Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP Environmental, Health and Safety Guidelines for Coal Processing Introduction such as host country context, assimilative capacity of the environment, and other project factors, are taken into account. The Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines are The applicability of specific technical recommendations should technical reference documents with general and industry- be based on the professional opinion of qualified and specific examples of Good International Industry Practice experienced persons. When host country regulations differ (GIIP) 1. When one or more members of the World Bank Group from the levels and measures presented in the EHS are involved in a project, these EHS Guidelines are applied as Guidelines, projects are expected to achieve whichever is more required by their respective policies and standards. These stringent. If less stringent levels or measures than those industry sector EHS guidelines are designed to be used provided in these EHS Guidelines are appropriate, in view of together with the General EHS Guidelines document, which specific project circumstances, a full and detailed justification provides guidance to users on common EHS issues potentially for any proposed alternatives is needed as part of the site- applicable to all industry sectors. For complex projects, use of specific environmental assessment. This justification should multiple industry-sector guidelines may be necessary. A demonstrate that the choice for any alternate performance complete list of industry-sector guidelines can be found at: levels is protective of human health and the environment www.ifc.org/ifcext/enviro.nsf/Content/EnvironmentalGuidelines Applicability The EHS Guidelines contain the performance levels and measures that are generally considered to be achievable in The EHS Guidelines for Coal Processing cover the processing new facilities by existing technology at reasonable costs. of coal into gaseous or liquid chemicals, including fuels. They Application of the EHS Guidelines to existing facilities may apply to the production of Synthetic Gas (SynGas) through involve the establishment of site-specific targets, with an various gasification processes and its subsequent conversion appropriate timetable for achieving them. The applicability of into liquid hydrocarbons (Fischer-Tropsch synthesis), methanol, the EHS Guidelines should be tailored to the hazards and risks or other oxygenated liquid products, as well as to the direct established for each project on the basis of the results of an hydrogenation of coal into liquid hydrocarbons. environmental assessment in which site-specific variables, This document is organized according to the following sections: 1 Defined as the exercise of professional skill, diligence, prudence and foresight that would be reasonably expected from skilled and experienced professionals engaged in the same type of undertaking under the same or similar Section 1.0 — Industry-Specific Impacts and Management circumstances globally. The circumstances that skilled and experienced Section 2.0 — Performance Indicators and Monitoring professionals may find when evaluating the range of pollution prevention and Section 3.0 — References and Additional Sources control techniques available to a project may include, but are not limited to, varying levels of environmental degradation and environmental assimilative Annex A — General Description of Industry Activities capacity as well as varying levels of financial and technical feasibility. APRIL 30, 2007 1 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP 1.0 Industry-Specific Impacts • Use of water spray systems and/or polymer coatings to and Management reduce the formation of fugitive dust from coal storage (e.g. on stockpiles) as feasible depending on the coal quality The following section provides a summary of EHS issues requirements; associated with coal processing, along with recommendations • Capture of coal dust emissions from crushing / sizing for their management. Recommendations for the management activities and conveying to a baghouse filter or other of EHS issues common to most large industrial facilities during particulate control equipment; the construction and decommissioning phase(s) are provided in • Use of centrifugal (cyclone) collectors followed by high- the General EHS Guidelines . efficiency venturi aqueous scrubbers for thermal dryers; 1.1 Environmental • Use of centrifugal (cyclone) collectors followed by fabric filtration for pneumatic coal cleaning equipment; Potential environmental issues associated with coal processing • Use of enclosed conveyors combined with extraction and projects include: filtration equipment on conveyor transfer points; and • Air emissions • Suppression of dust during coal processing (e.g., crushing, sizing, and drying) and transfer (e.g., conveyor systems) • Wastewater using, for example, ware spraying systems with water • Hazardous materials collection and subsequent treatment or re-use of the • Wastes collected water. • Noise Fugitive emissions of other air pollutants include leaks of volatile Air Emissions organic compounds (VOC), carbon monoxide (CO), and Fugitive Particulate Matter and Gaseous Emissions hydrogen from various processes such as SynGas production The main sources of emissions in coal processing facilities units; coal storage; methanol and Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) primarily consist of fugitive sources of particulate matter (PM), synthesis units; product upgrading units; and oily sewage volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), systems and wastewater treatment facilities, particularly and hydrogen. Coal transfer, storage, and preparation activities equalization ponds and oil / water separators. Fugitive may contribute significantly to fugitive emissions of coal PM. emissions may also include leaks from numerous sources Recommendations to prevent and control fugitive coal PM including piping, valves, connections, flanges, gaskets, open- emissions include the following: ended lines, storage and working losses from fixed and floating roof storage tanks and pump seals, gas conveyance systems, • Design of the plant or facility layout to facilitate emissions compressor seals, pressure relief valves, open pits / management and to reduce the number of coal transfer containments, and loading and unloading of hydrocarbons. points; • Use of loading and unloading equipment to minimize the height of coal drop to the stockpile; APRIL 30, 2007 2 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP Recommendations to prevent and control fugitive sources of air • For floating roof storage tanks, design and install decks, pollutants include: fittings, and rim seals in accordance with international standards to minimize evaporative losses;4 • Reduce fugitive emissions from pipes, valves, seals, tanks, • Consider use of supply and return systems, vapor recovery and other infrastructure components by regularly hoses, and vapor tight trucks / railcars / vessels during monitoring with vapor detection equipment and loading and unloading of transport vehicles; maintenance or replacement of components as needed in • Use bottom loading truck / rail car filling systems to a prioritized manner; minimize vapor emissions; and • Maintain stable tank pressure and vapor space by: • Where vapor emissions may contribute or result in ambient o Coordination of filling and withdrawal schedules and air quality levels above health based standards, consider implementing vapor balancing between tanks, (a installation of secondary emissions controls, such as vapor process whereby vapor displaced during filling condensing and recovery units, catalytic oxidizers, gas activities is transferred to the vapor space of the tank adsorption media, refrigeration, or lean oil absorption units. being emptied or to other containment in preparation for vapor recovery); Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) o Use of white or other color paints with low heat Significant amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) may be produced in absorption properties on exteriors of storage tanks for SynGas manufacturing, particularly during the water-gas shift lighter distillates such as gasoline, ethanol, and reaction, in addition to all combustion-related processes (e.g., methanol to reduce heat absorption. Potential for electric power production and by-product incineration or use in visual impacts from reflection of light off tanks should co-generation). Recommendations for energy conservation and be considered; the management of greenhouse gas emissions are project and • Based on the tank storage capacity and vapor pressure of site-specific but may include some of those discussed in the materials being stored, select a specific tank type to General EHS Guidelines. At integrated facilities, operators minimize storage and working losses according to should explore an overall facility approach in the selection of internationally accepted design standards.2 process and utility technologies. • For fixed roof storage tanks, minimize storage and working losses by installation of an internal floating roof and seals3; Particulate Matters, Heavy Oils, and Heavy Metals Coal preparation activities (e.g., use of dryers), coal gasification 2 For example, according to API Standard 650: Welded Steel Tanks for Oil (e.g., feeding and ash removal), and coal liquefaction processes Storage (1998), new, modified, or restructured tanks with a capacity greater or equal to 40,000 gallons and storing liquids with a vapor pressure greater or may generate point-source emissions of dust and heavy oils equal than 0.75 psi but less than 11.1 psi, or a capacity greater or equal to 20,000 gallons and storing liquids with a vapor pressure greater or equal than 4 (tars). Appropriate technology should be selected to minimize psi but less than 11.1 psi must be equipped with: fixed roof in conjunction with an internal floating roof with a liquid mounted mechanical shoe primary seal; or external floating roof with a liquid mounted mechanical shoe primary seal and continuous rim-mounted secondary seal, with both seals meeting certain 4 Examples include: API Standard 620: Design and Construction of Large, minimum gap requirements and gasketed covers on the roof fittings; or closed Welded, Low-pressure Storage Tanks (2002); API Standard 650: Welded Steel vent system and 95% effective control device. Tanks for Oil Storage (1998), and; European Union (EU) European Standard 3 Worker access into tanks should be conducted following permit-required (EN) 12285-2:2005. Workshop fabricated steel tanks for the aboveground confined space entry procedures as noted in the General EHS Guidelines. storage of flammable and non-flammable water polluting liquids (2005). APRIL 30, 2007 3 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP particulate emissions. Heavy metals present in coal may be • Equip stacks with access for the operation of monitoring released as air emissions from the coal gasification process. devices (e.g., to monitor SO2 emissions from the Claus process and incinerators). Most heavy metals can be removed through a wet scrubber. Absorption technology may be required to remove mercury in Exhaust Gases coal with higher mercury content. The particulate matter control Combustion of SynGas or gas oil for power and heat generation recommendations are addressed in the General EHS at coal processing facilities is a significant source of air Guidelines. emissions, including CO2, nitrogen oxides (NOX), SO2, and, in the event of burner malfunction, carbon monoxide (CO). Acid Gases and Ammonia Off-gas stack emissions from the Claus Sulfur Recovery Unit Guidance for the management of small combustion processes include a blend of inert gases containing sulfur dioxide (SO2) designed to deliver electrical or mechanical power, steam, heat, and are a significant source of air emissions during coal or any combination of these, regardless of the fuel type, with a processing. The gasification process may also generate total rated heat input capacity of 50 Megawatt thermal (MWth) is pollutants such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbonyl sulfide provided in the General EHS Guidelines. Guidance applicable (COS), carbon disulfide (CS2), carbon monoxide (CO), ammonia to processes larger than 50 MWth is provided in the EHS (NH3), and hydrogen cyanide (HCN). Typically, these gases are Guidelines for Thermal Power . highly recoverable during SynGas purification (>99 percent). Liquefaction processes, including operations at the slurry mix Emissions related to the operation of power sources should be tanks, may result in releases of other acid gases and volatile minimized through the adoption of a combined strategy which organics. Recommended acid gas and ammonia emissions includes a reduction in energy demand, use of cleaner fuels, management strategies include: and application of emissions controls where required. Recommendations on energy efficiency are addressed in the • Installation of a sulfur recovery process to avoid emissions General EHS Guidelines. of H2S (e.g., Claus); • Venting of the slurry mix tanks to combustion air supplies Venting and Flaring for power or heat generation; Venting and flaring are an important operational and safety • Installation of scrubbing processes, either oxidation tailgas measure used in coal processing facilities to ensure gas is scrubbers or reduction tailgas scrubbers, as well as Venturi safely disposed of in the event of an emergency, power or scrubbers, to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxides; equipment failure, or other plant upset conditions. Unreacted raw materials and by-product combustible gases are also • If installing incineration devices for removal of sulfur, operate the incinerator at temperatures of 650 degrees disposed of through venting and flaring. Excess gas should not Celsius (°C) or higher with proper air-to-fuel ratios in order be vented but instead sent to an efficient flare gas system for to completely combust H2S; and disposal. APRIL 30, 2007 4 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP Recommendations to minimize gas venting and flaring include process liquids discharge into the oily water drain system; the following: and • Design and construction of wastewater and hazardous • Optimize plant controls to increase the reaction conversion materials storage containment basins with impervious rates; surfaces to prevent infiltration of contaminated water into • Utilize unreacted raw materials and by-product combustible soil and groundwater. gases for power generation or heat recovery, if possible; • Provide back-up systems to maximize plant reliability; and Specific provisions for the management of individual wastewater • Locate flaring systems at a safe distance from personnel streams include the following: accommodations and residential areas and maintain flaring • Amines spills resulting from the carbon dioxide alkaline systems to achieve high efficiency. removal system downstream of the Gasification Unit should Emergency venting may be acceptable under certain conditions be collected into a dedicated closed drain system and, after where flaring of the gas stream is not appropriate. Standard risk filtration, recycled back into the process; assessment methodologies should be utilized to analyze such • Effluent from the stripping column of the F-T Synthesis situations. Justification for not using a gas flaring system should Unit, which contains dissolved hydrocarbons and be fully documented before an emergency gas venting facility is oxygenated compounds (mainly alcohols and organic considered. acids) and minor amounts of ketones, should be re- circulated inside the F-T Synthesis Unit to recover the Wastewater hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds in a stripping Industrial Process Wastewater column; Process wastewater may become contaminated with • Acidic and caustic effluents from demineralized water hydrocarbons, ammonia and amines, oxygenated compounds, preparation, the generation of which depends on the quality acids, inorganic salts, and traces of heavy metal ions. of the raw water supply to the process, should be Recommended process wastewater management practices neutralized prior to discharge into the facility’s wastewater include: treatment system; • Blow-down from the steam generation systems and cooling • Prevention of accidental releases of liquids through towers should be cooled prior to discharge. Cooling water inspections and maintenance of storage and conveyance containing biocides or other additives may also require systems, including stuffing boxes on pumps and valves and does adjustment or treatment in the facility’s wastewater other potential leakage points, as well as the treatment plant prior to discharge; and implementation of spill response plans; • Hydrocarbon-contaminated water from scheduled cleaning • Provision of sufficient process fluids let-down capacity to activities during facility turn-around (cleaning activities are maximize recovery into the process and to avoid massive typically performed annually and may last for a few weeks), oily effluents from process leaks, and heavy-metals APRIL 30, 2007 5 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP containing effluents from fixed and fluidized beds should be especially where it may be a limited natural resource, are treated via the facility’s wastewater treatment plant. provided in the General EHS Guidelines. Process Wastewater treatment Other Wastewater Streams & Water Consumption Techniques for treating industrial process wastewater in this Guidance on the management of non-contaminated wastewater sector include source segregation and pretreatment of from utility operations, non-contaminated stormwater, and concentrated wastewater streams. Typical wastewater treatment sanitary sewage is provided in the General EHS Guidelines. steps include: grease traps, skimmers, dissolved air floatation, Contaminated streams should be routed to the treatment system or oil / water separators for separation of oils and floatable for industrial process wastewater. Additional specific guidance is solids; filtration for separation of filterable solids; flow and load provided below. equalization; sedimentation for suspended solids reduction Stormwater: Stormwater may become contaminated as a result using clarifiers; biological treatment, typically aerobic treatment, of spills of process liquids as well as migration of leachate for reduction of soluble organic matter (BOD); chemical or biological nutrient removal for reduction in nitrogen and containing hydrocarbons and heavy metals from coal storage areas. Industry-specific recommendations include: phosphorus; chlorination of effluent when disinfection is required; and dewatering and disposal of residuals in • Pave process areas, segregate contaminated and non- designated hazardous waste landfills. Additional engineering contaminated stormwater, and implement spill control controls may be required for (i) containment and treatment of plans. Route stormwater from process areas into the volatile organics stripped from various unit operations in the wastewater treatment unit; and wastewater treatment system, (ii)advanced metals removal • Design and locate coal storage facilities and associated using membrane filtration or other physical/chemical treatment leachate collection systems to prevent impacts to soil and technologies, (iii) removal of recalcitrant organics, cyanide and water resources. Coal stockpile areas should be paved to non biodegradable COD using activated carbon or advanced segregate potentially contaminated stormwater, which chemical oxidation, (iii) reduction in effluent toxicity using should be transferred to the facility’s wastewater treatment appropriate technology (such as reverse osmosis, ion unit. exchange, activated carbon, etc.), and (iv) containment and neutralization of nuisance odors. Cooling water: Cooling water may result in high rates of water consumption, as well as the potential release of high Management of industrial wastewater and examples of temperature water, residues of biocides, and residues of other treatment approaches are discussed in the General EHS cooling system anti-fouling agents. Recommended cooling Guidelines . Through use of these technologies and good water management strategies include: practice techniques for wastewater management, facilities should meet the Guideline Values for wastewater discharge as • Adoption of water conservation opportunities for facility indicated in the relevant table of Section 2 of this industry sector cooling systems as provided in the General EHS document. Recommendations to reduce water consumption, Guidelines ; APRIL 30, 2007 6 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP • Use of heat recovery methods (also energy efficiency local regulatory requirements and manufacturer improvements) or other cooling methods to reduce the recommendations. temperature of heated water prior to discharge to ensure the discharge water temperature does not result in an If discharge of hydro-test waters to the sea or to surface water is increase greater than 3°C of ambient temperature at the the only feasible option for disposal, a hydro-test water disposal edge of a scientifically established mixing zone that takes plan should be prepared considering location and rate of into account ambient water quality, receiving water use, discharge, chemical use and dispersion, environmental risk, and assimilative capacity, etc.; required monitoring. Hydro-test water disposal into shallow • Minimizing use of antifouling and corrosion-inhibiting coastal waters should be avoided. chemicals by ensuring appropriate depth of water intake and use of screens; selection of the least hazardous Hazardous Materials alternatives with regards to toxicity, biodegradability, Coal processing facilities manufacture significant amounts of bioavailability, and bioaccumulation potential; and dosing in hazardous materials, including intermediate / final products and accordance with local regulatory requirements and by-products. The handling, storage, and transportation of these manufacturer recommendations; and materials should be managed properly to avoid or minimize the environmental impacts from these hazardous materials. • Testing for residual biocides and other pollutants of concern to determine the need for dose adjustments or Recommended practices for hazardous material management, treatment of cooling water prior to discharge. including handling, storage, and transport are provided in the General EHS Guidelines. Hydrostatic testing water: Hydrostatic testing (hydro-test) of equipment and pipelines involves pressure testing with water Wastes (generally filtered raw water) to verify their integrity and detect Non-hazardous wastes include coal bottom ash, slag, fly ash, possible leaks. Chemical additives, typically a corrosion and coal storage sludge. Coal bottom ash and slag5 are the inhibitor, an oxygen scavenger, and a dye, may be added. In coarse, granular, incombustible by-products that are collected managing hydro-test waters, the following pollution prevention from the bottom of gasifiers. Fly ash is also captured from the and control measures should be implemented: reactor. The amount of generated slag and ashes is typically significant and depends on the grade of coal used in the plant. • Reuse water for multiple tests to conserve water and The physical form of the ash is related to the gasification minimize discharges of potentially contaminated effluent; process. • Reduce use of corrosion inhibiting or other chemicals by minimizing the time that test water remains in the Potentially hazardous wastes typically include spent catalysts, equipment or pipeline; and oil, solvents, reactant solutions, filters, saturated filtering beds, • Select the least hazardous alternatives with regard to heavy-ends from the synthesis purification, used containers, oily toxicity, biodegradability, bioavailability, and rags, mineral spirits, used sweetening, spent amines for CO2 bioaccumulation potential, and dosing in accordance with 5Recycling Materials Resource Center (RMRC), Coal Bottom Ash/Boiler Slag, available at http://www.rmrc.unh.edu/Partners/UserGuide/cbabs1.htm APRIL 30, 2007 7 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP removal, activated carbon filters and oily sludge from oil water Coal Storage Sludge separators, and spent or used operational and maintenance Coal dust sludge generated from coal storage and coal fluids such as oils and test liquids, and wastewater treatment preparation should be dried and reused or recycled where sludge. feasible. Possible options may include reuse as feedstock in the gasification process, depending on the gasification General recommendations for the management of hazardous technology selected. Handling, transport, and on-site / off-site and non-hazardous waste are presented in the General EHS management of all sludge should be conducted according to the Guidelines . Industry-specific waste management practices non-hazardous industrial waste management recommendations include the following. included in the General EHS Guidelines. Coal Bottom Ash, Slag, and Fly Ash Spent Catalysts Depending on their toxicity and radioactivity, coal bottom ash, Spent catalysts result from catalyst bed replacement in slag, and fly ash may be recycled, given the availability of scheduled turnarounds of SynGas desulphurization, Fischer – commercially and technical viable options. Recommended Tropsch (F-T) reaction, isomerization, catalytic cracking, and recycling methods include: methanol syntheses. Spent catalysts may contain zinc, nickel, • Use of bottom ash as an aggregate in lightweight concrete iron, cobalt, platinum, palladium, and copper, depending on the particular process. masonry units, as raw feed material in the production of Portland cement, road base and sub-base aggregate, or as Recommended waste management strategies for spent structural fill material, and as fine aggregate in asphalt catalysts include the following: paving and flowable fill; • Use of slag as blasting grit, as roofing shingle granules, for • Appropriate on-site management, including submerging snow and ice control, as aggregate in asphalt paving, as a pyrophoric spent catalysts in water during temporary structural fill, and in road base and sub-base applications; storage and transport until they can reach the final point of • Use of fly ash in construction materials requiring a treatment to avoid uncontrolled exothermic reactions; pozzolanic material. • Return to the manufacturer for regeneration; and • Off-site management by specialized companies that can Where due to its toxic / radioactive characteristics or recover the heavy or precious metals, through recovery unavailability of commercially and technically viable alternatives and recycling processes whenever possible, or who can these materials can not be recycled, they should be disposed of otherwise manage spent catalysts or their non-recoverable in a licensed landfill facility designed and operated according to materials according to hazardous and non-hazardous good international industry practice.6 waste management recommendations presented in the General EHS Guidelines. Catalysts that contain platinum 6 Additional guidance on the disposal of hazardous and non-hazardous or palladium should be sent to a noble metals recovery industrial waste is provided in the EHS Guidelines for Waste Management Facilities. facility. APRIL 30, 2007 8 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP Heavy Ends • Oxygen-Deficient Atmospheres Heavy ends from the purification section of the Methanol • Inhalation hazards Synthesis Unit are normally burnt in a steam boiler by means of • Fire and explosions a dedicated burner. Process Safety Noise Process safety programs should be implemented due to The principal sources of noise in coal processing facilities industry-specific characteristics, including complex chemical include the physical processing of coal (e.g. screening, reactions, use of hazardous materials (e.g., toxic, reactive, crushing, sizing and sorting), as well as large rotating machines flammable or explosive compounds), and multi-step reactions. (e.g., compressors, turbines, pumps, electric motors, air coolers, Process safety management includes the following actions: and fired heaters). During emergency depressurization, high noise levels can be generated due to release of high-pressure • Physical hazard testing of materials and reactions; gases to flare and / or steam release into the atmosphere. • Hazard analysis studies to review the process chemistry General recommendations for noise management are provided and engineering practices, including thermodynamics and in the General EHS Guidelines . kinetics; • Examination of preventive maintenance and mechanical 1.2 Occupational Health and Safety integrity of the process equipment and utilities; Facility-specific occupational health and safety hazards should • Worker training; and be identified based on job safety analysis or comprehensive • Development of operating instructions and emergency hazard or risk assessment using established methodologies response procedures. such as a hazard identification study [HAZID], hazard and operability study [HAZOP], or a scenario-based risk assessment Oxygen-Enriched Gas Releases [QRA]. Oxygen-enriched gas may leak from air separation units and create a fire risk due to an oxygen-enriched atmosphere. As a general approach, health and safety management planning Oxygen-enriched atmospheres may potentially result in the should include the adoption of a systematic and structured saturation of materials, hair, and clothing with oxygen, which system for prevention and control of physical, chemical, may burn vigorously if ignited. Prevention and control measures biological, and radiological health and safety hazards described to reduce on-site and off-site exposure to oxygen-enriched in the General EHS Guidelines . atmospheres include: The most significant occupational health and safety hazards • Installation of an automatic Emergency Shutdown System occur during the operational phase of a coal processing facility that can detect and warn of the uncontrolled release of and primarily include the following: oxygen (including the presence of oxygen enriched • Process Safety • Oxygen-Enriched Gas Releases APRIL 30, 2007 9 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP atmospheres in working areas7) and initiate shutdown • Installation of an automatic Emergency Shutdown System actions thus minimizing the duration of releases, and that can detect and warn of the uncontrolled release of elimination of potential ignition sources; nitrogen (including the presence of oxygen deficient • Design of facilities and components according to applicable atmospheres in working areas8), initiate forced ventilation, industry safety standards, avoiding the placement of and minimize the duration of releases; and oxygen-carrying piping in confined spaces, using • Implementation of confined space entry procedures as intrinsically safe electrical installations, and using facility- described in the General EHS Guidelines with wide oxygen venting systems that properly consider the consideration of facility-specific hazards. potential impact of the vented gas; • Implementation of hot work and permit-required confined Inhalation Hazards space entry procedures that specifically take into account Chemical exposure in coal processing facilities is primarily the potential release of oxygen; related to inhalation of coal dust, coal tar pitch volatiles, carbon • Implementation of good housekeeping practices to avoid monoxide, and other vapors such as methanol and ammonia. accumulation of combustible materials; Workers exposed to coal dust may develop lung damage and • Planning and implementation of emergency preparedness pulmonary fibrosis. Exposure to carbon monoxide results in and response plans that specifically incorporate formation of carboxyhemoglobin (COHb), which inhibits the procedures for managing uncontrolled releases of oxygen; oxygen-carrying ability of the red blood cells. Mild exposure and symptoms may include headache, dizziness, decreased • Provision of appropriate fire prevention and control vigilance, decreased hand-eye coordination, weakness, equipment as described below (Fire and Explosion confusion, disorientation, lethargy, nausea, and visual Hazards). disturbances. Greater or prolonged exposure can cause unconsciousness and death. Oxygen-Deficient Atmosphere Potential inhalation exposures to chemicals emissions during The potential releases and accumulation of nitrogen gas into routine plant operations should be managed based on the work areas can result in asphyxiating conditions due to the results of a job safety analysis and industrial hygiene survey, displacement of oxygen by these gases. Prevention and control and according to occupational health and safety guidance measures to reduce risks of asphyxiant gas release include: provided in the General EHS Guidelines. Protection measures • Design and placement of nitrogen venting systems include worker training, work permit systems, use of personal according to recognized industry standards; protective equipment (PPE), and toxic gas detection systems with alarms. 7Working areas with the potential for oxygen enriched atmospheres should be 8 Working areas with the potential for oxygen deficient atmospheres should be equipped with area monitoring systems capable of detecting such conditions. equipped with area monitoring systems capable of detecting such conditions. Workers also should be equipped with personal monitoring systems. Both types Workers also should be equipped with personal monitoring systems. Both types of monitoring systems should be equipped with a warning alarm set at 23.5 of monitoring systems should be equipped with a warning alarm set at 19.5 percent concentration of O2 in air. percent concentration of O2 in air. APRIL 30, 2007 10 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP Fire and Explosion Hazards • Eliminating the presence of potential sources of ignition, Coal Storage and Preparation and providing appropriate equipment grounding to Coal is susceptible to spontaneous combustion, most commonly minimize static electricity hazards. All machinery and due to oxidation of pyrite or other sulphidic contaminants in electrical equipment inside the enclosed coal storage area coal.9, 10 Coal preparation operations also present a fire and or structure should be approved for use in hazardous explosion hazard due to the generation of coal dust, which may locations and provided with spark-proof motors; ignite depending on its concentration in air and presence of • All electrical circuits should be designed for automatic, ignition sources. Coal dust therefore represents a significant remote shutdown; and explosion hazard in coal storage and handling facilities where • Installation of an adequate lateral ventilation system in coal dust clouds may be generated in enclosed spaces. Dust enclosed storage areas to reduce concentrations of clouds also may be present wherever loose coal dust methane, carbon monoxide, and volatile products from coal accumulates, such as on structural ledges. Recommended oxidation by air, and to deal with smoke in the event of a techniques to prevent and control combustion and explosion fire. hazards in enclosed coal storage include the following: Recommended techniques to prevent and control explosion • Storing coal piles so as to prevent or minimize the risks due to coal preparation in an enclosed area include the likelihood of combustion, including: following: o Compacting coal piles to reduce the amount of air • Conduct dry coal screening, crushing, dry cleaning, within the pile, grinding, pulverizing and other operations producing coal o Minimizing coal storage times, dust under nitrogen blanket or other explosion prevention o Avoiding placement of coal piles above heat sources approaches such as ventilation; such as steam lines or manholes, • Locate the facilities to minimize fire and explosion o Constructing coal storage structures with non- exposure to other major buildings and equipment; combustible materials, • Consider controlling the moisture content of coal prior to o Designing coal storage structures to minimize the use, depending on the requirements of the gasification surface areas on which coal dust can settle and technology; providing dust removal systems, and • Install failsafe monitoring of methane concentrations in air, o Continuous monitoring for hot spots (ignited coal) and halt operations if a methane concentration of 40 using temperature detection systems. When a hot percent of the lower explosion limit is reached; spot is detected, the ignited coal should be removed. • Install and properly maintain dust collector systems to Access should be provided for firefighting; capture fugitive emissions from coal-handling equipment or machinery. 9 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Standard 850: Recommended Practice for Fire Protection for Electric Generating Plants and High Voltage Direct Current Converter Stations (2000). 10 NFPA. Standard 120: Standard for Fire Prevention and Control in Coal Mines (2004). APRIL 30, 2007 11 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP Coal Processing area including secondary containment of storage Fire and explosion hazards generated by process operations tanks, include the accidental release of SynGas (containing carbon o Strengthening of buildings or installing fire / blast monoxide and hydrogen), oxygen, methanol, and ammonia. partition walls in areas where appropriate separation High pressure SynGas releases may cause “Jet Fires” or give distances cannot be achieved, and rise to a Vapor Cloud Explosion (VCE), “Fireball” or “Flash Fire,” o Designing the oily sewage system to avoid depending on the quantity of flammable material involved and propagation of fire. the degree of confinement of the cloud. Hydrogen and carbon monoxide gases may ignite even in the absence of ignition 1.3 Community Health and Safety sources if they temperatures of 500°C and 609°C, respectively. Community health and safety impacts during the construction Flammable liquid spills may cause “Pool Fires.” Recommended and decommissioning of coal processing facilities are common measures to prevent and control fire and explosion risks from to those of most other industrial facilities and are discussed in process operations include the following: the General EHS Guidelines . The most significant community health and safety hazards associated with coal processing • Provide early release detection, such as pressure facilities occur during the operation phase and include the threat monitoring of gas and liquid conveyance systems, in from major accidents related to potential fires and explosions or addition to smoke and heat detection for fires; accidental releases of finished products during transportation • Limit potential releases by isolating process operations outside the processing facility. Guidance for the management of from large storage inventories; these issues is presented in relevant sections of the General • Avoid potential ignition sources (e.g., by configuring piping EHS Guidelines including: Hazardous Materials Management layouts to avoid spills over high temperature piping, (including Major Hazards), Traffic Safety, Transport of equipment, and / or rotating machines); Hazardous Materials, and Emergency Preparedness and • Control the potential effect of fires or explosions by Response. Additional relevant guidance applicable to transport segregating and using separation distances between by sea and rail as well as shore-based facilities can be found in process, storage, utility, and safe areas. Safe distances the EHS Guidelines for Shipping; Railways, Ports and Harbors, can be derived from specific safety analyses for the facility, and Crude Oil and Petroleum Products Terminals. and through application of internationally recognized fire safety standards;11 • Limit areas that may be potentially affected by accidental releases by: o Defining fire zones and equipping them with a drainage system to collect and convey accidental releases of flammable liquids to a safe containment 11For example, NFPA Standard 30: Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code (2003). APRIL 30, 2007 12 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP project conditions should be justified in the environmental 2.0 Performance Indicators and assessment. Monitoring Resource Use, Energy Consumption, Emission 2.1 Environment and Waste Generation Emissions and Effluent Guidelines Table 3 provides examples of resource consumption indicators Tables 1 and 2 present emission and effluent guidelines for this for energy and water in this sector. Table 4 provides examples sector. Guideline values for process emissions and effluents in of emission and waste generation indicators. Industry this sector are indicative of good international industry practice benchmark values are provided for comparative purposes only as reflected in relevant standards of countries with recognized and individual projects should target continual improvement in regulatory frameworks. These guidelines are achievable under these areas. Relevant benchmarks for coal processing plants normal operating conditions in appropriately designed and can be derived from coal gasification for large power plants. operated facilities through the application of pollution prevention Emissions of gasification plants producing SynGas for Fischer- and control techniques discussed in the preceding sections of Tropsch (F-T) synthesis should be substantially lower, due to this document. the purity requirements of synthesis catalyst. Emissions guidelines are applicable to process emissions. Environmental Monitoring Combustion source emissions guidelines associated with Environmental monitoring programs for this sector should be steam- and power-generation activities from sources with a implemented to address all activities that have been identified to capacity equal to or lower than 50 MWth are addressed in the have potentially significant impacts on the environment during General EHS Guidelines with larger power source emissions normal operations and upset conditions. Environmental addressed in the EHS Guidelines for Thermal Power . monitoring activities should be based on direct or indirect Guidance on ambient considerations based on the total load of indicators of emissions, effluents, and resource use applicable emissions is provided in the General EHS Guidelines . to the particular project. Monitoring frequency should be sufficient to provide representative data for the parameter being Effluent guidelines are applicable for direct discharges of treated monitored. Monitoring should be conducted by trained effluents to surface waters for general use. Site-specific individuals following monitoring and record-keeping procedures discharge levels may be established based on the availability and using properly calibrated and maintained equipment. and conditions in the use of publicly operated sewage collection Monitoring data should be analyzed and reviewed at regular and treatment systems or, if discharged directly to surface intervals and compared with the operating standards so that any waters, on the receiving water use classification as described in necessary corrective actions can be taken. Additional guidance the General EHS Guideline. These levels should be achieved, on applicable sampling and analytical methods for emissions without dilution, at least 95 percent of the time that the plant or and effluents is provided in the General EHS Guidelines . unit is operating, to be calculated as a proportion of annual operating hours. Deviation from these levels due to specific local APRIL 30, 2007 13 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP Table 1. Air Emissions Levels for Coal Table 2. Effluents Levels for Coal Processing Processing Plants Plants Guideline Guideline Pollutant Unit Pollutant Unit Value Value pH 6-9 Coal Preparation Plant BOD5 mg/l 30 Thermal Dryer Particulate mg/Nm 3 70 150 (40 cooling COD mg/l Thermal Dryer Gas Opacity % 20 water) Pneumatic Coal Cleaning Equip. Ammoniacal nitrogen (as N) mg/l 5 mg/Nm 3 40 Particulate Total nitrogen mg/l 10 Pneumatic Coal Cleaning Equip. % 10 Total phosphorous mg/l 2 Opacity Conveying, Storage and Preparation Sulfide mg/l 1 % 10 Gas Opacity Oil and grease mg/l 10 Overall TSS mg/l 35 SO2 mg/Nm 3 150-200 Total metals mg/l 3 NOx mg/Nm 3 200-400 (1) Cadmium mg/l 0.1 Hg mg/Nm 3 1.0 Chromium (total) mg/l 0.5 Particulate Matter mg/Nm 3 30-50 (1) Chromium (hexavalent) mg/l 0.1 VOC mg/Nm 3 150 Copper mg/l 0.5 Total Heavy Metals mg/Nm 3 1.5 Cobalt mg/l 0.5 H2S mg/Nm 3 10(2) Zinc mg/l 1 Lead mg/l 0.5 COS + CS2 mg/Nm 3 3 Iron mg/l 3 Ammonia mg/Nm 3 30 Nickel mg/l 1 Notes: 1. Lower value for plants of >100 MWth equivalent; higher value for plants of Mercury mg/l 0.02 <100 MWth equivalent. Vanadium mg/l 1 2. Emissions from Claus unit (Austria, Belgium, Germany). - Process emissions levels should be reviewed in consideration of utility Manganese mg/l 2 source emissions to arrive at the lowest overall emission rate for the facility. Phenol mg/l 0.5 - Dry gas 15% O2 Cyanides mg/l 0.5 Table 3. Resource and Energy Consumption Industry Parameter Unit Benchmark Electric Power Electric power consumption of Coal- MWhr/ Metric Ton of total 0.05 – 0.1 to-Liquid plants Coal-to-Liquid products Electric Power consumption of MWhr/Metric Ton of methanol 0.07 methanol plants APRIL 30, 2007 14 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH),12 the Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards published by the United States Table 4. Emissions and Waste Generation(1) National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH),13 Industry Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) published by the Parameter Unit Benchmark Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the United SO2 g/Nm 3 of SynGas 0.3 - 0.5 States (OSHA),14 Indicative Occupational Exposure Limit Values SO2 (Coal-Methanol- tons/day 6-14 Gasoline)(4) published by European Union member states,15 or other similar SO2 (Fischer-Tropsch) (4) tons/day 9-14 sources. NOX g/Nm 3 of SynGas 0.35-0.6 NOX (Coal-Methanol- tons/day 5-15.5 Accident and Fatality Rates Gasoline)(4) Projects should try to reduce the number of accidents among NOX (Fischer-Tropsch)(4) tons/day 5-23.6 project workers (whether directly employed or subcontracted) to PM10 g/Nm 3 of SynGas 0.12 a rate of zero, especially accidents that could result in lost work Particulates (Coal-Methanol- tons/day 0.5-7.5 Gasoline)(4) time, different levels of disability, or even fatalities. Facility rates Particulates (Fischer- tons/day 1-6 may be benchmarked against the performance of facilities in this Tropsch)(4) CO2(2)(3) kg/kg of coal 1.5 sector in developed countries through consultation with CO2 (Coal-Methanol-Gasoline tons/day 21,000 published sources (e.g. US Bureau of Labor Statistics and UK and Fischer-Tropsch)(4) Health and Safety Executive)16. Ammonia g/Nm 3 of SynGas 0.004 Solid Waste (ash, slag and kg/ton of coal 50 – 200 sulfur)(2) Occupational Health and Safety Monitoring Notes: The working environment should be monitored for occupational 1. Production: 1,300 – 1,500 Nm of SynGas/t of coal 3 hazards relevant to the specific project. Monitoring should be 2. According to rank and grade of coal; calculated for a GHP = 30 GJ/kg 3. Without carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) designed and implemented by accredited professionals17 as part 4. Reference: Edgar, T.F. (1983). For a 50,000 bbl/day coal liquefaction facility of an occupational health and safety monitoring program. Facilities should also maintain a record of occupational accidents and diseases and dangerous occurrences and 2.2 Occupational Health and Safety accidents. Additional guidance on occupational health and Performance safety monitoring programs is provided in the General EHS Guidelines . Occupational Health and Safety Guidelines Occupational health and safety performance should be 12 Available at: http://www.acgih.org/TLV/ and http://www.acgih.org/store/ evaluated against internationally published exposure guidelines, 13 Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/ 14 Available at: of which examples include the Threshold Limit Value (TLV®) http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDAR DS&p_id=9992 occupational exposure guidelines and Biological Exposure 15 Available at: http://europe.osha.eu.int/good_practice/risks/ds/oel/ 16 Available at: http://www.bls.gov/iif/ and Indices (BEIs®) published by American Conference of http://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/index.htm 17 Accredited professionals may include Certified Industrial Hygienists, Registered Occupational Hygienists, or Certified Safety Professionals or their equivalent. APRIL 30, 2007 15 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP 3.0 References and Additional Sources Edgar, T.F. 1983. Coal Processing and Pollution Control. Houston: Gulf NFPA. 2000. Standard 850: Recommended Practice for Fire Protection for Publishing Company. Electric Generating Plants and High Voltage Direct Current Converter Stations. 2000 Edition. Quincy, MA: NFPA. European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD). Sub-sectoral Environmental Guidelines: Coal Processing. London: EBRD. Available at Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management (NESCAUM). 2003. http://www.ebrd.com Mercury Emissions from Coal -Fired Power Plants: The Case for Regulatory Action. October 2003. Boston, MA: NESCAUM European Commission. 2006. European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau (EIPPCB). Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference United States (US) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2005. 40 CFR Part Document for Large Combustion Plants. July 2006. Sevilla, Spain: EIPPCB. 60, Standards of Performance for New and Existing Stationary Sources: Electric Available at http://eippcb.jrc.es/pages/FActivities.htm Utility Steam Generating Units, Clean Air Mercury Rule. Washington, DC: US EPA. European Commission. 2003. European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau (EIPPCB). Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference US EPA. 40 CFR Part 60. Standards of Performance for New Stationary Document for Mineral Oil and Gas Refineries. February 2003. Sevilla, Spain: Sources. Subpart Y—Standards of Performance for Coal Preparation Plants. EIPPCB. Available at http://eippcb.jrc.es/pages/FActivities.htm Washington, DC: US EPA. German Federal Ministry of the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear US EPA. 40 CFR Part 434—Coal Mining Point Source Category BPT, BAT, BCT Safety (BMU). 2002. First General Administrative Regulation Pertaining to the Limitations and New Source Performance Standards. Washington, DC: US EPA. Federal Emission Control Act (Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control – TA Luft). Bonn: BMU. Available at United States Congress. 2005. Clean Skies Act of 2005. (Inhofe, S.131 in 109th http://www.bmu.de/english/air_pollution_control/ta_luft/doc/36958.php Congress). Washington, DC: Library of Congress. Available at http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:S.131: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2006. Special Report, Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage, March 2006. Geneva: IPCC. University of New Hampshire Recycled Materials Resource Center (RMRC). Coal Bottom Ash/Boiler Slag. Available at http://www.rmrc.unh.edu/ Kirk-Othmer, R.E. 2006. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 5th Edition. New York: John Wiley and Sons Ltd. Zhu D. and Y. Zhang. Major trends of new technologies for coal mining and utilization beyond 2000 - Technical scenario of the chinese coal industry. China Lockhart, N. 2002. Advances in Coal Preparation. London: World Energy Coal Research Institute, Ministry of Coal Industry, Beijing, China. Available at Council. Available at http://www.worldenergy.org/wec- http://www.worldenergy.org/wec- geis/publications/default/tech_papers/17th_congress/1_2_02.asp geis/publications/default/tech_papers/17th_congress/3_1_11.asp National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). 2004. Standard 120: Standard for Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 2005. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH Fire Prevention and Control in Coal Mines. 2004 Edition. Quincy, MA: NFPA. & Co. Available at http://www.wiley- vch.de/vch/software/ullmann/index.php?page=home NFPA. 2003. Standard 30: Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code. 2003 Edition. Quincy, MA: NFPA. APRIL 30, 2007 16 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines COAL PROCESSING WORLD BANK GROUP Annex A: General Description of Industry Activities Coal processing into gaseous or liquid chemicals, including Table A.1. ASTM Coal Classification fuels, involves the following processes and auxiliary facilities: Fixed Volatile Carbon (1) Matter (1) (%) (%) • Coal gasification to synthesis gas – SynGas (CO + H2) min max min max Anthracitic Meta-anthracite 98 2 • Indirect liquefaction, (i.e., Fischer - Tropsch synthesis of Non- Anthracite 92 98 2 8 automotive fuels (gasoline and gas oil) from SynGas) agglomerating Semianthracite 86 92 8 14 Bituminous Low volatile 78 86 14 22 • Ammonia from SynGas Commonly Medium volatile 69 78 22 31 agglomerating High volatile 69 31 • Methanol from SynGas Notes: (1) Dry, mineral-matter-free basis • Direct liquefaction, (e.g., coal liquefaction by direct hydrogenation) For international trade and in the European Union, separate classification systems have been agreed upon for hard coal, Coal brown coal, and lignite. Coal is one of the world’s most plentiful energy resources, and its use is likely to increase as technologies for disposal of The impurities in coals, mainly sulfur, nitrogen, and ash, cause greenhouse gases, namely CO2, become available. Coal occurs differences in grade. Most commercial coals contain 0.5 – 4.0 in a wide range of forms and qualities. The degree of conversion weight (wt) percent sulfur, present as sulfate, pyrite, and organic of plant matter or coalification is referred to as “rank”. Brown sulfur. Nitrogen content typically ranges from 0.5 – 2.0 wt coal and lignite, sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal, and percent. Because nitrogen is mostly bound to organic anthracite make up the rank series with increasing carbon molecules, it is not removable physically. Coal ash is derived content. The American Society for Testing and Materials from the mineral content of coal upon combustion or utilization. (ASTM) classification is presented in Table A.1.18 Coal ashes may contain trace elements of arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, fluorine, lead, manganese, and Coal with less than 69 percent fixed carbon is classified mercury. according to their Gross Calorific Value (GCV): Coal Gasification • Bituminous if GCV> 24,400 kilojoules per kilogram Coal gasification plants widely differ in size according to the final (kJ/kg), agglomerating destination of the produced SynGas. In chemical manufacturing, • Subbituminous if 19,300 kJ/kg