 1995/1996-2000 (Area in km2) Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Primary peat Shrubby dry Coastal fish Settlement land forest cultivation Plantation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1996) Water forest forest Shrub Cloud pond Primary dryland 44680 - -17 -15 -9 -1 -2 -81 forest 3616 Degraded dryland 92612 3616 1 -1679 - -6316 -109 -1028 -78 -155 -1 -3 -125 -1226 -5916 -149 -66 -55 -6 forest 4356 Primary mangrove 2076 -1 -1 -7 -1 -93 -1 -1 -1 -14 -2 Primary peat 5554 -10 -316 -4 -28 -10 -874 -16 -44 swamp forest Plantation forest 5419 1679 304 -25 -4 198 -13 204 264 -13 -129 118 -3 Shrub 35384 17 4356 10 -304 -1856 -59 -392 -47 -137 -2 6 538 132 -1610 -2604 -275 -23 -14 -120 18 Perennial crops 36703 15 6316 316 25 1856 -13 290 -86 61 16 4092 1426 -501 2151 82 -1 -3 21 Settlement 7044 109 1 4 4 59 13 72 -1 3 -3 2 18 112 76 66 25 8 Bare land 5474 9 1028 7 28 -198 392 -290 -72 -4 21 2 26 1443 246 22 314 -8 -3 -1 9 28 9 Cloud 113 78 1 13 47 86 1 4 21 17 59 278 8 -3 Savana 3154 155 -204 137 -61 -3 -21 447 920 14 65 -1 -86 5 21 5 Water 5158 1 2 3 -2 -3 -1 Degraded 4704 93 -6 -16 -2 -26 3 10 -95 -7 -6 -7 -363 -2 mangrove Degraded peat 49038 3 1 10 -264 -538 -4092 -18 -1443 -21 -447 -10 -7121 -430 -667 -102 -34 -1 -15 - swamp forest 26 3 Wetland shrub 26689 1 125 1 874 13 -132 -1426 -112 -246 -17 -920 95 7121 -906 -2846 -388 -454 -2 -24 59 Dry cultivation 36595 2 1226 1 16 129 1610 501 -76 -22 -59 -14 1 7 430 906 914 -35 -6 -80 -3 10 7 Dry cultivation & 95678 81 5916 44 -118 2604 -2151 -66 -314 -278 -65 6 667 2846 -914 -292 -2 -76 14 shrub 4 Rice 14493 149 3 275 -82 -25 8 -8 1 7 102 388 35 292 -1 19 Coastal fish pond 810 14 23 1 3 86 363 34 454 6 1 4 Airport/seaport 41 3 Transmigration 726 66 14 1 1 2 80 2 Mining 1439 55 2 120 -9 3 -5 2 15 24 3 76 -4 Swamp 2868 6 -18 -21 -8 -289 -215 263 -59 -107 -144 -19 Total 476453 89 Annex 23c. Land cover change matrices of Sumatera 2000-2005/2006 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2000) (2006) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 40939 -105 -41 -5 40779 dryland forest Degraded 74963 105 -208 -2128 -147 -997 -2 -1 -69 -765 -3 -107 70642 dryland forest Primary 1955 -1 1 1 -1 -7 1 2 1950 mangrove Primary peat 4252 63 3 -5 -207 452 41 -1 4597 swamp forest Plantation 7998 208 -51 -1 558 1454 605 -6 -33 10731 forest Shrub 33016 41 2128 1 51 -23 123 62 -4 1 27 2 -12 -56 -13 -36 35310 Perennial crops 52766 147 -63 1 23 -4 437 22 388 258 -19 343 -63 -1 54235 Settlement 7610 -3 4 3 1 2 -1 7617 Bare land 8731 9 997 -1 5 -558 -123 -437 -3 97 6 7 2450 1580 -32 63 1 -2 -14 12774 Cloud 724 2 -1 -62 -1 -2 -5 655 Savana 4737 4 -97 3 -4 4644 Water 5158 1 -6 -13 5140 Degraded 4279 7 -1 -22 -7 -136 -1 -1 -22 -1 4096 mangrove Degraded peat 33586 207 -1454 -27 -388 -2450 -3192 -1 -65 -6 26209 swamp forest Wetland shrub 27506 1 -452 -605 -2 -258 -1580 -3 13 136 3192 -36 -13 -79 -129 27691 Dry cultivation 42152 69 -1 6 12 19 32 2 1 36 -27 5 -1 42305 Dry cultivation 103712 5 765 -41 33 56 -343 -2 -63 5 1 65 13 27 -5 104226 & shrub Rice 15656 3 13 63 -1 4 1 79 -5 15812 Coastal fish 1798 -2 2 22 129 1950 pond Airport/seaport 44 44 Transmigration 893 893 Mining 1719 107 1 36 1 14 1 1 5 1886 Swamp 2258 1 6 2265 Total 476453 476453 90 Annex 23d. Land cover change matrices of Sumatera 2005/2006-2009/2010 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2006) (2010) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 40779 -36 -64 -9 -7 40663 dryland forest Degraded 70642 36 -813 -2790 -338 - 6 1 -3 -71 36 -174 - -22 -17 63195 dryland forest 1250 2049 Primary 1950 -1 -284 -8 -1 -2 1654 mangrove Primary peat 4597 -36 -3 -582 -55 -383 -297 -1 -14 -1 3226 swamp forest Plantation 10731 813 36 -138 -28 214 10 5 1109 310 -6 54 52 3 13164 forest Shrub 35310 64 2790 3 138 -306 -5 351 60 -7 1 -1 87 -208 -119 -39 2 -67 38054 Perennial crops 54235 338 582 28 306 -4 1522 67 45 -1 9 609 408 402 346 1 2 9 58904 Settlement 7617 5 4 1 2 1 1 9 18 8 2 7668 Bare land 12774 9 1250 1 55 -214 -351 -1522 -1 20 1 15 67 927 -94 -148 -11 -58 2 6 8 -1 12735 Cloud 655 -6 -10 -60 -67 -2 -20 -407 -2 -10 71 Savana 4644 -1 7 -45 -1 -12 4592 Water 5140 3 1 -15 3 1 -1 2 5134 Degraded 4096 284 -5 -1 -9 -1 -67 -3 -132 -2 -7 -1 -21 -2 4129 mangrove Degraded peat 26209 71 383 -1109 1 -609 -1 -927 -1 - -162 -159 20254 swamp forest 3442 Wetland shrub 27691 -36 8 297 -310 -87 -408 94 1 132 3442 -86 -199 -37 -40 -10 30452 Dry cultivation 42305 174 1 6 208 -402 -9 148 40 2 162 86 1127 -170 -7 15 54198 7 3 Dry cultivation 104226 7 2049 1 14 -54 119 -346 -18 11 2 7 159 199 - -1 -1 -8 -1 95091 & shrub 1127 3 Rice 15812 39 -8 58 10 -2 1 37 170 1 5 16123 Coastal fish 1950 2 -1 -2 12 21 40 1 1 2024 pond Airport/seaport 44 -2 42 Transmigration 893 22 -2 -6 908 Mining 1886 17 1 -52 67 -2 -8 2 10 7 8 1934 Swamp 2265 -3 -9 1 -15 1 -5 -1 2234 Total 476453 476453 91 Annex 23e. Land cover change matrices of Sumatera 2009/2010-2014/2015 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1990) (1996) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 40663 -245 -74 -105 -1 -1 -5 -44 40185 dryland forest Degraded 63195 245 -322 -1148 -95 -2 - 8 -1 -1 -9 -103 - -16 -44 57753 dryland forest 2257 1698 Primary 1654 -1 -3 -9 -27 -1 -2 -2 1609 mangrove Primary peat 3226 -135 -30 -114 -265 -18 -4 -1 2658 swamp forest Plantation 13164 322 135 305 -19 -1 309 19 8 2012 2111 28 -48 -1 -1 158 18503 forest Shrub 38054 74 1148 1 -305 -194 -80 8 7 11 930 -50 - -2 -6 -6 3 32676 6917 Perennial crops 58904 95 30 19 194 -3 461 6 -1 3 295 1160 266 351 472 -1 57 -5 54 62357 Settlement 7668 2 1 3 -1 2 -3 34 9 24 1 7741 Bare land 12735 105 2257 3 114 -309 80 -461 1 13 7 29 1082 323 -37 -144 13 -1 -1 18 15828 Cloud 71 -8 -8 -6 -49 0 Savana 4592 1 -19 -13 -82 -1 -158 4320 Water 5134 1 1 -7 1 -9 1 5122 Degraded 4129 1 9 -8 -7 -3 -2 -29 14 -5 -11 -1 29 -7 4108 mangrove Degraded peat 20254 1 27 265 -2012 -11 -295 - -1 - -38 -84 -1 -1 -2 -1 15389 swamp forest 1082 1631 Wetland shrub 30452 9 1 18 -2111 -930 -1160 3 -323 82 9 -14 1631 -109 69 -96 -15 -2 -155 27357 Dry cultivation 54198 5 103 -28 50 -266 -34 37 5 38 109 112 -11 -1 -5 -4 54308 Dry cultivation 95091 44 1698 2 4 48 6917 -351 -9 144 49 11 84 -69 -112 -36 -24 -4 103488 & shrub Rice 16123 16 1 2 -472 -13 -1 1 1 96 11 36 -4 15798 Coastal fish 2024 6 1 -24 1 1 -29 1 15 1 10 2008 pond Airport/seaport 42 -1 41 Transmigration 908 -57 851 Mining 1934 44 2 1 1 6 5 1 7 2 2 5 24 4 2039 Swamp 2234 -158 -3 -54 -18 15 1 155 4 4 -10 2313 8 Total 476453 476453 92 Annex 24a. Land cover change matrices of Kalimantan 1990-1995/1996 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1990) (1996) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 124598 -2281 -176 -1 -9 -76 -43 -18 -16 -5 -2 -25 121946 dryland forest Degraded 153543 2281 -381 -4835 -1557 -33 -227 -2 -1 -4 - -59 - - -15 -98 -148 -181 144347 dryland forest 1365 1567 1004 Primary 1003 -1 1003 mangrove Primary peat 2230 -5 -22 -34 -60 -160 -291 -10 -1 -11 1635 swamp forest Plantation 3844 381 240 -6 3 9 -2 146 4615 forest Shrub 47552 176 4835 5 -240 -456 -88 -660 4 134 -580 -133 -337 -61 -26 -25 -61 50040 Perennial crops 9044 1 1557 22 6 456 1 38 -1 -1 390 1414 20 294 -315 -2 -1 21 12945 Settlement 1737 33 88 -1 7 34 24 6 36 -30 -1 2 1935 Bare land 7093 9 227 34 -3 660 -38 -7 2 4 -1 388 259 21 - -10 -4 39 6172 2502 Cloud 1252 -4 -2 -10 -1 1235 Savana 0 0 Water 5753 76 2 1 -4 5 5 -1 1 -106 -1 -35 5696 Degraded 6763 1 1 60 1 1 -5 3 -650 -1 -2 6171 mangrove Degraded peat 64267 43 4 160 -9 -134 -390 -34 -388 -5 -3 - -154 -183 -121 -5 - 52412 swamp forest 8005 2630 Wetland shrub 21969 18 1365 291 580 -1414 -24 -259 1 650 8005 -96 -108 -34 -6 -18 154 31074 Dry cultivation 9278 59 10 2 133 -20 -6 -21 -1 154 96 -70 -193 -4 -24 -8 9385 Dry cultivation 62124 16 1567 1 -146 337 -294 -36 2502 106 183 108 70 -19 -1 -19 -3 -29 66467 & shrub Rice 5068 1004 61 315 1 121 34 193 19 16 6833 Coastal fish 1479 15 2 6 4 1 -16 1491 pond Airport/seaport 9 9 Transmigration 635 5 98 26 2 30 10 24 19 849 Mining 1195 2 148 25 1 1 4 10 1 5 18 8 3 1421 Swamp 5549 25 181 11 61 -21 -2 -39 1 35 2630 -154 29 8309 Total 535987 535987 93 Annex 24b. Land cover change matrices of Kalimantan 1995/1996-2000 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1995) (2000) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 121946 -10927 -17 -1288 -22 -6 -17 -1 -13 -11 -5 -60 -4 -18 109555 dryland forest Degraded 144347 10927 -142 -9040 -318 -9 -102 -7 1 -5 -68 -873 - -2 -13 -18 -2 141021 dryland forest 3655 Primary 1003 -2 -12 -4 -23 -141 822 mangrove Primary peat 1635 -8 -4 -1 -15 -318 -8 -13 1268 swamp forest Plantation 4615 17 142 -390 26 57 48 -9 3 -5 4504 forest Shrub 50040 1288 9040 2 8 390 535 -21 -113 149 -30 203 79 -274 362 -138 -34 16 -5 61496 Perennial crops 12945 22 318 -26 -535 -12 194 149 3 135 -26 24 91 2 13283 Settlement 1935 6 9 21 -5 15 4 -11 -4 -4 1965 Bare land 6172 17 102 12 4 -57 113 12 5 42 10 53 38 -25 -16 -117 -6 -12 6345 Cloud 1235 1 7 4 1 -48 -149 -194 -15 -42 1 3 -44 -169 -278 2 -2 -7 -45 22 283 Savana 0 0 Water 5696 -149 1 -2 156 5703 Degraded 6171 -1 30 -3 -10 -1 -3 -45 1 -20 6118 mangrove Degraded peat 52412 13 5 15 9 -203 -135 -4 -53 -3 3 - -23 -16 -13 -2 -63 48322 swamp forest 3621 Wetland shrub 31074 11 68 23 31 -3 -79 26 -38 44 45 3621 -30 -198 -65 -4 -69 34743 8 Dry cultivation 9385 5 873 274 -24 11 25 169 -1 23 30 808 166 1 -1 11746 Dry cultivation 66467 60 3655 8 5 -362 -91 4 16 278 -1 16 198 -808 1 3 -59 69390 & shrub Rice 6833 138 117 -2 13 65 -166 -1 6997 Coastal fish 1491 2 141 13 34 2 20 2 4 -1 1708 pond Airport/seaport 9 9 Transmigration 849 4 13 6 7 -3 876 Mining 1421 18 18 -16 45 2 1 59 1549 Swamp 8309 2 5 -2 4 12 -22 -156 63 69 8284 Total 535987 535987 94 Annex 24c. Land cover change matrices of Kalimantan 2000-2005/2006 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2000) (2006) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 109555 -11700 -77 -3 -1 -5 97770 dryland forest Degraded 141021 1170 -1236 -4935 -1189 -10 -755 -1 -20 -25 -933 -2 -72 143542 dryland forest 0 Primary 822 -1 -137 -26 -15 642 mangrove Primary peat 1268 -100 -9 1160 swamp forest Plantation 4504 1236 556 -3 -6 18 3 7 -5 10 -22 6299 forest Shrub 61496 77 4935 -556 -2346 -8 -413 51 2 23 1 -272 -630 -5 -224 -1 62128 Perennial crops 13283 1189 3 2346 319 20 3 642 1007 573 151 30 -1 -4 148 19710 Settlement 1965 10 8 1 34 -11 90 2 2100 Bare land 6345 3 755 1 6 413 -319 -1 8 4 244 408 61 178 -8 -127 -9 18 7982 Cloud 283 -18 -51 -20 -8 -1 -5 -21 -62 -80 -1 -10 -2 -2 0 Savana 0 0 Water 5703 5703 Degraded 6118 137 -3 -2 -3 -4 1 -814 -2 -1 -549 -6 -1 4870 mangrove Degraded peat 48322 1 100 -23 -642 -244 5 - -28 -35 -7 -7 -18 -86 43981 swamp forest 3354 Wetland shrub 34743 20 26 9 -7 -1 -1007 -34 -408 21 814 3354 -446 -101 -31 -211 -52 2238 38926 Dry cultivation 11746 1 25 5 272 -573 11 -61 62 2 28 446 323 -628 -2 3 -111 11549 Dry cultivation 69390 5 933 -10 630 -151 -90 -178 80 35 101 -323 -15 -45 70362 & shrub Rice 6997 -30 8 1 1 7 31 628 15 -1 24 7681 Coastal fish 1708 2 15 1 127 10 549 7 211 2 2633 pond Airport/seaport 9 9 Transmigration 876 5 -2 2 -3 878 Mining 1549 72 22 224 4 9 6 18 52 111 45 1 2 2115 Swamp 8284 1 -148 -18 2 1 86 - -24 -2 5945 2238 Total 535987 535987 95 Annex 24d. Land cover change matrices of Kalimantan 2005/2006-2009/2010 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2006) (2009) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 97770 -679 -19 2 -1 -10 97062 dryland forest Degraded 143542 679 -27 -2936 -1021 -1 - 5 -8 -46 -730 -129 138319 dryland forest 1009 Primary 642 -19 3 -4 -1 621 mangrove Primary peat 1160 -2 -7 -68 1082 swamp forest Plantation 6299 27 284 -1 -14 19 10 10 -14 6620 forest Shrub 62128 19 2936 2 -284 -2246 -4 -472 -1 4 -16 - -73 -169 54273 7550 Perennial crops 19710 1021 1 2246 -3 833 5 1595 1249 57 1220 -7 199 28127 Settlement 2100 1 14 4 3 4 7 2135 Bare land 7982 1009 -19 472 -833 6 306 271 -54 258 6 -4 -40 2 9361 Cloud 0 0 Savana 0 0 Water 5703 5703 Degraded 4870 19 1 -5 -6 -93 -3 -78 -1 4704 mangrove Degraded peat 43981 -5 -3 7 -10 -1595 -306 - -7 -23 -11 -13 -43 -24 39680 swamp forest 2269 Wetland shrub 38926 -2 8 4 68 -4 -1249 -4 -271 93 2269 -31 -401 -111 -36 -8 34 39287 Dry cultivation 11549 46 -10 16 -57 54 7 31 195 -69 -8 -18 11737 Dry cultivation 70362 1 730 7550 -1220 -7 -258 3 23 401 -195 -4 -52 77332 & shrub Rice 7681 73 -6 11 111 69 4 2 7947 Coastal fish 2633 1 4 78 13 36 2764 pond Airport/seaport 9 9 Transmigration 878 8 886 Mining 2115 10 129 14 169 7 40 1 43 8 18 52 1 2608 Swamp 5945 -199 -2 24 -34 -2 -1 5731 Total 535987 535987 96 Annex 24e. Land cover change matrices of Kalimantan 2009/2010-2014/2015 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2009) (2014) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 97062 -295 -71 -10 -11 -6 -2 -98 96569 dryland forest Degraded 138319 295 -42 -3455 -980 -3 - -3 -11 -21 - -3 -171 131354 dryland forest 1436 1136 Primary 621 -3 -3 -6 -1 607 mangrove Primary peat 1082 -12 -42 -2 -24 -1 1000 swamp forest Plantation 6620 42 -88 -9 -3 -8 273 80 -40 -72 6793 forest Shrub 54273 71 3455 88 -1000 -3 -188 -1 -1 24 -4 -76 5758 -2 -165 62226 Perennial crops 28127 10 980 12 9 1000 1 1106 9 869 727 5 571 4 -14 -7 58 33468 Settlement 2135 3 3 -1 -4 3 -1 -3 -17 4 2123 Bare land 9361 11 1436 3 42 3 188 -1106 4 26 1722 28 -29 268 42 -9 2 -47 7 11955 Cloud 0 0 Savana 0 8 9 Water 5703 1 1 9 2 -11 2 5707 Degraded 4704 3 3 1 -9 -26 3 -98 -9 -37 -1 4535 mangrove Degraded peat 39680 2 -273 -24 -869 -3 - -1 -3 - -31 -24 -15 -33 -52 35330 swamp forest 1722 1302 Wetland shrub 39287 6 11 6 24 -80 4 -727 -28 -9 98 1302 -38 -240 -7 -14 -20 82 39656 Dry cultivation 11737 2 21 76 -5 1 29 9 31 38 239 -11 -1 1 12166 Dry cultivation 77332 98 1136 40 -5758 -571 3 -268 -2 24 240 -239 -2 -323 71710 & shrub Rice 7947 2 -4 -42 7 11 2 -28 7894 Coastal fish 2764 1 9 37 15 14 2840 pond Airport/seaport 9 9 Transmigration 886 3 14 -2 902 Mining 2608 171 1 72 165 7 17 47 11 1 33 20 1 323 28 3506 Swamp 5731 -58 -4 -7 -2 52 -82 -1 5629 Total 535987 535987 97 Annex 25a. Land cover change matrices of Sulawesi 1990-1995/1996 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1990) (1996) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 75904 -978 -3 -1 -1 -3 74918 dryland forest Degraded 33203 978 -1 -26 -120 -2 -1 -61 -2 33968 dryland forest Primary 613 -5 608 mangrove Primary peat 69 69 swamp forest Plantation 157 1 1 159 forest Shrub 27061 3 26 -1 -9 7 -2 27086 Perennial crops 1987 1 120 9 25 1 23 2166 Settlement 966 966 Bare land 1035 1 2 -7 -25 1006 Cloud 549 0 Savana 2987 2987 Water 2013 2013 Degraded 1623 1 5 -8 1620 mangrove Degraded peat 616 -37 579 swamp forest Wetland shrub 644 644 Dry cultivation 7355 -1 37 7391 Dry cultivation 21693 3 61 2 -23 -2 21732 & shrub Rice 6752 2 6755 Coastal fish 1220 8 2 1230 pond Airport/seaport 10 10 Transmigration 141 141 Mining 0 0 Swamp 5 5 Total 186603 186053 98 Annex 25b. Land cover change matrices of Sulawesi 1995/1996-2000 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1996) (2000) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 74918 -18905 -1029 -60 -7 -15 -18 -1 -7 -1 -86 -585 -61 -2 -6 54136 dryland forest Degraded 33968 1890 1 -3429 -336 -25 -109 3 -78 -26 -398 - -64 -11 -4 -37 45111 dryland forest 5 3250 Primary 608 -8 -3 -1 -2 -1 -4 -20 -5 -4 -2 -42 515 mangrove Primary peat 69 -5 -4 -5 -32 -14 -2 8 swamp forest Plantation 159 -1 1 2 -1 159 forest Shrub 27086 1029 3429 8 5 -1 -111 -11 -368 96 -48 -13 8 11 11 -315 - - -2 -12 16603 1258 1612 7 Perennial crops 2166 60 336 3 4 111 -1 24 2 -3 6 -4 -9 -1 1 2693 Settlement 966 7 25 1 11 1 11 2 1 2 2 2 -7 2 20 1046 Bare land 1006 15 109 2 368 -24 33 -2 21 8 2 7 -60 -25 -63 -1 1396 Cloud 550 -3 -2 -96 -2 -11 -33 -13 -198 -154 -22 -14 -2 0 Savana 2987 18 78 1 48 3 -2 2 13 -28 -8 -92 3021 Water 2013 13 -21 1 1 4 -7 2003 Degraded 1620 1 4 -8 -1 -8 -1 -10 -9 -16 -36 -84 1452 mangrove Degraded peat 579 7 -11 -2 -2 -1 -160 -11 -17 -107 274 swamp forest Wetland shrub 644 1 26 20 5 -11 -6 -2 -7 -4 10 160 -87 2 -147 -144 459 Dry cultivation 7391 86 398 5 32 315 4 -2 60 198 28 9 11 87 -9 8614 Dry cultivation 21732 585 3250 4 1 12587 9 7 25 154 8 16 17 -2 9 -58 2 4 38352 & shrub Rice 6755 61 64 2 14 1612 -2 63 22 92 7 36 107 147 58 -7 9031 Coastal fish 1230 11 42 2 2 1 14 84 144 -2 7 1534 pond Airport/seaport 10 1 11 Transmigration 141 2 4 -1 -20 2 -4 125 Mining 0 6 37 12 54 Swamp 5 5 Total 186603 186603 99 Annex 25c. Land cover change matrices of Sulawesi 2000-2005/2006 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2000) (2006) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 54136 -12218 -168 -2 -4 -62 -1 41680 dryland forest Degraded 45111 1221 -3 -2620 -37 -1 -54 -3 -209 -1530 -7 -1 -1 -15 52849 dryland forest 8 Primary 515 -39 -21 455 mangrove Primary peat 8 8 swamp forest Plantation 159 3 3 -1 -1 163 forest Shrub 16603 168 2620 -3 -9 5 6 -2 2 -84 -1438 -3 -2 -2 17862 Perennial crops 2693 37 9 1 4 -10 50 -4 -1 2781 Settlement 1046 1 -1 1 1 2 1051 Bare land 1396 2 54 -5 1 1 -9 14 2 -3 1453 Cloud 0 0 Savana 3021 3 -6 -1 -2 3014 Water 2003 2003 Degraded 1452 39 2 -1 -10 -2 -1 -53 1426 mangrove Degraded peat 274 -1 -17 -1 -3 252 swamp forest Wetland shrub 459 -2 -4 10 17 -4 -2 -26 1 449 Dry cultivation 8614 4 209 84 10 -1 9 2 4 367 -24 -2 9277 Dry cultivation 38352 62 1530 1 1438 -50 -1 -14 1 1 1 -367 -46 -8 40898 & shrub Rice 9031 1 7 3 4 -2 -2 3 2 24 46 -3 -4 9111 Coastal fish 1534 1 21 1 2 1 3 2 53 26 2 8 3 1655 pond Airport/seaport 11 4 16 Transmigration 125 1 126 Mining 54 15 2 71 Swamp 5 -1 4 Total 186603 186603 100 Annex 25d. Land cover change matrices of Sulawesi 2005/2006-2009/2010 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2006) (2009) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 41680 -940 -31 -1 -1 -2 -9 40696 dryland forest Degraded 52849 940 -571 -90 -1 -45 -26 -411 -13 -3 52628 dryland forest Primary 455 -1 -19 434 mangrove Primary peat 8 8 swamp forest Plantation 163 1 -3 161 forest Shrub 17862 31 571 -1 -12 -1 -5 -3 -28 -512 -5 -1 -2 17893 Perennial crops 2781 1 90 12 -13 7 8 52 -3 -2 2933 Settlement 1051 1 1 13 21 1 40 1129 Bare land 1453 1 45 1 5 -7 -286 4 -4 -11 -5 -1 -1 1194 Cloud 0 0 Savana 3014 3 286 1 3304 Water 2003 -4 1998 Degraded 1426 19 -4 -1 -1 -1 -26 1411 mangrove Degraded peat 252 -111 -1 140 swamp forest Wetland shrub 449 4 1 111 566 Dry cultivation 9277 2 26 28 -8 -21 4 98 -152 -1 9253 Dry cultivation 40898 9 411 3 512 -52 -1 11 -1 1 1 -98 -19 -1 41675 & shrub Rice 9111 13 5 3 -40 5 1 152 19 -1 -1 9266 Coastal fish 1655 1 2 1 26 1 1 1 1 1690 pond Airport/seaport 16 16 Transmigration 126 1 128 Mining 71 3 2 1 77 Swamp 4 -1 3 Total 186603 186603 101 Annex 25e. Land cover change matrices of Sulawesi 2009/2010-2014/2015 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2009) Water forest Shrub Cloud 2014) Primary 40696 -2033 -241 -2 -11 -1 -28 -6 38374 dryland forest Degraded 52628 2033 -440 -14 -1 -122 -83 -417 -3 -1 53580 dryland forest Primary 434 -1 -1 -1 432 mangrove Primary peat 8 8 swamp forest Plantation 161 20 182 forest Shrub 17893 241 440 -15 45 1 -3 -2 18601 Perennial crops 2933 2 14 15 6 1 4 2973 Settlement 1129 1 1 1130 Bare land 1194 11 122 1 -20 -45 -6 -3 4 -2 -1 1256 Cloud 0 0 Savana 3304 -1 3 3306 Water 1998 1999 Degraded 1411 1 -4 -1 -4 -8 1395 mangrove Degraded peat 140 -1 -1 138 swamp forest Wetland shrub 566 566 Dry cultivation 9253 1 83 1 3 2 1 -2 9340 Dry cultivation 41675 28 417 2 -4 1 -2 42116 & shrub Rice 9266 3 -1 4 2 2 9278 Coastal fish 1690 1 8 1699 pond Airport/seaport 16 16 Transmigration 128 128 Mining 77 6 1 84 Swamp 3 3 Total 186603 186603 102 Annex 26a. Land cover change matrices of Papua 1990-1995/1996 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1990) (1996) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 241898 -3 241895 dryland forest Degraded 33318 33318 dryland forest Primary 11955 -2 11953 mangrove Primary peat 56368 56368 swamp forest Plantation 23 23 forest Shrub 10546 10546 Perennial crops 482 482 Settlement 444 444 Bare land 4454 4454 Cloud 556 3 558 Savana 7349 7349 Water 23412 23412 Degraded 2173 2173 mangrove Degraded peat 12380 12380 swamp forest Wetland shrub 14264 2 14266 Dry cultivation 613 613 Dry cultivation 4629 4629 & shrub Rice 125 125 Coastal fish 5 5 pond Airport/seaport 11 11 Transmigration 690 690 Mining 86 86 Swamp 5782 5782 Total 431561 431561 103 Annex 26b. Land cover change matrices of Papua 1995/1996-2000 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1996) (2000) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 241895 -15256 -1289 -11 -170 -9 -49 -144 -4 -151 -323 -30 -908 -40 -33 223478 dryland forest Degraded 33318 15256 -1916 -136 -11 -104 - -145 -11 -146 -10 -830 -1 -40 -3 45194 dryland forest 26 Primary 11953 -29 -9 -2 -2 -1 -328 -2 -10 11569 mangrove Primary peat 56368 -200 -38 -7 -90 -1 -21 -1178 -1 -26 -45 -276 54486 swamp forest Plantation 23 -3 -1 -2 18 forest Shrub 10546 1289 1916 29 200 3 -15 -3 19 -2 -1052 3 175 172 -18 -617 -7 -6 1 5 12637 Perennial crops 482 136 15 -1 -1 2 635 Settlement 444 11 11 3 1 7 4 4 -5 -75 5 2 411 Bare land 4454 170 104 9 38 -19 45 -801 -1 1 23 71 -3 -9 154 4234 Cloud 558 9 26 7 2 -7 -45 -45 -1 -1 -81 -9 411 Savana 7349 49 145 2 90 1052 801 45 2 197 189 1299 7 -223 11004 Water 23412 144 11 2 1 1 1 -2 7 -11 18 23585 Degraded 2173 4 1 -3 -1 -197 -129 -17 1830 mangrove Degraded peat 12380 151 21 -175 -4 -23 1 -189 -7 -1630 -3 -13 - 9354 swamp forest 1153 Wetland shrub 14266 323 146 328 1178 1 -172 -4 -71 -1299 11 129 1630 6 -92 1 -152 16233 Dry cultivation 613 30 10 1 2 18 5 3 3 -6 -2 25 1 702 Dry cultivation 4629 908 830 2 26 617 1 75 9 81 -7 17 13 92 2 11 3 5 7312 & shrub Rice 125 1 7 132 Coastal fish 5 -1 4 pond Airport/seaport 11 11 Transmigration 690 40 40 45 6 -2 -5 -25 -11 779 Mining 86 -1 -2 9 -3 90 Swamp 5782 33 3 10 276 -5 -154 223 -18 1153 152 -1 -5 7451 Total 431561 431561 104 Annex 26c. Land cover change matrices of Papua 2000-2005/2006 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2000) (2006) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 223478 -12120 -196 -72 -3 -14 - -1 -1 -118 0 -1 210919 dryland forest 33 Degraded 45194 1212 -269 -25 -4 -24 -6 -43 - -1 -3 55481 dryland forest 0 1459 Primary 11569 -222 11347 mangrove Primary peat 54486 -1 -1 -2575 -66 -5 51839 swamp forest Plantation 18 18 forest Shrub 12637 196 269 -7 -2 -51 7 -21 -1 -2 -90 -1 12935 Perennial crops 635 72 25 7 2 741 Settlement 411 3 4 2 1 6 6 432 Bare land 4234 14 24 1 51 5 10 1 21 4360 Cloud 411 33 6 -7 -5 -4 434 Savana 11004 21 -1 -10 5 329 -4 -1 11341 Water 23585 1 23587 Degraded 1830 222 1 -1 -38 -65 1950 mangrove Degraded peat 9354 2575 -2 -5 -733 -23 -95 11072 swamp forest Wetland shrub 16233 66 1 -21 -329 38 733 -48 16672 Dry cultivation 702 1 43 2 -6 4 748 Dry cultivation 7312 118 1459 5 90 -6 4 1 23 9006 & shrub Rice 132 133 Coastal fish 4 4 pond Airport/seaport 11 11 Transmigration 779 1 780 Mining 90 1 3 1 95 Swamp 7451 65 95 48 7658 Total 431561 431561 105 Annex 26d. Land cover change matrices of Papua 2005/2006-2009/2010 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2006) Water forest Shrub Cloud (2009 Primary 210919 -8119 -1 -124 -33 -2 -2 1 -13 202625 dryland forest Degraded 55481 8119 -1 -236 -67 -6 -31 -6 -26 -326 -6 62895 dryland forest Primary 11347 -1 -87 11259 mangrove Primary peat 51839 1 -10 -1495 -122 50212 swamp forest Plantation 18 1 19 forest Shrub 12935 124 236 -1 -1 -11 122 7 -25 -1 -442 12941 Perennial crops 741 33 67 10 1 13 865 Settlement 432 2 6 1 1 3 28 473 Bare land 4360 2 31 1 11 -13 -1 86 26 1 24 2 3 -2 4530 Cloud 434 -122 -86 226 Savana 11341 6 -7 -26 488 -1 11802 Water 23587 23587 Degraded 1950 87 -1 -1 -5 -2 2028 mangrove Degraded peat 11072 -1 1495 1 -118 -1 -1 -3 12444 swamp forest Wetland shrub 16672 122 25 -24 -488 5 118 5 16435 Dry cultivation 748 26 1 -3 -2 2 -3 1 770 Dry cultivation 9006 13 326 442 -28 -3 2 1 -5 -2 -1 1 9754 & shrub Rice 133 3 1 137 Coastal fish 4 1 5 pond Airport/seaport 11 11 Transmigration 780 780 Mining 95 6 2 1 104 Swamp 7658 3 -1 -1 7660 Total 431561 431561 106 Annex 26e. Land cover change matrices of Papua 2009/2010-2014/2015 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2009) (2014) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 202625 -1819 -65 -37 -2 -152 65 -1 -1 -17 -4 -3 200589 dryland forest Degraded 62895 1819 -129 -148 -16 -125 24 -1 -45 -31 -1 -8 -1 64234 dryland forest Primary 11259 -1 6 -1 -69 -2 11192 mangrove Primary peat 50212 -83 -17 46 -444 -3 -1 -1 -1 49707 swamp forest Plantation 19 19 forest Shrub 12941 65 129 -78 -195 48 3 -1 -8 12907 Perennial crops 865 37 148 83 78 3 2 74 7 23 6 1326 Settlement 473 2 16 1 492 Bare land 4530 152 125 17 195 -3 10 4 1 -1 5028 Cloud 226 -65 -24 -6 -46 -48 -2 -10 -1 -3 -20 0 Savana 11802 1 1 -4 11800 Water 23587 23587 Degraded 2028 69 -3 -1 -1 2092 mangrove Degraded peat 12444 444 -3 -74 -1 1 -3 -1 12807 swamp forest Wetland shrub 16435 1 2 3 -7 3 3 3 -3 16440 Dry cultivation 770 1 45 1 1 -23 1 1 1 8 -10 796 Dry cultivation 9754 17 31 1 8 -6 20 -8 9816 & shrub Rice 137 3 10 1 152 Coastal fish 5 5 pond Airport/seaport 11 1 12 Transmigration 780 8 -1 788 Mining 104 4 1 1 1 111 Swamp 7660 3 7663 Total 431561 431561 107 Annex 27a. Land cover change matrices of Java 1990-1995/1996 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1990) (1996) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 3939 3939 dryland forest Degraded 6674 6674 dryland forest Primary 159 159 mangrove Primary peat 1 1 swamp forest Plantation 23375 -1 -1 23373 forest Shrub 3488 2 0 3491 Perennial crops 4051 -1 4050 Settlement 10775 -4 2 10773 Bare land 524 1 526 Cloud 26 26 Savana 97 -2 95 Water 731 1 733 Degraded 229 229 mangrove Degraded peat 0 0 swamp forest Wetland shrub 313 313 Dry cultivation 16942 16941 Dry cultivation 21588 4 21591 & shrub Rice 40189 1 1 -2 -1 40188 Coastal fish 1586 1585 pond Airport/seaport 66 66 Transmigration 0 0 Mining 7 7 Swamp 18 18 Total 134778 134778 108 Annex 27b. Land cover change matrices of Java 1995/1996-2000 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1996) (2000) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 3939 -286 2 -44 -330 -53 -7 -2 -6 3212 dryland forest Degraded 6674 286 -1226 -145 -22 -120 -17 -80 -3 5347 dryland forest Primary 159 -2 -15 142 mangrove Primary peat 1 0 swamp forest Plantation 23373 44 1226 109 8 3 -135 6 589 502 10 1 -4 25733 forest Shrub 3491 330 145 -109 -2 -470 -69 2 1 1 -434 -46 -71 2768 Perennial crops 4050 53 22 -8 2 -2 -26 4 -15 6 -6 4080 Settlement 10773 -3 470 2 9 7 6 34 110 104 10 11524 Bare land 526 7 120 135 69 26 -9 17 2 1 59 22 1 3 979 Cloud 26 1 27 Savana 95 15 -2 -17 91 Water 733 -6 -1 -4 -7 -2 -5 -4 -10 -3 -1 -6 683 Degraded 229 -1 -1 -3 -4 218 mangrove Degraded peat 0 0 swamp forest Wetland shrub 313 -1 -6 -268 -7 -27 -1 5 Dry cultivation 16941 2 17 -589 434 15 -34 -59 5 1 268 692 -441 -17 17237 Dry cultivation 21591 6 80 -502 46 -6 -110 -22 4 7 -692 -232 -2 -1 20169 & shrub Rice 40188 3 -10 71 6 -104 -1 10 3 27 441 232 -153 -2 40710 Coastal fish 1585 -1 -10 -1 3 4 1 17 2 153 1753 pond Airport/seaport 66 1 1 67 Transmigration 0 0 Mining 7 4 -3 2 10 Swamp 18 6 24 Total 134778 134778 109 Annex 27c. Land cover change matrices of Java 2000-2005/2006 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2000) (2006) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 3212 -285 -2 -21 -12 -1 2891 dryland forest Degraded 5347 285 -291 -202 -6 -3 -1 -1 5127 dryland forest Primary 142 2 -1 143 mangrove Primary peat 0 0 swamp forest Plantation 25733 21 291 -30 -9 -9 67 -36 -1129 -4 -2 24893 forest Shrub 2768 12 202 30 18 -1 37 -15 88 1 3142 Perennial crops 4080 6 9 -18 -1 61 10 -9 1 4137 Settlement 11524 9 1 1 41 564 364 328 6 -1 -2 12836 Bare land 979 1 3 -67 -37 -61 -41 -16 37 18 816 Cloud 27 27 Savana 91 91 Water 683 -4 679 Degraded 218 1 -4 1 215 mangrove Degraded peat 0 0 swamp forest Wetland shrub 5 4 9 Dry cultivation 17237 1 36 15 -10 -564 16 149 126 -1 17004 Dry cultivation 20169 1129 -88 9 -364 -37 -149 299 1 20967 & shrub Rice 40710 1 4 -1 -1 -328 -18 4 -126 -299 -17 -1 39928 Coastal fish 1753 -6 -1 17 -4 1760 pond Airport/seaport 67 1 1 1 4 74 Transmigration 0 0 Mining 10 2 13 Swamp 24 2 -1 25 Total 134778 134778 110 Annex 27d. Land cover change matrices of Java 2005/2006-2009/2010 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2006) (2009) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 2891 -2662 228 dryland forest Degraded 5127 2662 -2 -24 -1 8 -10 -19 -7 7734 dryland forest Primary 143 -9 134 mangrove Primary peat 0 0 swamp forest Plantation 24893 2 51 -4 -8 12 -1 -157 -147 -137 -1 24503 forest Shrub 3142 24 -51 -45 10 3 -26 -2 3055 Perennial crops 4137 1 4 45 -2 11 -1 1 -7 4190 Settlement 12836 8 16 39 16 2 -1 12917 Bare land 816 -8 -12 -10 2 -5 -1 -1 782 Cloud 27 -11 -2 -7 -7 0 Savana 91 -3 88 Water 679 1 1 682 Degraded 215 9 0 -67 2 159 mangrove Degraded peat 0 0 swamp forest Wetland shrub 9 67 -2 74 Dry cultivation 17004 10 157 26 1 -16 5 2 -1 129 725 -1 18041 Dry cultivation 20967 19 147 2 -1 -39 7 2 -129 -29 -1 20944 & shrub Rice 39928 7 137 7 -16 1 7 -725 29 -4 -4 39366 Coastal fish 1760 1 -2 -2 1 4 1761 pond Airport/seaport 74 1 75 Transmigration 0 0 Mining 13 1 14 Swamp 25 1 4 30 Total 134778 134778 111 Annex 27e. Land cover change matrices of Java 2009/2010-2014/2015 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2009) (2014) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 228 -1 227 dryland forest Degraded 7734 -2 -55 -5 -5 -32 2 7636 dryland forest Primary 134 134 mangrove Primary peat 0 0 swamp forest Plantation 24503 2 33 -4 -4 62 0 -1 -69 12 -3 -1 24531 forest Shrub 3055 55 -33 -61 -2 5 -3 -73 -134 -30 2779 Perennial crops 4190 4 61 -13 2 -170 46 -5 4114 Settlement 12917 4 2 13 -1 -18 168 1 -3 13082 Bare land 782 1 5 -62 -5 -2 1 0 -83 -6 -8 1 -3 623 Cloud 0 0 Savana 88 3 91 Water 682 1 1 682 Degraded 159 -3 -5 -3 1 148 mangrove Degraded peat 0 0 swamp forest Wetland shrub 74 3 -2 76 Dry cultivation 18041 5 69 73 170 18 83 304 316 -1 19077 Dry cultivation 20944 32 -12 134 -46 -168 6 -1 2 -304 0 31 -1 -3 20614 & shrub Rice 39366 -2 3 30 5 8 -316 -31 0 -1 -1 -1 39065 Coastal fish 1761 -1 -1 1 1 1766 pond Airport/seaport 75 1 76 Transmigration 0 0 Mining 14 1 1 3 3 1 3 1 27 Swamp 30 30 Total 134778 134778 112 Annex 28a. Land cover change matrices of Bali and Nusa Tenggara 1990-1995/1996 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1990) (1996) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 10720 10720 dryland forest Degraded 19066 -14 -2 19050 dryland forest Primary 212 212 mangrove Primary peat 1 1 swamp forest Plantation 203 203 forest Shrub 17866 14 -8 17872 Perennial crops 501 501 Settlement 784 784 Bare land 748 2 8 758 Cloud 1 1 Savana 8985 8985 Water 116 116 Degraded 186 186 mangrove Degraded peat 7 7 swamp forest Wetland shrub 100 100 Dry cultivation 4174 4174 Dry cultivation 7112 7112 & shrub Rice 2444 2444 Coastal fish 120 120 pond Airport/seaport 12 12 Transmigration 0 0 Mining 0 0 Swamp 79 79 Total 73436 73436 113 114 Annex 28b. Land cover change matrices of Bali and Nusa Tenggara 1995/1996-2000 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1996) (2000) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 10720 -2747 -11 -239 -5 -4 -1 -12 -61 -10 7631 dryland forest Degraded 19050 2747 -7 - -7 -43 -82 -127 -298 -3 -1 -1 20003 dryland forest 1225 Primary 212 -1 -4 -1 207 mangrove Primary peat 1 1 swamp forest Plantation 203 11 7 9 -96 133 forest Shrub 17872 239 1225 -9 -3 -37 -10 -2445 12 7 -16 -215 - -20 -3 15427 1169 Perennial crops 501 3 1 1 506 Settlement 784 7 37 -4 9 833 Bare land 758 5 43 10 499 1 2 -4 -4 1309 Cloud 1 1 Savana 8985 4 82 1 2445 -499 2 -2 62 11080 Water 116 1 -12 -1 104 Degraded 186 -7 -2 -1 -1 175 mangrove Degraded peat 7 -2 -1 5 swamp forest Wetland shrub 100 16 2 118 Dry cultivation 4174 12 127 4 96 215 -1 4 4 167 9 4811 Dry cultivation 7112 61 298 1169 -9 -62 1 -167 1 8404 & shrub Rice 2444 3 20 -1 1 -9 -1 2457 Coastal fish 120 3 4 1 17 144 pond Airport/seaport 12 12 Transmigration 0 0 Mining 0 10 1 11 Swamp 79 1 1 -17 64 Total 73436 73436 115 Annex 28c. Land cover change matrices of Bali and Nusa Tenggara 2000-2005/2006 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2000) (2006) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 7631 -51 -61 -3 7515 dryland forest Degraded 20003 51 31 -328 -2 -1 -3 -13 -1 -3 19734 dryland forest Primary 207 -3 204 mangrove Primary peat 1 -1 0 swamp forest Plantation 133 -31 -52 51 forest Shrub 15427 61 328 52 -3 21 361 -213 141 16176 Perennial crops 506 -36 -1 469 Settlement 833 2 3 -3 835 Bare land 1309 1 -21 -11 1278 Cloud 1 -1 0 Savana 11080 -361 11 -1 57 -2 10784 Water 104 1 105 Degraded 175 3 177 mangrove Degraded peat 5 5 swamp forest Wetland shrub 118 -2 116 Dry cultivation 4811 3 3 213 36 1 58 -63 5062 Dry cultivation 8404 13 -141 1 3 1 -57 2 -58 8169 & shrub Rice 2457 1 2 63 2523 Coastal fish 144 145 pond Airport/seaport 12 12 Transmigration 0 0 Mining 11 3 13 Swamp 64 64 Total 73436 73436 116 117 Annex 28d. Land cover change matrices of Bali and Nusa Tenggara 2005/2006-2009/2010 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2006) (2009) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 7515 -594 -1 -1 6919 dryland forest Degraded 19734 594 -14 -2 -4 -11 -11 -2 20284 dryland forest Primary 204 204 mangrove Primary peat 0 0 swamp forest Plantation 51 -3 1 2 50 forest Shrub 16176 1 14 3 45 -8 148 182 -80 -31 -53 -2 16395 Perennial crops 469 -1 -45 -3 -54 -259 -96 11 Settlement 835 8 3 -1 0 0 32 19 6 902 Bare land 1278 2 -2 -148 -394 -5 -1 3 733 Cloud 0 0 Savana 10784 -182 394 -85 -169 -24 -3 10715 Water 105 105 Degraded 177 1 180 mangrove Degraded peat 5 5 swamp forest Wetland shrub 116 115 Dry cultivation 5062 4 80 54 -32 85 -316 -399 -1 4537 Dry cultivation 8169 11 31 259 -19 5 169 316 -256 -5 -4 8674 & shrub Rice 2523 11 53 96 -6 1 24 399 256 -2 3355 Coastal fish 145 -3 1 5 2 150 pond Airport/seaport 12 4 16 Transmigration 0 2 3 4 Mining 13 1 2 16 Swamp 64 64 Total 73436 73436 118 Annex 28e. Land cover change matrices of Bali and Nusa Tenggara 2009/2010-2014/2015 (Area in km2) Opening stock Airport/seapo Transmigratio swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat peat swamp Shrubby dry Primary dry Coastal fish Settlement land forest land forest cultivation cultivation Plantation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Disturbed Perennial Bare land Rice field Wetland Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2009) (2014) Water forest forest Shrub Cloud shrub crops pond Dry rt n Primary 6919 43 90 -1 -3 2 -1 7049 dryland forest Degraded 20284 -43 -2 -4 1480 -14 -11 8 -3 -1 203 32 -34 -1 21895 dryland forest Primary 204 2 -1 -1 2 1 1 -6 -4 -2 3 198 mangrove Primary peat 0 0 swamp forest Plantation 50 4 1 10 65 forest Shrub 16395 -90 -1480 1 -11 -18 867 -7 -1 6 -925 -1394 -13 13329 Perennial crops 11 11 Settlement 902 14 1 11 -1 5 13 4 -4 2 947 Bare land 733 1 11 18 1 11 -4 -2 1 1 1 -3 1 770 Cloud 0 0 Savana 10715 -8 -2 -867 -5 -11 -15 -3 3 -124 -485 3 -3 9199 Water 105 3 7 4 15 7 1 142 Degraded 180 1 1 2 3 6 194 mangrove Degraded peat 5 5 swamp forest Wetland shrub 115 -1 -6 -1 -3 -1 -5 -43 56 Dry cultivation 4537 3 -203 -1 -1 925 -13 -1 124 -7 -6 1 -382 -64 -1 -2 4909 Dry cultivation 8674 -2 -32 6 -10 1394 -4 -1 485 -1 5 382 -6 -3 10886 & shrub Rice 3355 34 4 13 4 3 -3 43 64 6 3 3525 Coastal fish 150 2 1 154 pond Airport/seaport 16 16 Transmigration 4 -2 2 Mining 16 1 1 18 Swamp 64 -3 -1 3 2 3 -3 66 Total 73436 73436 119 120 Annex 29a. Land cover change matrices of Maluku 1990-1995/1996 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1990) (1996) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 11356 11356 dryland forest Degraded 39454 39454 dryland forest Primary 2554 2554 mangrove Primary peat 391 391 swamp forest Plantation 152 152 forest Shrub 7528 7528 Perennial crops 102 102 Settlement 314 314 Bare land 1041 1041 Cloud 820 820 Savana 1307 1307 Water 321 321 Degraded 1150 1150 mangrove Degraded peat 839 839 swamp forest Wetland shrub 227 227 Dry cultivation 2569 2569 Dry cultivation 7767 7767 & shrub Rice 122 122 Coastal fish 9 9 pond Airport/seaport 4 4 Transmigration 147 147 Mining 3 3 Swamp 10 10 Total 78188 78188 121 Annex 29b. Land cover change matrices of Maluku 1995/1996-2000 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (1996) (2000) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 11356 -2189 -134 -141 -1 -18 -1 -3 -112 -3 -3 8751 dryland forest Degraded 39454 2189 -27 -1487 -1 -23 -38 -93 -3 -274 -899 -3 -380 38415 dryland forest Primary 2554 -1 -1 -1 2551 mangrove Primary peat 391 -18 -4 -2 366 swamp forest Plantation 152 134 27 8 26 346 forest Shrub 7528 141 1487 18 -8 -26 -39 16 -507 151 -75 -89 -2 8742 3 Perennial crops 102 1 104 Settlement 314 1 23 1 26 8 1 -7 1 -2 365 Bare land 1041 18 38 39 9 -417 2 2 4 -34 -1 699 Cloud 820 -26 -163 -8 -9 -488 -1 -2 -2 -122 0 Savana 1150 1 -1 -2 -2 1145 Water 839 -151 -2 -10 -11 -8 -1 655 Degraded 227 3 4 -4 2 -11 11 -2 231 mangrove Degraded peat 2569 3 274 75 7 34 2 2 8 2 22 -4 4 2998 swamp forest Wetland shrub 7767 112 899 1 2 89 -1 1 12 2 -22 -1 -5 8967 2 Dry cultivation 122 3 3 1 4 1 20 156 Dry cultivation 9 9 & shrub Rice 4 2 6 Coastal fish 147 3 380 2 -4 5 -20 514 pond Airport/seaport 3 3 Transmigration 10 -4 -5 3 Mining 78188 78188 Swamp 11356 -2189 -134 -141 -1 -18 -1 -3 -112 -3 -3 8751 Total 39454 2189 -27 -1487 -1 -23 -38 -93 -3 -274 -899 -3 -380 38415 122 Annex 29c. Land cover change matrices of Maluku 2000-2005/2006 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2000) (2006) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 8751 -222 8529 dryland forest Degraded 38415 222 1698 -5 -405 -1 -8 - -7 -68 -1 39793 dryland forest 47 Primary 2551 -1698 852 mangrove Primary peat 366 366 swamp forest Plantation 346 5 351 forest Shrub 8742 405 -5 -2 -1 -39 9101 Perennial crops 104 104 Settlement 365 1 367 Bare land 699 8 5 1 2 714 Cloud 0 0 Savana 2838 47 2 8 15 2910 Water 325 325 Degraded 1145 -1 -1 1143 mangrove Degraded peat 655 655 swamp forest Wetland shrub 231 1 232 Dry cultivation 2998 7 1 -1 -8 2996 Dry cultivation 8967 68 39 -2 - 1 9058 & shrub 15 Rice 156 156 Coastal fish 9 9 pond Airport/seaport 6 6 Transmigration 514 514 Mining 3 1 5 Swamp 3 3 Total 78188 78188 123 Annex 29d. Land cover change matrices of Maluku 2005/2006-2009/2010 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2006) (2009) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 8529 -1 -1 -2 8525 dryland forest Degraded 39793 1 -164 -4 -2 -9 -57 39557 dryland forest Primary 852 -52 -2 798 mangrove Primary peat 366 366 swamp forest Plantation 351 -1 350 forest Shrub 9101 1 164 1 -7 208 -15 -240 9213 Perennial crops 104 104 Settlement 367 367 Bare land 714 2 4 7 -114 -20 15 3 612 Cloud 0 0 Savana 2910 2 -208 114 -12 2823 Water 325 325 Degraded 1143 52 1195 mangrove Degraded peat 655 2 656 swamp forest Wetland shrub 232 2 -2 1 234 Dry cultivation 2996 9 15 20 12 -1 65 3115 Dry cultivation 9058 57 240 -8 -65 9281 & shrub Rice 156 -15 142 Coastal fish 9 9 pond Airport/seaport 6 1 7 Transmigration 514 -3 -9 502 Mining 5 5 Swamp 3 3 Total 78188 78188 124 Annex 29e. Land cover change matrices of Maluku 2009/2010-2014/2015 (Area in km2) Coastal fish pond Plantation forest Primary dry land Airport/seaport Perennial crops Transmigration Disturbed peat Wetland shrub Dry cultivation Opening stock swamp forest swamp forest Degraded dry Closing stock Primary peat Shrubby dry Settlement land forest cultivation mangrove mangrove Disturbed Bare land Rice field Primary Swamp Savana Mining (2009) (2014) Water forest Shrub Cloud Primary 8525 -74 -15 -2 -1 8434 dryland forest Degraded 39557 74 -142 -9 -14 -5 33 -119 6 -5 39376 dryland forest Primary 798 347 -1 -3 -1 1141 mangrove Primary peat 366 -347 19 swamp forest Plantation 350 350 forest Shrub 9213 15 142 -9 -2 37 -1 2 20 2 -10 9410 Perennial crops 104 9 9 9 9 3 154 296 Settlement 367 1 2 1 -1 18 10 399 Bare land 612 2 14 -37 -9 -8 -2 4 -2 574 Cloud 0 0 Savana 2823 -9 -1 -11 -122 2680 Water 325 325 Degraded 1195 5 3 1 -3 1 8 360 -1 9 1577 mangrove Degraded peat 656 -360 -10 286 swamp forest Wetland shrub 234 2 1 10 -3 244 Dry cultivation 3115 -33 -2 -18 11 -798 -7 8 -2 2272 Dry cultivation 9281 1 119 1 -20 -10 -4 122 798 -5 111 -6 10387 & shrub Rice 142 -2 3 7 5 17 171 Coastal fish 9 9 pond Airport/seaport 7 7 Transmigration 502 -6 -154 -9 -8 -111 -17 197 Mining 5 5 10 2 2 6 31 Swamp 3 3 Total 78188 78188 125 Annex 30. Land area of provinces in Sumatera and Kalimantan No. Provinces Area (ha) 1 Aceh 5,795,600 2 North Sumatera 7,298,123 3 West Sumatera 4,201,289 4 Riau 8,702,366 5 Riau Islands 820,172 6 Jambi 5,005,816 7 South Sumatera 9,159,243 8 Bangka Belitung Islands 16,424 9 Bengkulu 1,991,933 10 Lampung 3,462,380 11 West Kalimantan 14,730,700 12 South Kalimantan 3,874,423 13 Central Kalimantan 15,356,450 14 East Kalimantan 12,906,664 15 North Kalimantan 7,546,770 126