Afghanistan Rural Water Sector 27/4/2012 Developing Sector Strategies and Options to Support the Sector OUTPUT 3: Institutional Development for the Rural Water Sector Bank MRRD Commissioned by World Bank- Afghanistan Rural Water Sector This report has been commissioned by the Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development MRRD for the Rural Water and Sanitation Sector (RWSS) project, and specifically for the work package “Developing sector strategies and options to support the sector”. Financial support for the study was provided by AusAid and the World Bank. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the World Bank Group. SIM- SpA Afghanistan Branch in Kabul provided all the necessary logistic and administrative support. Prepared by SOCIETÀ ITALIANA DI MONITORAGGIO (SIM) in joint venture with S.W.S. For questions or comments concerning any aspect of the survey and this report please contact: SIM S.P.A. Afghanistan Branch Tel: +93 (0) 202202043 E-Mail: Sim.Afghanistan@Sim-Spa.It Skype:Sim.Afghanistan; Head Office: Via Ticino 6, 00152, Rome, Italy © MINISTRY OF RURAL REHABILITATION AND DEVELOPMENT (MRRD) OF AFGHANISTAN. August, 2012 Picture: ©2011 Wahid Ghanizada, Herat Province Acknowledgements We are grateful for the assistance provided by all RWSS stakeholders in Afghanistan, for giving us access to all available data and information, in sharing with us their concerns, successes, challenges, lessons learned and good practices in the rural water sector. In particular the support from and discussions held with His Excellency Wais Ahmad Barmak, Minister of MRRD, Eng. Ghulam Qader, Executive Director of the Rural Water Supply, Sanitation and Irrigation Programme at MRRD, and Eng. Safi who have shared valuable experiences and visions, helping us to make our study authentic and sound in its analysis and conclusions. Special thanks also goes to Mr. Srinivas Podipireddy, Sr. Water and Sanitation Specialist, at World Bank, and to all staff of MRRD for facilitating contact with other stakeholders, including other ministries, NGOs and the private sector. Thanks also goes to all those who commented on the draft reports, especially MRRD and the World Bank. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 2 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector A F G H A N I S TA N R U R A L WAT E R S E C T O R Developing sector strategies and options to support the sector Institutional Development for the Rural Water Sector Table of Contents LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................................................ 5 LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................................................................. 5 1. OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................................. 7 2. COUNTRY FRAMEWORK .............................................................................................................................................. 8 2.1 DEMOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................................................... 8 2.2 MORPHOLOGY ....................................................................................................................................................... 8 2.3 HYDROLOGY ........................................................................................................................................................... 9 2.4 HYDROGEOLOGY .................................................................................................................................................. 12 2.4.1 GENERAL ASPECTS ................................................................................................................................................. 12 2.4.2 AQUIFER RECHARGE ............................................................................................................................................... 12 2.4.3 GROUNDWATER RESOURCES: AVAILABILITY AND USE.................................................................................................... 13 2.5 CLIMATES ............................................................................................................................................................. 14 3. STATUS OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY SECTOR IN THE COUNTRY ................................................................................ 17 3.1 RURAL WATER DEMAND AND NATIONAL OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................ 17 3.2 EXISTING RURAL WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES ......................................................................................................... 17 3.3 RESOURCE ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................................ 17 4. TECHNICAL CHOICES OF WATER AND SANITATION SUB-PROJECTS REQUIRED FOR PRIORITIZED PROVINCES ..... 18 4.1 GENERAL ASPECTS ............................................................................................................................................... 18 4.2 RECOMMENDED TECHNICAL OPTIONS ACCORDING TO PROVINCIAL LEVEL CONDITIONS .................................. 19 4.2.1 DUG WELLS .......................................................................................................................................................... 19 4.2.2 BOREHOLES .......................................................................................................................................................... 20 4.2.3 FLOWING WATER – KAREZES, SPRINGS ...................................................................................................................... 20 4.2.4 SURFACE WATER .................................................................................................................................................... 20 4.2.5 SOCIAL DESIGN PARAMETRES TO CONSIDER ................................................................................................................. 21 4.3 FEEDBACKS FROM TECHNICAL OPTIONS CHOICES FROM STAKEHOLDERS’ WORKSHOP ..................................... 21 5. TECHNICAL GUIDANCE STRATEGY ON REVIVING OR REHABILITATING EXISTING WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS......... 23 5.1 BACKGROUND ...................................................................................................................................................... 23 5.2 PROPOSED SCHEME OF A RURAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM .................................................................................. 23 5.2.1 DESCRIPTION OF SCHEME ........................................................................................................................................ 23 5.2.2 FIELDS OF APPLICATION ........................................................................................................................................... 24 5.2.2 EVALUATION OF FLOW RATES ................................................................................................................................... 24 5.2.4 DESIGN PARAMETERS.............................................................................................................................................. 25 5.3. GUIDANCE ON DRILLING ..................................................................................................................................... 25 5.3.1 GENERAL.............................................................................................................................................................. 25 5.3.2 TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FILTER PACK, CASING, IMPLEMENTATION AND SAMPLING .............................................. 25 5.3.3 DRILLING DEVELOPMENT ......................................................................................................................................... 27 5.3.4 PUMPING TEST ...................................................................................................................................................... 27 AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 3 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector 5.4. GUIDANCE ON WATER ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................................ 27 5.5. GUIDANCE ON CONDUCTION PIPES .................................................................................................................... 28 5.5.1 PIPE DESIGN.......................................................................................................................................................... 28 5.5.2 MATERIALS........................................................................................................................................................... 29 5.5.3 COMPLEMENTARY DEVICES ...................................................................................................................................... 29 5.6. GUIDANCE ON WATER TOWERS ......................................................................................................................... 29 5.6.1 DESIGN ................................................................................................................................................................ 29 5.6.2 MATERIALS........................................................................................................................................................... 30 5.6.3 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WATER TOWER ....................................................................................................... 30 5.6.4 MAINTENANCE OF THE TANKS .................................................................................................................................. 32 5.6.5 EQUIPMENT.......................................................................................................................................................... 32 5.7. GUIDANCE ON DISTRIBUTION NETWORK PIPES .................................................................................................. 32 5.7.1 DESIGN OF THE PIPE ............................................................................................................................................... 32 5.7.2 PIPES INSTALLATION IN TRENCH ................................................................................................................................ 33 5.7.3 EQUIPMENTS ........................................................................................................................................................ 34 5.7.4 MAINTENANCE OF PIPES .......................................................................................................................................... 35 5.8. SUMMARY OF PARAMETERS FOR THE DESIGN ................................................................................................... 35 5.9. GUIDANCE ON PUBLIC FOUNTAINS ..................................................................................................................... 36 5.10. GUIDANCE ON ANIMAL WATERING HOLES ....................................................................................................... 36 5.11 PROCUREMENT PROCESS .................................................................................................................................. 36 5.12 IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS.............................................................................................................................. 37 5.13 STRATEGY ON REVIVING OR REHABILITATING EXISTING WATER POINTS .......................................................... 37 5.13.1 REHABILITATION OR REVIVING WATER WELLS ............................................................................................................. 38 5.14 REVIEW AND IMPROVEMENTS NEEDED FOR EXISTING TECHNICAL GUIDANCE MANUALS ............................... 38 5.14.1 WELLS PRESCRIPTIONS .......................................................................................................................................... 38 5.14.2 FLOWING AND SURFACE WATER .............................................................................................................................. 42 Spring and kareze implementation guidance ............................................................................................................ 42 5.14.3 NEW TECHNOLOGIES ............................................................................................................................................ 43 Sanitation.................................................................................................................................................................... 44 5.14.4 LATRINES ........................................................................................................................................................... 45 6. PROMOTING SUSTAINABILTY – CRITICAL TECHNICAL AND INSTITUTIONAL MEASURES REQUIRED...................... 49 6.1 GENERAL ASPECTS ............................................................................................................................................... 49 6.2 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE......................................................................................................................... 51 7. CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................................................. 55 8. RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................................................................ 62 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ARTF Afghanistan Reconstruction Trust Fund BPHS Basic Package of Health Services CAP Community Action Plan CDC Community Development Council CHW Community Health Worker CP Construction Partner DACAAR Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees DALY Disability Adjusted Life Years GIS Geographic Information Systems GPS Global Position System AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 4 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector HE Hygiene Education HEWG Hygiene Education Working Group HHV House to House Visit KAP Knowledge, Attitude and Practice MoE Ministry of Education MoF Ministry of Finance MoHaj Ministry of Haj MoPH Ministry of Health MoWA Ministry of Women’s Affair MRRD Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development NSP National Solidarity Program O&M Operation and Maintenance PIU Project Implementation Unit PSC Project Steering Committee RRD Provincial Rural Rehabilitation and Development RTSU Regional Technical Support Unit RuWatSIP Rural Water, Sanitation and Irrigation Program RWSSP Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project UNHCR United Nations High Commissioners for Refugees UNICEF United Nations’ Children’s’ Fund USAID United States Agency for International Development RuWatSIP Water and Sanitation WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene WHO World Health Organization WSG Water and Sanitation Group WSUC Water and Sanitation Users’ Committee WSUG Water and Sanitation Users’ Group WUA Water Users Association LIST OF TABLES TABLE- 1: ESTIMATED SURFACE AND GROUND WATER BALANCE (BCM PER YEAR) IN THE WHOLE COUNTRY.................... 10 TABLE- 2: CHARACTERISITCS OF MAJOR RIVER BASINS ......................................................................................................... 10 TABLE- 3: ESTIMATED SURFACE WATER POTENTIAL ............................................................................................................. 11 TABLE- 4: RIVER BASINS WATER BALANCE DATA ................................................................................................................... 14 TABLE- 5: INDICATIVE WATER POINTS FLOW RATES NEEDS .................................................................................................. 24 TABLE- 6: REQUIREMENTS FOR IRON CASING DESIGN .......................................................................................................... 26 TABLE- 7: WATER POINTS FAILURE TYPES AND CAUSES, DACAAR......................................................................................... 38 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE- 1: AFGHANISTAN POPULATION DENSITY .................................................................................................................. 8 FIGURE- 2: AFGHANISTAN MORPHOLOGY .............................................................................................................................. 8 FIGURE- 3: AFGHANISTAN GEOMORPHOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 9 FIGURE- 4: AFGHANISTAN RIVER BASINS .............................................................................................................................. 10 FIGURE- 5: AFGHANISTAN MAJOR RIVERS WATERSHED....................................................................................................... 14 FIGURE- 6: AFGHANISTAN MEAN ANNUAL PRECIPITATION ................................................................................................. 15 FIGURE- 7: TEMPERATURE OF THE COLDEST MONTH .......................................................................................................... 16 FIGURE- 8: TEMPERATURE OF THE HOTTEST MONTH .......................................................................................................... 16 AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 5 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector FIGURE- 9: PRIORITY DISTRICTS FOR WATER AID IN DROUGHT AFFECTED PROVINCES (AUG 2011) ................................... 18 FIGURE- 10: RURAL WATER SUPPLY SCHEME ....................................................................................................................... 24 FIGURE- 11: WATER TOWER DESIGN .................................................................................................................................... 32 FIGURE- 12: PIPE INSTALLATION DESIGN (CROSS-SECTION) ................................................................................................ 33 FIGURE- 13: FOUNTAIN MODEL ADAPT FOR SMALL TOWNS................................................................................................ 36 FIGURE- 14: FOUNTAIN MODEL ADAPT FOR VILLAGES ......................................................................................................... 36 FIGURE- 15: WELL WITH CONTAMINATION PROTECTION FIGURE- 16: DUG WELL WITHOUT POLLUTION (MRRD MANUAL)PROTECTION ................................................................... 39 FIGURE- 17: SUGGESTED DRILLED WELL DESIGN REVISION .................................................................................................. 40 FIGURE- 18: DRILLED WELLS CASING PRESCRIPTIONS (USEPA) ............................................................................................ 41 FIGURE- 19: COMPRESSIVE STRENGHT OF CASING MATERIALS (USEPA) ............................................................................. 42 FIGURE- 20: COMPACT TREATMENT PLAN ........................................................................................................................... 43 FIGURE- 21: SANITARY LANDFILL DIAGRAM ......................................................................................................................... 44 FIGURE- 22: -VAULT DEHYDRATION TOILET WITH INCLINED LIDS TO INCREASE THE SOLAR HEATING EFFECT ................... 45 FIGURE- 23: DOUBLE-VAULT DEHYDRATION TOILET WITH URINE DIVERSION (EASREY ET AL., 1998) ................................. 47 FIGURE- 24: GENERAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM (DACAAR) ................................................................................................... 52 FIGURE- 25: CONCRETE TANK O&M REQUIREMETS (DACAAR) ............................................................................................ 52 FIGURE- 26: DRILLED WELL O&M REQUIREMENTS (DACAAR) .............................................................................................. 53 FIGURE- 27: PUMPING STATION O&M REQUIREMENTS (DACAAR) ...................................................................................... 53 FIGURE- 28: PUBLIC STANDPOSTS O&M REQUIREMENTS (DACAAR) ................................................................................... 53 FIGURE- 29: HAND PUMP O&M REQUIREMENTS (DACAAR) ................................................................................................ 54 AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 6 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector 1. OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY The “Technical Options” Report has been prepared for the Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development (MRRD), and the World Bank (WB) as part of a series of studies conducted for Developing Sector Strategies and Options to Support the Afghanistan Rural Water Sector, whose objective is to “develop a deeper understanding on the Afghanistan’s rural water sector development needs and recommend actions to improve the sector and its agencies’ performance According to the Terms of Reference its aim is to provide an action plan which will include: Technical choices of water and sanitation sub-projects required for prioritized provinces – guidance note on designs, procurement and implementation. Technical guidance and strategy on reviving or rehabilitating existing water points Promoting sustainability – critical technical and institutional measures required Geographical, environmental, institutional and social elements are synthetically described for the aspects that interest the process that could lead to a successful implementation of water points which includes: identification, feasibility, design, construction, operation and maintenance. These outcomes are derived from technical issues and knowledge gaps emerged from recent program achievements and recognized as important challenges for RWSS development identified in the Rural Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Policy. Technical improvements needed for the choice and implementation of the most suitable types of intervention will be critically analyzed and disaggregated at a provincial level based on factors that could potentially impact or influence the capacity, costs and expertise needed according to different territories or rural areas, and specifically: a. Morphology; b. Different climates and rainfall precipitations levels; c. Water resource and water balance; d. Actual infrastructures in place and estimated water demand; The present action plan is based also on information gathered by the consultant through meetings with stakeholders in Kabul, particularly the Engineering section of MRRD, and through secondary data review of studies conducted by the international community. The following chapters present the situational analysis undertaken, focusing on elements that might affect the choices of technical options, including the geographical, environmental, institutional and social issues. Based on the situational analysis, the report, in Ch. 4-7, builds the technical choices of water assets and sanitation facilities in all phases leading to implementation: identification, feasibility, design, construction, operation and maintenance. For each phase, a set of activities and recommendations is provided to enhance technical knowledge and capacity building of the RWSS Sector in the country. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 7 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector 2. COUNTRY FRAMEWORK 2.1 DEMOGRAPHY According to the 2007/8 National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment, the population of Afghanistan is approximately 24 million. FIGURE- 1: AFGHANISTAN POPULATION DENSITY Based on National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment 2007/8 (NRVA), around 80 percent of the total population is living in rural areas (74%+ 6% Kuchis). The total number of households in Afghanistan is estimated at around 3.4 million, with an average household size of 7.3 persons. Only 11 provincial cities are considered as urban (dense population). According to NRVA, majority of the poor live in rural areas, with high levels of food insecurity and a lack of access to water, infrastructure and basic public services. 2.2 MORPHOLOGY The following information comes from the Study of the CA Water under the aegis of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation.1 Afghanistan is a landlocked country of 652,000 square km. Over three quarters of the country is mountainous. More than a quarter (27 per cent) of the national territory lies above 2,500 msl. It is strategically located at the cross-roads of three main regions; the Indian sub-continent to the east, central Asia to the north and the Middle East in the west. Afghanistan’s neighbors are the landlocked CIS countries (Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan) to the north, Pakistan to the east and south, the Islamic Republic of Iran to the west and China to the north-east. The Afghan landscape is mostly denuded -harsh desert. In the central highlands and the North-East, the Hindu Kush elevates its rugged, brownish and inhospitable slopes. Even when the landscape is soothing, the nature is not generous. Geographers distinguish the ‘lut’, arid steppes , hostile to cultivation, from the ‘dasht’, steppes which turn green just after snow melt or rainfall in spring and attract nomadic livestock. The most extensive flatlands are located in the southwest of the country, centered around the drainage of the Helmand basin and in the north of the country, between the northern foothills of the Amu Darya (Oxus) River (marking the border with Tajikistan and Uzbekistan). Both regions, the southwest in particular, include large areas of sand desert. These desolate landscapes contrast sharply with the exuberant and fertile alluvial 1 (http://www.cawater-info.net/afghanistan/pdf/afg_wat_atlas_part_1_2.pdf). AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 8 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector irrigated plains that surround the Hindu Kush Mountains and the narrow irrigation strips that border the rivers descending sinuous mountainous valleys. FIGURE- 2: AFGHANISTAN MORPHOLOGY FIGURE- 3: AFGHANISTAN GEOMORPHOLOGY 2.3 HYDROLOGY The aim of this chapter is to describe the hydrological aspects that can affect the choice of the water source for rural water supply systems in different areas. Information, emerging from the CA Study,2 highlights that the total amount of precipitation in Afghanistan is estimated to be 180 Billion cubic meters (BCM)/year. 80% of this precipitation is concentrated in areas above 2000m altitudes. The snow reserve in the highest mountains provides a natural storage for water that descends along the river during spring and summer. Recent estimates indicate that the country has around 80 BCM/year of potential water resources of which 58 BCM is surface water and 22 BCM is groundwater. The annual volume of water used for irrigation is estimated to be 30 BCM, while the total amount of domestic water demand for 31,000.000 inhabitants (considering a per capita need of 60 lt/day, including all domestic and public use, except irrigation) can be estimated at 2 Study of the CA Water under the aegis of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 9 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector approx, 0.8 BCM, thus not being too relevant compared to total use. Total groundwater extraction (including irrigation and domestic use) amounts to some 3 BCM. Approximately 15 per cent of the total water volume used annually originates from alluvial groundwater aquifers (9 per cent) and springs (7 per cent), and almost 85 per cent from rivers and streams. Ground water used from deep wells counts for less than 0.5 per cent. As compared to other countries, annual per capita water available in Afghanistan is approximately 2500 cubic meters, while for instance in Iran it is 1400 cubic meter per capita per year and in Pakistan 1200 cubic meter per capita per year. A qualitative assessment shared in the table below shows that Afghanistan's water resources are still largely underused: TABLE- 1: ESTIMATED SURFACE AND GROUND WATER BALANCE (BCM PER YEAR) IN THE WHOLE COUNTRY Water Present Future Future Potential Resources use use Balance Surface Water 58 17 30 28 Groundwater 22 3 5 17 Total 80 20 35 45 This does not mean that surface water and groundwater can be used freely without any caution: first of all in each area, an analysis must be conducted on how much of this ‘potential’ resource can be accessed without damage to people and ecosystem. For example, even if the general balance of groundwater is favorable, an intensive pumping in certain areas can cause a watershed drawdown or the withdrawal of excessive quantities of water from a river or a stream can affect the environment. Thus, despite water availability, a specific study for each intervention is recommended. In the following figure, we give an indication of water balance at regional levels. From a hydrological point of view, Afghanistan can be divided in 5 large river basins: the Amu Darya basin and the Northern river basins, the Helmand river basin, the western river basins (Khash, Farharod, Aderskan, Harierod), and the Kabul and Indus river basins in the East. FIGURE- 4: AFGHANISTAN RIVER BASINS General characteristics of these four basins are shown in the following Table 2: TABLE- 2: CHARACTERISITCS OF MAJOR RIVER BASINS River basin Rivers included in this basin Catchment Storage Annual runoff area (Km2) capacity (km3) (Billion m3) AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 10 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector Amu Darya and Wakhan, Kokcha, Kundz, Pamir/Panj, Marghab, Northern basin Shrin Tagab, Sur pul, Bulkh, Kashan, Kushk, 302,000 25 18 Gulran Helmand river basin Helmand, Arghandab, Ghazni, Trank, Arghastan, 218,600 7 Musa Qala 13.20 Western rivers basin Khash, Farharod, Aderskan, Harierod etc 85,300 3 Kabul/Indus basin Kabul, Kunar, Alishing, Alinegar, Logar, Pangshir, 72,000 23 24 Shutol, Ghorbund, Laghman, Maidan Total 58 TABLE- 3: ESTIMATED SURFACE WATER POTENTIAL There are plenty of individual discharge data of many Afghan rivers, particularly the Kabul River and the Helmand River as well as their tributaries. However, no reliable documentation is available about the systematic quantification of surface water resources at watershed level. In Table 3, an attempt has been made to quantify the annual surface water resources at watershed level. The limited reliability of data collected did not permit the presentation of surface water resources potential at regional level. Most of the rivers listed in the table are perennial although many of them become dry in their lower reaches during late summer due to the diversion of water for irrigation purposes. Discharges rise continuously from March onwards due to snowmelt in June/July before receding to a minimum in Dec./Jan. Most disastrous floods occur after heavy rainfall in March/April, especially when snowmelt is already well advanced. Surface water quality is excellent in the upper basins of all rivers throughout the year and good in the lower basins inspite of large irrigated areas. As far as it is known, the presence of saline soils in irrigated areas is never caused by poor water quality but rather by over-irrigation (water logging) or eventually lack of water supply for salt leaching during irrigation (fallow fields and high ground water table). The right table, indicating the breakdown of surface water potential at province level, can address in the choice of the source type in each area. Source: Water Resources Management in Afghanistan: The Issues and Options by Asad Sarwar Qureshi: WP 49. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 11 2.4 HYDROGEOLOGY 2.4.1 General Aspects Different systems of aquifers are present in Afghanistan due to complex geology:3 • Quaternary deposits in the major river valleys particularly in the Kabul River Basin, river systems in the Helmand River Basin to the east (Ghazni, Tarnak, Arghistan and Arghandab), the Hari Rud River systems within the Northern Flowing Rivers and Amu Darya Basins; • The semi-consolidated Neocene Age deposits in the Kabul River and other river basins; • Carbonate rock aquifer systems on the northern flank of the Hindu Kush Mountain Range and along portions of the Helmand River in Oruzgan Province; • Carbonate rock systems at other locations. Unconsolidated Aquifer Systems are found along major river systems and in intermountain basins. These comprise the most prolific aquifers in Afghanistan. Most of the irrigation from groundwater sources (springs, karezes, open wells and drilled wells) is derived from these aquifer systems. The unconsolidated aquifer systems comprise alternating layers of pebbles/gravels, sands, silts and clays. The sediments range from unconsolidated to partially consolidated (semi-indurated). Adjacent to the mountains, the sediments are typically coarse grained or alluvial fans. Along the major river systems, alluvial deposits are present which can be several tens of meters thick and coarse grained Carbonate rock systems occur within the Hindu Kush and at its northern and southern flanks. The carbonate massif to the north (Northern Flowing Rivers Basin and the western part of the Amu Darya Basin) is comprised of limestone and dolomite locally interbedded with sandstone and conglomerate. There are occurrences of sink holes, caves and caverns. Significant springs are made of this rock system which form the headwaters of the rivers in north central and northwest Afghanistan. The principal carbonate rock aquifer systems lie to the north of the Hindu Kush Mountain range and in the Helmand River basin. Consolidated bedrock aquifer systems. There is very little documentation on the groundwater development potential of the bedrock aquifer systems in Afghanistan. The yield potential of the crystalline rocks (granites, schist, gneiss, etc) is expected to be significantly lower than the unconsolidated aquifer systems in the country. The sedimentary and igneous rock units, which underlie large parts of the country may have development potential, but have not been explored in details as yet. 2.4.2 Aquifer recharge Exhaustive evaluation of aquifer/groundwater recharge has not yet been carried out in Afghanistan, with some studies addressing only the magnitude of groundwater recharge in specific areas. However, the predominant groundwater recharge mechanisms can be summarized as follows: • The Quaternary and Neocene aquifers are recharged via infiltration from rivers and streams descending from the high mountains and infiltrating into the coarse grained alluvial fans. It is in these very geologically controlled locales (alluvial fans) that many karezes have been installed over centuries. In some river valleys, direct recharge of precipitation in lowland areas occurs from snowmelt in winter and spring; • A component of recharge from the bounding higher elevation bedrock systems to the unconsolidated and semi-consolidated Quaternary and Neocene aquifers; • The bedrock aquifer system that comprises a vast land area in Afghanistan, relies on the direct infiltration of precipitation for recharge. This recharge varies depending on the degree of fracturing, altitude, and relative amounts of precipitation/evapo-transpiration; • The carbonate rock aquifer systems, from which large springs emerge, particularly on the northern flank of the Hindu Kush, are probably recharged from the direct infiltration of precipitation; 3The following characterization has been adapted from Uhl (2003): “An overview of groundwater resources in Afghanistan” of 2003, ibid. Afghanistan Rural Water Sector • The unconsolidated aquifer systems in the southern and northern desert areas of the country receive very little recharge due to the very low annual precipitation and high rate of evapo-transpiration. 2.4.3 Groundwater Resources: Availability and Use An analysis of groundwater resource availability and use is necessary in order to determine the choice of the source type: for areas where the groundwater recharge is critical, it is advisable to resort to surface water, perhaps developing basins or small lakes to store the water when availability is scarce during dry season. The following section shares the analyses of groundwater resource availability for different river watersheds.4 Kabul River Basin. This is a river basin that requires an evaluation of the potential for additional groundwater withdrawals in each of the sub basins. For the southeastern tributaries of the Indus River Basin, the estimate of groundwater recharge for unconsolidated aquifer systems (140Mm3/yr) is around double the estimated groundwater withdrawal estimate (80Mm3/yr) indicating the potential for modest additional withdrawals. While the estimates of groundwater recharge (FAO and Uhl/BAS study) indicate that groundwater recharge is in excess of irrigation withdrawals for the entire Kabul basin, the recharge estimate for the unconsolidated aquifer systems in the river valleys (380Mm3/yr) is less than the estimated groundwater withdrawal (450Mm3/yr) for irrigation purposes. Eastern Helmand Basin. The estimated annual groundwater recharge (1,170Mm3/yr) is somewhat greater than the estimated usage (750Mm3/yr) However, as most irrigation water is derived from unconsolidated aquifer systems, the estimated usage may well exceed the estimated annual recharge (530Mm3/yr) for the unconsolidated aquifer systems. The groundwater systems in the Eastern Helmand Basin require hydro- geological investigations and monitoring to assess sustainability at current and projected future rates of withdrawal. Western Helmand Basin. The recharge estimate (500Mm3/yr) for the basin is somewhat higher than the estimated irrigation groundwater use (300Mm3/yr). However, the estimated recharge for the unconsolidated aquifer units (340Mm3/yr), where much of the irrigation withdrawal takes place, is comparable to irrigation usage. Overall, this basin appears to have limited potential for natural groundwater recharge primarily because of low annual average precipitation and high evapo-transpiration rates. Western Rivers Basin. The recharge estimate (500Mm3/yr) for the basin at large is somewhat higher than the estimated irrigation groundwater use (300Mm3/yr). However, the estimated recharge for the unconsolidated aquifer units (340Mm3/yr), where much of the irrigation withdrawal takes place, is comparable to irrigation usage. Overall, this basin appears to have a limited potential for natural groundwater recharge primarily because of low annual average precipitation and high evapo-transpiration rates. Hari Rud. The recharge estimate (640Mm3/yr) for this basin, when compared to the 160 Mm3/yr estimated irrigation usage, indicates the potential for additional groundwater development in this basin for irrigation purposes. Northern Flowing Rivers. The estimated annual groundwater use for irrigation (210Mm3/yr) is considerably lower than the groundwater recharge estimate (2,140Mm3/yr) indicating the potential for developing significant additional groundwater for irrigation purposes in The Northern Basin. Amu Darya Basin. The estimated annual groundwater use for irrigation (100Mm3/yr) is minimal in comparison to the groundwater recharge estimate (2,970Mm3/yr) indicating a significant surplus of groundwater reserves in this river basin and the potential for future development of groundwater resources for irrigation in the Amu Darya Basin. In the following table water balance data are summarized: 4 Ibid AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 13 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector TABLE- 4: RIVER BASINS WATER BALANCE DATA Groundwater recharge (10% precipitation) BASIN Surface IRRIGATION RECHARGE Irrigation Drawdown (km2) (m3/year) (m3/year) Area (has) problems Kabul 54.000 450.000.000 380.000.000 61.000 X Indus 18.644 80.000.000 670.000.000 10.500 Easter Helmand 72.200 750.000.000 1.170.000.000 100.000 X (tributaries) Western Helmand 118.660 750.000.000 1.310.000.000 101.000 Rivers Khash, Farah, and 108.201 300.000.000 500.000.000 38.000 Adraskan Hari Rud 39.000 160.000.000 640.000.000 20.870 Northern Basins 114.787 210.000.000 2.140.000.000 27.100 Amu Darya 90.893 100.000.000 2.970.000.000 13.140 TOTAL 616.385 2.800.000.000 9.780.000.000 371.610 FIGURE- 5: AFGHANISTAN MAJOR RIVERS WATERSHED 2.5 CLIMATES Climatological aspects affect many factors of water supply and sanitation access: temperature and humidity influence the per capita water need and influence a range of solutions for dejection disposal. For this reason, it is important to summarize the most relevant climates found in different areas of the country. According to USAID5 climate study, Afghanistan has a typical arid or semi-arid steppe climate, characterized by cold winters and dry summers. The wet season is concentrated in winter and spring when the vegetative cover is low. In higher elevation, precipitation falls in the form of snow that is highly critical for river flow in summer. Afghanistan receives hardly any precipitation from June to October. Precipitation usually fluctuates greatly during the course of the year in all parts of the country. Surprise rainstorms often transform the episodically flowing rivers and streams from puddles to torrents. 5 http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/35.htm AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 14 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector The mountainous regions of the northeast are subarctic with dry and cold winters. In the mountains bordering Pakistan, a divergent fringe effect of the monsoon brings tropical air masses that determine the climate between July and September. At times, these air masses advance into central and southern Afghanistan, bringing increased humidity and some rain. The Central Mountains, with higher peaks ascending towards the Pamir Knot, represent another distinct climatic region. January temperatures may drop to -15°C or lower in the highest mountain areas; July temperatures vary between 0 and 26°C depending on altitude. The annual mean precipitation, much of which is snowfall, increases eastward and is highest in the Koh-e Baba Range, the western part of the Pamir Knot, and the Eastern Hindukush. Precipitation in these regions and the eastern monsoon area is about forty centimeters per year. The eastern monsoon area encompasses patches in the eastern border area with Pakistan, in irregular areas in eastern Afghanistan from north of Asmar to just north of Darkh-e Yahya, and occasionally as far west as the Kabul Valley. The Wakhan Corridor, however, which has temperatures ranging from 9°C in summers to below -21°C in winters, receives fewer than ten centimeters of rainfall annually. In the mountainous region adjacent to northern Pakistan, snow is often more than two meters deep during the winter months. The climate of the Turkistan Plains, which extend northward from the Northern Foothills, represents a transition between mountain and steppe climates. Aridity increases and temperatures rise with descending altitudes, becoming the highest along the lower Amu Darya and in the western parts of the plains. The southern areas of Afghanistan are prone to drought and water scarcity: the area from Herat to Ghazni receives less than 300 mm of rain per year, with the region south of Bust and Farah receiving even less than 100 mm of rainfall per year. FIGURE- 6: AFGHANISTAN MEAN ANNUAL PRECIPITATION AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 15 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector OLDEST MONTH FIGURE- 7: TEMPERATURE OF THE COLDEST FIGURE- 8: TEMPERATURE OF THE HOTTEST MONTH AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitatio ation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 16 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector 3. STATUS OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY SECTOR IN THE COUNTRY 3.1 RURAL WATER DEMAND AND NATIONAL OBJECTIVES According to information in the “Demography” chapter, 80% of the 24 million inhabitants of Afghanistan live in rural areas. The main factor of the localization of people is water availability, which permits living and practicing agriculture. The rural water needs in a village are described in Paragraph 5.2.2 “Evaluation of flow rate”. The coverage report finds that 55% of the population has access to drinking water. The parameters have a range of applications and the calculation of the water demand in a village implies the evaluation of the livestock and the life conditions of the inhabitants. Applying an average value to the totality of the rural population of the Country these needs can, however, be evaluated in a total of around 0.6 BCM/year. MRRD has set the goal of providing over 15 million rural people in the country with basic water supply services (at least 25 liters of safe water per day per person) and sanitation facilities over the next 5 years. To achieve this target, MRRD aims at constructing at least 100,000 water points across the country. The sanitation indicator shows disparities: only 24% of household members in rural areas use an improved sanitation facility, while in urban areas 51% use an improved facility. The coverage report finds that overall, the sanitation coverage rate stands at 4%. Behind these national averages are stark disparities between the rich and poor and amongst regions. 3.2 EXISTING RURAL WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES Construction of water points/sources: In accordance with the above data, approx. 50,000 rural water supply systems exist in Afghanistan. Actual needs have been estimated as requiring an additional 80,000 rural water supply systems. Sanitation facilities: The lack of latrines is more severe than the lack of water supply systems. Elaborating the data of deficiencies of the World Food Programme, the minimum number of latrines required in the country has been estimated at 1,500,000, while the total number of the existing latrines can be estimated at 500,000. It is important to note that constructing septic tanks is highly advisable, especially for preventing health risks, for at least major settlements with more than 2000- 3000 inhabitants. 3.3 RESOURCE ANALYSIS As indicated in the Chapters “Hydrology” and “Hydrogeology”, water availability in Afghanistan is higher than the needs, except for some areas in Kabul’s river basin and in the Eastern Helmand basin where a drawdown of the unconsolidated superficial watershed has been observed. It means that both surface water and groundwater sources can be used, provided specific studies are undertaken in order to recommend context appropriate sources and environmental impacts. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 17 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector 4. TECHNICAL CHOICES OF WATER AND SANITATION SUB-PROJECTS REQUIRED FOR PRIORITIZED PROVINCES 4.1 GENERAL ASPECTS A partial analysis of the priorities of the rural water supply interventions has been developed by USAID and SSDA within the WASH cluster. The priority districts identified therein are localized within the Northern Provinces as indicated on the map below. The selection has been done according to the level of water shortage for the population. FIGURE- 9: PRIORITY DISTRICTS FOR WATER AID IN DROUGHT AFFECTED PROVINCES (AUG 2011) Based on NSP data summarizing more than 14,000 recent interventions of RWSS in the country, a wide analysis has been conducted for the present study. In general, from a technical and social point of view, the preference order for drinking water sources is the following: 1. Karazes and springs where water comes out from the watershed in certain morphology conditions at the foot of mountains or hills is at the ground level. 2. Dug well where water comes from the superficial unconsolidated watershed where it is available. 3. Bore well; water from deeper generally consolidated watershed. 4. Natural or artificial lake. 5. Rivers. In the following table an indication of the advisable technical options for each province is indicated, according to the results of the hydro geological considerations and analysis of the NSP data. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 18 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector TABLE- 5: TECHNICAL OPTIONS FOR RWSS IN EACH PROVINCE 4.2 RECOMMENDED TECHNICAL OPTIONS ACCORDING TO PROVINCIAL LEVEL CONDITIONS 4.2.1 Dug Wells Generally speaking in the Unconsolidated sediments - Semi-consolidated Neocene Age along the major river systems (Kabul river, Helmand River, Hari Rud, Amu Darya Basins), it is advisable to recur to dug wells when: • the water table is higher than 50 meters • the seasonal fluctuation of the water table in the area is less than 2 meters in a normal year. • there are no roads in the area and the only transport is by animal, which is a common situation in mountain areas. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 19 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector For dug wells, with sanitary precautions indicated in chapter 5, a chlorination treatment would be sufficient. The necessity of lifting is limited and can be supplied by a hand pump that lifts the water to the tap. The Operation and Maintenance (O&M) procedures are not very demanding and can be provided by a local person in-charge and with limited funds. 4.2.2 Boreholes In the Unconsolidated sediments, the percussion drilling method or rotary systems are necessary as the groundwater level is too deep to be reached with dug wells. This situation is typical of the Carbonate rock aquifer systems or in the basement rocks in the northern flanks of the Hindu Kush Mountain Range and along portions of the Helmand River in Oruzgan Province. In these areas there are lithoid formations and the depth of the well and the drilling method can vary considerably in relation to the aquifer depth and the rock consistency. The sanitary characteristics of the borehole water are generally suitable for drinking purposes and no additional treatments are required. Deep wells require an electro mechanical lifting, so the cost of energy and a more demanding O&M must be considered. On the other hand, an electrical pump allows the feeding of a tank that can cover a distribution network, serving larger numbers of people right in their homes. So, the sustainability of this technical option requires a community of at least 50-100 inhabitants with few economic resources. 4.2.3 Flowing Water – Karezes, Springs Karazes, the traditional hand dug tunnels, are ecologically sustainable, but highly vulnerable to pollution and to water shortage, being fed by the superficial watershed. These are mainly used for irrigation in the south and southwest of the country and less in the northern areas, generally where there are long dry periods without surface water. Since this kind of catchment is vulnerable to contamination, water treatment (chlorination) must always be foreseen for drinking purposes. Spring water is a highly desirable source for community water supply systems, since it flows naturally to the surface, without the need to pump it and since impurities and contaminants are filtered out naturally by soils, sand, and other subsurface media, removing often the need for artificial purification methods. Generally, if the source is protected, treatment can be avoided or limited to chlorination and the necessity of lifting become minimal as the water is already at ground level. 4.2.4 Surface water Rivers, lakes and other natural or artificial water bodies can be used to supply substantial quantities of water. In case of lakes, sanitary aspects require major treatments in order to make lake water potable- for instance the filtration and disinfection of water when the quality analysis does not specifically require secondary treatment. An electro mechanical lifting would be required for this option, raising the cost of energy and O&M considerably as compared to a simple bore well option. Of course, this solution is generally sustainable for medium size villages, endowed with some economic resources. An important aspect to be considered is the need for treatment: if water quality allows simplified treatment like the one in compact treatment plants (as described in 5.14.3), costs would not be so high and a village of 1000 to 2000 inhabitants could bear them. The sustainability of major water quality treatments will depend on the numbers of people utilising the facility, perhaps around 10,000 inhabitants. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 20 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector For rivers, complicated intake works will have to be implemented, in addition to all costs that are required for lakes. This is because the position of the edge of the river during the season is very variable, thus requiring protection from erosion and sedimentation. The sanitary aspects can be more problematic for rivers than for a lake since the river is an impossible source that to protect and can be subjected to variable pollution levels, that would make treatment more difficult. Therefore, this solution is generally sustainable for big villages or small towns with at least 1000-10.000 inhabitants that possess some modicum of economic resources. Due to the importance of the capitation and treatment works, generally the Water Supply schemes fed by surface water are also most complex, including pumping stations, main conduction pipes, storage reservoirs and distribution network. In such a Water Supply System, an O&M dedicated team is necessary. In order to guarantee the sustainability of the systems, the water distribution points (private or public) must be regulated by meters that allow to the Community to charge for the consumed water. 4.2.5 Social design parametres to consider When deciding the design of a water project, not only has the availability of water and technical options to be considered but also user needs and concerns. This, in particular, applies to the role of women (and girls) as they are typically the main fetchers of water. It is therefore important to ensure that the location of water points is acceptable for women, i.e. the location must ensure safe passage to the water points, and if possible at all times of the day. It is therefore paramount that the design takes into consideration the concerns of women. In order to avoid the water points being taken over by individuals, care will have to be taken that the land on which the water point is located is not privately owned. If there are existing water sources, the best solution might be to locate, if possible, new water points in the vicinity of these. Up and down stream users of the same water source should also be taken into consideration in order to avoid conflict over other communities using the same water source. The use of a water source upstream might deprive downstream users of their water source, and the use of a water points with other upstream users could lead to the contamination or drying up of the water source, thus leading to conflict. In order to select a technical design of a water point, it is important that users are aware of the consequences of different options (in some instances options might not be available due to hydrogeological or other technical restrictions), for e.g. long distances to water points, unsafe locations of or routes to the water point, and variations in user fee. A piped scheme with water pumped to a reservoir might provide more convenient access to water but the cost of operation and maintenance will also be much higher than a well fitted with a hand pump. Some sources might also be less reliable than others, potentially forcing users to go for more unsafe alternatives, e.g. during drought. Consensus amongst users would be required on the use of water, especially when local livelihood activities include animal husbandry, brick making, etc. The presence of a water source not only increases the practice of such activities but sometimes also introduces such activities in case they did not exist earlier. Working through CDCs has the advantage of permitting the mobilization and discussion of different options that are already well-defined and tested as well as known to the community, thus increasing the likelihood of a successful design of water points. 4.3 FEEDBACKS FROM TECHNICAL OPTIONS CHOICES FROM STAKEHOLDERS’ WORKSHOP A workshop was organised in Kabul in March 2012 to present the technical options study where the following considerations were highlighted with regard to the technical options choices at provincial level: AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 21 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector • With regards to pumping devices, hand pumps are the preferred option as maintenance is easier and running cost is lower. In general, the participants of the workshop had some doubts on the possibility for sustaining piped schemes, especially for small villages. • In some areas, surface water was seen as the only option. However, participants were not convinced with regards to the use of a central treatment plants since these are mainly used during emergencies, are complicated to operate, have high running costs, and require electricity/generators. In the present report, in paragraph 5.14.3, a new technology has been described that allows depuration of water with a compact pre-casted plant. However, it is clear that in general, treatment plants should be the last resort. Better options would be slow-sand-filtration but the participants could only come up with one example where this was being used in the rural areas. The preferred option was household level treatment, such as sand or bio filters. • The order of preference for surface water sources as expressed by workshop participants is: first natural springs, then karezes, and surface water from lakes and rivers. The possibility of constructing gravity schemes, using surface slow-sand-filtration, must be considered. • Another option to be considered is tapping groundwater sources – hand dug wells were preferred over boreholes, especially near perennial streams. Management and use of hand dug wells encourages substantial community involvement, and thus increases the sense of ownership. Furthermore, hand dug wells can be used in areas where drilling rigs cannot go, and in areas with larger boulders that can be lifted out of the well. • Participants were not convinced that booster pumps would work in a network piped system, especially because in rural areas where 24 hour electricity is not guaranteed. • The dehydration toilet option was refused by all participants due to climatic conditions being unfavourable. Instead, participants stated that de-composting latrines would be a useful option. • A participant complained that the two existing manuals (MRRD and WATSAN) contained an excess of information organized in a way that forced users to spend a lot of time reading since the information provided was a mix of policy and technical options. In Chapter 5 of the present report, a more concise handbook has been provided. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 22 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector 5. TECHNICAL GUIDANCE STRATEGY ON REVIVING OR REHABILITATING EXISTING WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 5.1 BACKGROUND Due to technical problems in the interventions in rural water supply in the country, two technical manuals have been recently developed: 1. The Water and Sanitation Group (WSG) Manual, prepared by the Rural Water, Sanitation and Irrigation Department of MRRD (Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development) - first version in 2006. 2. The National Solidarity Program (NSP) manual, prepared in 2010 and regularly updated until 2011. These two manuals, targeting specialized sector technicians, are high quality documents that contain detailed information, guidelines and technical specifications, and cover various kinds of interventions in the sector. In the following chapters, a summarized technical guidance is shared with the aim of providing a simplified “handbook” for the design, implementation, operation, maintenance and eventually rehabilitation of rural water supply systems in Afghanistan. This simplified “handbook” is aimed at avoiding most of the inconveniences occurring in past interventions. It is recommended that MRRD provide the necessary technical support to communities by creating a technical guidance unit, as specified in Chapter 6, for targeted support during the formulation and design of intervention phases. The technical guidance unit, in theory, should be composed of a sociologist, a hydro-geologist and a hydraulic engineer. The study of the rural water supply sector led to the identification of the following limitations: • design and the dimensioning of systems AEP are carried out without the necessary rigor and desirable optimization; • harmonization and the follow-up of interventions is insufficient with regard to the design, dimensioning, quality control of works and of equipments provided. 5.2 PROPOSED SCHEME OF A RURAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM 5.2.1 Description of scheme The proposed scheme of rural water supply systems is composed of the following components: 1. Pumping system; 2. Well; 3. Conduction pipe; 4. Water tower with chlorination and meter; 5. Distribution network; 6. Public fountains. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 23 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector FIGURE- 10: RURAL WATER SUPPLY SCHEME 5.2.2 Fields of application This scheme is advisable for water supply systems, pumped with power, where consumption is between 100m4/day to 6,000 m4/day, i.e. a flow of around 300 m3/ day and pumping height between 20m to 78m. The scheme specifications related to the pumping station, the pipes and the tanks are valid also for other types of sources typical of Afghanistan, like springs, karezes, rivers or small artificial lakes. 5.2.2 Evaluation of flow rates The water in the villages must meet the following indicative categories. However, rural communities might increase or decrease the flow rates according to their specific assessment of water needs. TABLE- 5: INDICATIVE WATER POINTS FLOW RATES NEEDS Use Consumption People 15-60 liters / inhabitant/day Animal feeding: - horse 20 liters / day - cow 20 liters / day - lamb 3 liters / day Requirements for 3 liters / day for m 2 vegetable garden The sum of the total volume of daily needs is the volume of the average day. The daily volume of pumping must be equal to the consumption of a peak day, which will be the average day multiplied by 1.5. In total, the daily peak demand losses must also be included (which, considering that networks are new, can be between 0% and 15%) and the possible increase necessary to consider the time horizon needs 10 years. The growth rate of population is between 0% and 4% and should be evaluated by a sociologist. Therefore, we can estimate that, by limiting water consumption only to people’s needs, 3 m 3/ day can provide a village of about 50 people while 300 m 3 / day could provide for 5,000 inhabitants. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 24 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector Since the limiting factor is normally the resource, it must be kept in mind that the availability of water will determine the size of intervention and the population that can be served. In this case, we cannot assume a growth rate since the system is already at the limit of its potential. 5.2.4 Design parameters The standard methodology for the design of a rural water supply system is reported as follows: a) A sociologist must assess the volume (m 3/ day) of the daily water needs of the village, making a census of the population and of other uses and multiplying for daily consumption and the leakage coefficient (K leakage ) of the system, as evaluated by the hydraulic technician. b) The sociologist must assess the annual growth rate "c" for the population and for other uses. With the growth rate, we can evaluate c(10 years) which is the coefficient of growth in 10 years and c(20 years) which is the coefficient for growth in 20 years. These coefficients are necessary because the pumping system has to be designed for the next 10 years and civil works for the next 20 years. c) The sociologist should also ensure that the socio-economic and cultural parameters described in sections 4.2.5 are adequately discussed and agreed upon with the users or their representatives. d) In the case of groundwater source (wells), a hydro-geologist must assess the depth and the production of the aquifer. e) A hydraulics technician must choose a pumping system in the condition to provide the volume of daily requirements by c(10 years). f) The conduction pipe will be designed according to the maximum pumping flow. g) The tank (water tower) volume will be evaluated by making a balance with the EXCEL table in ANNEX 1, using the methodology described in par. 5.1. h) The distribution system will be designed utilizing the flow obtained by multiplying the peak coefficient value of the hourly needs by the value of the average daily flow estimated for the 20 year horizon. 5.3. GUIDANCE ON DRILLING 5.3.1 General In the following guidance, the general aspects of the construction of a well are described as well as the choice of casing and the exploitation test. As a norm, the depth of the well should be decided according to the hydro geologist’s opinion followed by pumping tests for further confirmation. It is considered advisable to realize a perimeter of protection against pollution of 50m radius to a minimum. The above mentioned precaution has to be adopted also when utilizing existing wells. 5.3.2 Technical characteristics of the filter pack, casing, implementation and sampling Filter pack and apertures size . The filter pack granular composition has to be suggested by the geotechnical expert according with the site geotechnical characteristics. Iron casing. Diameter of the upper pump housing casing must provide sufficient clearance between the column pipe and casing to permit installation of a sounding tube or air line to measure depth to water. Extra clearance should be allowed for free operation of shaft driven pumps and the electric cable for submersible pumps. No well is exactly straight and operation will be unsatisfactory if there is misalignment. Additionally, consideration should be given to the possibility of corrosion product buildup which may lock the bowl to the casing. Consequently, pump housing casing should have a minimum diameter of at least two inches greater than the nominal diameter of the most efficient pump required for the desired yield. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 25 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector TABLE- 6: REQUIREMENTS FOR IRON CASING DESIGN CASING DIAMETERS Nominal Pipes Diameter (Inches - cm) Minimum Casing I.D. (inches - cm) 8” - 20 cm 10” – 25 cm 10 – 25 cm 12” – 30 cm 12” – 30 cm 14” – 35 cm 14” – 35 cm 16” – 40 cm 16” – 40 cm 18” – 45 cm The well screen should have the largest possible aperture size consistent with retaining the filter pack in a gravel envelope well, or formation material in non-gravel envelope wells. Typically slots for metal screens could be “torch cut”, milled, wired, bridge shaped. PVC casing. For smallest boreholes, the screen should be equipped with a PVC column endowed with centralizers that are equally spaced and composed of elements with slots sized according to the results of the excavation geotechnical analysis. To achieve the best combination, it is necessary to have elements of 6m and 3m with original thread. Slotted elements must come from an approved manufacturing and have perfectly calibrated slots with an opening that corresponds to the specification obtained in the size of the earth. In principle, for an average situation in the North of the Country, the largeness of slots could be of 0.5 mm. Drilling will be equipped with a minimum diameter of 4 ", screened to a height of 6m, either a single element or two elements of 3m. The PVC column diameter should be compatible with the size of the pumps. The base of the column will need to be provided with a settling tube of 3 m closed by a bottom plug. The annular space between field and column will have to be gravel from the base of drilling up to 6m above the screens. The gravel should have a particle size of 2 to 5mm. It will need to consist of a quartz material rolled to exclude any other material. Above the gravel, the annulus must be filled on 1m of sand and then with a 1 m cap of sobranite. Above this cap, the annular space will need to be filled by the excavated soil taken from a depth > 5 m and then cemented over 5meters ahead. The casing pipe will 0.50 m larger than the soil surface and temporarily closed by a PVC cap or metal padlock. The drilling diameter for the PVC casing will be between 6'' (15 cm) and 12'' (25 cm) or to a depth defined by studies conducted, while the PVC pipe diameters will be between 4'' (10 cm) and 10'' (20 cm). During drilling, cuttings will be collected every meter and at every change of soil. Samples will be kept on site in bags provided for this purpose and stored in a wooden box. The samples will be stored according to indication and the different parts will be screwed for half their thickness. The thread will be square or trapezoidal so that the handling of casing can be done without problem. The triangular thread is strictly prohibited. A manufacturing factory will need to provide a guarantee certificate for the PVC components. For the pipes the percentage of holes should be as large as possible and in every case greater than 7%. Tests must be conducted to demonstrate that casings are resistant to external pressures of 10 bar. Cement. Cement should be stored in the original bags, triple envelope, with the exclusion of any other packaging, away from contact with water or excessive moisture (in slatted pallets and covered with a stain canvas or plastic film). It must be used within three months of storage (even under the conditions defined above). The composition of the cement mixture must be 40 to 50 liters of water per 100 kg of slow Portland type cement. Another mixture can also be used by adding bentonite (70 liters of water, 3 to 5 kg of bentonite per 100 kg of cement). Gravel. The gravel introduced into the annular space of drilling will be clean quartz siliceous gravel, with the size of 2-5 mm for drilling in basement areas and 1-3 mm for drilling in the sedimentary area. The use of any other gravel such as round or crushed laterite is prohibited. In the annulus space above the gravel pack must be placed a sealed clay plug to prevent the risk of pollution and contamination from surface infiltration. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 26 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector 5.3.3 Drilling development The development work will be done immediately after the completion of the drilling and the well. It will be performed by blowing air (with a column of air at least 40 mm) and then pumped with a submersible pump or by using only the electric pump. The development will be continued until clear water without sandy or clay particles is obtained. The duration of this operation is expected to last an average of 3 hours. If defects are noticed in water quality during the development work, it must be stopped. The flow of water will need to be measured every 15 minutes. The water level and depth of the work will be measured after development. 5.3.4 Pumping test The flow test for boreholes must be conducted by an independent unit that will operate after the development and after the return to equilibrium level. A submersible electric pump with design specifications (nominal diameter, power, pressure and discharge) is advised. The water flow should be maintained constant during each phase, utilizing an outlet valve on the pipe. The test will last a total of 6 hours with three consecutive phases of pumping of 1 hour, followed by observation on the rise for 3 hours. The pumping flows will be approximately as follows: 1st phase: 1/3 of the flow tested during development phase, 2nd phase: 2/3 of the flow tested during the development phase, 3rd phase: maximal flow of the pump. Levels will be measured with a light probe for each step during the pumping and recharging phases, as per the following frequency: • Every minute until 10 minutes, • Every 2 minutes, from 10 to 20 minutes, • Every 5 minutes from 20 minutes to 1 hour. This test will allow us to draw the borehole’s characteristic curve and clarify the critical flow rate and the corresponding drawdown. It would be used, for a more wide interpretation, to determine the hydrodynamic parameters of the aquifer in the area. After testing, a well disinfection (injection of bleach followed by laying for 24 hours) must always be done. 5.4. GUIDANCE ON WATER ANALYSIS In order to conduct a quality test on the water, a 1liter sample of water will be collected from each type of source (river, spring, or borehole). This will help test and record the water quality, temperature, conductivity and pH. In order to certify the compliance of the entire operation, the water quality analysis process must include sampling, storage and transport to the laboratory for certification. The analysis must focus on the following characteristics: a) Physical : temperature, turbidity, conductivity, pH; b) Chemical : TA, CT, total hardness, calcium hardness, dry residual: • Anions: bicarbonate, carbonate, chloride, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, sulfate, fluoride ; • Cation, calcium, iron , magnesium, manganese, sodium, potassium, zinc, ammonium. c) Bacteriological : bacteriological analysis will focus on pathogenic microorganisms and will assess the potability compared to WHO standards. The main parameters, to be checked, are: • Aerobic Mesophiles • Escherichia Coli • Total coliform • Pseudomonas SPP In case the presence of other pollutants is suspected, specific investigations must be performed, for e.g. arsenic, chrome or lead testing. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 27 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector 5.5. GUIDANCE ON CONDUCTION PIPES 5.5.1 Pipe design Once the source for daily water requirements (1.5 maximum daily consumption at the temporal horizon of 20 years) has been established, the conduction pipe that connects the source with the tank has to be made. Typically the conduction pipe is fed by pumped water. Its layout is as direct as possible, comprising long lines connected by wide open corners. The profile is studied considering the placement of the pipe in a trench on the ground and avoiding the flat (minimum 0.2% slope). The pipe must always work under pressure. The pipe diameter must be determined as economical as possible. For preliminary design calculations, the Bresse formula can be used: D = K Q 0,5; where Q is the maximum pump flow (see part 2 paragraph 2.1) by considering the increase has come for the time horizon of 20 years in m 3 / sec.; D is the diameter of the pipe in m; K = 0,80 (constant). The parameters for sizing the discharge pipe are pressure and flow. From the values of these two parameters, we obtain the nominal pressure PN and the nominal diameter of the pipe DN. A maximum value must be considered for the nominal pressure PN of the pipe and must be between: - 1.5 times the hydrostatic pressure with the destination tank (water tower) over full load losses in the pipe; - 1.5 times the hydrostatic pressure with the destination tank (water tower) considering also the water hammer for sudden stop of the pump. The water hammer that has to be subtracted from the hydrostatic pressure, must also be taken into account, for checking the pipe depressurization. The following formula has been adopted for the water hammer: P is the pressure increase in m; “U” is the velocity of water in m/sec; “g” is the gravitational constant in m/sec2; “a” (m/sec) is the wave pressure propagation velocity for sudden water stop, and takes the value a = (e / ) ^ 0.5 / (1 + eD / Es) ^ 0.5 where “e” is the modulus of compressibility of water (kg/m2),  water density (kg/dm3), “E” is the modulus of elasticity of the pipe (kg/m2), “D” is the diameter of the pipe (m), “s” is the thickness of the pipe (m). For the nominal diameter calculation, several formulas can be adopted that allow the calculation of energy loss along the pipe. One of the most classical, is the formula of Strickler Gaukler: i = r Q2/D5 where i is the pressure drop per meter; r = 10,3/(c2 D1/3) ; c, the coefficient of friction, and typically is considered 100 for the PVC pipe in good conditions and 90 for the steel pipes; Q is the maximum pump in m 3 / sec.; D is the diameter of the pipe in m. To the line losses, must be added the concentrate losses concentrated in the elbows, the changes in diameter and more generally in all points of irregular water flow, which can be expressed as: = U 2 / 2g where is the water loss in m; AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 28 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector  is a dimensionless coefficient which depends on the type of irregularity; “U” is the water velocity in m / sec. ; “g” is the acceleration of gravity (9.81 m / sec. 2). The designer must verify that for all the flow conditions the piezometric line must be at least 1 m above the pipe for the entire length of the pipe, so that the water is under pressure everywhere. Besides, valves for discharge must be considered in all the lower points of the layout and air vent valves in all the higher points. 5.5.2 Materials The most common materials used for pipes are: • Steel for high pressure, high flow, long distance. Corrosion protection options must be considered for steel pipes. • Polyvinyl PVC for limited pressure, flow and distance. It must be noted that rural water supply interventions are generally included in this range. • Polyethylene PEAD with the same performance of PVC. The characteristics of each type will be treated in the chapter on distribution lines. Steel must be avoided in the presence of highly mineralized water where acid is suggested. 5.5.3 Complementary devices In case the water hammer jeopardizes the conduction pipe, a reduction device could be selected with an air box and a valve that opens instantly when pressure reaches a limit value, allowing water to enter. 5.6. GUIDANCE ON WATER TOWERS 5.6.1 Design A) Volume. To evaluate the usable volume of the 7-8 3.00 water towers, hourly water distribution rates in 8-9 0.85 the village must be considered as well as the 9-10 0.85 pumping hours during a typical day. 10-11 0.85 11-12 0.85 The hourly water distribution rate in the village is 12-13 0.85 generally very similar everywhere. A distribution 13-14 0.85 that considers 15% of water losses in the 14-15 0.85 distribution network, is reported in the following 15-16 0.85 table: 16-17 0.85 Day hour Consumption rate 17-18 0.85 0-1 0.15 18-19 3.00 1-2 0.15 19-20 4.00 2-3 0.15 20-21 0.15 3-4 0.15 21-22 0.15 4-5 0.15 22-23 0.15 5-6 0.15 23-24 0.15 6-7 4.00 Average value: 1.00 With 16 hours/day of pumping (including night time), the usable water volume of the tank should be increased by 55% above the daily volume peak. With 24 hours/day of pumping, the usable water volume of the tank should be increased by 35% above the peak daily volume. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 29 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector If the power is supplied to the pumps by solar energy (for which energy production is limited to the sunshine hours), the usable water volume of the tank should be at least 65% of the peak daily volume of the next 20 years. B) Level. To assess the optimal level of the bottom of the water tower, the following technical and economic considerations must be taken into account: • the cost of pumping energy that rises by increasing the level of the water tower (the cost should be actualized as for an immediate investment); • the cost of the conduction pipe and of the water tower itself that grows by increasing the tank level; • the cost of the distribution pipes diameters that decreases by increasing the tank level. Theoretically, a sum of these three costs must be made in function of the tank level and the level value corresponding to the minimum of the function must be calculated. Usually, one of the following two simplified procedures, could be adopted: 1. Design based on network velocity: • design a distribution network with water velocity in the pipes between 1 and 1.5 m/sec, corresponding to the peak flow value 6, taking into account that the pipes should remain at a minimum pressure of 2 m; • calculating the tank level necessary to ensure velocity by gravity; • then verify the level with the height of the pump, the water loss in the conduction pipe and the level of the water tower. 2. Design based on the water tower level • set the maximum possible level considering a reasonable height of the tank; • calculate the diameters of the distribution network by considering the minimum pressure of 2 m. The most common is the procedure 2, since the limiting factor is the height of the water tower. C) Structure. The dimensions of the tank structure, either in steel or reinforced concrete, should be calculated considering all charges necessary as per technical standards of Public Works in Afghanistan, as well as considering the climatic situation, the wind and seismic vulnerability. The calculation should particularly focus on the design of the foundation, checking the necessity of piles and verifying all the possible buckling situations. 5.6.2 Materials The most common materials used for water towers are: • Steel • Reinforced concrete or masonry • Plastic materials The piping of the tank shall be conform to DIN, with certificate of origin and manufacturer's warranty. In presence of highly mineralized and aggressive water (pH <6), steel tanks must be avoided. The requirements for each type of material is described later. 5.6.3 General characteristics of the water tower The water tower will normally be equipped with: 6 The value of this water flow is reported in the chapter regarding the distribution network AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 30 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector • a dead capacity below the level of making the distribution, a height of at least 5cm; • an feed pipe ending with a gooseneck inside the tank, operable from a platform, provided with no return valve; • a delivery pipe located 15 cm over the floor level, with gate valves operated from the platform, and a water meter; • a bypass that will connect the alimentation with the distribution pipe, with a gate valve and a check valve; • an overflow and an emptying pipe connected together below the slab; • a ventilation shaft protected with fly screen; • a metal ladder 0.40m wide to access the reservoir, firmly sealed to the post; the lower part (by 1.80m) will be removable, with a system for attaching it to a support and soil sealed in a concrete foundation; • a metal ladder 0.40 wide leading down inside the tank; • an indicator of level of water in the tank, readable from the ground; • a railing to access safely to the hatch, by extending the ladder on top of the tank; The water tower will be covered. It must possess sufficient thermal insulation characteristics. This particular problem will be considered for metal structures that will have a white external paint. The water overflow will be channeled to natural drainage of the ground, making sure that delivery is at a minimum distance of 10 m from the foundation of the tank and 50 m from the water source head. Steel tanks For steel water towers, which cannot be used in the presence of aggressive water, there should be a passive cathodic protection with the realization of a double buried cathode. Surfaces not in contact with water must be systematically coated with two coats of oil paint or good quality aluminum and colored on two coats of rust protection. The interior surfaces of the tank that are in contact with water must receive two coats of alimentary paint over the two coats for rust protection. The primer paint should be of good quality: it is recommendable a basic primary MODIFIED EPOXY (ref. EP 235) or a primary EPOXY CHROMATE (ref EA 746 - EB 746). All metal surfaces before receiving the first layer of anti-rust paint should be cleaned of rust and mill and a sand blasting must carefully be made. All paintings must be covered by a warranty of at least 15 years. They should have sufficient thermal insulation. All surfaces in contact with water must be stable from a chemical point of view. Reinforced concrete or masonry tanks For water towers in concrete or masonry, a waterproof epoxy resin application must be done on the inside. Plastic tanks Prefabricated castles made of plastic must respect all functional and quality requirements as listed below. The manufacturer provides all guarantees of mechanical strength, chemical stability to temperature and sun exposure, sealing, thermal insulation established by the International norms for drinking water reservoir. In addition, plastic panels should be made that prevent the transmission of light and eliminate bacterial growth of algae in the tank. The materials used to seal joints between panels shall be chemically stable. These materials should not be toxic and should be tested for: a) Tests of flavor, aroma, color and turbidity. b) Existence of toxic metals. c) "Cyto-toxicity" d) Micro biological development. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 31 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector 5.6.4 Maintenance of the tanks The water tower must be emptied, cleaned and disinfected every three months. For metal tanks, unless there is early degradation, all painting operations must be repeated every 15 years, including treatment with sandblasting. All equipment, valves, floats, meters should be lubricated and all filters must be cleaned, their operation being checked every six months. 5.6.5 Equipment The water tower must be equipped as per the following diagrams: FIGURE- 11: WATER TOWER DESIGN Unless major treatment is required, especially for surface water, a chlorination system must be made available at the entry point of water tower in case water tests reveal the presence of organic contamination. It must be noted that the absence of the volume meter that gauges the water level in the tank and the floating control are often weaknesses for tanks in rural water supply systems. 5.7. GUIDANCE ON DISTRIBUTION NETWORK PIPES 5.7.1 Pipe Design For pipes in the distribution network, the parameters for the design are pressure and peak flow Qp evaluated, considering needs within the next 20 years. Since water consumption is highly concentrated in the mornings and evenings, it can be assumed that the peak flow Qp is four times the average flow of the peak day. The network operates by gravity. The pressure PN of the pipe must be considered superior to 1.5 times the hydrostatic pressure with the tank full than with no water flow in the pipe. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 32 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector For calculating the nominal diameter, in case of network being branched, the same formulas can be used also for the conduction pipe proceeding from downstream to the tank. Although infrequent in rural water supply systems, in case of network being meshed, it is better to use an automatic calculation program. 5.7.2 Pipes installation in trench Trench preparation The trench must reach the level reported in the project profile. Normally, the overlap should be at least 0.80m over the pipe diameter and should be increased to 1.20m when crossing roads or streams. The minimum slope of the pipelines should be 0.2% The width of the trench should be as small as possible to limit the expropriation of land. For small diameters (from 40 to 100 mm) is approximately 0.40 to 0.60 m. For larger diameters, there must be a clearance of 0.30 m on each side of the pipe in order to allow an easy installation. The walls of the trench will vary depending on the longitudinal profile indications that must be strictly respected. The bottom of the excavation must be carefully adjusted with a constant slope between each change of slope, where the pipes will be joined with special parts. Brushing should be done on a 2 m width, tree cutting should be done over a width of at least 5 m and grubbing for a width of 4 m. In all cases it has to be eliminated hard bodies (like stones and masonry). In clay soil, it is recommended that a bed of gravel be laid down. In shifting ground, pipes have to be put on a bed of sand or lean concrete with minimum thickness of 15cm. FIGURE- 12: PIPE INSTALLATION DESIGN (CROSS-SECTION) All along the pipes, layout cockpits are made for the air vents and the valves or for the critical points of pipes like at a beginning of a road crossing. Earthworks can be done by hand or using mechanical excavators. Pipe handling Pipes must be handled with care, and shocks must be avoided. A person can do the handling until 150 mm of diameter; beyond this, goats, gantry cranes, etc. must be used for lifting. During installation, the pipes should be placed along the excavation, on the opposite side of the excavated soil, with the joint in the direction of the insertion. Pipes pose Before lowering pipes into the trench, it must be ensured that they are not cracked. Lowering the pipes down can be done by men or by using hoists. To facilitate leveling, pipes are lowered down on clods of loose soil. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 33 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector The alignment of the pipe is checked using novelettes. After making the joints, a partial filling of the trench will need to be done, leaving the joint uncovered so as to prevent any pipes being displaced during the test. 0.30 m above the top of the pipe, a colored plastic mesh must be placed so as to warn of the presence of the pipe. The special parts related to curbs, elbows or T must be contrasted by concrete blocks, capable of absorbing all static and dynamic effects of the water flow. Pipe testing Pressure tests must be made before completing the filling of the trench, allowing eventual leaks and poorly made seals to be detected. The value of the pressure test should be the maximum working value multiplied by 1.5. The test must be done on sections of moderate length (300 to 400 m). The testing pressure should be indicated in the specifications. After placing a flange for connection or insertion at each end of the pipe, the ends will need to be closed by means of plates bolted on the flanges. Each plate contains: • at the upper end, a air vent valve, • at the lower end, an orifice valve for filling with the connection to the pump and to the pressure gauge. The pipe is filled slowly and completely purged before the pressure rise. Trench filling Filling must be done carefully, in layers and well groomed, using the same material as the bedding for the bottom and sides of the pipes. Backfilling is continued in the same way with the same material up to 20 cm above the pipe. It is recommended to backfill the trench soon after the tests to avoid leaving the joints exposed to temperature variations. Pipes filling Operating the pipes requires the following preliminary actions: • Open the air vent devices, • Slowly fill the pipe preferably from below with a flow rate of 1/20 of the normal expected flow, • Close the air vent when it begins to come out only water, • Wash the pipes several times to evacuate the earth that entered despite precautions. 5.7.3 Equipments Valves and sprinklers A network of water pipes is completed with valves and sprinklers which allow: • isolation of different parts of the network, • protection of pipes • operation of tanks and pumping stations. Gate valves In case it is necessary to intervene in a single pipe of the distribution network, it is useful to place valves in order to have the possibility of stopping the water flow in a partial section. In meshed networks, it is advisable to place them so as to be able to isolate each single branch. Road and stream crossing In case of crossing a road or river, the depth of the pipe must be increased until at least 1.20 m. Crossing major roads should be preferably done with steel pipes inserted in a larger pipe reinforced concrete. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 34 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector For crossings streams, a protection of gabion stones must made downstream from the pipe, with the upper level higher than the upper level of the pipe and that has to be well lent against the bedrock. Steel pipes For steel pipes, special precautions must be taken to protect against external and internal corrosion. Largely used coatings are carboplast or specialty resins. Joining pipes and special parts can be done by autogenously welding with oxyacetylene torch or by electric welding utilizing coated rods or electrodes or can be done using bolted flanges with gaskets. After connection by welding of pipe elements, it is essential to carefully restore the protective coating. PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) pipes The assembly has to be done by glung. The pipes must be prepared by scraping with a special product, then lightly coated with special glue recommended by the supplier. The amount strictly necessary must be used but not excessively; pipes and connecting pieces must be well glued only on the parts in contact. No excess glue must be deposited inside the pipes because it is then difficult to remove it. If there is excess glue on the outside of the pipe, it must be removed immediately since excess glue can soften the plastic, making pipes explode when functioning. This type of joint, that can be made very easily, has to be considered nearly indestructible. Manufacturers deliver pipes with pre-formed fitting in factory. A toroidal compressed rubber seal ring should be placed between a metal connector and the pipe. The PVC pipes can also be connected by welding. This method is very tricky and can be used in a reliable manner only in a workshop and by highly experienced workers, otherwise breakage of the welds is a risk. Polyethylene pipes Polyethylene pipes are thermoplastic. Nevertheless, they cannot be welded as the material decomposes at melting temperature. The use of glue is not advisable for this material. This material is more expensive than PVC and is sometimes used for the advantage of the flexibility that allows transportation of great lengths of the pipe rolled up without need for joints. The characteristics of this material force the use of a joint system by pinching on the largest possible area carefully and avoiding the cut effect. 5.7.4 Maintenance of pipes Water pipes must be emptied, cleaned and disinfected every six months. All equipment, valves, floats, meters should be lubricated. filters must be cleaned and the operation of all the equipment should be checked every six months. 5.8. SUMMARY OF PARAMETERS FOR THE DESIGN Parameters for the design are summarized as follows: a) Daily pumping volume: V pump (m 3 / jour) = ( sum of all the daily needs) x K loss x K 10years ; K loss : is the coefficient for losses. It is included between 1 and 1.15; K 10 years : is the coefficient of growth in 10 years. It is included between 1 (growth 0) and 1.48 (growth 4% / year). b) Flow of the conduction pipe (with 24 pumping hours/day): Q ref (l / sec.) = V Pump K x 10-20ans / 86.4; V Pump is the volume consumed during the peak day multiplied by 1,5; K 10-U20 is the coefficient of growth from 10 to 20 years. c) Usable volume of the tank: V tank. (m 3 ) . = 35-70% (see the above chapter) of V pump x H -10 20ans ; d) Flow of the distribution pipes: Q Distr (l / sec.) = V Pompe K x 10-20ans x H distr / 86.4; K Dist is the coefficient of the peak value of the hourly distribution of water supply as above indicated. Value 4 is advisable. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 35 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector 5.9. GUIDANCE ON PUBLIC FOUNTAINS Public fountains are used to distribute water in the street for residents whose houses are not supplied with water. There are many types of fountains but they all consist essentially of a cast iron container with an iron standpipe inside that is controlled by a valve communicating with the drainage. The valve is controlled from outside by means of a button, a lever or a wheel. The floor of the standpipe should be made in concrete so as to promote the flow of water to the drainage. In order to encourage community ownership and responsibility, it is advisable that each hydrant has its own meter that is installed in a box closed by a concrete slab with steel padlocks. Water drainage will be channeled to natural drainage of the ground or into a sump, taking care that the evacuation is a minimum distance of 50 m from the source. FIGURE- 13: FOUNTAIN MODEL ADAPT FOR FIGURE- 14: FOUNTAIN MODEL ADAPT FOR SMALL TOWNS VILLAGES 5.10. GUIDANCE ON ANIMAL WATERING HOLES Animal water holes are preferable in concrete than in steel for better resistance to solar heating. The cross section in contact with the water must be circular with a radius of curvature of maximum 20 cm, so that the level is sufficient to allow the livestock to drink without wasting water. Access should be simple, the height between 50 and 65 cm from soil. The longitudinal section must have a slope minimum of 2% with an opening in the part opposite the valve. There must be a clean surface in masonry and concrete around the watering hole until the distance of 2 meters in each direction. A counter, to be installed in a box, must be provided for animal water holes and closed by a concrete slab with steel padlocks. Inside the box, valves must be installed. The water supply for the watering hole should be done through a free pipe placed above the water level. This will prevent any backflow into the network . Water drainage will need to be channeled to natural drainage of the land, taking care that evacuation is a minimum distance of 100 m from the source. 5.11 PROCUREMENT PROCESS The design and implementation of projects related to water, especially those related to groundwater, are almost always underestimated and entrusted to entities with little or no specific experience. Bearing in mind that handling of water is an extremely sensitive issue, procurement tenders must be published especially for major water supply systems. These must be done for the design and supervision of construction works or for the maintenance of water systems. One suggestion would be that regional MRRD technical units manage these tenders at a regional level structure for general supervision of interventions. Waters points can be grouped in homogenous lots that are AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 36 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector big enough to interest experienced contractors (min. 15,000 Euro) but not so large as to require the intervention of a foreign contractor (max. can be 200,000 Euro). Tenders can be published by local authorities or the administrative units at the centre. 5.12 IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS From the point of view of withdrawal and lifting of the resource, water points can be of various types depending on the local situations and could include hand pumps, gravity flow, pumping systems with overhead tanks, solar pumping systems with overhead tanks, etc. The main organizations operating in WASH (DCAAR, USAID) do not directly implement water points any longer. They sub-contract the Contractors do the work, with close supervision and monitoring by an independent technician. Therefore, it is recommended that: • Local Communities submit a demand to the Regional Administration of MRRD (RA) for making a Rural Water Supply system. • The technical task force of the RA makes a free-of-cost design for the intervention and determines the technical characteristics (water volume, water source, type of scheme, cost of the works, necessary local support for sustainability in terms of maintenance and operation). • Each Community deliberates on the intervention, allocates money and appoints a person responsible for the village water supply (mirab). • The RA prepares and publishes a tender for intervention works and groups it with others, if required. The design and the technical prescription can be prepared either freely by the RA or by an engineer paid by the Community. • The RA or the Community appoints and pays a Supervisor. • The work is executed by the Contractor, tested and delivered to the Community that engages itself to the maintenance and the operation by means of the local responsible person/s 5.13 STRATEGY ON REVIVING OR REHABILITATING EXISTING WATER POINTS Water well problems result from many causes including equipment failure, depletion of the aquifer, corrosive qualities of the water, improper well design and the construction and lack of proper operation and maintenance. The cost of rehabilitation is typically less than the construction cost, so significant savings can be made by rehabilitation works. Of course, ensuring proper operation and preventive maintenance is an even more efficient way to reduce costs in the water supply sector. In order to ensure this, capacities of caretakers and mechanics must be developed. Correct identification of the causes enables the selection of appropriate treatment or maintenance to fix the problem or else to abandon the water source. A working mechanism will need to be developed within the prevailing government institutions for monitoring wells in the community and supporting them in resolving problems and technical issues. Some organizations have made different systems to collect data: • USAID has made a system of data collection through telephones with the potential for expansion through information available for viewing on the internet; • DACAAR has set up a monitoring net with monthly controls of the quality and performance of water points. Data is entered into a GIS so that it is easily controlled and cross-checked. Their reports indicate that around 30% water points in the country are dysfunctional. This failure is due to drying up of water sources; falling water tables; damage from natural disasters; poor quality of construction AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 37 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector materials and equipment; lack of standardization and oversight; poor operation and maintenance services; coordination issues with the private sector; and lack of community ownership. TABLE- 7: WATER POINTS FAILURE TYPES AND CAUSES, DACAAR Failure type Cause Depletion of the source Lack or deficiency of appropriate investigation Well silted Deficiency in construction Well collapse Deficiency in construction Water polluted immediately after Lack or deficiency of appropriate construction investigations Water pollution while operational Deficiency in construction, sources of pollution close to the water point Water table pollution diffuse sources of pollution in the area Pump break down Lack of maintenance and/or/spare parts In order to enable monitoring, information on all wells should be maintained in MRRD in a very simple format agreed to by all stakeholders. All new constructions will need to be reported in this format to RRD. RRD shall be provided with a simple database software for this and be trained in its use. Similarly, a second simple format shall be developed for updating the status of functioning of the wells and the system of O&M while monitoring. A strong O&M system, in a GIS form including help/support desks with internet connections at the provincial and district levels for CDCs and their facilitating partners, must be provided to facilitate information sharing and consultative problem solving. 5.13.1 Rehabilitation or reviving water wells Common symptoms associated with most water well failures include: • Reduced well yield • Sediment in the water • Change in water quality • Dissolved gas in the water In annexure 3, tables indicating the possible causes of these four symptoms are presented together with indications on what has to be checked and the corrective measures to be taken if the cause of malfunctioning is identified. The guide has been produced by the Government of Alberta (CANADA) Agricultural and Rural Development Direction and can be found at http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/wwg412 . 5.14 REVIEW AND IMPROVEMENTS NEEDED FOR EXISTING TECHNICAL GUIDANCE MANUALS The following suggestions and observations aim to complete and improve the two MRRD existing manuals: 5.14.1 Wells prescriptions Well location The location of a well is mainly determined by the well’s purpose. For drinking water-production wells, groundwater quality and long-term groundwater supply are the most important considerations. The hydro- geological assessment to determine whether and where to locate a well should always be done by a professional consultant. Wells should be located well above potential sources of pollution, and at least 100 m from any septic tank disposal areas, latrine, cesspools, or any livestock or barnyard areas as well as kept far from rain or runoff that can transport bacteria inside the water. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 38 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector Dug wells The design proposed in the MRRD Implementation manual doesn’t reassure protection from contamination if the ground around the well is not sloped, and does not foresee water-tight linings. The conditions for a properly constructed dug well are: 1. Dug well should be at least 3.6 m deep and protected against the surface water runoff. 2. Space from the bottom of the well up to the liner bottom should be lined with rock, or small boulders 3. A water-tight liner for a depth of at least 3 m with the liner reaching at least 50 cm above the surface of the ground 4. An overlapping, water-tight cover with a screened vent (wooden covers should not be used as they harbor bacteria- carrying insects.) 5. The ground around the dug well should be covered by a sloping concrete slab that directs surface water away from the well 6. Dip buckets should not be used as they can bring dirt and bacteria into a well 7. In case, the discharge line connection is below ground level, it should be made with water-tight strong, non-toxic sealing material 8. The water service line should be about 1.5 m below the surface to protect it from pollution. Figure- 15: Well with PROTECTION from contamination Figure- 16: dug well without protection from pollution (MRRD manual) A drilled well consists of a hole bored into the ground, with the upper part being lined with casing. The casing prevents the collapse of the borehole walls and (with a drive shoe or grout seal) prevents surface or subsurface contaminants from entering the water supply. Drilled wells The well needs to be capped to provide sanitary protection. Well caps require an air vent that must be shielded and screened to prevent the entry of foreign material such as insects into the well. In Fig 16, taken from the MRRD manual, no grouting is shown to prevent water infiltration from the surface or any air vent. The correct devices are shown in the scheme below are taken from USEPA documents AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 39 Figure- 17: suggested drilled well design revision The following factors should be cared in the borehole construction: Leave sufficient space to make an accurate borehole alignment and join the total depth of the hole including the slump trap and the bottom cap; Make a correct selection of the backfill material to correctly develop the well. The space (gap between the wall should be large enough to allow clearance around the external outside of the casing and the borehole wall) r pack surface of the pipe between the filter pac and annular seal material. Recommended annular space widths are as follows: • between the casing and borehole wall – 60 mm minimum; tween well casing and conductor casing – 50 mm minimum; • between • between surface conductor casing and borehole wall – 75 mm minimum; 130 • maximum annular space – 130mm. Annular space widths larger than 130 mm might be difficult for well development or may cause casing damage for heating during grout curing. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- Sector COVERAGE OVERAGE ASSESSMENT REPORT 40 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector In situations where precise lithologic data are missing (e.g., dipping or folded strata), or the location of target , borehole alignment zones is critically scarce, alignmen becomes an important criteria for monitoring well screen placements. Casing and screen material: general characteristics site The selection of appropriate materials for monitoring well casings and screens should consider several site- specific factors including: • Geologic environment, • Geochemical environment (both soil and ground water), • Anticipated well depth, suspecte contaminants, • Types and concentrations of suspected • Design life of the monitoring well, and • potential to be brought into service for injection or extraction In the following figure are reported the USEPA prescriptions for drilled wells casing. Figure- 18: DRILLED WELLS CASING PRESCRIPTIONS (USEPA) Strength related characteristics advices Since casing collapse causes most of the failures, following are preventive technical advices: • Well casing and screen materials must have structural integrity and durability in the environment that in which they have been functioning during their operational life; • Well casings and screens should be able to withstand physical forces acting upon them during and following their installation, and during their use, including forces due to suspension in the borehole, grouting, development, purging, pumping, sampling, and forces exerted on them by the surrounding geologic materials. eval • When casing strength is evaluated, three separate yet related parameters should be evaluated: Tensile strength, Collapse strength and Compressive strength. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitatio ation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 41 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector ompressive strength of casing materials, The compressive materials as per USEPA, is presented in the following table: FIGURE- 19: COMPRESSIVE STRENGHT OF CASING MATERIALS 5.14.2 Flowing and surface water Spring and kareze implementation guidance Spring water, together with kareze,, is a highly desirable source for a community water supply system although The best time to construct a spring is in the late summer or early fall their flow is subject to drought impacts. The when low water tables facilitate construction. This allows deep spring while minimizing muddy conditions and excavation cave-ins. Since springs and karezes can take water from the highest extreme highest water level in the soil, they can be extremely sensitive to those land use activities that take place in their immediate vicinity. The following protective distances are required or recommended when choosing a location for a spring water supply culv a) Surface water and drainage culverts should not pass within 100m of a spring;; 150 m is recommended, b) Animals should not be tied within 30 m of a spring, upstream of a spring or within 50m c) Latrines or septic tanks must not be located upstream 50 distance. appropria treatment is Every 6 months, water quality analysis should be made and, when necessary, an appropriate recommended. Rivers, lakes, reservoirs, etc. One of the most critical aspects of rivers, lakes and other surface water recipients is the great necessity of carr out for treatment water treatment that often limits their use. Important civil works usually need to be carried period complex management and maintenance. plants and this signifies increasing costs, long construction periods, AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitatio ation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 42 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector 5.14.3 New technologies Compact treatment plant At present, new technologies suitable for peak water demand of a maximum 10 m3/hour are available. Technologies are based on pre-mounted pumping – treatment units that are fully automatic. Their advantages are: • reduced cost, • no installation works required, • easy operations, • low operating cost, • easy maintenance, • no chemical products required FIGURE- 20: COMPACT TREATMENT PLANT This system has a three-stage process: 1) Physical Filtration The physical filtration can be done in three different ways: a) By two separate filters with different degrees of filtration, thereby retaining particles in suspension until 5 microns, b) By a system of rotating disks that allows a high degree of mechanical filtration (until 5 microns), c) By sand filters through which it is possible to obtain degrees of filtration higher than 60/80 micron 2) Chemical filtration Chemical filtration through activated carbon can eliminate some chemical micro-pollutants, bad taste and smell and improve the degree of filtration of suspended particles smaller than 5 microns as well as decolorize water. 3) Bacteriological treatment The bacteriological treatment is generally done with a double plant UV sterilizers. Booster pump A booster pump directly pumps from a ground reservoir to the net by a group driven by an inverter. This arrangement allows saving of money for constructing an elevated tank and also allows substantial energy saving with economic and ecologic benefits. This is because water is pumped at the pressure strictly necessary in the network. Nevertheless it must be noted that a booster system is more insecure from the point of view of the distribution network and that the pump works in a less stable way. For this reason, it is not suitable for a big network. Pumping systems fed by solar panels A solar panel system is able to provide energy for a pumping station that is able to feed a water supply network up to 3000 people. Photovoltaic panels have been utilized recently in a UE project in the Sahel Countries in Africa for rural water supply systems pumping station with a power between 100 m4/day (200 Wc) and 6000 m4/jour (12.000 Wc). The flow was included between 3 m3/day and 300 m3/day for a population between 50 and 5000 inhabitants. For this water flow, solar panels allowed a pumping height between 20m AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 43 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector and 80m. When using photovoltaic systems, all hydraulic parameters for the design of the conduction pipe and the tank volume have to be reviewed. Sanitation Health policies aim at encouraging people to use latrines instead of open defecation. An increase in the number of latrines in a small area is a possible source of contamination of ground water. Therefore water wells must be built upstream in villages - at least 100 m from the border of the village. It is important to remember that latrines must be emptied regularly. Therefore, it is necessary dig a sanitary landfill where material derived from regular emptying of latrines can be emptied. This site must be located downstream from water sources. Below is described a typical sanitary landfill. FIGURE- 21: SANITARY LANDFILL DIAGRAM Water Source Protection Measures By its very nature, water supply sources and related works need necessary protection against potential sanitary hazards. Specific types of sources such as springs and shallow wells are more vulnerable to such hazards. Source protection plans require understanding and attention to details as they form the basis for any hazard mitigation measures, i.e. spring fencing to ward off grazing animals and subsequent animal excreta disposal. To avoid major sanitary hazards requires continual monitoring and maintenance of the watershed and its proximity to avoid the following potential dangers like (i) drainage ditches and latrines; (ii) grazing animals, animal and human excreta; (iii) missing covers, open to sky reservoirs/spring box, etc., (iv) leaking valves; (vii) broken seals allowing entry of polluted waters Disinfection In order to prevent diarrhea and other water borne diseases, it is often necessary to disinfect the water. Different way can be used for disinfecting; chlorination treatment is common for small and medium systems; another low-cost method of disinfecting water is solar disinfection (SODIS). A recent study revealed that the wild Salmonella that reproduced rapidly during dark storage of solar- disinfected water could be controlled by the addition of just 10 parts per million of hydrogen peroxide. Disinfection is accomplished by filtering out harmful micro-organisms and by adding disinfectant chemicals. Water is disinfected for killing any pathogen component that passes through filters and to provide a residual dose of disinfectant to kill or de-activate potentially harmful micro-organisms in the storage and distribution systems. After the introduction of chemical disinfecting agents, water is usually held in temporary storage in order to facilitate the solution of the agent. Chlorine disinfection The most common disinfection method involves some form of chlorine or its compounds such as chloramines or chlorine dioxide. Chlorine is a strong oxidant that rapidly kills many harmful micro-organisms. Since chlorine is a toxic gas, there is a danger of a release associated with its use. This problem is avoided by the use of AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 44 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector sodium hypochlorite, which is a relatively inexpensive solution that releases free chlorine when dissolved in water. Ultraviolet disinfection Ultraviolet light is very effective at de-activating cysts, in low turbidity water. The effectiveness of UV light disinfection decreases as turbidity increases due to absorption, scattering, and shadowing caused by the suspended solids. The main disadvantage in using UV radiation is that, like ozone treatment, it leaves no residual disinfectant in the water. Therefore, it is sometimes necessary to add a residual disinfectant after the primary disinfection process. This is often done through the addition of chloramines, discussed above as a primary disinfectant. When used in this manner, chloramines provide an effective residual disinfectant with very few impacts of the negative aspects of chlorination. Solar water disinfection Known as SODIS, this is a method of disinfecting water using only sunlight and plastic PET bottles. SODIS is a free and effective method for decentralized water treatment, usually applied at the household level. It is recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage. SODIS has already been applied in numerous developing countries. 5.14.4 Latrines There are several technologies to construct latrines in rural areas. Each one presents advantages and disadvantages. Many of them are very well illustrated in the WATSAN manual. In the following, attention is given to the dehydration system that is not mentioned in the manuals and that can be considered a good option for lower sea level areas with warmer climates. The effectiveness of this system is not high during the cold season in which dehydration is slow and removal has to be done for higher quantities. FIGURE- 22: -VAULT DEHYDRATION TOILET WITH INCLINED LIDS TO INCREASE THE SOLAR HEATING EFFECT Basic principles In a dehydration toilet, the excreta inside the processing vault are dried due to the sun, natural evaporation and ventilation. The toilet requires no flushing with water. Dehydration toilets are increasingly popular in the developing world. They can be successfully used in various climatic conditions and are most advantageous in arid climates where water is scarce and faeces can be effectively dried. The faeces are collected in a chamber below the toilet (or squatting hole) and are dried. High temperature in the chamber, together with sufficient ventilation are the most important mechanisms in the drying process. The ventilation also reduces odors due to air currents that flow towards the vent pipe out of the chamber. A moisture content below 25% facilitates rapid pathogen destruction. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 45 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector Absorbents such as lime, ash, or dry soil should be added to the chamber after each defecation to absorb excess moisture, make the pile less compact and make it less unsightly for the next user. Addition of absorbents is also reported to reduce flies and eliminate bad odors. Moreover, depending on the additive, the pH may be increased and hence enhance bacterial pathogen die-off. As breakdown of organic material in dehydrating conditions is slow, toilet paper or similar objects placed in the chamber will not disintegrate quickly. Toilet paper can therefore either be handled separately, or be composted in a secondary treatment process. Once the chamber is almost full, the content may need to be removed. The contents are further stored, used as a soil conditioner, buried or composted (in home composting or at a local composting centre). The product from the dehydration process, a crumbly cake, is not compost but rather a kind of mulch which is rich in carbon and fibrous material, phosphorous and potassium. Nutrients will be available to plants directly or after further decomposition of the dehydrated material. In warm environments (20°-35°) storage times of less than 1 year will be sufficient to eliminate most bacterial pathogens and substantially reduce viruses, protozoa and parasites. Some soil-borne ova (e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides) may persist. Alkaline treatment, raising the pH to >9 reduces the required storage time to about 6 months (Schönning and Stenström, 2004). Further storage, sun drying, alkaline treatment or high-temperature composting may be recommended to further decrease health risks from utilizing dehydrated faeces. Dehydration toilets: Various technologies There are alternative ways of constructing dehydration toilets. Generally, double-vault toilets with urine diversion have shown the most successful results and the highest popularity. Several modifications have been applied to enhance the dehydration process and suit varying conditions. The main distinguishing features are as follows: - Urine diversion or non-urine diversion Most dehydrating toilets require prior separation of urine to allow sufficient drying of faeces. Systems where urine and faeces are mixed only work properly in very dry climates. Some installations provide a drainage system for the chamber to improve dehydration of solids. Urine diversion systems not only allow separate collection of nutrient rich and virtually sterile urine, but also greatly reduce odor problems associated with dry mixed systems. - Use or disposal of urine The use of separately collected urine as a fertilizer after appropriate storage is strongly recommended, due to its high nutrient concentration and the low associated health risks. However in certain circumstances, urine use may not be acceptable or immediately possible and urine is infiltrated directly to the soil via a soak-away pit. - Single vault or double vault Dehydration toilets can be built with a single or a double chamber for the collection of faeces. Handling of fresh excreta can be avoided by using double vaults since vaults are used alternately with sufficient time allowed for faeces to sanitize. Most dehydration toilets therefore use double-vault technology. Single-vault systems may be less expensive to build but need more labor to guarantee the same hygienic safety as double- vault systems. - Ventilated vault or not Ventilation is generally recommended to prevent odor and flies and to enhance the drying process. In some cases it can be omitted (e.g. in extremely dry climates, or if the toilet is far from housing areas). However, if the toilet is constructed within the house, a vent pipe is strongly recommended due to the reduced smell and flies problems. Ventilation through installed pipes can be natural or enforced by wind-propelled or electrical fans. - Squatting or sitting There are numerous technologies that suit both defecation styles (squatting or sitting) with simple drop holes or specially designed urine diversion squatting pans for squatting cultures. - Dry or wet cleaning AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 46 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector Dehydration toilets can receive dry cleaning materials such as toilet paper (which however, will not decompose completely). Dehydration toilets can also be used for wet cleaning cultures. Water has to be drained in a separate pipe so that no liquid is led into the vault. - Self-built or prefabricated Most systems can be self-built by the users totally or partially using commercially available squatting pans or toilet seats. In some areas, complete systems including the toilet cabin and the substructure are available in the market. This, of course, is only valid if design and climate allow a good functioning of the drying process. In cool and humid climates, a composting process might be easier to maintain than dehydration. The product of a dehydration toilet is drier than from a composting toilet and therefore easier to handle. Post-treatment of removed solids is recommended for both - composting and dehydration toilets. - Pit latrines Pit and VIP latrines have the advantage that temporary disposal is more remote (less odours) but presents major risks of pollution in high water tables areas as well as seasonal flooding. Besides, they are difficult to realize in hard rocky surface. Also pit emptying presents more problems than the removal of small, dehydrated volume of faeces from dehydration toilets. Pit latrines can only be used until the pit fills. The pit latrines system is correctly described in the WATSAN manual. - Composting toilets This type of toilet, which is a dry toilet type, has some advantages. If well operated, the composting process is more effective than the simple dehydration process by solar heat but the process is more sensitive and has higher maintenance needs. Applicability Climates Dehydration toilets are mainly suitable for regions with high average temperatures, long dry and short rainy seasons or arid climatic conditions with high evaporation rates. Nevertheless, with simple solar heaters, they can also work in a more humid climate. Dehydration toilets are waterless systems that are particularly suitable for conditions where water is scarce as in the semi-desert areas of the south west of Afghanistan, like the valley from Herat to Ghazni and the region south of Bust and Farah. Rural and urban areas Dehydration toilets can be placed outside the house, attached or even inside the house. Dehydration toilets are therefore suitable both for rural and densely populated urban areas. Different cultural settings As stated above, dehydration toilets are suitable for different cultural settings: they can be designed to suit both sitting and squatting cultures and to cope with the use of water as well. FIGURE- 23: DOUBLE-VAULT DEHYDRATION TOILET WITH URINE DIVERSION (EASREY ET AL., 1998) AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 47 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector Careful handling required An important condition for the success of dehydration toilets is that it is possible to get user commitment to operation and maintenance. Cleaning a dehydration toilet seat or squatting pan has to be done carefully with little water to avoid introduction of water into the vault. A bulking agent (absorbents such as lime, ash, or dry soil) should be added regularly to the faeces. The collection chamber has to be checked and emptied at regular intervals. In non-urine-diverting versions, the moisture content of the chamber should be visually monitored and drainage should be corrected if necessary. All these tasks require a certain level of responsibility and user care. Neglected maintenance can quickly lead to malfunctioning of the process and may impair severely the appearance and hygiene of the toilet. User acceptance Like any new technology, dehydration toilets are only an option if they are accepted by the users. The handling and use of dry faeces and separated urine may prove particularly difficult to accept by users in certain cultural or socio-economic settings. User acceptance often depends on the perception of status connected to the new facility. Compared to situations with open defecation, public toilets or pit latrines, dehydrating toilets compare favourably. If flush toilets have already been constructed, dehydration toilets get connected to lower status. In such cases, education and emphasis on the advantages of dehydration toilets may lead to its acceptance. The fact that men need to sit for proper urine separation may lead to acceptance problems that generally can be overcome by providing simple urinals for men. Reuse Regular reuse of urine and dry faeces is recommended for the sustainable operation of dehydration toilets. Reuse may even provide an incentive for proper operation and maintenance of the facility. Therefore, dehydration toilets are most successful in rural and peri-urban areas where toilet users can directly use waste products in their gardens. This direct reuse is often not possible in urban areas, where there are usually no spaces for cultivation near toilets. In such situations, management systems for collection, marketing and use of products from toilets are very important for the sustainable operation of dehydration toilets. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 48 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector 6. PROMOTING SUSTAINABILTY – CRITICAL TECHNICAL AND INSTITUTIONAL MEASURES REQUIRED 6.1 GENERAL ASPECTS Where RWSS systems have been affected by design or implementation mistakes, the main factor for failure has been the lack of sustainability. Generally speaking, every system has severe problems of maintenance due to lack of funds from a responsible organization. The problem involves the reorganization of the sector with a clear identification of power and responsibility among key actors. To this end, an international conference was organised in Kabul, in 2002, “Kabul Understanding”, where the foundation stones for the development of the water sector in Afghanistan were laid down. The 2004 Strategic Policy Framework for the Water Sector has guided this development. The framework described the way forward and defined the following sector-specific policies, laws, regulations and procedures: Revision of the Water Law of 1991 • A water resources management policy and related regulations, • The institutional structure for water resources management, • An irrigation policy and related regulations, • Regulations for water user associations (WUAs), • National urban and rural water supply and sanitation policies and institutional, • A groundwater policy • A hydro-power development policy • An environment law Water sector reform aims at tackling the following challenges highlighted in the Water Sector Strategy: • lack of the institutional, human and financial resources necessary to deliver water services properly to the population, • lack of mechanisms to regulate water use for irrigation, domestic supply, sanitation and hydropower generation, • lack of integrated water sector governance, • A lack of reliable hydrological and metrological data and data on water quality, • Inadequate infrastructure and poor coordination among water sector projects. The responsibility for water resources management in Afghanistan is as follows: • Groundwater Resources: Ministry of Mines and Industry • Surface Water Resources: Ministry of Water and Power • The Government, through MRRD, remains committed to the rural water supply and sanitation sector. Lack of resources in the public administration has impacted the development and management of water resources in the country. In Afghanistan, the system of permits or licensing drilling or water extraction appears to be rather ineffective. In this phase of regulatory requirements, the UN and some NGOs have accepted some responsibility for water resources: • Urban water supply managed by Habitat (United Nations Shelter Program) • Rural water supply managed by MRRD, NSP, UNICEF, DACAAR • IDP camps managed by the Afghan Ministry for Martyrs and Repatriation, with significant input from UNICEF and various NGOs. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 49 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector Although various agencies have been able to co-ordinate some activities of water supply actors, the objective of regulating water use in the country is not fully achieved. Below is a summary of the conclusions made by Kay Wegerich of AREU, in 2009, about the status of the revision of the Water Law and the Water Sector Strategy in Afghanistan. “Recent drafts of the Water Sector Strategy (WSS) and of the Water Law provide the main policy environment for water management. The drafts of the WSS pay tribute to integrated water resources management (IWRM) by incorporating stakeholder participation at the local level (with a focus on water user associations or WUAs) and at the basin level (with a focus on river basin councils). This is also emphasized in the Draft Water Law, with its section on river basin councils and sub-basin councils. The law on WUAs, however, is less explicit. While the July 2007 Draft WSS focused on water pricing, the February 2008 draft focused on poverty alleviation and did not discuss water pricing (although cost recovery for construction and services is still anticipated). The June 2008 Draft Water Law continues to focus on establishing a modern permit system, with the exception of right-of-way areas (areas protected and free from interventions). All versions of the Draft WSS have a strong focus on infrastructure rehabilitation and expansion. The drafts highlight the role of NGOs and donors in achieving this, but not all of them deal with the negative consequences that these efforts might have for downstream states. The WSS drafts portray the existing mirab water system as dysfunctional and promote the WUA system to take its place, but they also admit that the mirab system has not been researched. Although the WSS draft emphasizes the necessity for river basin reorganizations, such as river basin councils (RBCs) and river basin agencies (RBAs), the July 2007 draft questions their feasibility. The February 2008 draft highlights the constraints of the water sector, thus also implicitly raising concerns about whether or not RBAs and RBCs are feasible. The July 2007 draft identifies river basins and sub-basins with maps, however, and even presents an organizational chart for how basin organizations should be set up. The latest draft of the WSS (February 2008) includes neither maps nor organizational charts and therefore reveals fewer details. The opportunities the basin approach provides for the end-user are frequently stated, and the organizational chart demonstrates the bottom-up nature of the basin councils. However, the main outline in the June 2008 Draft Water Law shows that the Ministry for Energy and Water is responsible for establishing the basin and sub-basin councils as well as basin agencies, which are supposed to facilitate and implement the decisions of the basin councils. Although the basic framework for basin organization is defined and roles are allocated, important questions about decision-making in the basin councils are not specifically articulated. It is not evident, therefore, who will be represented in the councils and how votes in the councils will be shared among different stakeholders. The June 2008 Draft Water Law contains references to right-of-way areas and suggests that these areas will not be included in the basin approach or represented in the councils. The implication is that there is no basin approach and no integrated water management with stakeholder participation. The right-of-way reference does reflect the reality on the ground. Nevertheless, why have a law on basin management if substantial parts of the basin are excluded? While a previous draft of the Water Law made reference to the "praiseworthy customs and traditions of the Afghan people," the June 2008 draft uses weaker terminology, "considering the appropriate/suitable water use traditions and customs," which boils down to having a mirab (water master's assistant) or mirab bashi (water master) in a WUA. While previous drafts focused on "fair, effective and economical allocation of available water resources," the current draft only makes statements on cost recovery, but it has also a focus on irrigation norms and the establishment of a permit and license system. Currently, three terms are used within the law: permit (water use), license (for infrastructure) and water right. The term water right is not defined and is used in the law to refer to individual as well as collective (canal- level) rights. It is foreseen in the Draft Water Law that currently existing water rights will be transformed into permits and that to be established WUAs will obtain permits only. No reference is made to licenses for traditional intakes. Since current water rights are not measured and depend on water availability in the river as well as on the construction of the intake, it is not evident what permits should entail. In any case, basin AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 50 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector councils will be able to change or even cancel permits. Water rights can be cancelled if users do not pay. Permits are required both for water extraction and for drainage flows. This implies that WUAs have to have at least two permits (assuming one intake and drain only). The issuing of permits depends on gauging, not only for extraction but also for drainage. Currently there is little if any gauging capacity; hence, it is questionable whether meaningful permits can be issued. In addition to the problem of gauging, there is the problem of law enforcement, and this may explain the emphasis on right-of-way in the law. The February 2008 Draft WSS therefore makes a distinction between urban and rural water supplies. The focus in urban areas is on rule enforcement, including building the capacity of the Ministry of the Interior, but in rural areas the focus is only on governance.” 6.2 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE This issue has been extracted from the Water Sector Group document on Operation and Maintenance Strategy for community water points in Afghanistan (January 2012). Operation and Maintenance (O&M) of community water points is essential to ensure lasting service for the community members. Through basic O&M, water points last longer and replacement needs usually emerge only once life of the facility is over. A relatively limited investment in developing the capacity of caretakers and in the supply and maintenance of the critical spare parts and components can potentially protect the initial investment. The Afghan Government, with donor support, should provide a fund that can pay for spare parts such as gaskets, special parts, valves, electromechanical devices, hand pumps, electro mechanical pumps and for the replacement and repair costs for systems in case of natural disasters. Each system must be endowed with an O&M book where the replacement of each component must be foreseen and where the data collected on the field must be recorded. Majority of the water supply systems are not well documented. New interventions implemented under the aegis of MRRD/ RuWatSIP, after a first phase in which basic technical data is collected, are not documented from an O&M point of view. This situation can seriously affect the longevity of the facilities and the sustainability of investments. Expected life span of systems The expected life span of the typical water points systems is the following: • A good quality hand pump with proper installation and O&M can last for 7-14 years for a group of 20 families, • A gravity flow system, well installed, of good quality piping and standard pipe placement in trenches, and sustainable O&M can last for up to 30 years while taps, valves and other equipments would need frequent replacement and leaks must be repaired when noticed, • A system with a pumping station and gravitation from an overhead tank, if well maintained will last up to 30 years for the civil works and 15 years for the electro mechanical equipments. The generator sets on the market are quite different from very fast running systems of 3000 rpm that might last three years, while systems that run with 1500 rpm can last up to 10 years if well operated and maintained. • The electronic components of a solar system to provide pumping energy, if well maintained and operated, can last from 5 to 15 years. In order to save initial investments, the Rural Water Policy must be implemented and financially supported for the next many years. The strategy will cover, with the assistance of the MRRD Rural Water Department (at present called RuWatSIP), rural areas of Afghanistan and small towns with less than 5,000 inhabitants. Some of the hydraulic works can cover whole districts or extended areas, as in the case of gravity flow systems of Logar, Kunar and Nangarhar. The strategy of the department will need to be adjusted whenever there will be changes in the Rural Water Policy that is updated every four years or in the Afghanistan water law. Changes AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 51 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector may interest the approaches and work of relevant Ministries and local administration involved in the implementation and support of the rural water sector. Current situation NGOs, NSP and government agencies have generally left O&M to the Communities without the required capacity building and technical support. In a monitoring exercise done for O&M in Balkh (Vijselaar, 2005 & 2006), Faryab and Kunduz provinces, it was found that 50% of the pumps were not working only after three years. The monitoring results highlighted significant differences between the Balkh Province where an organization was active in applying an O&M procedure, as compared to the Kunduz Province where no O&M had been implemented, resulting in degradation of the WSS systems. The dug well system appears to be the best selection from the point of view of sustainable community-based O&M. However, it is not always possible to implement these due to their impact on groundwater table. The ideal systems for simple O&M are gravity flow systems that are possible only in those areas endowed with springs that have sufficient yields. The next best systems for rural communities are the solar pump systems. The most expensive are the submersible pumps with generators (as electricity availability is rare for most of rural Afghanistan) since they have high running costs. In such cases, it would probably be necessary for the government to provide a subsidy. Systems with hand pumps are affordable and most of the preventive maintenance can be performed by caretakers and mechanics with limited training. Technical O&M requirements O&M requirements are enlisted below for each WS component for the Operation & Maintenance of Rural Water Supply Water and Sanitation Programme, as per DACAAR’s Human Resource Development Unit (2007): FIGURE- 24: GENERAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM (DACAAR) Activity Frequency Human resources Materials and spare parts Tools and equipment Clean well surrounding Weekly From local Broom, bucket, hoe, Community machete Check turbidity After each From local flood Community Check water quality Occasionally From local Bucket, watch Community Repair fence and clean Occasionally From local Wood, rope, wire Machete, axe, knife, surface Community hoe, spade, pickaxe Check water quantity Regularly From Province Laboratory reagents Laboratory equipment Organization Wash and disinfect the Annually From local Chlorine Bucket, wrench, brush spring Community Repair piping and valves Occasionally From local Spare pipes and valves, Bucket, trowel, wrench, Community or cement, sand, gravel flat spanners from Province Organization - Concrete tank: all interventions should be done by a locally responsible person that must be carefully selected in case of complex water supply systems, including electro-mechanical pumps, tanks and pipes. FIGURE- 25: CONCRETE TANK O&M REQUIREMETS (DACAAR) AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 52 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector Activity and frequency Materials and spare parts Tools and equipment Regularly clean the surrounding Broom, machete, hoe. From Province Organization. At least monthly open and close the valves. Occasionally repair the valve; Washer, spare valve. Wrench, spanner, screwdriver. Occasionally repair the screen; Plastic or copper screen, wire. Pliers, wrench, tin cutter. Occasionally repair the concrete Cement, sand, gravel, Trowel, spade, bucket, wheelbarrow, ladder, lining. additives. rope. Annually clean and disinfect the Chlorine. Brush, broom, bucket, ladder. reservoir. FIGURE- 26: DRILLED WELL O&M REQUIREMENTS (DACAAR) Activity Frequency Human resources Materials and spare Tools and equipment parts Clean well Daily From local Community Broom, bucket site Clean drain Occasionally From local Community Hoe, spade, wheelbarrow Repair fence Occasionally From local Community Wood, nails, wire etc. Saw, machete, axe, hammer, pliers, etc. Repair apron Annually From local Community Cement, sand, gravel Trowel, bucket Rehabilitate Very rarely From National Gravel, pipe material Various special equipment well Authority etc. FIGURE- 27: PUMPING STATION O&M REQUIREMENTS (DACAAR) Activity Frequency Human resources Materials and spare Tools and equipment parts Clean pump and Daily From local Community Broom, brush site Grease bearings Weekly From local Community Grease or oil Lubricator Check pump Monthly From local Community Spanner stand parts Replace pump Occasionally From local Community Nuts and bolts, Spanners, screwdriver stand parts bearings, pump handle Replace cup seals Annually or From local Community Cupseals Spanners, wrench, less or from Province knife, screwdriver etc. Organization Redo threads in Occasionally From local Community Oil Pipe threader, tackle pump rod or main or from Province Organization Replace foot Occasionally From Province Foot valve, plunger Spanners, wrench valve, plunger or Organization or cylinder cylinder Replace pump rod Occasionally From Province Pump rods or main Spanners, wrench, pipe or main Organization tubing threader Repair platform Annually From local Community Gravel sand, cement Bucket, trowel FIGURE- 28: PUBLIC STANDPOSTS O&M REQUIREMENTS (DACAAR) Activity Frequency Human resources Materials and spare parts Tools and equipment Tap water Daily From local Community Jar, bucket, can, etc. maintenance Clean site Daily From local Community Broom or brush AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 53 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector Inspect and Daily From local Community Hoe, spade clean drain Repair or Occasionally From local Community Rubber or leather washer, Spanners, screwdriver replace valve gland seal, Teflon, flax, spare pipe wrench valve Repair fence Occasionally From local Community Wood, steel wire, nails Machete, pliers, hammer Repair valve Occasionally From local Community Wood, nails, cement, sand, Hammer, saw, trowel, stand, apron water, etc bucket, etc. or drain Repair piping Occasionally From local Community Pipe nipples, connectors, Pipe wrench, pipe cutter, elbows etc., oil, Teflon, flax saw, file, pipe threader or plumbing putty - Hand pump: the following interventions should be done occasionally, by local community persons, when malfunctioning is noticed: FIGURE- 29: HAND PUMP O&M REQUIREMENTS (DACAAR) Problem Cause Remedy No water - Rods disconnected - Pull out all rods and replace broken rods - Pipes disconnected - Join the pipes - Plunger seal defect - Replace seal - Water level gone below the cylinder - Add pipes and rods Delayed Flow - Leaky valves - Replace the valve bobbins - Complete stroke not available - Adjust the length of the top rod - Leakage in pipe joints - Take out the riser mains and replace - Leaking foot valve "0" ring - Replace "0" ring Reduced discharge - U seal tight - Replace U-seal - Complete stroke not available - Correct the stroke by adjusting length of rod - U-seal worn out - Replace the worn U-seal - Valve bobbins worn out - Replace the bobbins - Pump cylinder cracked - Replace the cylinder Pump handle shaking - Cracked platform - Repair platform - Loose flanges - Tighten flange bolts and nuts - Worn out bearings - Replace bearings - Hanger pin loose - Tighten fully both nuts - Fulcrum pin loose Most human resources required for successful O&M are available within the local community. They need to have capacity only in specialized functions such as repair of valves and pipes, well rehabilitation, and replacement of cylinders and pump rods requiring assistance from the provincial level. However, training and provision of necessary tools for caretakers and mechanics is probably required in most locations. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 54 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector 7. CONCLUSIONS Country Framework Demography Around 80 percent of the total population of 24 million of Afghanistan is living in rural areas: 74% (around 18.5 million people) lives in rural areas and only 20 % (5.0 million) in urban areas, while 6% (1.5 million) is classified as nomadic Kuchi. The total number of households in Afghanistan is estimated at around 3.4 million. This implies an average household size of 7.3 persons. The main characteristic of rural poverty is high food insecurity and a lack of access to water, infrastructure and basic public services. Morphology Afghanistan is a landlocked country of 652,000 square km. Over three quarters of the country is mountainous. More than a quarter (27 per cent) of the national territory lies above 2,500 msl. The Afghan landscape is mostly denuded -harsh desert. In the central highlands and the North-East, the Hindu Kush elevates its rugged, brownish and inhospitable slopes. Even when the landscape is soothing, the nature is not generous. Geographers distinguish the ‘lut’, arid steppes , hostile to cultivation, from the ‘dasht’, steppes which turn green just after snow melt or rainfall in spring and attract nomadic livestock. The most extensive flatlands are located in the southwest of the country, centered around the drainage of the Helmand basin and in the north of the country, between the northern foothills of the Amu Darya (Oxus) River (marking the border with Tajikistan and Uzbekistan). Both regions, the southwest in particular, include large areas of sand desert. These desolate landscapes contrast sharply with the exuberant and fertile alluvial irrigated plains that surround the Hindu Kush mountains and the narrow irrigation strips that border the rivers descending sinuous mountainous valleys. Hydrology The total amount of precipitation in Afghanistan is estimated to be 180 Billion cubic meters (BCM)/year. 80% of this precipitation is concentrated in areas above 2000m altitudes. The snow reserve in the highest mountains provides a natural storage for water that descends along the river during spring and summer. Recent estimates indicate that the country has around 80 BCM/year of potential water resources of which 58 BCM is surface water and 22 BCM is groundwater. The annual volume of water used for irrigation is estimated to be 30 BCM, while the total amount of domestic water demand for 31,000.000 inhabitants (considering a per capita need of 60 lt/day, including all domestic and public use, except irrigation) can be estimated at approx, 0.8 BCM, thus not being too relevant compared to total use. Total groundwater extraction (including irrigation and domestic use) amounts to some 3 BCM. Approximately 15 per cent of the total water volume used annually originates from alluvial groundwater aquifers (9 per cent) and springs (7 per cent), and almost 85 per cent from rivers and streams. Ground water used from deep wells counts for less than 0.5 per cent. As compared to other countries, annual per capita water available in Afghanistan is approximately 2500 cubic meters, while for instance in Iran it is 1400 cubic meter per capita per year and in Pakistan 1200 cubic meter per capita per year. A qualitative assessment shows that Afghanistan's water resources are still largely underused as it is shown by the data presented in Table 1 of the present report. This does not mean that surface water and groundwater can be used freely without any caution: first of all in each area, an analysis must be conducted on how much of this ‘potential’ resource can be accessed without damage to people and ecosystem. For example, even if the general balance of groundwater is favorable, an intensive pumping in certain areas can cause a watershed AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 55 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector drawdown or the withdrawal of excessive quantities of water from a river or a stream can affect the environment. Hydrogeology Different systems of aquifers are present in Afghanistan due to complex geology. Unconsolidated Aquifer Systems are found along major river systems and in intermountain basins. These comprise the most prolific aquifers in Afghanistan. Most of the irrigation from groundwater sources (springs, karezes, open wells and drilled wells) is derived from these aquifer systems. The geological map of Afghanistan, shows the locations of the Quaternary and Neocene sediments. Consolidated bedrock aquifer systems are very less documented in Afghanistan. The yield potential of the crystalline rocks (granites, schist, gneiss, etc) is expected to be significantly lower than the unconsolidated aquifer systems in the country. The sedimentary and igneous rock units, which underlie large parts of the country may have development potential, but have not been explored in details as yet. The unconsolidated aquifer systems are generally well recharged but, according to existing studies, there are some limited areas where drawdown problems have occurred. Particularly critical are certain areas affected by drawdown of the unconsolidated watershed, in the Eastern Helmand river basin and tributaries and in the Kabul river basin. Climatology There are two types of climate in Afghanistan: 1) In the northern and the southern valleys, climate is typical of an arid or semiarid steppe, with cold winters and dry summers. The mountain regions of the northeast are subarctic with dry and cold winters. In the mountains bordering Pakistan, a divergent fringe effect is evident of the monsoon advance in June into central and southern Afghanistan, bringing increased humidity and some rain. 2) The Central Mountains represent another distinct climatic region. From the Koh-e Baba Range to the Pamir Knot, January temperatures may drop to -15°C or lower in the highest mountain areas; July temperatures vary between 0 and 26°C depending on altitude. The annual mean precipitation, much of which is snowfall, increases eastward and is highest in the Koh-e Baba Range, the western part of the Pamir Knot, and the Eastern Hindukush. Precipitation in these regions and the eastern monsoon area is about forty centimeters per year. Rural Water Demand Construction of water points/sources. According with the above reported data, about 50,000 rural water supply systems are in place in Afghanistan. The actual need can be evaluated in at least another 80,000 new assets. Sanitation facilities The lack of latrines is more severe than the lack of water supply systems. Elaborating the data of deficiencies of the World Food Programme, the minimum number of latrines required in the country has been estimated at 1,500,000, while the total number of the existing latrines can be estimated at 500,000. It is important to note that constructing septic tanks is highly advisable, especially for preventing health risks, for at least major settlements with more than 2 - 3.000 inhabitants. Resource analysis: As indicated in the Chapters “Hydrology” and “Hydrogeology”, water availability in Afghanistan is higher than the needs, except for some areas in Kabul’s river basin and in the Eastern Helmand basin where a drawdown of the unconsolidated superficial watershed has been observed. It means that both surface water and groundwater sources can be used, provided specific studies are undertaken in order to recommend context appropriate sources and environmental impacts. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 56 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector Technical Choices For Prioritized Provinces The priority districts identified therein are localized within the Northern Provinces. The selection has been done according to the level of water shortage for the population. For technology choices in rural water supply systems in the identified Provinces, SSDA provides the following technological options to be verified in each specific situation: • Herat: Bore wells, dug wells, karezes, rivers • Nangarhar: Bore wells, dug wells, karezes • Ghazni: Bore wells, dug wells, karezes, rivers • Farah: Bore wells, dug wells, karezes, rivers • Helmand: Bore wells, dug wells, karezes, river, lakes • Kandahar : Bore wells, dug wells, surface water, possibly gravity schemes • Bagdhis: Bore wells • Zabul: Bore wells, dug wells, karezes, springs • Kunhar: Bore wells, dug wells, karezes, • Badakshan: Bore wells, dug wells, karezes • Sari Pul: Bore wells • Ghor: Bore wells, dug wells, karezes, rivers Reviving Or Rehabilitating Existing Water Supply Systems General Due to technical inconveniences in the interventions in rural water supply in the country, two technical manuals have been recently developed: • The Water and Sanitation Group (WSG) Manual, prepared by the Rural Water, Sanitation and Irrigation Department of MRRD (Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development) - first version in 2006. • The National Solidarity Program (NSP) manual, prepared in 2010 and regularly updated until 2011 These two manuals, that can be found in the Appendices, have reached a very good quality and contain a lot of indications and technical specifications covering every kind of intervention in the sector, although addressed to specialized technicians. In the present technical report, a summarized technical guidance is shared with the aim of providing a simplified “handbook” for the design, implementation, operation, maintenance and eventually rehabilitation of rural water supply systems in Afghanistan. It is recommended that MRRD provide the necessary technical support to communities by creating a technical guidance unit, as specified in Chapter 6, for targeted support during the formulation and design of intervention phases. The technical guidance unit, in theory, should be composed of a sociologist, a hydro- geologist and a hydraulic engineer. Procurement In order to avoid the challenges of insufficient technical quality adherence of Rural Water Supply Systems in the country, a procurement tender must be undertaken especially for major water supply systems. These must be done for the design and supervision of construction works or for the maintenance of water systems. One suggestion would be that regional MRRD technical units manage these tenders at a regional level structure for general supervision of interventions. Waters points can be grouped in homogenous lots that are big enough to interest experienced contractors (min. 15,000 Euro) but not so large as to require the intervention of a foreign contractor (max. can be 200,000 Euro). AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 57 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector Tenders can be published by local authorities or the administrative units at the centre. Implementation The main organizations operating in WASH (DCAAR, USAID) do not directly implement water points any longer. They sub-contract the Contractors do the work, with close supervision and monitoring by an independent technician. • Local Communities submit a demand to the Regional Administration of MRRD (RA) for making a Rural Water Supply system. The technical task force of the RA makes a free-of-cost design for the intervention and determines the technical characteristics (water volume, water source, type of scheme, cost of the works, necessary local support for sustainability in terms of maintenance and operation. Each Community deliberates on the intervention, allocates money and appoints a person responsible for the village water supply (mirab). The RA prepares and publishes a tender for intervention works and groups it with others, if required. The design and the technical prescription can be prepared either freely by the RA or by an engineer paid by the Community. The RA or the Community appoints and pays a Supervisor. The work is executed by the Contractor, tested and delivered to the Community that engages itself to the maintenance and the operation by means of the local responsible person/s Strategy on reviving or rehabilitating existing water points Water well problems result from many causes including equipment failure, depletion of the aquifer, corrosive qualities of the water, improper well design and the construction and lack of proper operation and maintenance. Correct identification of the causes enables the selection of appropriate treatment or maintenance to fix the problem or else to abandon the water source. A working mechanism will need to be developed within the prevailing government institutions for monitoring wells in the community and supporting them in resolving problems and technical issues. Some organizations have made different systems to collect data: • USAID has made a system of data collection through telephones with the potential for expansion through information available for viewing on the internet; • DACAAR has set up a monitoring net with monthly controls of the quality and performance of water points. Data is entered into a GIS so that it is easily controlled and cross-checked. Their reports indicate that around 30% water points in the country are dysfunctional. This failure is due to drying up of water sources; falling water tables; damage from natural disasters; poor quality of construction materials and equipment; lack of standardization and oversight; poor operation and maintenance services; coordination issues with the private sector; and lack of community ownership. Poor O&M can be partly improved by ensuring capacity development among care takers, mechanics and provincial MRRD staff for undertaking proper operation and preventive maintenance. In order to enable monitoring, information on all the wells needs to be maintained in MRRD in a very simple format agreed to by all the stakeholders. All new constructions shall be reported in this format to RRD. RRD shall be provided with a simple database software for this and trained in its use. Similarly a second simple format shall be developed for updating the status of the functionality of wells and the system of operation and maintenance while carrying out the monitoring work above. New technologies Some new technologies that can potentially be useful in RWSS in the country are described: 1) COMPACT TREATMENT PLANT At present, new technologies suitable for peak water demand of a maximum 10 m3/hour are available. Technologies are based on pre-mounted pumping – treatment units that are fully automatic. Their advantages AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 58 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector are reduced cost, no installation works requirement, easy operations, low operating cost, easy maintenance, no chemical products required. The system has a three-stage process: Physical Filtration, Chemical filtration and Bacteriological treatment. 2) BOOSTER PUMP A booster pump directly pumps from a ground reservoir to the net by a group driven by an inverter. This arrangement allows saving of money for constructing an elevated tank and also allows substantial energy saving with economic and ecologic benefits. This is because water is pumped at the pressure strictly necessary in the network. Nevertheless it must be noted that a booster system is more insecure from the point of view of the distribution network and that the pump works in a less stable way. For this reason, it is not suitable for a big network. 3) PUMPING SYSTEMS FED BY SOLAR PANELS A solar panel system is able to provide energy for a pumping station that is able to feed a water supply network up to 3000 people. Photovoltaic panels have been utilized recently in a UE project in the Sahel Countries in Africa for rural water supply systems pumping station with a power between 100 m4/day (200 Wc) and 6000 m4/jour (12.000 Wc). The flow was included between 3 m3/day and 300 m3/day for a population between 50 and 5000 inhabitants. For this water flow, solar panels allowed a pumping height between 20m and 80m. When using photovoltaic systems, all hydraulic parameters for the design of the conduction pipe and the tank volume have to be reviewed. 4) SANITARY LANDFILL Due to the diarrhea epidemics, health policies aim at improving the sanitation sector- for e.g. encouraging people to use latrines instead of open defecation. An increase in the number of latrines in a small area is a possible source of contamination of ground water. It is important to remember that latrines must be emptied regularly. Therefore, it is necessary dig a sanitary landfill where material derived from regular emptying of latrines can be emptied. This site must be located downstream from water sources. 5) DISINFECTION SYSTEMS In order to prevent diarrhea and other water borne diseases, it is often necessary to disinfect the water. Different way can be used for disinfecting; chlorination treatment is common for small and medium systems; another low-cost method of disinfecting water is solar disinfection (SODIS). A recent study revealed that the wild Salmonella that reproduced rapidly during dark storage of solar- disinfected water could be controlled by the addition of just 10 parts per million of hydrogen peroxide. Disinfection is accomplished by filtering out harmful micro-organisms and by adding disinfectant chemicals. 6) 6) DEHYDRATATION LATRINES There are several technologies to construct latrines in rural areas. Each one presents advantages and disadvantages. Many of them are very well illustrated in the WATSAN manual. In the following, attention is given to the dehydration system that is not mentioned in the manuals and that can be considered a good option for lower sea level areas with warmer climates. The effectiveness of this system is not high during the cold season in which dehydration is slow and removal has to be done for higher quantities. In a dehydration toilet, the excreta inside the processing vault are dried due to the sun, natural evaporation and ventilation. The toilet requires no flushing with water. Dehydration toilets are increasingly popular in the developing world. They can be successfully used in various climatic conditions and are most advantageous in AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 59 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector arid climates where water is scarce and faeces can be effectively dried. The faeces are collected in a chamber below the toilet (or squatting hole) and are dried. High temperature in the chamber, together with sufficient ventilation are the most important mechanisms in the drying process. The ventilation also reduces odors due to air currents that flow towards the vent pipe out of the chamber. A moisture content below 25% facilitates rapid pathogen destruction. Absorbents such as lime, ash, or dry soil should be added to the chamber after each defecation to absorb excess moisture, make the pile less compact and make it less unsightly for the next user. Addition of absorbents is also reported to reduce flies and eliminate bad odors. Moreover, depending on the additive, the pH may be increased and hence enhance bacterial pathogen die-off. Once the chamber is almost full, the content may need to be removed. The contents are further stored, used as a soil conditioner, buried or composted (in home composting or at a local composting centre). The product from the dehydration process, a crumbly cake, is not compost but rather a kind of mulch which is rich in carbon and fibrous material, phosphorous and potassium. Nutrients will be available to plants directly or after further decomposition of the dehydrated material. In warm environments (20°-35°) storage times of less than 1 year will be sufficient to eliminate most bacterial pathogens and substantially reduce viruses, protozoa and parasites. Some soil-borne ova (e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides) may persist. Further storage, sun drying, alkaline treatment or high-temperature composting may be recommended to further decrease health risks from utilizing dehydrated faeces. Promoting Sustainability Generals Where RWSS systems have been affected by design or implementation mistakes, the main factor for failure has been the lack of sustainability. Generally speaking, every system has severe problems of maintenance due to lack of funds from a responsible organization. The problem involves the reorganization of the sector with a clear identification of power and responsibility among key actors. “Recent drafts of the Water Sector Strategy (WSS) and of the Water Law provide the main policy environment for water management. The drafts of the WSS pay tribute to integrated water resources management (IWRM) by incorporating stakeholder participation at the local level (with a focus on water user associations or WUAs) and at the basin level (with a focus on river basin councils). This is also emphasized in the Draft Water Law, with its section on river basin councils and sub-basin councils. The law on WUAs, however, is less explicit. While the July 2007 Draft WSS focused on water pricing, the February 2008 draft focused on poverty alleviation and did not discuss water pricing (although cost recovery for construction and services is still anticipated). The June 2008 Draft Water Law continues to focus on establishing a modern permit system with the exception of right-of-way areas (areas protected and free from interventions). All versions of the Draft WSS have a strong focus on infrastructure rehabilitation and expansion. The drafts highlight the role of NGOs and donors in achieving this, but not all of them deal with the negative consequences that these efforts might have for downstream states. Although the basic framework for basin organization is defined and roles are allocated, important questions about decision-making in the basin councils are not specifically articulated. It is not evident, therefore, who will be represented in the councils and how votes in the councils will be shared among different stakeholders. The June 2008 Draft Water Law contains references to right-of-way areas and suggests that these areas will not be included in the basin approach or represented in the councils. The implication is that there is no basin approach and no integrated water management with stakeholder participation. The right-of-way reference does reflect the reality on the ground. Nevertheless, why have a law on basin management if substantial parts of the basin are excluded? AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 60 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector Operation and maintenance Operation and Maintenance (O&M) of community water points is essential to ensure lasting service for the community members. Through basic O&M, water points last longer and replacement needs usually emerge only once life of the facility is over. A relatively limited investment in developing the capacity of caretakers and in the supply and maintenance of the critical spare parts and components can potentially protect the initial investment. The Afghan Government, with donor support, should provide a fund that can pay for spare parts such as gaskets, special parts, valves, electromechanical devices, hand pumps, electro mechanical pumps and for the replacement and repair costs for systems in case of natural disasters. Each system must be endowed with an O&M book where the replacement of each component must be foreseen and where the data collected on the field must be recorded. Presently the situation of O&M of rural water supply systems is very critical and can seriously affect the longevity of the facilities and the sustainability of investments. Conclusions The Rural Water Supply and Sanitation sector in Afghanistan is in a very critical situation from the technical point of view. The need for targeted interventions is evident considering that 80% of the Afghan population lives in rural areas, half of them being without access to safe drinking water or acceptable sanitary conditions - the two main factors allowing a dignified condition of life. There is thus an opportunity for international economic support to this sector. Many efforts have been made. Two valid technical manuals have been developed for implementing interventions and many studies and conferences have been performed on the sustainability of water supply systems. The present report highlights the actual situation by giving an updated description of all relevant phases, provides specific guidance and highlighting the weak points and necessary changes. Many weaknesses have also been identified. Technical problems are always strictly tied in with the institutional framework. Finding a solution is necessary to make an integrated analysis. For example, the identification of the competences among river basin authorities or the procedural requirements for the design of the works, or the evaluation of necessary funds and activities to support a correct operation and maintenance process, etc., are all technical issues reflected in institutional procedures. A technical handbook has been shared in this report in order to provide the person responsible for O&M in the community (not necessarily a technician) an easy and simplified access to the RWS systems. With this manual, he could program and follow all intervention phases: • Planning • Formulation of the intervention • Design • Tender procedure for construction and supervision • Construction • Operation and maintenance In fact only a correct execution of all these phases can guarantee the achievement of the objective to improve the Afghanistan Rural Water Supply and Sanitation sector. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 61 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector 8. RECOMMENDATIONS The Rural Water Supply and Sanitation sector in Afghanistan is in a very critical situation from a technical point of view. This situation is partly caused by the lack of financing but surely the most determining reason is the lack of sustainability of the major part of the investments. In order to guarantee sustainability, all phases of RWSS Systems interventions need improvements. Following are the recommendations for stakeholders and for MRRD, in particular, during each phase of implementing an intervention: 1. PLANNING The development of the rural areas of the country needs to be studied as an integrated issue, through a multidisciplinary approach: roads, energy, light, drinking and irrigation water, sanitation, agriculture, access to the market, professional education are some of the main aspects to be considered. The plan must be managed by MRRD and updated periodically (every 5 years). Water Supply and Sanitation must be a subsector of the Rural Development Plan. In the plan, investment requirements and funding sources must be defined as well as the procedure to engage these funds. In MRRD, a department must be created that is responsible for the planning of RWSS interventions in coherence with country priorities. During the planning process in MRRD, this department should collect the requests and needs presented by the local Communities to provincial MRRD offices. Subsequently, the department should make or validate a pre-evaluation of the costs of each intervention. This task would have to be done by the MRRD technical office. In the meanwhile, interventions will be described in a form in which all the main components will be listed and quantified. At this point, the department through its technical unit, must make a selection of the priority interventions, comparing their costs with available resources (local, national and international financing) and respecting social aspects and livelihoods of rural communities. It must be highlighted that after the intervention is funded, sustainability requires that benefits of the intervention itself encourages communities to operate and maintain the water systems. The technical unit of MRRD responsible for selecting interventions must primarily be composed of hydraulic engineers, hydrologists, hydro-geologists and socio-economists. In each year, the Plan would include the list of priority interventions for each area. Fund management ought to be done according to donor requirements, especially when international funds are utilised. The “Responsibility hierarchy” must be clearly defined. 2. FORMULATION OF THE INTERVENTION The Technical Unit of MRRD should also be responsible for the formulation of selected interventions. This process should include preliminary descriptions of the interventions that are simple and include the main information for minor interventions (below 10,000 USD) while a feasibility study must be undertaken for major interventions. The feasibility will consider aspects such as community water demand, source availability and quality, technical solution, cost of the design, construction and supervision of facilities and the cost of O&M required. A tariff will be identified in order to make ordinary maintenance possible and to reconstitute the capital to replace the works after its project life. A formal engagement for O&M activity must be subscribed by the community and a community member responsible for the intervention will need to be identified. 3. DESIGN For major interventions (over 10,000 USD), a detailed design would be necessary. In this case, intervention by private engineering companies could be required. When the Community requires, the Technical Unit would AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 62 Afghanistan Rural Water Sector provide support in identifying the Consultant. The cost of the Consultant could be sustained either by the funding source or by the community. The design should also include the meter device. 4. TENDER PROCEDURE FOR CONSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION Once the detail design is available, the Technical Unit will provide the community with the tender documents for the construction and supervision of the interventions. These two activities will be entrusted to the best bidder. Related costs will be sustained by the funding allocated during the formulation phase. 5. CONSTRUCTION Once the tender process is concluded, construction works would be undertaken. The Supervisor will submit a quality check report and the payment will be the responsibility of community. MRRD will exercise a general control through their Technical Unit in order to verify the correct destination of funds and the implementation of identified facilities. 6. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE Once the facility is completed, it will officially be handed over to the community and the person in-charge will take the full responsibility of it. The water consumption will be metered and water use is expected to be paid according to tariffs calculated during the formulation phase. O&M expense accountancy will be taken by the person responsible and presented to the community at the end of each year. In case of extraordinary maintenance, the person responsible will prepare a note for the Community with the description of the necessary intervention and its costs. To ensure proper O&M, it is indispensable that communities are assisted with establishment of appropriate procedures and that caretakers and mechanics are appointed. The training of caretakers and mechanics is required in order to develop their capacity to undertake necessary preventive and other repairs. 7. REHABILITATION / REVIVING OF EXISTING RWSS When a major intervention is necessary in order to rehabilitate an existing RWSS, all preceding items must be applied to implement the intervention. Particular attention must be paid to understanding the reasons of failure - an accident or a lack of maintenance, so that the same error is not repeated. It is suggested that a specific division in the Technical Unit is dedicated to rehabilitation works. In this Division, there must also be a “Trainer Team” that instructs and supports the community member in- charge in implementing appropriate O&M. The actions described may require that the MRRD Technical Unit is strengthened and that the Unit is equipped with at least 50 technicians. There will be an investment cost and a current cost that will need to be evaluated after careful needs assessment. If the strengthening is done correctly, the expenditure will be compensated by incomes in the RWSS sector and by the consequent development of the rural water supply and sanitation sector. AFGHANISTAN- Rural Water and Sanitation Sector- TECHNICAL OPTIONS REPORT 63