81566 MAKING IT TO THE SCHOOL: EDUCATION AND TRANSPORT POLICIES FOR CHILDREN IN SOUTH EAST EUROPE DFI D Departme.ntfor InternatiOnal Development ~~ ©2on The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development /The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org E-mail: feedback@worldbank.org All rights reserved This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development /The World Bank. The findings, interpretations/ and conclusions expressed in this volume do not necessarily refiect the views of the Executive Directors ofThe World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries1 colors1 denominations 1 and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part ofThe World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. 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MAKING IT TO THE SCHOOL- IMPROVING ACCESS TO LEARNING THROUGH EDUCATIONAL AND TRANSPORTATION POLICIES FOR CHILDREN IN SOUTH EAST EUROPE GUIDELINE Belgrade, October 20:1:1. The Transport Research Support program is a joint World Bank/ DFI D initiative focusing on emerging issues in the transport sector. Its goal is to generate knowledge in high priority areas ofthe transport sector and to disseminate to practitioners and decision-makers in developing countries. TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 'l.. CIRCUMSTANCES INFLUENCING ACCESSIBILITY TO EDUCATION INTHESEE REGION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 'l.'l. 1.1. The Impact of Demographic Changes . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.2. Optimization of the School Network in the SEE Region . 12 1.3. Students from Marginalized Groups and Remote Areas. 13 2. PRACTICES FOR IMPROVINGACCESSIBILITYTO EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . '15 2.1. Transportation Policies and Practice . . . 16 2 .1.1. Available Modes ofTransport in Practice . . . . . . . . . 17 2.1.2. Responsibility for Service Provision. . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.1.3. Entitlement to Transportation Service and Accessibility 19 2.1.4. Service Financing and Contracting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.1-5- Student Transport Planning and Programming. . . . . . 21 2.1.6 . Effects of PT Services Market Deregulation in the SEE Region on Student Transport . . . . . . 22 2.1.7. Other Issues of Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.2. Education Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.2.1. Policies that Reduce the Hidden Costs of Education. 25 2.2.2. Policies that Target Individual Students I Schools at Risk of Dropout . 26 2.2.3. Policies that Engage Parents in Their Children's Learning and Schools . . 2.2.4. Policies that Strengthen Bonds Between Schools and Local Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Policies that Promote Early Childhood Education and Care I Preschool for Children . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.2.6. Policies that Recruit and Retain High-Quality Teachers. 32 3· A DECISION-MAKING FRAMEWORK FOR LOCAL AUTHORITIES . . . ......... 35 3.1. Action Plan for Improving Accessibility to Education . . 35 3.1.1. Transportation Annual Action Plan (TAAP) 36 3.1.1.1. Criteria for Assessment of Options . 36 3.1.1.1.1. Uniform Accessibility Criterion . 36 3.1.1.1.2. Quality Criterion .. 37 3.1.1.1.3. Safety Criterion .. 38 3.1.1.1.4. Financial Criterion . 39 3.1.1.2. TAAP Drafting . .. 40 3.1.1.2.1. TAAP Implementation Analysis (Step 1) . 40 3.1.1.2 .2. Needs Assessment (Step 2) . . . . . . 42 3.1.1.2.3. Process of Options Selection (Step 3) 45 3.1.1.2.3.1. Transportation Options Analysis 45 3.1.1.2 .3.2. Route Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.1.1. 2.3.3. Risk Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.1.1. 2.3.4. Specific Issues of Contracting Bus1 Parental and Taxi Transport . 54 3.1.1.2.3-5- Other Relevant Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3·"·"·2·4· Budget Drafting (Step 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3·~.1..2.4.1.. Budgeting ofTransportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ss 3.1..1..2.4.2. Transport Subsidies and the Role they Occupy in the StudentTransport Budget. ss 3.1.1.2.4·3· Calculation ofTotal Funds Needed for StudentTransport Financing . . . . . ss 3·"·"·2·4·4· Specifities relating to Other Transportation Modes (contracted 1 school busj taxi and parental transport) 3·"·"·2·5· Plan Adoption (Step 5) 3·"·"·2.6. Monitoring Plan (Step 6) .. 3·"·"·3· Responsibilities in TAAP Preparation. 3.1..2. The Education Action Plan . . . . . . . 3.:1.2.1.. Selection of Education Policies ... . 3.1..2.2. Criteria for Selection of Education Policies 3.1..2.2.1.. Political Feasibility. 3.1..2.2.2. lmplementability .. 3·"·2.2.3. Effectiveness . . . . . 3·"·2.2.4. Cost-effectiveness .. 3·"·2·3· Planning for lmplementation 1 Monitoring and Evaluation of Education Policies . 3·"·2·4· Budgeting of Education Policies. 3·"·3· Adoption of the Action Plan . 3·"·4· Closing the policy cycle . . . . . . 4· RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . 73 4·"· Transportation Policy Recommendations . 73 4.2. Education Policy Recommendations . 77 4.2.1.. Specific Education Policy Recommendations. 77 4.2.2. General Education Policy Recommendations for Central Authorities. 8l 4·2·3· General Education Policy Recommendations for Local Authorities . 82 5· SUSTAINABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . s.l. Transportation AAP Sustainability . 5.2. Sustainability of Education Policies . . . . . 6. FUTURE DIRECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8s 7· LITERATURE AND DATA SOURCES 87 7.1. Transportation . 87 7.2. Education . . 89 8. APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 8.~. Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 8.1.1. EU countries and the USA . . . . . . . . . . 93 8.~.2. Current Practice in the SEE region . . . . . 97 8.2. Approximate Value of the Annual Expenditure Calculation Method for Service Contracting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3. Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4. Additional Information on Select Education Policies. LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES. ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . 1.27 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The publication 'Making It to the School-Improving Access to Learning through Educational and Transportation Policies for Children in South East Europe' was prepared under the Transport Research Support Program (TRSP) financed by the DFID, the Department for International Development of the United Kingdom Government. The team of authors, Jelena TeodoroviC and Vladimir Depolo, as well as the World Bank team that has managed the preparation of this publication Svetlana VukanoviC Transport Specialist and Ivana AleksiC 1 1 1 1 Human Development Specialist, both from the World Bank Serbia Country Office, are grateful to PI amen Danchev from the World Bank Bulgaria Country Office, Professor Jan Herczynski from the Warsaw University in Poland, Julie Babinard from the Transport Unit of the World Bank and George Banjo from the Transport Sector of the World Bank for the timely and valuable feedback and support during the process. Special thanks go to Jacqueline Dubow1 Program Coordinator in the Transport1 Water and Information and Communication Technology Department of the World Bank for her guidance and advice throughout the preparation of this publication. The teams would also like to thank the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia, the Ministry of Education, Youth and Science of the Republic of Bulgaria, and the municipal representatives who collaborated with the team of authors on collecting data for the publication. Finally1 for her contribution to the publication1 a special thanks goes to Danijela JoviC1 who collaborated with the team of authors on the preparation of the publication throughout the process. PREFACE Providing at least basic education to all children - UN Convention on the Rights of the Child especially those coming from poor/disadvantaged Adopted and opened for signature, ratification families - is an important factor for increasing their and accession chances to improve their lives in the future. Education by General Assembly improves the lives of people by ensuring that their resolution 44/ 25 of 20 November 1989 individual potential is maximized. Better educated Article 28 people across the world work in jobs that are better paid1 1. States Parties recognize the right of the their overall health status is typically better1 they pay child to education, and with a view to more taxes and rely less on social assistance (housi ng1 achieving this right progressively and on food 1 welfare )1 • the basis of equal opportunity, they shall, in particular: (a) Make primary education compulsory The ever increasing pace of economic1 political/ social and available free to all; and cultural change has made the right to (quality) (b) Encourage the development of education for all children to be seen no longer as a duty different forms of secondary of the State1 but rather as a prerequisite for greater education, including general competitiveness of an economy based on knowledge. It and vocational education, make is also the best approach to social inc Iusion1 breaking the them available and accessible to cycle of poverty/ as well as fighting a(nti)social forms of every child, and take appropriate behavior. Therefore1 an important task of each society measures such as the introduction of free education and offering is to find proper ways of ensuring that all children get financial assistance in case of need; educated. (c) Make higher education accessible to all on the basis of capacity by every Many countries recognize the need to better educate appropriate means; their populations and do so by trying to improve the (d) Make educational and vocational equity and quality while taking care of efficiency. It information and guidance available is especially important that South East Europe (SEE) and accessible to all children; (e) Take measures to encourage regular countries pay attention to the fine balance between attendance at schools and the equity1 quality and efficiency because 1 with their o/o reduction of drop-out rates. GDP set aside for education being relatively small (the OECD average in 2010 was 6.2%1 and in the SEE World Declaration on Education f or All, countries it does not exceed 4·5%2 ). For that reason1 SEE WCEFA, 1990, Article 4, clause 4 governments have been paying attention to increasing the efficiency of their education systems by considering: An active commitment must be made to removing educational disparities. Underserved groups-the poor; street and working children; • What resources are being designated for and in rural and remote populations; nomads and what proportion (salaries/ facilities/equipment and migrant workers; indigenous peoples; ethnic, learning aids1 teacher professional advancement1 racial and linguistic minorities; refugees; those various programs that schools apply for1 etc.); displaced by war; and people under occupation -should not suffer any discrimination in • What is financial planning based on (the student1 access to learning opportunities. teacher1 school facility1 etc.); • Who participates/ and in which domains1 in the decision-making about the distribution of funds (the Ministry in charge of education/ regional/local authorities1 the school board1 the school princi pal 1 etc); • What are the returns on the money invested (how many children are covered by the education system 1 how many children are outside the education system and who are they/ to what extent and which skills do they acquire at school 1 etc). ' Waldfogel, Garfinkel, and Kelly, 2007, in ,Dropout prevention", IES practice guide, 2008 2 Education at a Glance 2020, OECD 7 The prov1s1on of equal educational opportunities is a challenge for every society, where specific The Council of the European Union solutions typically depend on a number of factors. Conclusions of 12 May 2009 on a strategic Since there are no universal solutions or systematized framework f or European cooperation in education and training ('ET 2020?, (2009/C 119/02) literature reviews/ local education authorities often face the challenge of finding the most suitable and Strategic objective 3: Promoting equity, social sustainable solution for their communities in a given cohesion and active citizenship budgetary/ strategic and legal framework . Education and training policy should enable all The intention of this document is to raise awareness citizens, irrespective of their personal, social and provide support to decision makers in planning or economic circumstances, to acquire, update and develop over a lifetime both job-specific the measures that will secure access to quality skills and the key competences needed for their education for all children1 above all to those who are employability and to foster further learni ng, under higher risk of dropping out of the education active citizenship and intercultural dialogue. system1 through a set oftransportation and education Educational disadvantage should be addressed by policy measures. These primarily include children providing high quality early childhood educat ion from rural areas1 physically and developmentally and targeted support, and by promoting inclusive challenged children 1 language and ethnic minorities1 education. Education and training systems should aim to ensure that all learners- including those and children from poverty stricken families. from disadvantaged backgrounds, those with special needs and migrants- complete their The document aims to equip municipal authorities, education, including, where appropriate, through as well as transport and education stakeholders, second-chance education and the provision of with a systemized approach for assessing the more personalised learning. Education should access and accessibility of education services, and promote intercultural competences, tools for the selection of the most appropriate democratic values and respect for fundamental rig hts and the environment, as well as options for improvements. Therefore/ this document combat all forms of discrimination, represents a set of guidelines that will support local equipping all young people to interact. governments and stakeholders in improving access to schools by providing: • The most important key criteria for assessing different factors influencing accessi bil ityofeducational services and schools; • A list of options for improvements/ based on successful examples from the SEE region and the world; and • A framework within which local authorities will be able to assess their local situation and choose the option that is the most feasible in their context. The proposed Guidelines - created with support of the World Bank Transport Research Support Program -are expected to be used by local authorities and their respective communities, transport professionals and the ministries of infrastructure or transport, educational professionals and the ministries of education in the SEE region with the goal of increasing coverage and ensuring access to schools for chi ldren1 with an emphasis on children coming from poor/ disadvantaged families. Furthermore 1 the guidelines shall provide the needed know-how for improving the situation on the ground by offering different options for improvements. The document is organized as follows: Chapter I provides a short introductory review of the demographic changes in SEE cou ntries1 changes that are similar to other developing countries/ and their tendencies in the upcoming decades. These changes/ in addition to efficiency and quality of education 1 are often taken as the principal parameters in decision- making regarding school networks. Special attention is given to the issue o f inclusion of children from marginalized groups and their increased dropout risk 1 which needs to be taken into account when creating policies and measures that affect education. Chapter II is a valuable source of information on the experiences of countries/ in the SEE region and worldwide1 in increasing the accessibility of education1 both through transportation measures as well as education policy measures. Various solutions are considered regarding funding sources and criteria1 the 8 most common mode of transportation used by students1 and how transportation is contracted1 planned and scheduled (readers will be provided with concrete tools forth is in Chapter IV). This section will describe a number of education policies that strengthen the fragile transportation bond between the child and his/ her school so that the child will enroll and remain in school, in spite of the physical obstacle of his/her school being far away. For the purpose of clarity1 they are clustered into two sets: Locally oriented, proximal short- term policies (targeting hidden costs to education 1 drop out rates1 parents' engagement1 bonds between schools and local communities) and Long-Term, distal policies involving multiple stakeholders (considering issues of preschool education and high-quality teacher recruitment). Chapter Iff and related Annexes were developed to serve as a framework and tools for criteria-based decision-making. It discusses a set of transportation related criteria: (1.) Coverage (maximum allowed walking distance relating to age and terrain), (2) Uniform Accessibility, (3) Quality criteria, (4) Safety and (5) Financial criteria 1 as well as a series of sensible principles to which local authorities can turn when choosing education policies: (a) Appropriateness (time, location), (b) Political feasibility, (c) lmplementability, (d) Effectiveness and (e) Cost-effectiveness. The proposed criteria and concrete measures mentioned in the text should be taken as guiding principles only- as a starting point in the decision-making process which should be accommodated according to the actual legal and strategic framework and a variety of local circumstances. It also describes in detail the Action Plan (AP)- a document that should be developed by the local authorities in charge of transportation and education through a consultative process between schools1 local authorities, parents and students. These guidelines should serve as a resource in the process of selection and implementation of transportation and education policy options aimed towards improving accessibility to education. This Chapter also introduces the AP creation methodology in consecutive steps: starting with needs assessment, continuing with the analysis of available options and their selection based on the criteria 1 and ending with budgeting and planning for monitoring and evaluation. Chapter IV provides a summary and a set of recommendations for local- and national-level authorities on the most effective ways of fulfilling legal obligations and ensuring a basic children's right- access to education. A final consideration on main transportation options - school buses1 contracted and public transport- can be found in this chapter as well as diverse recommendations on many educational measures such as: establishment of an advisory resource center at the Ministry responsible foreducationi networking of local authorities; capacity building of local authorities to create and implement the AAP; establishment of a variety of mechanisms for informing local authorities and schools about local, national and global programs and funding sources 1 1ocal NGOsf community organizations and support services. Closing Chapters- V and VI are setting paths for making chosen policy options sustainable and for future developments based on innovative transport and education approaches and proven practices. 9 10 1. CIRCUMSTANCES INFLUENCING ACCESSIBILITY TO EDUCATION IN THE SEE REGION 1.1. The Impact of Demographic Changes Current demographic movements and projected demographic trends, followed by various social, economic changes as well as changes within the education system itself, especially in developing countries, require certain changes to be made in the school network in both rura I and urban areas. Countries in the SEE region are facing a trend of population decrease. Projections of populations for the coming decades, based on assumptions a bout future changes in fertility, mortality and mig rations rates, indicate that this negative trend will continue. This is the case in the countries of the former Yugoslavia/ as well as in Romania and Bulgaria 1 new EU member countries. The reasons for this are the following: population decrease1 later average age of birth of the first child1 smaller number of children per woman of reproductive age1 increasing average age of the population1 negative migration balance (with the exception of Slovenia)1 and the high rate of migration of fertile populations. The projected change in the age structure in countries in the region indicates that by the middle of this century there will be approximately twice as many people over 65 than children under 15. In the mid-2o'h century1 the number of children ages o-14 was approximately four times higher than the number of people over 65; at the beginning of the 21' ' century these two age groups were equally numerous1 while estimates for the middle of this century predict rapid aging oft he population. Figure 1 illustrates negative trends within the age group of primary interest for the issue of access to education- o-14 (Figure 1). Figure 1- Projected Change in the Population Share o-14 Years in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union, 2000-2025 . 2000 • 2005 - /0 - c /0 /0 > /0 /0 "' ::J /0 /0 :;:; -o c c -~ /0 -~ 0 - en ~ ~ 0 o,8 km USA- NewYork (according to 3- 61evel L> 1,6 km prescriptions oft he New York City Department of Eucation) Students do not belong to category provided 7-nlevel with transport pre-school age to 6th grade Lon foot > 1,6 km 7-:1.2 grade Lto the nearest PT bus stop> 1,6 km Canada - urban areas if they use school buses and the distance pre-school age to nth grade between their homes and the place where they take the bus exceeds 1,6 km the distance between their homes and the place Canada- rural area all ages where they take the bus exceeds 1,6 km 2level distance is not relevant L > 1,6 km (Radius of area of influence); 3- 6level Australija- New South Wales L > 2,3 km (measured by the shortest route) L > 2,0 km (Radius of area of influence); high school L > 2,9 km (measured by the shortest route) Finland not specified L>skm SEN students L> 2,0 km Holland other L> 6,o km SEE Region Croatia not specified L> 4,0 km students of all educational level Montenegro L> s,o km including undergraduates Bosnia and Herzegovina L > 2,0 km in 2 of :1.:1. districts L > 3,0 km in 1 of :1.:1. districts Federation not specified L > 4,0 km in 6 of 11 districts L > s,o km in 2 of :1.:1. districts Republic of Srpska not specified L> 4,0 km Serbia not specified L> 4,0 km Macedonia data not available Albania There are different ways of handling transportation cost financing within the SEE region. At the primary school level, local authorities subsidy the transportation service in the range of so% to 1ooo/o of the service price, depending on the economic possibilities. For secondary school students there are also subventions, however they range from 20% to 6oo/o of the service price . In some cases, subventions are granted by the central authority Ieve I and then transferred to the loca lleve I. For more detailed information concerning the subsidy policy see Appendix 8.1. Concerning low-income families/students and SEN students, free transportation is guaranteed without any exceptions. However, there are no uniform criteria determining the conditions for awarding such support. In some cases, there are subventions that encourage students to attend certain educational programs. 20 InWestern European countries the contracting service is carried out according to services procurement rules. Local (education) authorities are responsible for the specification of minimum service quality standards in the procurement process. Local authorities are also responsible for quality standards connected to special bus services. However, there are some countries (UK) where issues relating to vehicle age are raised, i.e. upon entering into an agreement, the carrier most commonly performs transportation by old, but technically adequate vehicles (the main reason for this are the User's insufficiently defined requirements). In some countries, municipalities cooperate when contracting transport, usually awarding the contracts through competitive biddings (Holland). When contracting services in the SEE Region, public procurement rules are applied, but the technical aspect of tender dossiers could be assessed as a weak point of the procedure. There are certain problems in connection with the contracts. Upon contracting transport, the operator may start breaching the contract ruleS 10 • For other modes of student transportation (parental/carpooling), in European countries there are mileage-based reimbursements paid out to parents/guardians, but the level of usage of such services is not clear from available sources. In the SEE Region such reimbursements can be either mileage-based or in the form of lump-sum reimbursements. 2.1-5- Student Transport Planning and Programming The practice of the SEE region has shown that managing the student transport issue is mainly solved through the implementation of ad hoc methods. In Western European countries student transport planning and programming is being performed according to law/by-law resolutions and positive practice. In any case, rules leading to consistent solutions are being implemented. One example of positive practice is Traveling to School: an action plan». This document regulates, in a comprehensive manner, the planning and programming of all important issues relating to students' travel from their residences to schools and back, starting from safe walking, through bicycle use, to transportation from distant places. By setting up this document, the Local Education Authority (LEA) has enabled the forming of Action Plans according to their own needs. The SEE region1s existing practice relies on legislative solutions that define the issues of Eligibility, Accessibility and Financing, and points out the necessity of setting up a clear procedure for managing student transport demand relying on the best existing practice. The problems connected to the execution of contracts, about which the authors were informed during interviews in the municipalities of Serbia and Bulgaria, are usually connected to the adjustment of the timetable to other passengers, transportation of other passengers, and the use of buses with poorer technical requirements than contracted, etc. (Ap- pendix 8.1) "" School Transport, Eighth Report of Session 2003-04, House of Commons- Transportation Committee, 7 April 2004, The Stationary Office Ltd, UK 21 2.1.6. Effects of PT Services Market Deregulation in the SEE Region on StudentTransport In the early gos of the 2oth century, the market for PT services was deregulated in a certain number of SEE Region countries. However, deregulation primarily affected transportation service quality, a Iso influencing student transport. The main issues triggered by the deregulation were the following: inadequate definition of jurisdictions and inappropriate management of the transportation services market in the setting up of the private sector. The public/state companies1 that had dominated the market to that point1 disappeared in the majority of municipalities. The private sector didn't develop sufficiently/ whereas management of the services market practically didn't exist. This situation led directly to a drop in PT services volume and quality. 12 The late 'gos of the 2oth century brought certain improvements in terms of market management by setting up regulatorybodies. However1 1ocal financial capacitiesshrankduetothe economical disadvantages faced by many municipalities. It also affected the possibility of additional PT financing (subsidies). Following the economical criterion1 the private sector predominantly harmonized the transportation services volume and capacity under the given conditions 1 forcing the authorities of some countries to seek out other student transportation solutions (contracted transportation/ school bussing/ etc.) 2 .1.7. Other Issues of Importance The issue of bus capacity usage is one of the important school transportation issues (capacities are often underused, thus directly affecting the economy). Other issues refer to transportation management and school bus rolling stock maintenance, as well as the impact of public road conditions on public transport quality. In some countries, contracted/school buses operate below capacity (the number of offered places exceeds the number of students)1 and in those cases local authorities consider the possibility of using the excess transportation capacity for other purposes (travel to shopping centers 1 hospitals 1 etc. )1 thus1 trying to improve living conditions for the populations of rural and sparsely populated areas. The advantages of the school bus service in Bulgaria are unquestionable regarding regularity, adaptability to students' needs, safety, etc. However1 there are questions which could be analyzed in a deeper way: the rationality of offered capacity use1 cost coverage/ especially depreciation cost1 rationality of staff em ployment1 etc. Special attention should be paid to depreciation1 because1 this is a pre-requisite for purchasing a new rolling stock 1 after the existing one goes out of use. There are also issues connected to rolling stock management-in some mu nicipalities 1 local authorities take care of the rolling stock1 but in other municipalities buses are the responsibility of schools. The first solution is more convenient (all procurements connected to maintenance1 spare parts etc. are organized in a more rational way). The general condition of public roads is an important element of accessibility. The maintenance thereof falls under the responsibility of the central or local level of authority/ which is defined differently in various 5 EE region countries. ' 3 12 Depolo V, Belgrade's Public Tran sport System on the way towards Economic and Institutional Changes -Is a spontaneous transition possible 7, Proceedings, SETREF, Budapest 2001. "3 In Serbia, principal roads (highways and regional roads) fall under the responsibility of the central level of authority, while local authorities maintain local Serbian roads. 22 In the majority of cases1 passenger transport carried out at inter-city levels is being performed along main public roads. On the other hand1 passenger transport within a municipal area is also being carried out along these same roads but its major part burdens local roads. 1 Due to this fact the condition of these roads is of crucial importance for accessibility quality of road passenger 1 transport (see Box on the following page). Local roads with carriageways in poor condition especially those 1 whose width is below the prescribed width1 represent a serious obstacle in the way of road passenger transport flow. Roads in such condition appear to be quite time-consuming/ thus affecting exploitation costs and safety. The so-called uncategorized roads (the responsibility of municipa I authorities) are of special releva nee for accessibility within the municipality area. They branch out from the main and local roads towards the most distant places ofthe municipal territory/settlement1 providing immediate access to houses/groups of houses. They do not form a part of central-level statistics/ but municipal institutions have at their disposal certain data thereof (usually routes and lengths). Their overall condition can affect accessibility quality. Statistics on road conditions in terms of carriageways1 are tracked regularly in SEE region countries. This data1 however1 does not reflect the real situation in the best possible way (even a road with a very modern carriageway can be quite damaged). The Table below illustrates national road conditions in selected municipalities of the Republic of Serbia (2oo8). Table 5- Overview of Roads Conditions in Selected Municipalities in the Republic of Serbia in 2008 %OF MODEM PAREMENT MINICIPALITY I DISTRICT ROAD CATEGORY STATE/MAIN LOCAL I STATE Vojvodina Region Novi Becej I Srednjobacki District l.OO l.OO Apatin IZapadnobacki District 86,20 73,5° Zrenjanin I Srednjobanatski District go,oo 82,90 Nova Crnja I Srednjobanatski District l.OO l.OO Secanj l.OO l.OO Zitiste I Srednjobanatski District Kovin I Juznobanatski District l.OO l.OO Central Serbia Pozega I Zlatibor District 85,50 77,4° Kosjeric/Ziatibor District 83,20 78,go Prijepoljel Zlatiborski District 52,30 46,20 Gornji Milanovacl Moravicki District 82,20 68,8o Lucani I Moravicki District 78,oo 75,00 lvanjica I Moravicki District 62,10 42,40 Cacak I Moravicki District 78,5o 6g,2o 23 2.2. Education Policies The first and foremost condition for each child to exercise his or her right to education is to provide the child with an accessible educational facility. The previous section underlined transportation policies that are employed throughout the world in cases when a child's school is located farther away than ideally. This section will describe a number of education policies that strengthen the fragile transportation bond between the child and his/her school so that the child will enroll and remain in school1 learn and progress through various grades1 and graduate and continue on to higher educationallevels1 in spite oft he physical obstacle of his/her school being far away. The six sets of policies/ shown in Figure 51 are drawn from a wide body of research identifying the positive effects of parents1 teachers1 schools and communities1 as well as social inclusion 1 on a variety of educational outcomes. Last1 but not least1 it is important to stress that all the presented education policies are also effective in reinforcing the student-school relationship even when schools are close to students' homes. While local authorities can take considerable charge of each of the education policies presented in this section, many policies will likely require significant input from central authorities or efforts at the school level. In different countries1 different education policies require the involvement of different stakeholders to various degrees. Often times1 cooperation and synergy are needed between the central authorities1 local authorities and schools. Therefore 1 it is the goal of this handbook to present to local authorities an overview of available accessibility-related education policies where they can have a role 1 rather than just attempt to pick and choose parts that may solely be under their purview. This will give an insight to local authorities into the majority of possibilities that can improve accessibility to education1 accommodate variability in responsibilities between the central-1 local- and school-levels in different countries/ inspire more able municipalities to take on more challenging policies that are usually reserved for central authorities1 and give local authorities knowledge about the necessary changes that they need to request to be provided by the central level or at the school level. It will be emphasized in this handbook which policies are usually more under the charge of local authorities/ and which are usually more the responsibility of other levels. Figure 5- Education policies that improve accessibility to education Policies that Target Individual Students I School at Risk for Dropout • Policies that Policies that Reduce Hidden Costs Engage Parents in Their to Education Children's Learning and Schools Policies that Policies that Recruit and Retain Stren gthen Bonds High-Quality Betw een Schools and Teachers Local Commun ities Policies that Promote Early Childhood Education and Care I Preschool for Children 24 2.2.1. Policies that Reduce the Hidden Costs of Education Policies that lower hidden educational costs to parents improve student attendance and achievement. Hidden costs of education- real, opportunity or social- reduce the likelihood of children's adequate school attendance and high achievement, especially in poor areas [19]. Parents face expenses for tuition, books, school supplies, transportation and clothing. They may also keep children out of school because their children supplement the household income by working, do household chores, or care for the sick or young family members. Parents may not be sufficiently informed about the return on an investment in their children's education or may be unaware ofthe existing opportunities, especially if they are uneducated themselves [19]. Finally, for traveling students and their parents, costs may also involve feelings of being isolated, unwelcome and insecure in a school that is not in their community, with serious consequences for student attendance and achievement [20]. Policy 1 (mostly central-level; also local-level): A very effective way for reducing hidden costs to parents, thus improving children's attendance, is to provide school meals for a II children [g]. Providing nutritional and well-balanced school meals is especially important for traveling children, as free meals will ensure that children are nutritionally prepared for the longer school day and that their parents' concerns are appeased. In more developed countries, provision of school meals to students is commonplace, and it is usually regulated and financed by the central authorities. In the United States, for example, the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) is a federally assisted program, which, during the 2008-2009 school year, provided 17.5 million children daily with a nutritionally balanced, free or reduced-price lunch [11]. Children from families with incomes at or below 130 percent of the poverty level are eligible for free meals, while those with incomes between 130 percent and 185 percent of the poverty level are eligible for reduced-price meals 14 • The situation in the SEE region varies. In Bulgaria, for example, free school meals are offered to children, and schools have canteens1 s. They are financed by the Ministry of Education. In Serbia, provision of meals in schools varies, from an almost regular occurrence to complete absence of school meals16 • For example, the Serbian municipality of lndjija supplies free snacks for all students, while the municipality of Apatin subsidizes meals for disadvantaged students, charging other students an affordable sum [5]. Schools that provide school meals either have canteens or have food brought to them from remote catering facilities. Policy 2 (mostly central-level; also local-level): Free access to learning materials and the removal or reduction of school fees also reduce hidden costs to parents and improve school attendance. According to UNESCO (2007), from 1999 to 2004 primary school enrolment increased by 27% in Sub- Saharan Africa and 19% in South and West Asia [1]. In the SEE region, Bulgaria has provided free books to its student population since 2006/7, and Serbia has started to provide free schoolbooks beginning with the class that started school in 2009. There is no tuition in either country, but there are costs associated with transportation, educational trips, school security, school supplies and clothing. Transportation costs are partially covered by parents and local governments. Extracurricular activities offered by the schools are free of charge. In Serbia, costs of educational trips are waived by the travel agency for one student for every 15 or 20 paying students and the waiver is usually applied toward a low-SES student at the teachers' discretion. Occasionally, school supplies are offered to first graders by the municipality or through partnerships with local businesses. Policy 3 (mostly central-level; also local-level): Direct fund transfers to families also demonstrated high returns, like in the Bolsa Familia program in Brazil [52]. Brazil's Bolsa Familia Program is a national 14 For the period from July 1 ~, 2oo8 through June 3o'h , 2009, 130 percent of the poverty level is $27,560 for a family offou r; 185 percent is $39,220 for a family offour [:1.:1.]. 15 Communication with MoE of Bulgaria. 16 Communication with local authorities from Gornji Milanovac, lvanjica, Cacak and Lucani, Serbia. 25 conditional cash transfer program, where families in poverty or extreme poverty receive money in return for ensuring their child's regular attendance of school. Students up to 15 years of age need to attend 85o/o of the total school days, and older students need to attend 75o/o ofthe total school days. More than 12 mill ion Brazilian families participate in the program and receive transfers directly to their bank accounts. The amount of money varies, depending on a family's income, number of children and their age. Responsibility for the management and monitoring of the Balsa Familia program lies with the central, state and local authorities [52]. In France, premiums are given for completion, for progress and for good performance [10]. A grant or a loan for upper secondary students is given in Spain on the basis of family income and academic performance (for example, grants are not given to repeaters) [1o]. In the Slovak Republic, social and child benefits for parents are based on their children's school attendance [39]. In Romania, school attendance is a condition for receiving a monthly student allowance, and dropping out of school involves loosing this benefit [40]. However, it should be noted that these conditional grants have the potential to actually penalize those students whose commitment to school is most questionable, but who are still in dire need of financial aid [10]. Due to its high cost, this policy is usually instituted by the central authorities. 2.2.2. Policies that Target Individual Students I Schools at Risk of Dropout Policies that monitor and engage individual students I schools with high risk of dropout are important in improving student attendance. Dropping out of school is very costly for both the individual and society. Dropouts are more likely to be in prison, have worse health perspectives and shorter life spans [28][29]. In the Unites States, they earn, on average, $g,ooo a year less than graduates [41][49], and pay about half the taxes paid by high school graduates [41]. They also use more social assistance (housing, food, welfare) [51]. When schools are far away from students' homes, drop out is more likely, as was evident in Bulgaria: School dropout rates increased 2-3 times when schools were being closed down in the effort to rationalize the school network [46]. Policy l. (central-, local- and school-level): Utilizing data systems to allow realistic assessment of the students who drop out or those who are at risk of dropping out is indispensable for dropout reduction [22]. Examination of effective dropout prevention programs in the United States has determined that using longitudinal, student-level data to identify students with past academic problems, truancy, behavioral problems, and then continuously monitoring their academic achievement, behavior, sense of engagement and belonging in school are necessary to prevent and reduce dropout rates [22]. In the SEE region, data on individual student achievement, absences and behavior are collected in schools, mostly in paper form or electronic school files, and, less frequently, through poorly functioning Education Management Information Systems (EM IS). The difficulty of identifying students at risk of dropout in the SEE region thus lies not in the absence of data in schools, but in the absence or inaccessibility of data in electronic form on a continual basis at levels higher than the school level. Policy 2 (mostly school- and central-levels; also local-level): Intensively intervening in the academic, social, and personal lives of students who are at risk of dropping out comprises the next step in the fight against dropout [22]. A review of effective dropout prevention programs in the United States identified three complementary components ofthis strategy. Firstly, schools train and purposefully assign adult advocates -adults who are willing to invest in students' personal and academic success -to students so they could regularly meet and communicate about students' concerns and obstacles. Secondly, schools provide academic support to improve student achievement by teaching students in small groups about test-taking skills, study skills, or targeted subject areas, as well as providing extra study time or opportunities to complete classes through after school, weekend or summer programs. Thirdly, schools implement programs to improve students' classroom behavior and social skills by benchmarking student progress towards set academic and behavioral goals, recognizing student accomplishments, teaching strategies to address problem solving and decision-making skills, as well as establishing partnerships with social services 1 mental health 1 and law enforcement [22]. These three components offer a variety of relevant1 evidence-based options for the reduction of dropout1 but would need to be elaborated in more detail to be fully applicable to the SEE region. However, there are already some elements in place that can be improved to accommodate the above-mentioned measures. For example 1 in Serbia~ homeroom teachers1 as well as psychologists and pedagogues employed in schools1 are in a position to identify1 mentor and counsel students who struggle academically and behaviorally, but they may be burdened with other school duties. Struggling students are usually provided additional after school classes in certain subjects1 but their attendance is voluntary and the effectiveness of such classes is unknown. On the other handf opportunities for students to complete subjects through weekend or summer programs do not exist. Furthermore 1 students who fail three or more subjects need to repeat the entire school year. Policy 3 (centrala 1 locala and schoolalevel): Comprehensive, schoolwide reform strategies aiming to increase the engagement of all students in school are effective for schools with high dropout rates1 where the school is also a part of the problem [22]. This is a final finding that emerged from the review of effective dropout prevention programs in the United States. Firstly1 strategies for personalizing the learning environment- creating smaller learning groups and extended time for work 1 and encouraging teamwork and student participation in extracurricular activities - provide students with a sense of belonging. Secondly1 schools provide rigorous and relevant instruction to engage students in learning and equip them with the skills needed to graduate and live meaningful lives. This is effective for secondary school students and encompasses integrating academic and vocational content1 offering opportunities for internships and long-term employment and informing students about post-secondary opportunities [22]. It is certain that in the SEE region there are primary and secondary schools that aim to increase engagement of all students in school, but it is unlikely that they are conceptually and practically linked to the systematic identification and concerted prevention of dropout. Policy 4 (central-, local- and school-level): Especially important for the SEE region are effective strategies for improving the attendance and academic progression of Roma students. Students from low-SES backgrounds- but particularly Rom a minority students-are especially at risk of poor achievement and leaving school early [38]. \tv'hen those students live far away from schools 1 those risks are amplified 1 as was previously identified in Bulgaria [46]. A myriad of programs targeting Rom a participation in education have been initiated by the governments and NGOs in the SEE region during the past decade. A set of effective practices for Roma participation in education has emerged from the review of these programs and is detailed in Appendix 8.4: Especially effective are programs that integrate several strategies1 such as providing training and support to teachers while involving parents in the classroom~ as was done in the Open Society Institute's ,Step-by-Step" program 1 or bussing students to a mainstream school 1 employing Roma monitors1 and providing shoes and school meals to students 1 as was done in the Open Society Institute's Vidin model (see box below) [38]. 27 r Desegregation of Roma Schools in Bulgaria: The Vidin Model In Vidin, Bulgaria, the Open Society Institute and the Roma NGO with the acronym DROM have developed an innovative program that integrates Roma students into the mainstream school system. Under the project, students are bussed from the settlement to school and back; Rom a monitors interact with parents and the school to encourage attendance; low-SES students receive shoes and school lunches, and students are given their lunch on the bus to reduce the stigma of receiving it at school. Preparation of the program was meticulous and well planned: DROM went door-to-door in the Roma settlement explaining the project; sought the support of the schools, the mayor, and the media; and helped parents select a mainstream school for their children by organizing a TV presentation of six mainstream schools inVidin. This lessened parental concerns and marked the first time that their views had been solicited by the authorities. At the end of the first semester, the project resulted in 100 percent attendance, grade averages identical to those of non-Roma pupils, parental and teacher satisfaction and the absence of reported incidents of anti-Roma discrimination. In addition, 35 Roma parents oft he bussed children themselves returned to school in adult education programs, and three teenagers who had dropped out asked to join the program. On the negative side, 24 pupils received failing grades in one or more subjects, and three left the program. The program's success to date is due to three key factors. First, parents feel that their children are shielded from discrimination by being bussed and monitored throughout the day by adult Rom a, as well as that their children can perform at higher academic standards. Second, the schools have accepted adult Roma monitors who ensure that the children are treated well, follow parental engagement and student participation in extracurricular activities, as well as help the teachers and ease cultural differences. Third, the children are happy to be in schools where real learning takes place [38]. ~ ~ 2.2.3. Policies that Engage Parents in Their Children/s Learning and Schools Policies that engage parents in their children's education improve attendance, achievement and progression through education. Numerous studies have found that students with engaged parents, regardless of their income or background, were more likely to: regularly attend school; have higher grades and test scores; be promoted and pass their classes; have better social skills and show improved behavior; and graduate and continue onto postsecondary education [18]. For example 1 in Serbia1 higher academic achievement was significantly correlated with various forms of parental engagement: talking to children frequently/ asking about their school day1 helping out with problems 1 checking whether a child finished its homework1 and praising children for good grades1 among other things [45]. Therefore/ if schools could entice parents to be active in their children's education/ parents will ensure that their children remain and learn in school. This becomes especially important if schools are more distant from students' homes1 when students' attendance becomes more precarious. When schools reach out to the parents of traveling children/ they feel welcome1 worry less and become allies with schools in ensuring that their children attend faraway schools. Policy 1 (local- and school-level): Developing trusting and respectful relationships with parents is a key strategy to engaging parents in their children's learning and schools [18]. A review of 51 studies on the impact of school 1 family and community connections on student achievement identified the following policies as effective in increasing parental engagement: 1) establishing routine1 frequent and concerted communicationi 2) creating a trusting and enticing atmospherei 3) supporting parental involvement in decision makingi and 4) providing smooth and successful transitions to the next schooling levels [18]. These activities are presented in more detail in Appendix 8.4. Some of these practices are also found in the SEE region 1 although more rarely. For example1 educators in the Peshtera municipality in Bulgaria spent a couple of years talking to a group of parents dissatisfied with school closure in their Roma community and the need for their children to travel. Parents' concerns were heard and respectfully addressed by the municipality by organizing discussions1 visits of the parents to the more distant schools 1 and providing an adult escort to students on a school bus~7 • The municipality is also able to hear the voice of the Roma parents by having aRoma leader in the municipal council. Finally1 teachers from Peshtera also visit their students at their homes the summer before school starts. Policy 2 (mostly school-level; also local-level): Developing parental engagement activities and programs that are specifically linked to student learning is a very effective strategy for improving educational outcomes [:1.8]. The same review of 51. studies pertaining to parents and communities identified the following effective practices: 1.) providing libraries with games and learning materials to develop skills at home; 2) sending home learning packets in various subjects1 as well as training in how to use them; 3) assigning interactive homework that involves parents; and 4) organizing discussion groups and workshops on how to stimulate their children's mental 1 physical 1 and emotional development1 or on topics that the parents suggested 1 like developing positive discipline strategies. Additional activities identified as successful were: 1.) stressing the importance of academic parental involvement through exhibits of student work or by organizing math and reading games at family nightsi and 2) working with local after school programs to link their content to classroom teaching to reinforce student learning [1.8]. In the SEE region, there are certainly schools that employ some of these practices, but there is a lack of a more systematic, school-level 1 local-level and central-level recognition of the links between parental engagement and student educational outcomes. Policy 3 (central-, local- and school-level): Developing the capacity of school staff to work with parents facilitates parental engagement [18]. The review of effective studies and programs established that successful pre-service and in-service educational opportunities: 1.) help all staff recognize the advantages of school 1 family1 and community connectionsi 2) explore how to achieve trusting and respectful relationships with families and communitiesi 3) enhance the school staff's ability to work with diverse familiesi and 4) help staff utilize community resources [1.8]. In the SEE region{ both pre-service and in-service training appear to fail to fully draw out the potential of parental engagement. In Serbia, for example, there are very few in-service seminars targeting parental engagement [54]. At the Teacher education faculty at the University of Belgrade, for example, only two out of more than forty courses- family pedagogy and family sociology- refer to parents and their role in their children's lives [31]. Importantly, the courses fail to significantly address the potential of parental and school synergy to improve a variety of student educational outcomes [31.]. ~7 Personal communication with local authorities from Peshtera, Bulgaria. 29 2.2.4. Policies that Strengthen Bonds Between Schools and Local Communities Policies that make schools serve and utilize local communities increase educational access and the releva nee of education for students. Catering to the needs of the community and adapting the educational process to local conditions increase educational access and relevance [8]. When communities and schools are partners: 1) parents and students perceive learning and schools as useful and relevant1 which1 in turn 1 1ikely increases student enrollment/ engagement/ attendance/ motivation1 1earni ng and academic progressioni and 2) communities that recognize the value ofthei r schools1 in tu rn 1 expand the resources available to schools. Students who live farther away from schools will more likely value and attend them if they offer meaningful education and functional opportunities to them and their families. Policy l. (local- and school-level): Searching for, seizing and developing a variety of opportunities and concrete services make schools useful and indispensable resources for their communities. Such schools provide: 1) pre-school activities and/or a family resource centeri 2) targeted academic assistance to low- performing studentsi 3) functional adult literacy/ alternative basic education programs and high school equivalency programsi 4) career counseli ng1 job trai ning1 and other vocational servicesi 5) arts1 recreation/ and social activitiesi and/or 6) certain health care and mental health services [18]. These activities can be organized in the evenings1 on weekends1 and during the su mmer1 independently or jointly with community organizations [18]. It is especially worthwhile stressing the importance of mobilization of local resources in rural areas [8] 1 as they usually have fewer labor1 cultural 1 educational and social venues and opportunities than urban areas. The box below highlights successful school-community efforts worldwide that helped increase the relevance of education for children. r Innovative school-community projects In Balmorhea, Texas, the school and community started a school-based rural health clinic jointly w ith Texas Tech University Medical School, set up a communityweather station at the school to be used for scienceclassesaswell and remodeled the school library to double as a tornado shelter. In Nebraska, schools cleaned up a lake and developed a recreation area, conducted studies of a nature preserve, built affordable housing and ran a community history center. North Carolina provided entrepreneurial training for young people and adults, which produced 342 business startups and expansions and $5.2 million of new revenue. Most of these efforts obtained funds and advice from universities or organizations [44]. In the SEE region, there are also examples of schools being an invaluable resource in the local community. The elementary school "lvoAndric" inthevillageof Pranjani, municipalityGornji Milanovac, Serbia, has one central school and eight satellite schools covering a large mountainous area. The school organizes concerts of their folklore dance groups, t w o brass orchestras, and piano and accordion school; offers poetry nights and theater shows; cooperates w ith schools in Poland and Slovakia on creating recreational camps in its most remote satellite schools; participates in the municipality's sustainable ethno-tourism project whereby students make souvenirs and offer cultural events to tourists in the area; and organizes lectures and training on ethno-tourism and organic food production. \.. Policy 2 (central-, local- and school-level): Incorporating local content and conditions into curricu Ia, learning materials and teaching practices aims to increase the relevance, attractiveness and usefulness of education. Learning that is put into context allows students to acquire life skills and solve real-life problems [3]. The community can be a focus of study1 where students apply theoretical principles to real- life situations. Community members can supplement classroom teaching using the community setting. Combining national curricular standards with some local content allows for local variability and therefore educational relevance . In Thailand 1 for example1 as much as 40% oft he curriculum is permitted to be based on community and local needs [8]. In China 1 a curriculum reform was introduced in 20021 one of the goals of which was to allow local educators to adjust curricu Ia to the local context [36]. In Colombia and Guatemala1 30 a successful integration of local content and conditions into schooling was achieved in Escuela Nueva schools (see box below). Similarly, in the Gandhi school in Pees, Hungary, Romani studies are integrated into the curriculum [38]. In some SEE countries, such as Serbia and Bulgaria, the curriculum is nationally prescribed and local variation is not allowed. However, it is possible to partially achieve variability through individual lessons and extracurricular activities that focus on the local environment, culture or language. r Successful integration of local content and conditions into schooling: Escue Ia Nueva One of the most widespread, successful and researched innovations that incorporated local conditions and content into curricula was the Escuela Nueva project in Colombia, followed by the similar Nueva Escuela Unitaria project in Guatemala [25]. In both countries, the programs generally show positive outcomes in comparison to other one- teacher schools: higher enrollment and promotion to the next grade, lower repetition rates, higher Spanish language and mathematics test scores (except for boys in mathematics), higher egalitarian beliefs and leadership, as well as higher parental satisfaction. Both programs focused on one-teacher, multi-grade rural schools and evolved incrementally, fueled by interest from teachers and administrators. The key characteristics of the programs were their rurally oriented curriculum, flexible student promotion system, and large quantities of instructional materials designed for individual, peer and small group learning. Also helpful were a system for evaluating learning progress and forms of internal class and school organization that established routines for students independently of the teacher. An especially important strategy in the program was teacher training undertaken at the local level [27]. Teachers met to identify needs and problems, and planned solutions and administration of the schools. They helped create the curriculum, teacher guides, and student learning guides I self-instructional workbooks. They also established teachers' micro-centers I circles in which teachers gathered to share experiences and information, review new teaching materials, and participate in in-service training. \. ,J 2.2 .5. Policies that Promote Early Childhood Education and Care I Preschool for Children Improving the early childhood education and care I preschool of all students, but especially of disadvantaged students, is a long-term, but highly effective strategy to improve all educational outcomes. Investing in early childhood education and care (ECEC) I preschool of all students, but especially of disadvantaged students, obtains the highest value for money in relation to interventions at later ages [:1.7]. Investing in disadvantaged young children is a public policy where there is no equity -efficiency tradeoff, as it reduces the inequality associated with birth and, on the other hand, it raises the productivity of society at large [17]. Early childhood education and care of children from low-SES families raises their achievement test scoresi decreases their grade retention and repetitioni reduces the time they spend in remedial educationi increases high school graduation and four-year college participationi increases their likelihood of employment and earning morei decreases their dependency on welfare, crime and del inquencyi lowers the incidence of teenage pregnancyi increases their marriage ratesi and decreases their likelihood of smoking and child abuse [4][17][43]. Policy :1. (central- and local-level): Expanding access and improving the quality of early childhood education and care I preschool provide the most effective, albeit long-term, solution to improving educational outcomes of all, but especially of disadvantaged students. Intense, high-quality early interventions for disadvantaged children, such as the Perry preschool, Abecedarian program and Chicago child-parent centers in the United States, have been shown to be both effective and cost-effective in improving children's educational outcomes. A review of the American Title I program, and the English, 31 Dutch, Flemish and French educational policies targeting disadvantaged children found that well-designed early childhood education and care I preschool programs that are closely monitored are considerably more effective than large-scale programs with vague content and varied implementation [24]. Home-based and center-based programs have been shown to be better than home-based only, and coaching of parents has proven influential [24]. In the SEE region, there has recently been a push for increased participation in preschool programs (comprising only one year before the official first grade): in 2002, the Bulgarian government announced its intention to make preschool free and compulsory. The Slovak government has supported the Zero Grade Program, which expands preschool attendance for Roma children [38]. In Serbia, attending preschool for the 5·5- 6.5 yr old age group became mandatory for all children in 2006, for a duration of 6 months, the length of which was increased to 9 months in 2009. Expanding preschool opportunities means enlarging the network of preschool institutions, likely through a combination of new building projects and conversions of other, unused buildings into preschools. While increasing preschool participation is a worthwhile endeavor, the SEE region has yet to expand educational access to children younger than the preschool mandatory age and also improve the quality of early childhood education and care I preschool. 2.2.6. Policies that Recruit and Retain High-OualityTeachers Policies that aim to recruit and retain high-quality teachers improve student educational outcomes. Placing a high-quality teacher in every classroom is the most important thing schools can do for student education [3oH42HsoHs3]. This is especially important for the most disadvantaged populations, in high-poverty communities and in remote areas, where, not surprisingly, teacher shortages can be felt most severely. While teachertraini ng institutions are in charge of preparing high quality teachers, schools, local and central authorities can do their part in providing their students with high quality teachers. Policy 1 (central- and local-level): Providing financial incentives and opportunities to teachers is a major strategy for recruiting teachers to hard-to-staff schools [2][8][15]. Many options are available: offering financial incentives to teachers, such as bonuses, higher salaries or provision of subsidized housingi attracting and nurturing local talent by offering tuition and other support to out-of-field teachers, substitute teachers and second-career adultsi and retraining current staff by financially supporting good teachers in surplus subjects to acquire qualifications in shortage subjects. In the SEE countries, there are currently teacher surpluses, but this varies across subjects. While this means that schools are not hard- pressed to recruit teachers at the moment, recruitment strategies can nonetheless be used wisely to attract better quality teachers, especially at a time when they are in high supply. Policy 2 (central-, local- and school-level): Collaborating with teacher education programs is another promising recruitment strategy [2][15]. This encompasses: placing student teachers in rural areasi developing specific courses for teaching in hard-to-staff areasi creating cost-effective distance-learning courses and professional networksi organizing employment fairs and other eventsi recruiting teachers through phone calls, e-mail, and flyers directed to university deans, department chairs, and student service officesi and obtaining assistance and incentives from policymakers for creating alliances between the school districts and the nearest university. A long-term strategy that may more smoothly absorb changes in the availability of teachers of certain subjects is to have teacher education institutions start offering dual majors, such as mathematics I physics, biology I chemistry, history I geography. Policy 3 (local- and school-level): Requiring greater responsibility of communities in teacher recruit- ment may help teacher recruitment [2][6]. This policy entails: organizing school-community orientation for teachersi promoting living and teaching in a specific commu nityi and providing more interactions with teachers and principals during the hiring process, especially in more isolated rural areas and in areas with distinct cultural environments. 32 Policy 4 (mostly central-level; also local- and school-level): A highly effective retention strategy is mandating and financing teacher induction programs1 with mentoring and professional development being their most critical components. This reduces the likelihood of new teachers quitting in the first years of teaching [2][32], when teachers face many challenges [26]. Mandating induction programs appears to be necessary [16], with their greatest effect being felt in rural and small districts [26]. Training, compensating and providing release time for mentors are important aspects of these programs [1.5]. In hard-to-staff areas1 such as rural or low-income communities{ recruited retired teachers can act as mentors to novice teachers [1.2][35]. In Michigan 1 new teachers are formally required to undergo "intensive" professional development or additional training 1 with 1.5 days of such training being provided during the first three years of teaching [15]. In Serbia, the induction program with the mentoring component has been developed to be implemented at the national level. Policy 5 (local- and school-level): Fostering collaborative professional development and involving teachers in decisionmmaking is another effective retention strategy. Collaborative professional development- such as joint planning 1 team teaching, and regularly scheduled cooperation with other teachers and administrators- is more effective than other strategies [26], and 1 as a significant additional advantage 1 it can improve teaching in schools. Involving teachers in decision-making can also result in fewer teachers leaving [26]. It also improves the relationships between administrators and teachers as well as the quality of decisions that are made, and increases the probability that the decisions made will be realistic and well implemented [15]. The success of Shanghai, China on the PI SA tests is partly attributed to interventions by local authorities in failing schools that involve intense collaboration between teachers from failing and teachers from successful schools [34]. 33 34 3· A DECISION-MAKING FRAMEWORK FOR LOCAL AUTHORITIES This chapter will outline the framework that local authorities can use for making decisions on transportation and education policies regarding accessibility to education. This framework will be contained in the Action Plan for Improving Accessibility to Education1 a document that will detail steps and criteria for selecting the most adequate transportation and education policies targeting accessibility to education. 3.1. Action Plan for Improving Accessibility to Education An Action Plan (AP) is an essential document that should be developed by each municipality to select and implement transportation and education policies that are most needed to improve accessibility to education, taking into consideration local conditions. Its aim is to summarize transportation and education needs related to accessibility to education/ specify transportation and education policy options1 allocate necessary budgets1 and plan monitoring and evaluation activities. The AP is drawn up and enacted by the local authorities, but it is developed through a consultative process between schools, local authorities in charge of transportation and education, parents and students (Figure 6). For transportation options1 the AP will mostly be prepared by the local authorities in charge of education and transportation/ the police (for safety issues) and local authorities in charge of financing. Parents and students will be able to participate in the process through public consultation. For education policies/ however1 parents1 teachers and schools need to be heavily included in discussions and the selection of policies. This is so because they are most familiar with concrete educational problems in schools and/or will be most responsible for the implementation of selected policies. Therefore 1 they need to genuinely subscribe to the policies for the sake of sustainability. Due to these reasons, the Action Plan for Transportation needs to be drawn up and updated annually, while the Action Plan for Education needs to be drawn up every 3-5 years, but should be rigorously monitored and evaluated on a shorter-term basis. Figure 6- Action Plan: Goals and Participants ANNUAL ACTION PLAN DEVELOPED THROUGH PARTICIPANTS: COOPERATION: • local education authorities • local transportation authorities • teachers and parents • students • transportation and SUMMARIZE: education needs • transportation and education options • required funds (for transportation) • monitoringprocess 35 3.1.1. TransportationAnnuaiAction Plan (TAAP) 3 .1.1.1. Criteria for Assessment of 0 ptions The purpose of this section is to establish a clear procedure for programming accessibility/ transportation of students with the aim of providing conditions of uniform accessibility to education for everyone, especially for students from poorfamilies1 through corresponding criteria implementation. In parallel/ by establishing a clear procedure for student transport/ the procedure for rationalization of the educational institutions network will be facilitated/ as it will be based on a unique accessibility criterion/ among others. In the countries of the SEE region 1 a lack of a clearly defined procedure for programming student transport demand (defined pursuant to relevant prescriptions) is noticeable. In practice 1 ad hoc solutions are being implemented. The accessibility to education is solved on a case-by-case basis and in different ways (referring also to those students pertaining to poor populations) . The criteria relating to transportation issues define the following: (1) accessibility/ which defines the terms of uniform transportation accessibility to both students who walk and travel from/to school1 (2) quality (Quality criterion)1 specifying the acceptable walking distance from the place of residence (school) to the nearest bus stop1 the issue of timetable harmonization and requirements in terms of vehicle comfort1 (3) safety (Safety criterion) specifying the walking conditions from the place of residence to the nearest stop and vehicle safety1 and (4) the financial aspect (Financial criterion)1 specifying its affordability and subsidy conditions. 3.1.1.1.1. Uniform Accessibility Criterion Creating conditions of uniform accessibility to educational institutions for all students is a fundamental principle and the starting point. This principle can only be accomplished ifthe overall travel time (i.e. time of walking to the nearest bus stop (\ 1) 1 plus riding time (t)1 plus walking time from the stop to school(\)) does not exceed the value defined as acceptable walking time in cases when students go on foot. Only under such circumstances is the established principle of uniform accessibility to educational institutions for all students provided. In other words1 only if we equalize the maximum allowed walking time distance along the home-to-school route with the maximum allowed duration ofthe trip along the home-to-school route 1 will the principle of unique accessibility for all students be accomplished/ regardless of whether students live within the walking time zone of 6o minutes1 or they travel to school within the travel time zone of 6o minutes1 8 (Figure 7). Figure 7- Total travel time components along the home-to-school route 18 The maximum acceptable home-to-school walking time (time distance) can be calculated based on the criterion of the maximum prescribed walking home-to-school distance (the definition of which varies in different SEE Region countries). If we assume that the walking speed of an average student is 4km/h, the maximum allowed walki ng time is 6o min. 3.1.1.1. 2. Quality Criterion The Quality Criterion should be of use to an analyst when evaluating the quality of the route along which a student travels to school and back, as well as the quality of used transportation means (Figure 8). The Quality Criterion includes the following elements: • Bus stop approach time (Access time) (from/to the place of residencei from/to the educational center within the stipulated distance/walking time). In other words, if a student needs more time to reach a bus stop than to travel to school, then the quality oft he route should be improved (by reorganization oft he layout of bus stops and other similar measures). • As for children's transportation by PT, harmonization of the timetable with the beginning/end of classes represents a key characteristic of satisfactory service. In that context, any timetable changes implying the prolongation of the overall time spent on the road in comparison with the time defined by the criterion of Uniform accessibility would undermine the quality of the service. • Convenience depends on the vehicle comfort level (i.e. in public transport, on the vehicle fu II ness level -the higher the level, the lower the comfort), but other factors could be included as well : proper seat conditions, air conditioning, ventilation and vehicle cleanliness, etc. Figure 8- Quality Criterion 37 3.1.1.1.3. Safety Criterion The Safety Criterion (Figure g) refers to: • Walking conditions from the place of residence/educational center to the nearest bus stop, i.e.: In a settlement: • Is the path separated from motor traffic? • Is the path crossing railway tracks and are such crossings properly secured? • Is the path illuminated? In rural areas: • Is the road width sufficient for children's safe walking? • Is the road crossing railway tracks and are such crossings properly secured? • Is the road illuminated? • Vehicle conditions to be fulfilled, such as: • Does the vehicle meet all prescribed technical standards? • Vehicle age (older vehicles have to meet severe safety requirements, while their comfort level is generally below the prescribed one); • Is there the possibility of seat reservation in PT vehicles for children aged 6.5-10 years? • Is the vehicle equipped with safety belts? (New generation student transport vehicles include this element). Children who go to school on foot should wear yellow reflective vests as a precondition of safe walking. Figure 9- Safety Criterion 3.1.1.1. 4· Financial Criterion Following experience and aiming at a harmonized way of hand ling the financial issue within the SEE Region, the following financial criteria are suggested (Figure 10): • Cost of transportation is proportional to the economic power of an average family (affordability). An analyst can evaluate the fulfillment of this criterion on the basis of available statistical data (e.g. statistical analysis of transportation expenditures of an average household) 19 • • Subsidy conditions' o are provided for: • Students entitled to free transport, • Other students, up to a certain decided level. • Calculated unit cost reflects the local conditions on the transportation services market in terms of input structure and value, with an easy-to-check and simple calculation procedure. In order for schools and municipalities to succeed in applying these principles and achieve selected policies, it is recommended that they create aTAAP. Details oft he Plan will be presented in the following section of the Guide. Figure 10- Financial Criterion UNIT COST FOR TRANSPORTATION SUBVENTIONS TRANSPORTATION COST CONTRACTING • proportional to the • fo r students who • reflects local eco nomic ability o f are entitled to free conditio ns o f the the family transport transportatio n service martket • fo r o ther students up to the predicted • easy-to-check and level simple calculation procedure 19 The ratio of transportation expenditures in the overall expenditures of the average household in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Republic of Srpska) amounted to 11.5% of households' total expenditures (source: Newsletters and Bulletins: Survey on Consumption of Households, Republic Institute for Statistics of the Republic of Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2007), whereas the ratio of the same expenditures in the overall expenditures of the average household in Serbia in 2010 fluctu- ated from 7.8% (Central Serbia) to g.s% (City of Belgrade). (Source: Newsletters LP 11- Survey on Consumption of House- holds in Serbia in 2010, Republic Institute for Statistics, 2011.) 20 These Guidelines provide the recommended values for acquisition of free/subsidized transport entitlement in the Recom- mendations chapter. However, local authorities may decide to implement other values, according to the level of economic development of the municipality. 39 3.1.1.2. TAAP Drafting TAAP drafting will require serious engagement of all the stakeholders taking part in the process of its initial setting up. However1 in all subsequent phases1 its drafting will be mostly reduced to the following crucial steps: (1) analysis of Plan implementation comprising suggestions about the noticed problems (Monitoring processlt (2) updating data concerning the setting up of transportation lines1 i.e. concerning the measures connected to the educational activities stimulating improved availability and (3) definition of potential measures/ in both the student transportation and education areas (in the context of accessibility new improvement). The TAAP is prepared through severa I consecutive steps: It begins with TAAP Implementation analysis1 continues with needs assessment1 followed by an analysis of available policy options and their selection based on the criteria defined in the previous chapter1 and ends with budgeting and planning for monitoring and evaluation. Figure 11 describes the key steps in the preparation of a TAAP. Figure 11 represents the envisaged feedback between the monitoring process and TAAP implementation analysis. Namely/ through the monitoring process described later in the text1 relevant data in terms of TAAP elements correction are provided. This refers to those elements whose use in practice has not been approved or there are certain problems that have arisen. In the same manner1 potential implementation of new measures is enabled/ when indicated as necessary in practice. 3.1.1.2.1. TAAP Implementation Analysis (Step 1) The first step along the way of TAP drafting implies the ana lysis of the currentTAAP implementation. It is carried out on the basis of the reports created during the monitoring process. Before approaching initial TAAP drafting (after this document becomes a part of local practice)1 it is necessary to have drafted the overall analysis of current practices. Such an analysis is necessary for identifying bottlenecks and student transportation issues. The collection of the relevant data in terms of known practices is of crucial importance and it is supported by TAAP monitoring. Based on this1 all the stakeholders taking part in its drafting will give a full-scale estimate of the current practices. The collected data should be analyzed in accordance with the criteria described in Item 3.1.1.11 in the following suggested way: 40 Table 6- Proposed Approach for Selection and Analysis of Data Relevant for TAAP development Measure 1: route • PT -the possibility of rearranging the layout ofthe bus stops should be discussed with the operator; • The routes along which the travel • Contracted transport/School bus -rearrangement of the time exceeds the time prescribed by route in accordance with agreed criteria; the criterion (for each oft he existing transportation arrangements) should Measure 2: is defined considering the identified reasons be identified; • For all transportation modes: general road conditions should be improved in order to increase the commercial • The reasons (issues regarding the speed route, road conditions, and layout of • For PT: the adjustment of the locations/number of critical bus stops) should be identified. bus stops should be negotiated with the operator • For contracted/School bus transport: rearrangement of the layout of bus stops Measure 3: Bus stop approach time (Access time) improvement • The walking time from/to the bus stop should be brought down to a level that would ensure that the overall travel time remains within the limits defined by the uniform • Bus stop positioning, with respect accessibility criterion. to settlements/houses, should be • The possibility of child transportation by parents/taxi to a analyzed particular bus stop should be analyzed • The timetable should be analyzed Measure 4: Harmonization of timetables • Vehicle comfort conditions (In PT • For PT: Timetable harmonization should be negotiated vehicles the level of occupancy, and with the operator (by suitable departure interpolation) in other modes of transport the condition of equipment, air quality, Measures: Vehicle conditions and comfort etc.) should be analyzed • For PT: The possibility of departure interpolation for the purpose of eliminating traffic jams should be negotiated • For PT contracted transport: the possibility of vehicle interior improvement, that is, the general technical condition of the vehicles should be discussed with operators • Footpaths leading to bus stops/ Measure 6: Measures improving walking safety and securing schools and railway crossings should railway crossings should be proposed be analyzed Measure 7: Vehicle Quality • Vehicle quality should be analyzed in • For PT and contracted transport: The possibility of the following terms: introduction of higher quality vehicles and repair of -Condition of seats existing ones should be negotiated with the operator -Technical accuracy of doors • The possibility of students being Measure 8: The possibilityfor students to sit seated in PTvehicles should be • For PT: The introduction of reserved student seats should analyzed be negotiated Measure 9: Harmonization offares with students' economic possibilities • For PT and contracted transport: The possibility of lower • Current fares should be analyzed fares should be negotiated with operators • Transportation financing in terms • For PT and contracted transport: the number of of budget sufficiency (the issue of subsidized students should be revised transfer from local to school level, Measure 10: transportation financing options insufficiency offunds, exceeding the • For budget planners: A budget based on real demand; planned budget) should be analyzed transfers are should be improved (discussions at the central and local levels of authority, discussions at the local and school levels of authority). 41 Based on the above-proposed analysis1 a report to be used for drawing up the firstTAAP should be drafted. For any future TAAPs1 Step 1 of the proposed procedure/ described by the algorithm in Figure 111 should be implemented according to the same/similar procedure described above. 3.1.1.2.2. Needs Assessment (Step 2) Determining the demand for transportation services represents the second step of the TAAP. The purpose of calculating demand along corridors (or along the routes of existing and planned lines) is to define transportation volume and, in the case of contracted or school transport, to provide inputs for choosing the most suitable transportation units. The estimated transport val ume can be also used when determining the volume of the necessary budget for student transport funding. Assessment of transportation demand begins with the assumption that transportation is being provided for students satisfying the criteria of coverage and location1 meaning: • Students are within the stipulated age range (eligibility)1 and that • Students live at the prescribed distance from the educational institution entitling them to transportation service (location criterion). The procedure of data collection is carried out by the filling in of paper forms (Paper form 1 in Appendix 8.4) by students' parents. The paper forms are to be filled in at the end of the current school year and submitted to the school attended by the student. This general rule is followed by a certain number of specifications: • the parents of those students who are at the very beginning of their education are to fill in the forms when enrolling the child in the school1 • the parents of those children who already attend the school are to fill in the forms during the month of May of the current school year and submit them to the Teacher/ Class Teacher1 • if1 during the time between form submission and the beginning of the school year1 changes occur in terms of place of residence etc.1 the parents are to submit to the school evidence of such changes by the middle of August of the current year1 and no later than 15 days before the school year begins. 42 Figure 11- Transportation Annual Action Plan: Preparation Steps TAAP Implementation Analysis STEP 1 Needs Assessment STEP 2 Process of options selection STEP 3 • Transportation options Analysis • Route Planning • Specific issues of contracting bus, paremtar and taxi transport • Other important issues (safety, comfort, maintenace of school buses, road condition) • Risk Analysis ~ u n:s ..a Budgret drafting "'tJ CIJ CIJ STEP4 u. TAAP MONITORING Plan adoption PROCESS STEP 5 STEPG 43 The collected paper forms are to be summed up in a special review (Paper form 2 in Appendix 8.4) certified by the School Principal and submitted to the local municipal authorities. The school authorities are then to prepare a review of student transportation needs1 which becomes a starting point for further work on such programming of needs. Annual transportation demand is defined by summarizing the school overview by using a suitable pattern (Appendix 8. 41 Form 2 ). A summary prepared as described above defines the total annual transport needs of students and provides a basis for further planning. The municipality would aggregate the annual transportation demands from each school 1 by settlement and by type of student. This would provide a basis for further planning (Figure 12). Figure 12- Definition of the corridor demand procedure 44 3.1.1.2.3. Process of Options Selection (Step 3) 3.1.1. 2.3.1. Transportation Options Analysis In practice, the possibility of resolving the student transport issue with only one transportation option is generally not being taken into consideration. Namely, experience has shown that transportation options need to be combined. The purpose of this Item is to help the analyst with choosing the most suitable transportation option, i.e. the combination thereof. The analysis of options is carried out on the basis of a previously performed analysis of plan implementation in case when (Figure 13): • a new demand corridor appears- all options are to be analyzed • the existing option is being replaced by a new one -advantages and disadvantages of other options are to be analyzed. Figure 13 -Analysis algorithm for the possibility of using different options for student transport along a new demand corridor When analyzing1 the following general/specific characteristics of the options are to be used (Figure 14): • Public transport represents a suitable solution if it fulfils the criterion of uniform accessibility. In case a new demand corridor appears1 the analysis of options also includes the PT1 if it represents one of the options. PT is acceptable from the economic viewpoint/ being generally based on the economy of scale. • Its advantages especially stand out considering that in almost all countries of the SEE region1 PT is the responsibility ofthe state/local authorities (in charge ofthe market1 tariffs1 etc.). When subsidies are provided by state/local authorities, they can significantly influence the provision of sound and reliable student transport, even when it implies setting up non-profit lines (but these are important from the social and economic viewpoints). • Contracted transportation is an option recommended in cases when existing local PT is not able to provide adequate quality of service/ or in its total absence (non-coverage of a part of the territory, etc.). This option can often be organized within the existing local PT system (by introducing departures for student transport only). This option represents a slightly more expensive way of organizing student transportation/ but its advantages are reflected in the provision of service of appropriate quality. • Concerning this option, terms and conditions of transport are defined by the client1 in this case the competent school authority. That means that the competent school authority defines the route, the arrangement of stops and the timetable. 45 • The school bus is an option classified as a special mode of student transport. This service is most suitable for transportation of students in terms of quality. However1 it also represents a relatively expensive mode of student transport. • Parental transportation is an option to be applied: • as independent in cases when the volume of transportation demand is low (no more than 5 students) 1 where choosing any of the above-mentioned solutions would be quite irrational. This option is useful for scattered homes/places of residence. • as a support to some of the previously mentioned options1 aimed at collecting students from scattered locations and transporting them to bus stops. • Taxi transport, similarly to parental transportation, is planned in cases of low demand (less than 5 students) and in cases with scattered locations of homes, when selection of any of the basic options would be irrationa I. Figure 14- Basic characteristics of student transportation options OPTION PUBLIC CONTRACTED SCHOOL BUS CHARACTERISTIC TRANSPORTATION SERVICE Adaptability to the students' There is possibilty Absolute Absolute transportation needs Mostly unadapt- Possible ifthere able to the stu- Absolute Service qyality is a suitable dents' transporta- (new vehicles) offer tion needs Conditioned by Possible high level ifthere is a Absolute Safety the availabilty of suitable offer (new vehicles) seating places Should be Covered through Covered through Maintenance organized or service price service price contracted Only when there Cost Very acceptable Acceptable is no other acceptatility options For the purposes of evaluating PT lines' compliance with student transport demand, a matrix with six elements for decision-making and three levels of requirements to be fulfilled has been created. Important decision-making elements should be given different levels of relevance . When deciding which elements of the evaluation matrix should be given more attention/ decisions should be made on the basis of local conditions analysis. In some cases student safety occupies the first place regarding level of importance/ whereas in others the harmonization between school and transport timetables may appear more significant (for the purpose of avoiding the waste oftime) 1 etc. In any case1 the three levels of significance of each of the six elements for evaluation of suitability of (existing) public transport should enable one to decide on the choice of a certain student public transport line in the most pragmatic way. A layout of the analysis matrices and decision-making regarding the suitability of some public transport lines is given in Table 7· Apart from the descriptive evaluation of each element (examples are given in the matrixlt it is advisable to add a numeric rating to each element1 whilst paying attention to establishing a difference between the ratings and the quality level of each rating. Though numeric rating provides objectivity of the ranking 1 the matrix can also use textual quality description alone. Table 7- Decision-making matrix DECISION PUBLIC TRANSPORT -MAKING ELEMENTS Descnpt1on Rating Descnpt1on Rating on Descnpt1 Rating Fully in Party in compliance In its biggest part compliance with the needs. The the route is not in with the needs. requiremetn for an compliance with the Additional additional option students' transportation Route position 1 011 021 031 option inclusion shall arise needs. The requirement inclusion not due to availability for an additional option required. improvement. inclusion shall arise to the higher extent. Full in Partly in compliance Not in compliance with compliance with the needs. At more the students' needs. At Bus stop 2 with the needs. 012 than 40% there ia a 022 more than 6o% there is 032 network pedestrian accessibility a pedestrian accessibility problem (L > 1.5oom). problem (L > 3.ooom). Fully in Partly in compliance Not in compliance with compliance with the school the school timeable. with the needs. timeable. Students Students wait for a wait for a convenient conventient departure Timeable 3 013 023 033 departure up to 45 more than 45 minutes. minutes. Evening departures not in compliance with the extracurricular acivities. Fully in Not fully in compliance Not satisfactory (doors compliance with the needs (poor not closing safely, poor with the needs. sanitary conditions, sanitary conditions, Comfort 4 014 024 034 Available seats damaged seats, etc.). damaged seats, etc.). for pupils aged 6.5-10. Pursuant to the Vehicle safety is in Vehicle safety in regulations. compliance with the compliance with regulations, however, regulations, however, Safety 5 015 by reason of the 025 by a reason of Iisted 035 damaged seats the shortcomings students' students' safety not at a safety not at a satisfatory level. satisfatory level. Fully Partly acceptable but High and without Transport price 6 acceptable 016 the oparator is willing to 026 carrier's willingness to 036 negotiate. negotiate. Sum 011-016 maximum score (1oo, for example) Sum O:a- 026 score between minimum and maximum (65, for example) Sum 031-036 minimum score (40, for example) 47 Since there is no significant difference between contracted transport and school buses in terms of compliance of timetables with students' needs (the element of the greatest relevance)1 for the purposes of analyzing which transportation option should be chosen -contracted transportation or transportation by school buses- one should take into account the financial aspect, in the first place (differences are clearly shown in two examples in Appendix 8.2). However1 the relevance of demand volume should not be underestimated. Namely1 if a case implies only one new corridor along which student transport is to be organized1 and demand volume along this corridor is relatively low but sufficientfor engaging a bus/minibus1 the solution should be searched for among the following possibilities: • Attempting a service arrangement. However1 low demand may appear as an obstacle1 because it does not ensure the possibility of adequate gain for the contractor (it's only one line we are dealing with)i • Deciding in favor of the school bus option if1 of course1 the required conditions are fulfilled (see the text in paragraph below). In case the first option is not feasi ble1 a dialogue with neighboring municipalities that are also dealing with the issue of the transport along the corridor should be established. Association ofthei r needs may lead to such demand volume that may appear attractive enough for a private operator. Finally/ if neither of these alternative solutions is possible1 the only key to the problem is to engage taxi operators in such numbers and with such vehicles that would comply with demand volume. In addition to the above-mentioned 1 an important decision-making criterion is transportation reliability/ solidity. In comparison with contracted transportation, owned one is more reliable since failure is reduced to technical problems. This aspect is not meaningless when the transport services market is insufficiently developed and only one bidder competes for the contract. In the following cases a decision should be made in favor of school bussing as an acceptable option: if local PT does not exist1 local PT is not able to meet the requi rements1 or service contracting is not possible (there are no interested operators due to insufficient demand volume or low estimated service price1 potential operators are not able to meet service standards, inability of operators to provide the vehicles of appropriate capacity which has a direct impact on the service cost-efficiency/ etc.) (Figure 15). Other transportation modes that are considered as possible options refer to transportation organized by parents and taxi services. These options can be the only solution in certain circumstances (sparsely populated territory with low transportation volu me)1 but can be used as a supplement to some of the aforementioned options. These options can be applied independently or in combination with previously discussed options (Figure 16). Figure 15- Decision-making procedure for school bus option choice Figure 16- Two functions of remaining options INDIPENDENT AS SUPPORTING MODE OF OPTION TRANSPORT There is no any other - option Whenever access travel time to the ...... nearest station by walking is at such level that could Number of children produce extension of under needed for other - options (up to 5 childre total travel time. in total along aligment) 3.1.1.2.3.2. Route Planning Route Planning is a very important element ofTAAP procedure. A soundly planned route enables minimum time consumption for student travelers along the house- school- house route. On the other hand, it has a significant impact on operators' exploitation costs, and hence the cost of student transportation. Since these Guidelines addresses student transport in rural areas, route planning does not require implementation of complex algorithms (as would be the case 1 and a very specific one 1 in big urban areas). In that sense 1 the following text provides some pragmatic solutions aimed at solving the concrete problems that may arise in real life situations. The offered solutions are based on the set of criteria defined in Item 3.1.1.11 and particularly on the criteria of Uniform Accessibility and Quality. Considering the fact that PT routes are defined in such a manner as to comply with the needs of all the passengers, their harmonization with studenttransport needs can actually be summed up in two elements: (1) timetable and (2) bus stop layout. The most important disadvantage of this transport mode is reflected in the discrepancy between school and transport timetables (an issue that could be connected to the route itself). Analysis of the overall acceptable travel time/Accessibility is based on the principle formulated under the Uniform Accessibility criterion. The timetable enabling students who live in the most distant places to travel within the acceptable travel time will be considered as a favorable one. What should be done if the aforementioned principle cannot be accomplished? First of all, the local authorities responsible for local PT should take into consideration the possibility of redefining the timetable in order to meet the required criterion of accessibility. The simplest solution for discordant timetables is negotiation with the PT operator and requiring timetable harmonization with student needs, for example by interpolation of new bus departures adjusted to student needs. 49 If neither of these is feasible, the existing timetable could be considered acceptable under the following conditions: the timetable should guarantee arrival at school a maximum of 45 minutes before classes begin, and departing for home within an interval not exceeding 45 minutes. During the maximum 45 min of waiting time, for the beginning of classes or for transportation back home, children need to be supervised by a teacher in the classroom or in a safe and comfortable school space. This time could be used for homework and for educational activities and games. The interval defined in such a manner is aimed at making PT an accessible option for student transportation. There are also cases where the bus stop layout requires a longer walking time. In such cases, there are two options: (1) new bus stop interpolation decreasing overall walking time, and (2) organizing student transport from the place of residence to the nearest bus stop by parental or taxi transport. In cases of contracted transport, route planning is conducted pursuant to data on transportation needs obtained from the corridor analysis, by connecting the settlements along the corridor with the existing roads (Figure 17). Planning the network of stops is done by using a map of appropriate seale, where the roads for walking from home to a chosen stop location are drawn in, and an assessment of walking time is made. The location for every stop is determined in such a manner that the time of approach (on foot/or by transportation) is no longer than 15 minutes, regardless of terrain characteristics (in lowland and hilly areas this equals 1 kilometer at the average walking speed of 4 km/h, and in mountainous areas it equals 750 meters at a walking speed of 3 km/h). The procedure is conducted in a required number of iterations until accomplishing a result where the walking time from/to the stop is obtai ned within the proposed criterion (15 minutes)± 15%. Figure 17- Algorithm for setting up a contracted transport route line so However1 in certain parts of the countries in the SEE Region, the need for more information may arise1 since analysis by settlements does not meet needs. That would be the case in sparsely populated settlements (hilly and mountainous). In that situation, the analyst must use data from the primary base -forms completed by parents (see Appendix 8.4). The approach roads connecting homes/groups of houses with bus stops are drawn into appropriate maps1 and bus stop approach time is calculated according to the procedure described above. The second element of planning the layout of bus stops is the number of students who will be using it. This number is derived from data obtained from the review of total transportation demand/data. It is very important to avoid planning a bus stop that will be used by only 1-2 students, as it directly infiuences the overall travel time to the educational institution. This is in a direct function of the total perceived demand along the corridor and characteristics of settlements (number of students{ jagged/concentrated settlement). Based on the determined number of stops1 estimated boarding/disembarking time (1.5-20 seconds) 1 as well as the average driving speed between adjacent bus stops (state of the road and traffic conditions along it are important factors), total duration of the ride from the first to the last stop (in the vicinity of the school, if possible) are calculated. The control criterion to finally define the route of the line for transportation contracting is fulfillment of the condition that the overall travel time between the most distant bus stop and the bus stop in the vicinity of the educational institution should not exceed 6o minutes. Given that school bus transportation is a direct function of the available rolling stock (according to the number of units and places per unit) 1 transportation route planning should be approached in a serious/ professional manner. One important planning element is the school timetable 1 which should be an element incorporated into route planning and school operation (this requires the joint effort of school management and local education authorities). Planning can be conducted in two successive steps: route planning, according to the procedure that applies to contracted transport 1 and adjusting the number of routes to th available rolling stock. If the number of buses does not comply with needs1 one of the possible solutions would be to join two routes (Figure 1.8) merging into one at the stop in the school vicinity. In that case the vehicle would start from one end of the route 1 collect students at each stop 1 unload them and continue without stopping up to the starting point of the second route and would then return to the schooL In the case of the first shift, if the travel time from one end to the other of the connected route exceeds 6o minutes1 additional criteria referred to in the first paragraph on page so should be included. This practically means that the students who live along the first part of the route should leave their homes earlier and wait for their classes to begin (for a maximum of 45 minutes)1 because the same bus has to reach the starting bus stop at the opposite end of the joint route and drive the students back before the beginning of their classes. In order to burden the student travelers equally, it should be taken into account that those students arriving in school first, should also be transported back first The advantage of this solution is refiected in the fact that vehicles are better filled up during one ride (tour). If the previous solution is also not possible 1 gradual beginning of classes may be applied in order to cover all demands within the available transportation capacities. 51 Figure 18- Two-route connection procedure with one available vehicle Route starting ponit Route ending ponit Total time = (60+45) mins As for parental and taxi transportation, the planning of the route, regardless of whether if it's an independent option or a support option, must aim at minimizing the length (duration) of the route. Should the residential locations be scattered in such a way that organizing the route would be very complicated and time-consuming, its planning should be organized by determining the locations for picking students up. For example, for two or more students whose homes gravitate to the same (often uncategorized) road, the exact location where they would be picked up by parental transportation/taxi and conveyed to the school or to the first bus stop of public transport/contracted transportation/school bus should be determined. The overall travel time should not exceed 6o minutes in one direction. Finally, emergency routes should be planned whereverweatheror road conditions dictate that it is not safe to travel along the regular route. Should this be the case, an announcement system will be required (local radio, telephones, mobile phones, etc.). 3.1.1.2.3.3. Risk Analysis Risk analysis is also one of the important steps in the process of option selection. Sound risk identification, evaluating the possibility of its appearance, including the intensity of the risk, enables the analyst drawing up the TAAP to anticipate certain measures that would help avoid/mitigate the consequences of the risk. Each option carries certain risks, according to a number of risk factors. With respect to the fact that the first three (PT, contracted transportation and school bussing) are the basic options, the risk identification and description refer to them. Table 8 systematizes the potential main risks to be taken into account when evaluating a certain option, considering local conditions. The described risks are the most common ones encountered in practice. The most efficient way of their minimization and/orthei r removal is to precisely set forth in the Contract the legal consequences referring to both contracting parties in case risks appear. Furthermore, the conditions under which certain elements of the Contract can be changed must be stipulated. It must be pointed out that it is extremely important that both contracting parties take over their part of responsibilities, i.e. to avoid at any cost the situation of a complete risk transfer to only one of the parties (the operator). Such an approach will provide equal treatment of both parties and the operator will be motivated to avoid contract liability breach. 52 Table 8- Risk matrix- (possibility of appearance, risk description and suggested measures) + + The Operator may cancel the service during a certain period of time. The Contract must protect against such a possibility. Appears when the local authority does not subsidize public transport, waiving therefore the power of influencing the transport timetable. + Possible crowding in a vehicle and impossibility to provide seats for children up to the age of 10. An additional number of departures along the route should be negotiated with the operator. .. +I· +I· Due to the low level When the Agreement does of use of the rolling not stipulate the operator's stock it is economically responsibility to provide a unsustainable to have a standby vehicle standby vehicle Risk description given in the + Highly possible risk. The - second row. Strict control will Contract must protect against help protect against such a such a possibility. possibility. + Possible, due to technical defects. Risk elimination Risk description given in the Highly possible risk. The is enabled by a suitable second row. Strict control Contract must protect against agreement with the will help protect against such such a possibility (contract operator who provides a possibility. guarantees, cash deposits, etc.). the service during the risk threat (increases the option's costs) Legend: + a risk exists +I- there is a risk of considerable probability there is no risk or it is negligible 53 3.1.1.2.3.4· 5 pecific Issues of Contracting Bus, Parental and Taxi Transport Bus and taxi transport contracting, as well as the issue of compensation granted to parents when taking part in student transportation, are all issues that should be approached from different angles, keeping in mind all the specifities characterizing these transportation options. Contracts must secure a fair level of compensation as well as equitable risk sharing, without favoritism towards any of the contracting parties. Concerning PT, there are the following specifities: • A public operator receives subsidies from the national/local level of authorities, whereas the tariffs fall under the jurisdiction oft he local authorities -there is no need for special student transport contract arrangementsi • A public operator does not receive any subsidies from national/local level of authorities, whereas the tariffs are being approved by local authorities -the conditions referring to students enjoying the right to free/subsidized transportation are negotiated over with the operator. Concerning contracted transportation, service contracting is conducted through a tender procedure (through a public procurement procedure). An integral part of the procedure (excluding statutory elements) is a detailed description of the service including the following elements: a detailed route description including the state road number and basic data on road conditions, a list of bus stops including the distances in between them, the estimated number of students per station, and estimated service cost calculated per day (the elements of service cost shall be addressed later). The requirement stipulating that the provider's service must exclusively cover transportation of students is conditional. The criterion for selecting the most favorable bidder would be the lowest offered price. To avoid the situation of unrealistically low offer prices (which could result in abandonment of transportation later on), an indicative price should be announced within the public invitation, and it should be stated in the propositions that any deviation from that price in a range exceeding the price defined in the tender documents, would lead to elimination. The second criterion for most favorable bidder selection has to include the requirements in terms of service quality- maximum vehicle age, vehicle quality (proper seats, heating/cooling system, etc.). As for the specific weight of the two aforementioned criteria, it is recommended that their ratio should be at least so:so%. It is desirable, except fort he aforementioned, to determine the period forwhich the service is contracted in the public invitation for proposals submission. It would be a reasonable solution to contract the service for a period of several years (provides commercial security to the potential service provider), in which case the need for annual adjustment of transportation volume should be indicated (by making an annex to the contract), provided that future transportation volume per contracted years should be at least estimated (based on available demographic data). However, an insufficient number of interested operators may lead to a quite limited choice. Namely, in such a scenario the number of possibilities for setting higher standards for service provision are narrowed down, especially in terms of vehicle quality. Also, the risk of unperformed service, and even the risk of service cancellation may increase.lt is suggested, therefore, that competition conditions, and subsequently the contract, should provide guarantees against transportation cancellation by the operator, and other contract breaches (bank guarantees, down payment and similar instruments). 54 Cooperation between municipalities (especially between neighboring ones) during transportation negotiation is strongly recommended. It implies achieving a more favorable level of bids (more bidders)1 competitive prices and better contract terms and conditions. Parenta I and Taxi student transport are also subject to service contracting. Both modes of transport should be subject to procurement procedures1 but taxi transport contracting is conducted through a tendering procedure (public procurement)1 provided that the procedure is applied during invitation to tender. Contract validity for parental transport may be tied to the school year. But for taxis1 signing a contract for several school years (2-3 would be the optimum) is also possible. 3.1.1.2.3.5· Other Relevant Issues Other relevant issues include: requirements in terms of student transport safety and comfort, rolling stock management in terms of school buses, requirements in terms of road maintenance (especially in winter conditions). The issue of identification documents is also explained. Requirements in terms of student transport safety and comfort arising from the Law on Safety in Traffic. These are issues related to the technical accuracy of vehicles used in public transport/ and operator and driver licensing 1 and they include the following: • in cases of P~ the operator's responsibility is to provide the required number of seats reserved for children aged 6 1/ , - 14. In this case1 if bus seats are bench-shaped1 the rule of 3 students per two seats may apply. • in cases of contracted transportation, the operator's responsibility is to provide the vehicle with a sufficient number of seats for all students including the person escorting the vehicle (if one of the teachers travels by the same bus from the starting bus stop 1 he/she may be in charge of escorting). When entering into a contract it is very important to clearly specify that the operator is allowed to transport students exclusively. Both the issues mentioned are to be regulated by the contract. • in cases of transport by school buses, by definition/ the provision of a bus seat to each and every student is mandatory. Buses must meet the standards proscribed by legislation that regulates passenger PT. • in cases of parental or taxi transportation, the vehicle must comply with all the legal provisions related to safety and technical accuracy. Also1 the provision of a bus seat to each and every student is mandatory/ regardless of his/her age. Special attention must be paid to parental vehicles. The contracted vehicle should be examined by an adequatelytrai ned person (preferably by a member of the police force). Upon examination he/she would draw up a written report reviewing vehicle conditions (such a report would make up an integral part ofthe contract). The management of school bus rolling stocks is an issue that deserves special attention. In the region (Bu lgaria)1 practice implies thatthe rolling stock is managed by the school itself or by local authorities. Since this issue is related to the rational use of the rolling stock1 it is recommended to transfer its management to the local government -local education authorities. This solution is especially advisable if we are dealing with a large school bus fleet (more rational maintenance planning 1 possibility of engaging professional drivers who could receive special training/ etc.). 55 Regardless of the fact that these buses have a dedicated use, management by local authorities opens the door to the possibility of using them for transportation of other populations, when not engaged for transportation of students (e.g. organizing special tours for citizens doing business in the municipality center1 etc.). Transportation organized in this way is of great significance for those municipalities/parts of municipalities with no organized public transport1 and may be a part of a municipal policy of improving general living conditions. In addition to this 1 one part of vehicle operating costs could be covered through transportation service charging. Since the issue of road maintenance is ruled pursuant to legislation at the state/loc;.::~llevel of authority, no special arrangements thereof can be organized with an operator. Quality of road maintenance directly infiuences the quality and reliability of the overall transportation, but it is, as a rule, limited by available funds. Attention should also be paid to the issue of road safety. The scope of this part of the AAP depends on the results given in the first step of AAP implementation analysis1 that isf on suggested measures. In case the suggested measures refer to roads under national jurisdiction 1 the competent ministry is then informed of such measures by the municipal competent institution/local authority. However1 if the measures refer to roads under the jurisdiction of the municipality/ such measures should be formalized through the definition of concrete projects (activities) for which the budget is to be roughly defined and which is to be considered a part of the AAP budget. Road maintenance1 especially under winter conditions1 is crucial for the regularity of the service. Considering national roads of higher priority1 maintenance is the responsibility of the central authorities1 while the local/municipal roads patency maintenance is the responsibility of the local authorities (common practice in the SEE region). Since the local roads are the ones that determine the quality of accessibility of all populated parts of the municipal territory, their quality and the quality of maintenance is crucial. Equal importance must be given to patency of unclassified roads that, similarly to local roads, provide accessibility of practically single houses/locations of residence. Under winter conditions 1 provision of their accessibility is one of the conditions for undisturbed functioning of the settlement. Maintenance of their patency under winter conditions can be provided by engaging the people who live in these settlements and possess the mechanization (a tractor with a ploughshare for cleaning) with compensation of fuel costs by the local authorities. The transportation identification documents (boarding cards) used most commonly in the practice of the SEE region are a sort of identification (including the student's photo) specifying the service type- free or charged. Payment responsibility registration of those students who are charged for the service is carried out by issuing a special card that is to be presented along with the identification card. The identification card for the current school year is issued at the very beginning of the school year. As in the case of bus transportation/ identical identification cards can be used for student transport by taxi as well. There are some countries and/or municipalities of the SEE region where the validity of the identification card is limited to working days only. It is recommended that the validity of the identification card should not be limited only to working days. The motive for such a recommendation is to provide students with the possibility of transportation service use under favorable conditions and without any limitations enabling good social integration (attendance to extracurricular activities~ exhibitions1 theatre plays etc.). Approval of this measure implies an increase of expenditures for both students enjoying the entitlement to subsidized or to free transport service. However1 the social benefit coming out of this expenditure significantly overcomes the additional costs. 3.1.1.2.4. Budget Drafting (Step 4) The annual budget represents a key element ofTAAP setting up (TAAPB). Its drafting has to be based on real inputs and include all the activities planned for the current year. Important note: the school year is not aligned with the calendar year- it begins in September and ends in mid-June1 that is1 at the end of August the following year (including activities carried out during the summer in which mostly teachers take part)». On the other hand 1 the year for which the local budget is approved is aligned with the calendar year. In that sense 1 the Annual Action Plan Budget (AAPB) should provide such an output that could satisfy both calendars- the school and budget calendars. The particularities ofTAAP budget drafting come out oft he calendar of local budget preparation (see Box). Pursuant to regulations valid in Serbia, the following dates are relevant when drawing up the TAAP budget: • proposals for the next budgetaryyearand forthetwo coming calendaryears are to be submitted by all budget users by 15 March of the current year; • The Memo (including economic and fiscal policies of the Government, with budget projections for the next budgetary year and two coming calendar years) is to be submitted by the Minister of Finance to all budget users/ local authorities by 1 June of the current year; • The Minister submits the Guidelines for state budget draft preparation (which is also one of the concerns of local authorities) by 1 June oft he current year; • Local authorities submit their mid-term and financial plans to the Government (Ministry) by 1 September of the current year; • By 15 October the Government defines the budget draft, and by 1 November it submits the draft to the assembly ford iscussion. Therefore, already by15 March oft he current year local authorities have to have considered all local budget projections for the coming year, with the possibility of aligning them by 1 September accordingtotheGuidelinesfor budget draft preparation. These two dates are of crucial importance for AAP budget definition. Due to that fact, and the fact that student transport items and other items relating to safety measures and road maintenance issues cannot be defined on the basis of precise input data, the local authorities may go fort he option of making calculations according to current available data, by the procedure proposed in the Guidelines. Furthermore, reserves should be added to the funds calculated in such a way (order of magnitude 10 -15%) in the case of aligning the calculation based on more precise input data. When calculating the funds, the issue of student transport costs will represent only a lesser problem, since the number of students using transportation service does not fluctuate significantly year by year. As for the student transport costs, the utterance connected to the calendar year is quite simple. It refers also to road maintenance in winter conditions. However, when speaking of costs of road reparation along the routes (potholes, landslides, etc.), or the issue of the safety measures (railway crossings, walking paths, etc.), the planned activities are to be allocated to two calendar years. , In SEE region countries school begins on 1 September and classes end in mid-June oft he following calendar year 57 3.1.1.2.4.1. Budgeting ofTransportation Drafting a budget which is to be allocated to student transport has to be grounded on realistic planning so the local authorities could actually meet all the obligations arising from it. The calculation of the volume of funds necessary for organizing student transport1 included in the TAAPB1 is based on the chosen option/options. 3.1.1.2.4.2. Transport Subsidies and the Role they Occupy in the StudentTransport Budget Passengertransport1 as a significant municipal function 1 iscommonlyfinanced from the transportation service income. However1 a part of the costs1 especially the transport operation costsf can be funded from subsidies granted by the local authority. Why is it so important to have passenger transport subsidized? By subsidizing/ local authorities provide quality and reliable public transport the service price of which is acceptable for the majority of citizens and within the widest possible area of the local community. Also1 it secures uniform treatment of citizens in terms of general accessibility of public transport. It especially refers to those without an alternative (without their own vehicles~ those not able to drive vehicles such as kids and elders1 etc.). Passenger transport subsidizing at the general/eve! does not exclude the possibility of additional subvention of student transport~ in which case the volume of funds for this purpose is proportionally lower. This1 however1 implies generally lower fares 1 and hence a lower price of student transport service in cases where the parents cover such expenses. 3.1.1.2.4.3· Calculation ofTotal Funds Needed for StudentTransport Financing As for the student transport, the local authorities are responsible for meeting the conditions of free transport for those categories of students who are entitled to it. The volume of the subsidy is derived from the annual transportation demand and is calculated by multiplying the number of students entitled to free transport by the number of days for which the transportation is provided, and the result of this operation is further multiplied by the unit price (one ride) of the transport service. As for the rest of the students that need transportation, the costs thereof shall be covered from the local budget implementing the tariffs and the approved subsidy leveL The calculation procedure of the funds needed for covering the costs of subsidies for students enjoying that entitlement remains the same as for the above-mentioned case of free transport service. Technically~ the remainder of the overall expenses should be covered by students' parents. For determining the funds required at the municipal level, data provided by schools are to be used. These data are being summed up in special forms provided by schools to local education authorities (see form proposal in Appendix 8.4, form 2). 3.1..1..2.4-4. Specifities relating to Other Transportation Modes (contracted1 school busf taxi and parental transport) Contracted Transport Obim The financing volume of contracted transport is to be calculated depending on the volume of the transportation demand. The volume of financing is also affected by the contracted unit price (per kilometer{ per student1 and per performed transport work are possible options) and number of transport routes/lines. ss Two approaches can be applied when estimating the volume of the funds required: • The first approach is based on data from analogous cases, historic data for similar services regardless of whether they come from a concrete municipality or neighboring municipalities which have had such experience. Appendix 8.2 contains data on transport service price fluctuations in the municipalities as an indication of the data source; • The second approach is based on service price calculation by applying a simplified procedure. The suggested procedure is based on vehicle kilometer price . Details of its calculation, as well as a corresponding example, are described in Appendix 8.2. The simplified procedure can be used by a professional>< exclusively for the purposes of adjusting the calculation to concrete local conditions. When choosing the vehicle kilometer price value, the analyst is advised to take those that correspond to higher annual vehicle mileages (>4o,ooo km yearly). This advice is supported by data on operators' work given in Table 6 in Appendix 8.2. The simplified procedure has been developed as described by the algorithm in Figure 1g.lt is clear that this procedure is to be repeated as many times as implied by the number of routes planned for contracting. For public procurement needs, expressing the budget in the form of an indicative price of the service, representing the base element of the Competition bid documents, appears to be a more suitable solution (offer price can be lower). One should take into account that the calculated budget is subject to monitoring, updating and analyzing, hence in the following several years the rate of calculation reliability will be higher. School Buses The issue of school bus purchase was not a subject of the Guidelines. The instructions given hereinafter refer to estimates of the costs of school bus operation. The procedure for calculating the funds required for school bus operation remains the same as the procedure described in the previous Item, when the subject was contracted transport. What differs in the use oft he simplified method for calculating required funds is the fact that the annual mileage of private operators (with whom contract arrangements are to be organized) is higher than the mileage of school buses. Hence, when calculating the school bus operation price, it is recommended to use vehicle kilometer values which correspond to a lower annual mileage (see diagrams in Appendix 8.2, and an example of simplified method calculation). A given cost of school bus transportation can be used in TAAPB calculation. Knowing that they are going to be subject to monitoring through the TAAP realization, updating them will be possible. 22 Such professionals can be found at the Secretariat for traffic oft he local administration, or a similar institution in charge of traffic issues. 59 Figure 19 -Algorithm of the simplified annual budget calculation for contracted transport Route/Line No. oftours Lenght (in kms) per day (4) ( VEHICLE· KILOMETERS/DAY ) Unite price per No of accounting vehicle - kilometer day per year (see app. 8.2) (295,67) ANNUAL BUDGET PER ROUTE/LINE Other options When calculating the budget, all planned routes for which parental transport is envisioned should be taken into account. The resulting sum is further multiplied by the number of school days in order to calculate the total annual mileage. The parental compensation budget is determined according to the a nnua I mileage multiplied with the unit price (in local currency per kilometer crossed). The unit price should be identical to the compensation paid for business trips when an employee uses his/her own car. These elements are constituent parts of the contract/agreement or any other document concluded between the parents and the school/local school authorities. Calculation of parental compensation would be done once a month provided that the parents keep daily records on the transportation performed (Monthly transportation Diary - MTD)"3 • A verified MTD would be the basis for payment. Verification would be organized depending on whether it is an independent or support option. In the first case, records would be verified by the School Principal (or his authorized representative). In case of the supporting role to the main transportation options, verification is to be done by a bus driver/escort person and, at the end ofthe month, parents submit the MTD to the School Principal as a basis for payment. Even though the compensation is subject to the proposal, for the purpose of cost planning it has to be calculated. The costs for taxi usage is to be calculated in the same manner as in the case of transportation organized by parents. "3 Parents would record daily mileage (regardless of it being a fixed value), time of departure and time of arrival at the school/ station, and the list oft he students transported. 6o 3.1.1.2-5- Plan Adoption (Step 5) The procedure ofTAAP preparation and adoption should be defined in compliance with local regulations. The calendar of TAAP drafting, consideration and adoption has to be harmonized with the school calendar. At the same time, we have to underline once again that the TAAP is connected to the school year and not the calendar year. Hence, the corresponding activities and budget have to be prepared in such a manner as to take this specifity into consideration. This practically means that all activities involved in organizing school transport have to be carried out before the beginning of the school year that the TAAP refers to. This implies that the TAAP has to be adopted at least 3-4 months before the beginning of school. 3.1.1.2.6 . Monitoring Plan (Step 6) The monitoring procedure is essential forTAAP improvement. It should be defined in such a manner as to enable all the stakeholders taking part in the process ofTAAP drafting and implementation to clearly recognize and accomplish the corresponding tasks. The overall monitoring and evaluation of student transport service performance are the responsibility of local school authorities, whereas the issues relating to the transportation itself are addressed by local transportation authorities. However, in order to continually improve the TAAP, school authorities are recommended to monitor the TAAP implementation on a daily basis. Therefore, it is advised to keep registers for each student transport mode envisioned by the TAAP. Those registers should highlight all the irregularities and deviations from the planned timetable, such as students' late arrival due to transportation irregularities, absence oftransportation (referring to all transport modes), inadequate behavior of bus personnel, etc. (an example of the register is given in Annex 8. 4, Form 3). Apart from transportation irregularities, the registers should document all possible interruptions regarding the approach to transportation lines (unsafe paths, landslides, etc.) thus aiming to remove them or to envisage prevention measures against such interruptions in the subsequent Plan. 3.1.1.3. Responsibilities inTAAP Preparation Local education authorities, accompanied by institutions in charge of traffic (or infrastructure, depending on how the duties within the local administration are assigned, that is, whether there is or not a body competent for traffic) and by the police, represent the main participants in the process ofTAAP preparation. Collection of data on transportation demand falls under school jurisdiction. For those purposes, Appendix 8.3 provides the paper forms that could be used by the schools. The education administrations should sum up data provided by the schools and further systematize them by the corridors/routes (i.e. potential routes). These data form the basis for further student transport planning. The competent traffic department of the local authority and the police have an insight into data on the traffic infrastructure and the existing PT/contracted/school bus/other modes lines. These data form the 61 basis for mapping the available lines of student transport (including bus stop distribution1 as well as the current timetable). The updating of these data is part of the job oft he aforementioned bodies. As for the routes not covered by PT/contracted/school bus/other modes lines 1 the competent traffic department1 along with the competent education authority1 is responsible for defining the routes (bus stop layout1 timetable) along which student transport is to be organized in accordance with the procedure described in the Item- Route Planning. As long as is necessary/ data on these routes are to be kept up to date1 which falls under the responsibility oft he authority in charge of traffic. The negotiation over studenttransport1 pursuant to the elements arising from the AAP1 shall be performed by the local education authority and supported by the competent bodies in charge of public procurement and financing. The preparation of the Budget elements (service cost1 cost of other measures) is the responsibility of the local education authority/ supported by the competent body in charge of financing. As for safety issues1 the competent bodies mentioned above are in charge of registering and mapping danger spots that are critical in terms of car and pedestrian accidents 1 especially when involving children. This significantly improves the TAAP in terms of envisaging accident prevention measures. The pedestrian paths connecting the settlements/groups of houses and the PT bus stops are drawn into the same maps1 whereas the walking time is calculated. These data are also updated in compliance with the competent departments' needs. Assignment of responsibilities forTAAP drafting is shown in Figure 20. Figure 20- Shared responsibility in AAP definition and monitoring o Manage Ann ual Action Plan elaboration LOCAL SCHOOL o Organize and conduct update, implementation and AUTHORTY Annual Action Plan development o Provides updated data on roads LOCAL AUTHORTY o Provides upadetes on public transportation offer FOR (by lines together w ith all elements) TRANSPORTATION o Provides updates on safety (especially in the zones of AND POLICE stops) o Collect data on students' transportation needs, arrange SCHOOLS and deliver them to the local school authorities 3.1.2. The Education Action Plan The Education Action Plan describes the following: assessment of educational needs for school(s) in the municipality; selection of education policies; plans for implementation, monitoring and evaluation; budget proposal; plan adoption (Figure 2l.). After the Action Plan is adopted1 it is implemented/ monitored and evaluated. Evaluation results 1 as well as new needs assessment1 instigate the creation of a new Education Action Plan. Because of the complexity ofthe needs assessment/ diversity of stakeholders1 and time needed for the effects of education policies to show1 the Education Action Plan should be developed and revised every 3-syears. Figure 21- The Education Action Plan For assessment of educational needs related to accessibility to education, schools need to identify the most pressing problems in their school(s) against the list of educational policies that can improve accessibility to education, which are presented in Chapter 2. Table g shows the questions that each school in the municipality needs to answer in order to assess its status on each of the policies presented in Chapter 2 . Table 9- Questions for Assessment of Educational Needs Related to Accessibility to Education EDUCATION POLICIES QUESTIONS FOR NEEDS ASSESSMENT Providing school meals for all Are students' nutritional needs met (especially those of low- children SES and traveling students), both by providing a sufficient amount offood at appropriate intervals and ensuring its nutritional adequacy) Are there problems with the financing, Reducing organization and I or quality of school meals) hidden costs Providing free access to learning Do students have free books) What are their school-related to education materials and removing or reducing expenses) Are they alleviated, and if so, in what ways) school fees Providing direct fund transfers to How many students in school receive social benefits) Are families those students among the ones at risk of dropout) Utilizing data systems to allow How many school-age children do not go to school in the realistic assessment oft he students school's catchment area) How high is the dropout rate from who drop out or those who are at grade to grade in the school) How many students in school risk of dropping out are vulnerable to dropout) What are their profiles (low-SES, Roma, SEN)) What affects student attendance- poverty, discrimination, cultural barriers, the teaching process, school- family relationships, something else) Targeting Intensely intervening in academic, Which oft he strategies listed in Chapter 2 are employed individual social, and personal lives of students by the school to intervene in the lives of students at risk of students I who are at risk of dropout dropout) schools at risk for dropout Undertaking comprehensive, school Which oft he strategies listed in Chapter 2 are employed by wide reform strategies aimed at the school to increase engagement of all students in school) increasing the engagement of all students in school Employing a variety of effective How large is the Roma student body)Which of the strategies strategies for improving the listed in Chapter 2 are employed by the school to improve attendance and academic attendance and academic progression of Roma students) progression of Rom a students Developing trusting and respectful What is the parental engagement in school like) which of relationships with parents the strategies listed in Chapter 2 are employed at school to establish trusting and respectful relationships with parents) Engaging parents Developing parental engagement Which oft he activities listed in Chapter 2 are undertaken at in their activities and programs that are school or by teachers to connect parents with their children's children's specifically linked to student learning) learning and learning schools Developing the capacity of school Are teachers and administrators equipped to engage parents stafftoworkwith parents in the ways described in Chapter 2) Have they undergone any training) Searching for, seizing and What services, apart from regular classes, are offered by developing a variety of the school to the community (students, parents, othersj) opportunities and concrete What other services can the school provide) Are there any services that make schools useful opportunities for the school's additional involvement) Strengthening and indispensable resources for bonds everyday life and needs of their between communities schools and local Incorporating local content and How relevant arethethingsthat are taught at school communities conditions into curricula, learning for students' everyday life) Are there curricular and materials and teaching practices extracurricular activities at school that utilize and incorporate that increase the relevance, local culture, language, the social and natural environment) attractiveness and usefulness of education Promoting Expanding access and improving How many children in school have attended ECEC I early quality of ECEC I preschool preschool? What percentage of age-appropriate children childhood in the municipality attend ECEC I preschool' What is the education capacity of current ECEC I preschool institutions (over- and care utilized, appropriate for demand, underutilized)' Providing financial incentives and Are there teacher shortages in any subjects in school 7 How opportunities to teachers many applicants are there usually for one teaching spot' What are the usual recruitment practices in the school' Which oft he activities listed in Chapter 2 are undertaken to provide financial incentives and opportunities to teachers' Collaborating with teacher Which oft he activities listed in Chapter 2 are undertaken to education programs collaborate with teacher education programs' Recruiting and retaining Requiring greater responsibility of Which oft he activities listed in Chapter 2 are undertaken to high-quality communities in teacher recruitment involve communities in teacher recruitment' teachers Mandating and financing teacher Do novice teachers in school undergo formal induction' Are induction programs, with mentoring there mentors for novice teachers' Do novice teachers in and professional development school utilize professional development opportunities in their components first year ofteaching 7 Fostering collaborative professional Which oft he activities listed in Chapter 2 are undertaken by development and involving teachers the school to foster collaborative profess io na I d eveI op ment in decision-making and teacher decision-making in school 7 Dataforneedsassessmentshould be collected by several means: 1)the school's and teachers' own records/ assessment of student attendance, behavior, grades and living conditionsi 2) the school's or municipality's communication with social services in the municipality to identify SEN and low-SES students that may be eligible for free school meals and other benefitsi 3) the school's or municipality's communication with the birth registrar in the municipality to identify school-age children who do not attend schooli 4) the school's communication with parents I questionnaires to identify educational needs of their children, as well as parental concerns and desi resi 5) the school's or municipality's communication with community leaders to identify non-attending students and the reasons behind their non-attendancei 6) the school's and teachers' assessment of practices employed at school that are relevant for the policies at hand. Even though data for needs assessment have to be aggregated for further analysis, this data should be collected at the individual level for each student that belongs to any one of the categories mentioned in Table 9 (e.g. low-SES, Roma, etc.), as well as kept and updated over the course of years. Ideally, this information should be a part of or be easily interchangeable with theE MIS for reliable storage, cross-checking of data, immediate availability of data for all schools in the municipality, and the ability to monitor and analyze data longitudinally. A secondary alternative would be data entry and storage in schools, with the municipality collecting and aggregating data at specific intervals. Qualitative data should be stored and uti Iized by schools and municipalities. Collected data need to be aggregated at the school level to produce a school's needs profile on educational accessibility. For each educational measure in Table g, column 3, individual data should be aggregated so that the school can assess the scope of each potential need associated with accessibility to education. In other words, there would be a set of quantitative and qualitative data describing the prevalence and gravity of particular need(s) within the school (or lack thereof) that need to be addressed in order to improve educational accessibility. A school can, for example, have trusting and respectful relationships with parents, have a mediocre performance in addressing Roma attendance, face serious problems with teacher retention, and so on. Such needs profiles on educational accessibility of each school in the municipality will thus be established so that the schools and municipality can subsequently select appropriate policies that will improve accessibility to education. 3.1.2.1. Selection of Education Policies Once a school's needs profile on educational accessibility is known, appropriate policies targeting the school's most pressing needs should be selected. First of all1 the policies that would most appropriately address the school's needs in regards to improving its educational accessibility need to be selected out of all policies presented in Chapter 2. For example1 if the school identified through the needs assessment process that one of its needs is to improve relationships with parents1 then a pol icy yielding trusting and respectful relationships with parents should qualify for further consideration. Secondly/ all the qualifying policies targeti ngthe school's various needs would need to be compared to each other using certain criteria that will be outlined below. In doing so1 schools and local authorities will be able to prioritize policies in case budgets are limited/ support for the policy is low1 or some other obstacle listed in the section on criteria that would prevent pol icy implementation. For example1 if the school has a considerable school- level dropout problem1 enrolls students whose hidden costs of education are not sufficiently alleviated/ and has a high teacher attrition/ then policies addressing those needs should be compared with each other based on the selection criteria. This process is outlined in Figure 22. Figure 22- Selection of education policies Policies presented in Chapter2 Needs assessment Policies presented in Chapter 2 that address ..... school's needs Application of selection criteria (political feasibilty, implementability, effectiveness1 cost- effectiveness) Prioritized policies presented in Chapter 2 that address school's needs 3.1.2. 2. Criteria for Selection of Education Policies Even though selecting criteria and making criteria-based decisions is notoriouslyd ifficult to undertake in education, there are nonetheless soft, sensible principles which local authorities can turn to when choosing education policies. While each of the education policies presented in Chapter 2 is worthwhile in its own right1 it is likely that only some can be implemented due to the school's specific needs1 limited capacities and budgets. No policy presented in Chapter 2 has precedence over any other. Therefore 1 educators should carefully consider which pol icy best fits their needs and goals. The following criteria can guide educators in selecting education policies for implementation24• It is important to stress that these criteria are complex1 as they contain several components1 and are often intertwined/ with their relative importance dependent on the specific policy and context. 24 Authored by Dr. Gregg Jackson, George Washington University. 66 3.1.2.2.1. Political Feasibility Political feasibility should be assessed by determining who the opponents and proponents of the policy might be, and what level of power they hold over the decision. The usual stakeholders include the central government1 local government1 local businesses1 media 1 public1 teachers1 and parents. For example, public opinion may differ from the opinion of parents of young children on whether local funds should be invested in building a hospital versus building a local preschooL A similar, but somewhat distinct principle that should be considered is the relationship between a policy under consideration and other policies in the greater education policy arena. For example 1 if the central-level educational authorities focus on Roma inclusion 1 local authorities may judge that it is wise to select local-level policies focusing on Roma 1 as they would complement those initiated at the centrallevel 1 and thus be more likely to garner more funding{ more enthusiasm and more acceptance. Conversely/ local authorities may decide that a particular set of policies- comprehensive induction programs for novice teachers1 for example- already receives sufficient funds and support from the central level, so that they could shift their attention away from teacher retention strategies. 3.2.2.2.2. lmplementability Successful implementation depends on numerous factors 1 including:~) there is little controversy over and lots of support for the policy; 2) the policy is specific and clear; 3) initial costs are low I modest; 4) benefits are apparent in the short term; 5) monitoring 1 incentives and sanctions are well thought outi and 6) implementation is not complex (i.e. the nature of activities1 number of people involved and degree of changes required are not extensive). For example 1 developing trusting and respectful relationships with parents by regularly calling and meeting with parents face-to-facef consulting parents on school policies and plans, and offering incoming families tours of the school appears to be a highly implementable policy. On the other hand 1 policies targeting the attendance of Roma students usually draw more controversy in the community. This does not mean that they should not be pursued, but that educators should be aware that more effort and planning is needed to override these issues. 3.~.2.2.3. Effectiveness Future effectiveness of the policy can be judged by several factors, including: 1) implementability- if successful implementation is unlikely1 the effects will also be unlikely; 2) the effectiveness of similar policies used in similar contexts and for similar purposesi and 3) anticipation of unintended positive and negative effects of the policy. Even though all the policies described in Chapter 2 have been identified as effective by researchers1 their effectiveness in a specific locale will depend on the context{ implementability1 anticipation of unintended consequences and other princi pies described in this section. A helpful elaboration of the effectiveness principle is to assess whether a particular policy appears to be effective for several purposes. For examplef active and involved communities appear to strengthen parental engagementf help schools extend their relevance 1 and assist in recruiting teachers1 all of which are posited to improve student attendance and other educational outcomes. Therefore 1 this policy appears to score well on the effectiveness principle. Another elaboration of the effectiveness principle is to consider how strong and unanimous the evidence appears to be behind a certain policy. For example 1 it is an uncontested and well-established fact that high quality preschool reaps a wide range of large benefits for all children, and especially those from disadvantaged backgrounds. It also has many positive externalities for the societyf which makes it a very good societal investment. Therefore 1 a municipality would likely not be wrong in exerting its efforts on increasing preschool access and improving its quality. However1 other policies may still be more easily implementable and have lower cost-benefit ratios in the short-term. 3.1..2.2A. Cost-effectiveness A policy that is more effective for the same amount of money than a policy that is less effective should be a preferable option for education policymakers. However1 in education it is difficult to assess all the short-term and long-term 1 individual and societal costs and benefits of a particular policy1 as well as attribute outcomes to actual policies [23]. In the absence of cost-effectiveness analyses of the policies described in Chapter 2 1 it appears sensible to select those policies that address particular educational needs and goals, are inexpensive and fulfill some of the other selection principles outlined here. For example 1 treating teachers as professionals - fostering collaborative professional development and involving teachers in decision-making- is an effective policy that appears to be quite implementable and inexpensive to undertake. It should be noted though that a thorough analysis of the policy's implementability may reveal that this policy's success hinges on the teachers' motivation or changes in teacher mentality that1 in some cases 1 may not be so easy to achieve. However, since no selection criterion is subordinate to anyothercriterion1 there are no straightforward and foolproof decision-making guidelines that would help schools and local authorities use the criteria and prioritize policies. Prioritization and selection will largely depend on the local context. Schools are encouraged to thoroughly discuss the policies and carefully apply each outlined criterion to each policy under consideration so that the most appropriate policies are selected for implementation. Policies that are as close as possible to the ideal-that address school's need(s) in regard to educational accessibility and are politically feasible, highly implementable and effective, and relatively inexpensive- should be given the highest priority. A simplified, hypothetical example of how a school can organize its deliberations on which policy(ies) to choose to implement is given in Table 10 below. The school in question would likely select to implement one or more of the following policies: improving attendance and achievement of Roma students; developing parental engagement activities linked to learning; incorporating local content and conditions into curricula 1 learning materials and teaching practicesi and fostering collaborative professional development and involving teachers in decision-making. It should be stressed that the many nuances and complexities that will characterize an actual selection process cannot be shown in the table. Also1 it is worth mentioning that even parts of policies that appear suitable should be considered. For example 1 if central authorities do not provide free books to students{ local authorities should still consider negotiating free or reduced-price school supplies with local businesses. 68 Table 10- Selection of Education Policies Aimed at Improving Accessibility to Education- Example "'C ~ 0 .... QJ c.. J5 E , "iii , QJ J5 ] .2:! .... c: QJ > 0 .1::- "iii .... iii E QJ QJ .:!: c: "' "'C u .J1 .... u QJ c.. QJ :~ c.. )( ~ QJ QJ 0 E z a.. -= Providing school meals for all children X X X Reducing hidden Providing free access to learning materials and removing or X X X X costs to education reducing school fees Providing direct fund transfers to families Utilizing data systems to allow realistic assessment of the students who drop out or those who are at risk for dropping out Intensely intervening in the academic, social, and personal Targeting individual lives of students who are at risk of dropout students I schools at risk for dropout Undertaking comprehensive, school wide reform strategies aiming to increase the engagement of all students in school Employing a variety of effective strategies for improving the X X X X attendance and academic progress of Roma students Developing trusting and respectful relationships with parents Engaging parents Developing parental engagement activities and programs in their children's X X X X that are specifically linked to student learning learning and schools Developing the capacity of school staff to work with parents X X X Searching for, seizing and developing a variety of opportunities and concrete services that make schools useful X X X Strengthening and indispensable resources for the everyday life and needs bonds between of their communities schools and local communities Incorporating local content and conditions into curricula, learning materials and teaching practices that increase the X X X X relevance, attractiveness and usefulness of education Promoting early Expanding access and improving quality of ECEC I preschool childhood education X X and care Providing financial incentives and opportunities to teachers Collaborating with teacher education programs Requiring greater responsibility of communities in teacher Recruiting and recruitment retaining high- qua Iity teachers Mandating and financing teacher induction programs, with mentoring and professional development components Fostering collaborative professional development and X X X X X involving teachers in decision-making 3.1..2.3. Planning for Implementation/ Monitoring and Evaluation of Education Policies Implementation of the selected policies needs to be worked out in detail, as concretely and coherently as possible. Even though policies have had to be thought about and scrutinized in detail in the process of policy selection1 it is important- for proper budgeting 1 implementation 1 monitoring and evaluation- to clearly specify and describe the activities{ responsibilities of main implementers1 potential obstacles and other issues. Additionally, policies may need to be somewhat adapted to fit implementation in the local context. Monitoring of education policies that are selected for implementation by schools and municipalities should be agreed on and planned for at the outset. A monitoring timetable 1 activities and indicators should be devised. A person I team from the local authority and schools should visit and talk to implementers and stakeholders to: ascertain whether the policy is being implemented as intended; identify the obstacles that prevent the policy from being implemented as planned; examine preliminary intended and unintended effects of the policy1 and propose solutions that would improve policy implementation. All this should be documented. Monitoring reports should be produced by schools at agreed intervals. For example 1 if policies to improve parental engagement are implemented 1 then the school should document the number1 nature and quality of parent-teacher interactions1 new activities undertaken by the school to engage parents 1 acquisition and usage of learning materials for parent-student joint projects 1 and so on. Finally1 all costs associated with the policy- direct1 indirect1 and shared with beneficiaries or other entities -should be accounted for at agreed inte~Jals. After the policy implementation has been refined, an impact evaluation assesses the overall impacts of the policy - it identifies its intended and unintended, positive and negative effects. Outcomes of the policy should be identified before the policy is enacted and baseline data collected, if possible. Then 1 at agreed intervals, outcomes should be measured again to ascertain that the policy is having the desired effect. For example, for policies targeting improvement of parental engagement~ the parental satisfaction/ parental participation in school events1 interaction with students in learning activities/ and finally, student academic engagement should be measured at the beginning and at specific intervals during implementation to assess the effects of implemented policies. 3.1.2.4. Budgeting of Education Policies Education policies that improve educational accessibility need to be financed either through earmarked funding from the central authorities, rearrangement of existing funds, pro=active partnerships or external grants. Just as a variety of education policies that can improve educational accessibility exist1 so are the means of funding them varied. For example 1 provision of school meals is commonly financed by the central authorities1 as it usually requires more concerted efforts and considerable funds. On the other hand, existing funds can be utilized I rearranged to1 for example, undertake professional development of teachers in the area of parental engagement or work in multicultural environments/ as those funds may already be set aside for general professional development. Financing of some policies can also largely depend on the pro-active role of principals and local authorities1 as they can approach local businesses and organizations to acquire funds I reduce costs (e.g. for school supplies or educational visits) 1 as well as apply to a myriad of local 1 national and international grants and programs (e.g. for Roma inclusion). It is important to note that funding for policies that are initiated and developed locally should be sought out and secured by the local authorities/ regardless of where the funds may originate. The budgetforeach activity that the policy entails should be specified at the outset. The budget should account for implementation/ monitoring and evaluation activities. Budget contributors -local authorities1 central authorities1 parents1 local businesses1 NGOs, etc. -and their share of the budget should also be defined in the Action Plan. In addition, all unexpected costs 1 indirect costs or social costs should be accounted for. When resources are limited 1 needs of students from disadvantaged families should be met first. 70 3.1.3. Adoption of the Action Plan All the participants should formally accept the Action Plan. Even if the AP does not represent a legally binding document, signatures of the policy implementers should be sought so as to refiect their commitment to successfully enact the selected policies. A timeline of all the activities relating to the policies should be established at the outset. Also, scheduling of more general matters (e.g., meetings, periods allotted for providing feedback) should also be contained in the plan. 3.1.4. Closing the policy cycle Evaluation of the implemented pol ides and new needs assessment instigate the creation of a new Action Plan. After undertaking the needs assessment 1 selecting appropriate education policies1 planning ahead for implementation1 monitoring and evaluation 1 detailing the budget of the selected policies1 as well as adopting the Action Plant the implementation{ monitoring and evaluation of the polices{ ensue. Upon completion of evaluation 1 the success of the implemented policies is discussed among the stakeholders. Simultaneously, a new needs assessment is undertaken. Considering both the level of success of the implemented policies and the new profile on educational accessibility of the school(s), it is decided whether to continue 1 amend or discard each of the implemented policies 1 as well as introduce new ones. A new1 improved Action Plan is created and the cycle starts again. 71 72 4· RECOMMENDATIONS 4.1. Transportation Policy Recommendations The recommendations refer to AAP formalization, and precise definition of entitlement to transport considering student age and terrain conditions. Furthermore, they refer to the specification of the right to subsidies and their levels, and finally to issues of school bus maintenance. It is recommended as follows: (1) The first recommendation refers to formalization regarding the responsibility forTAAP drafting, the local authorities' competences thereof, supervision, updating and monitoring. Programming of student transport needs (also those of poor populations) is falls outside the unique approach related to accessibility to education and is resolved on a case-by-case basis and in a different ways/using different criteria (relating to child transportation and education). TAAP provides a unique procedure for such needs programming. The authors consider that TAAP formalization enables its drafting and later implementation by the local authorities according to a defined procedure . This may be accomplished by amending the existing education related legislation or issuing special guidelines ruling TAAP implementation. In that context, these Guidelines may serve as a basis. The TAAP is an essential document that should be developed by each municipality in order to select and implement transportation options that are of the greatest help when improving accessibility to education under local conditions. The overall monitoring and evaluation of the performance of the student transport service are the responsibility of the local school authorities, whereas the issues relating to the transportation itself are addressed by local transportation authorities. The TAAP should be implemented first of all in pilot-municipalities under the expert supervision of the Ministry of Education1 including the organization of seminars fori nstruction on how to draw up the Plan. (2)The second recommendation relates to the definition of rules determining who enjoys the right to transport, be it free of subsidized. The presented analysis (in Chapter 2 and Appendix 8.1) shows that in SEE Region countries the maximum home-to-school walking distance (so-called Acceptable Walking Distance) is usually used. Once exceeded 1 the government becomes responsible for transport provision. In such cases no attention is being paid to student age or terrain characteristics. Younger children walk more slowly than older ones1 they find it more difficult to deal with climbs1 etc. In this context1 the following is recommended: First1 and starting from concrete regulations enforced in SEE region countries/ the setting up of the following age ranges with respect to which acceptable walking distances will be determined/ is suggested: 73 • Elementary school age: • Children in the first group: aged 6112- 10, that cannot perform the trip to school without an escort, • Children in the second group: aged 11 - 14, that can perform the trip to school without an escort and • High-school age: • Children in the third group: aged 14112-18 that can perform the trip to school without an escort. • Children of all school ages: aged 6112- 18, if included in the SEN group. The group of Elementary school age children should also include pre-school age children (ages differ within the Region) in compliance with the financial possibilities of the Municipality (Figure 23). Figure 23- Transportation Service Coverage Primary school age -Children aged 6,5-10 -Children aged 11-14 -Pre-school children Secondary school age - Children aged 15-18 SEN -All age Secondly, it is suggested that the acceptable walking distance should be in accordance with children's age and terrain characteristics. As for the terrain characteristics, a classification taking into consideration terrain/landscape characteristics of the SEE Region countries has been adopted. The classification is based on the available sources of information 25 • The following matrix could be used for defining terrain characteristics according to the controlling authority: Table 11- Criteria according to Terrain Properties Prevalent terrain type at the Municipality level Criteria Plain Up to 300m above sea level Hilly Up to 300 to 8oo m above sea level Mountainous More than 8oo m above sea level 25 Law on agricultural land (Republic of Srpska -Official Gazette RS, No. 1, 2004, Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina - Official Gazette, No.1, 1998, Instructions for unique methodology of agricultural land classification into value categories, Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Water Management and Forestry, 2009, GIS land valorization for the purposes of optimal route selection- E. Ferhatbegovic, A. Avdic, N. Kikanovic, www.gis.ba/gis). 74 With respect to the above defined prevalent terrain characteristics/ when defining acceptable walking distance the following rules apply: • Distance measurement: an appropriate map (topographic map) is used and the distance is measured from home (approximate location) to school along the shortest route. • Acceptable walking distance (in one direction) is defined as shown in Figure 24. The aforementioned criteria are suggestedfor location determination in qualifying students for transportation entitlement (eligible students). Figure 24- The connection between terrain characteristics and maximum home-to-school walking distance Distance of place Height above-sea of living from TERRAIN Age educational level institution Thirdly/ distance does not represent accessibility conditions adequately/ and home-to-school walking time is to be considered. The processors believe that a more suitable solution would be to determine the maximum acceptable walking distance using a time criterion- acceptable walking time. Thereby/ the physical characteristics of children of different ages would also be taken into consideration when calculating walking speed. Of course 1 in this case the walking time should also be connected to terrain characteristics. If acceptable 1 the rules explained in Figure 25 are suggested: 75 Figure 25- The connection betw een terrain characteristics and maximum home-to-school walking time Walking time from Height above-sea place of living TERRAIN Age to educational level institution greater than: 45 mins l.0 1 5 - l.8 6o mins l.0 1 5 - l.8 6o mins Note: walking time is derived from pedestrians' walking speed -level terrain implies a walking speed of 4km/h, whereas mountainous terrain implies a walking speed of 3km/h. This speed can be adjusted to concrete ground conditions. In relation to the aforementioned criteria, an exception for SEN students applies. That exception includes students with mobility problems or other medical (mental) problems requiring special transportation conditions from/to school. These students are provided with transportation from/to school regardless of the distance/time needed. At the parents' request and upon assessment by a competent person from the school authorities based on a physician's opinion, the aforementioned may be waived. In that case, the criteria of acceptable walking distance/duration may be applied, or may be corrected using the corrective factor of o.s. Parental consent must be obtai ned for these new (calculated) values of walking distance/duration. Students having a temporary mobility problem (e.g. broken leg) also belong to the group of exceptions being referred to, as they are unable to walk to school. (3) Due to the fact that in SEE region countries different practices are being applied in terms of setting up clear criteria for definition of entitlement to free or subsidized transportation, it is suggested to define a uniform framework serving as a basis for establishing new practices supported by well-known principles. Hence, it is recommended that the entitlement to cost-free transportation should apply to the following students: • Elementary school students of all ages, and high school students belonging to financially disadvantaged families, and • Students of all ages, if they belong to the SEN group. Identification ofentitlementto cost-free transportation for students belonging to financially disadvantaged families is accomplished according to records kept by the competent authority"6 • 6 " In Serbia, the secretariats for social welfare at municipal authorities are in charge ofthese matters. The right to transportation with applicable subsidizing applies to other students, as follows: • Elementary school students are subsidized at 75o/o of the total cost of transportation service, • High school students are subsidized at soo/o of the total cost of transportation service. The values listed above should be treated as a recommended framework, and all the adjustments to concrete on the ground conditions should comply with existing economic power. Figure 26- Free transport and subvention criteria RECOMMENDED FREE SUBSIDIZED SUVBENTION TRANSPORTATION TRANSPORT LEVEL financially jeopardized Primary sc hoo I children students children with special needs (4) School bus rolling stock management is an issue that deserves special attention. Even though these buses have a dedicated use, management by local authorities allows the possibility of using them for transportation of other populations, when not engaged for transportation of students (for example organizing special tours for citizens aiming to do business in the centre of the municipality, such as that related to administration, visits to the doctor etc). Transportation organized in this way is of great significance for those municipalities/parts of municipalities with no organized public transport, and may be a part of the municipal policy on improvement of general living conditions. In addition, by charging for the transportation service an additional income would be provided that could repay one part of vehicle operating costs. As for the supply of the school buses, it should be based on a pre-study specifying the needs (number) and the bus structure. No less important is the issue of defining the following procedures: maintenance of the supplied rolling stock (upon warranty expiration) and the responsibility for rolling stock management. The Bulgarian experience could be a reference point for countries of the SEE region, although these Guidelines recognize some of their shortcomings in connection to the management and maintenance, deprecation, etc. 4.2. Education Policy Recommendations 4.2.1. Specific Education Policy Recommendations In order to select and implement education policies aimed at improving accessibility to education, certain actions are usually required of multiple stakeholders. Table 12 details the necessary actions I recommendations for schools, local authorities and central authorities, so that the specific education policies presented in Chapter 2 can be undertaken. Additional, more general recommendations spanning several education policies are given in a later section. 77 Table 12- Reccommendations for Schools, Local and Central Government aimed at Improving Access to Education RECOMMENDATIONS POLICIES LOCAL AUTHORITIES CENTRAL AUTHORITIES AND SCHOOLS Providing school meals Organize school meal provision Continue I consider financing school meals for all for all children iffunds are available. students, but particularly for low-SES students. Providing free access Partner with the local Continue I consider providing free learning materials for to learning materials community, organizations all students, but primarily for low-SES students. and removing or and businesses to provide free reducing sch oo I fees school supplies for students, free educational trips and activities (visits to museums and theaters, for example). Priority should be given to low- SES students. Providing direct fund Act as a liaison between social Consider instituting conditional cash transfers for low-SES transfers to families services, schools and parents if families in return for their children's school attendance, funds are available. without withdrawing existing social benefits . Utilizing data systems Collect data and identify Develop an Educational Management Information System to allow realistic students at risk of dropping (EM IS) for safe storage, instantaneous accessibility and assessment of the out.Askllobbyfor longitudinal analysis of data needed for monitoring of students who drop out development of an Educational both students and schools at increased risk of dropout and or those who are at risk Management Information of the implementation and effects of dropout prevention of dropping out System (EMIS). measures. Intensely intervening Undertake dropout prevention Consider organizing the curriculum so that students in the academic, social, I reduction activities described do not repeat the entire year if they are failing several and personal lives of in Chapter 2. Most appropriate classes. Consider providing mandatory courses to failing students who are at role for local authorities: Act students overt he summer to finish coursework. risk of dropout as a liaison between schools, social services, mental health services and law enforcement. Undertaking Undertake dropout prevention Increase engagement in education of secondary school comprehensive, school I reduction activities described students by providing relevant VET options and providing wide reform strategies in Chapter 2. Most appropriate better horizontal and vertical integration between VET aimed at increasing role for local authorities: Act and academic tracks within the educational system. engagement of all as a liaison between schools students in school and local businesses to provide internships for VET secondary school students and organize job fairs for them. Employing a variety of Undertake effective strategies Provide the overall policy framework for Rom a effective strategies for for Roma described in Chapter integration. Stimulate the development and attendance improving attendance 2 and Appendix 8-4- Most of professional development courses improving capacities and academic appropriate roles for local of school staff to work in multicultural environments. progression of Roma authorities: Partner with This could be accomplished either by mandating students Roma parents and community attendance of or financing relevant existing courses, or leaders, as well as with by promising to mandate or finance courses that would local NGOs, on programs be newly developed to produce those specific teacher targeting Roma involvement skills. Prevent homogenization of classrooms and schools in education. Act as a liaison by minority or SES status by abolishing unnecessary between schools, health and channeling of students into special needs classrooms and social services and Roma schools, limiting ability tracking and ensuring an even mix communities. of the student body in oversubscribed schools. Developing trusting Undertake parental and respectful engagement activities relationships with described in Chapter 2: and parents Appendix 8. 4· Most appropriate role for local authorities: Act as a liaison f organizer of activities that provide smooth transitions between schooling levels (e.g., visits of preschoolers and their parents to neighborhood schools). Developing parental Undertake parental engagement activities engagement activities and programs that are described in Chapter 2:. Most specifically linked to appropriate role for local student learning authorities: Act as a liaison between schools and local after-school or other programs to link their content to classroom teaching to reinforce student learning. Developing the Ask /lobby for the Stimulate the development that improves the capacities capacity of school staff development and attendance of school staff to work with parents. This could be to work with parents of professional development accomplished either by mandating attendance of or courses that improve the financing relevant existing courses1 or by promising capacities of school staff to to mandate or finance courses that would be newly work with parents and utilize developed to produce those specific teacher skills. already existing, relevant professional development courses. Searching for, seizing Consider undertaking activities and developing described in Chapter 2:1 as well a variety of as generate ideas of your own. opportunities and Most appropriate role for local concrete services that authorities: Act as a liaison and make schools useful information provider between and indispensable schools1 local community1 resources for the organizations and businesses. everyday life and needs of their communities Incorporating local Undertake activities described Consider formally adapting national curricula to allow content and conditions in Chapter 2:. Most appropriate some local tlexibility and increase diversity of electives. into curricula, learning role for local authorities: Act materials and teaching as a liaison and information practices that increase provider between schools1 local the relevance, community1 organizations and attractiveness and businesses. usefulness of education Expanding access Local authorities: Provide ECEC Enable f aid legal conversion of closed primary schools and improving quality I pre-school. Enable j aid legal into ECEC centers j pre-schools where needed. Consider of early childhood conversion of closed primary expanding access to pre-school education by lowering education and care schools into ECEC centers I pre- mandatory age for enrollment into preschool. Consider (ECEC) I preschool schools where needed. improving initial training of ECEC and pre-school teachers. Providing financial Local authorities: Undertake Provide financial incentives for good teachers willing incentives and activities described in Chapter 2:. to work in hard-to-staff schools if this is in line with the opportunities to established priorities of central authorities (e.g., improving teachers education of Rom a students or improving education in remote rural areas) 79 Collaborating with Undertake activities described Enable teacher training institutions to attract higher teacher education in Chapter 2. All the activities quality students by increasing the number of spaces at programs are appropriate for local teacher training institutions that are centrally financed. authorities. Induce teacher training institutions to develop courses that address educational accessibility problems (e.g. a course focusing on school-family-community partnerships). Consider inducing teacher training institutions to develop dual majors1 such as mathematics/ physics1 biology f chemistry1 history j geography in order to more smoothly absorb changes in teacher availability. Both curricular inteNentions can be done through increasing funding to teacher training institutions that adapt their curricula to produce teachers with competencies defined by Ministries. Alternatively, Ministries of education could stir curriculum development by partnering with teacher training institutions in programs such as TEMPUS, which support curricular and structural reforms in higher education. Finally1 financial incentives can be created by the central authorities for teacher training institutions to establish partnerships with local authorities f schools. Requiring greater Undertake activities described responsibility of in Chapter 2. All the activities communities in are appropriate for local teacher recruitment authorities. Mandating and Facilitate induction programs Mandate and finance induction programs with mentoring financing teacher when they are instated and professional development components. induction programs, centrally. Recruit informal with mentoring mentors to novice teachers and professional within the school if no development induction programs exist. components Ensure that novice teachers undergo professional development. Fostering collaborative Undertake activities professional described in Chapter 2. Most development and appropriate role for local involving teachers in authorities: Act as a liaison and decision-making information provider between administrators and schools. So 4.2.2. General Education Policy Recommendations for Central Authorities Additional 1 more general recommendations that are useful for multiple policies and that are under the purview of central authorities are given below. Consider providing earmarked funds to local authorities /schools to use transparently and accountably for improving accessibility to education. These funds should be used to finance concrete policies that are selected as most needed and agreed upon in the Action Plan (e.g. 1 acquiring learning materials to support parental engagement activities and programs that are specifically linked to student learning). Policies that are usually adopted at the national level (provision of school meals and provision of free learning materials) or require greater financing and involvement of central authorities and other stakeholders (mandating and financing induction programs with mentoring and professional development components) need to be funded from sources other than these earmarked funds. Earmarked funds could be distributed to those local authorities I schools that apply for funds with a prepared AP, as they are obviously willing to address their educational accessibility needs. In order to maintain equity1 however1 a portion of the earmarked funds should be reserved for the local authorities I schools that are identified as being in dire need of improving accessibility of education regardless of whether they apply for funds. The latter group should also be provided with help in developing their capacities for crafting and implementing the AP. Establish an advisory resource center at the Ministry of education in order to support schools and local authorities in their attempts to improve accessibility of education to students. This advisory resource center should be able to answer and direct inquiries from local authorities or schools on a variety of practical questions- how to apply for funds, select appropriate professional development or identify NGOs in their area. They could also provide them with additional resources- in-depth research reports or details on innovative projects in the world- as well as coordinate regular meetings I networking of local authorities in charge of education. Finally1 the advisory resource center could be in charge of establishing or utilizing a variety of venues to inform local authorities and schools of opportunities that exist for them to improve educational accessibility (see below). Provide I encourage regular meetings I networking of local authorities in charge of education so that ideas and best practices relating to educational accessibility can be shared. Utilize already established structures within the central government (e.g. Sector for School Authorities and Inspectoral and Supervision Affairs at the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Serbia) or independent networks (e.g., Standing Conference ofTowns and Municipalities (SKGO) in Serbia). At regular intervals, take stock of the impact of implemented policies documented in APs of local authorities. Identify reasons behind less and more successfully implemented policies. Work with local authorities on amending less successfully implemented policies. Promote best practices of more successfully implemented policies. Build capacities of local authorities to craft and implement the AP through training. Establish a variety of mechanisms for informing local authorities and schools about local 1 national and global programs I grants I funding sources, local NGOs, community organizations and support services available to them in order to improve accessibility to education. These mechanisms include 1 but are not limited to: websites of the Ministries of education1 web portals used by teachers{ the news section of the EMIS, regularly distributed e-mail or printed newsletters to local authorities and schools1 regional centers for professional development (such exist in Serbia1 for example) 1 and regular meetings I networking of local authorities in charge of education. Finance research on dropout causes I profiles of dropouts in specific countries1 if needed. 81 4.2.3. General Education Policy Recommendations for Local Authorities In addition to the policymtailored recommendations presented in Table 1.2, more general recommendations that are relevant for multiple policies and are under the charge of local authorities are summarized below. Ask I lobby for the specific above-mentioned recommendations to be undertaken by the central authorities1 namely: establishment of earmarked funds; establishment of an advisory resource center at the Ministry of Education; provision of regular meetings I networking of local authoritiesi building the capacities of local authorities to craft and implement the AP; and establishment of a variety of mechanisms for informing local authorities and schools about local, national and global programs I grants I funding sources1 local NG0s 1 community organizations and support services. Proactively seek and apply to local, national and global programs I grants I funding sources, local NG0s1 community organizations and available support services in order to improve accessibility to education. Urge schools to consider rearranging existing funds to finance some educational accessibility policies (e.g. utilize money for professional development through specific professional development courses that address parental engagement). Establish regular meetings/ networking of schools under the same jurisdiction so that information1 ideas and best practices relating to educational accessibility can be shared. Network with other local authorities through established structures within the central government (e.g. Sector for School Authorities and Inspectoral and Supervision Affairs at the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Serbia), independent networks (e.g. Standing Conference ofTowns and Municipalities (SKGO) in Serbia) or other means (e.g. regional centers for professional development) so that information~ ideas and best practices relating to educational accessibility can be shared. 82 5· SUSTAINABILITY 5.1. Transportation AAP Sustainability A fundamental aim of the overall effort to create the Guidelines is to come up with a sustainable solution for how to improve the availability of educational and transport services. Furthermore1 the offered suggestions/solutions encompass the overall problems of student transport. They also address the problem of students coming from socio-economically vulnerable families and those with any kind of health issues (limited mobility, disrupted development) contributing to their social inclusion. Sustainability implies the following: • Starting from the criterion of uniform accessibility1 the TAAP will be considered socially sustainable if all the students encompassed by the transport service do not spend more than two daily hours in traveling from home to school and back; • Also, the TAAP shall be socially sustainable if the organization of student transport enables commuters to participate in extracurricular and other social activities. • the system created by the local authorities can be financed from its own funds 1 without any additional help from the central level of authority. • the system does not involve any elements of social and economic discrimination/financial accessibility in compliance with the users' economic power. The TAAP will be considered socially sustainable if it offers a transparent procedure of enjoying the rights to free/subsidized transport. In that sense 1 recommendations and solutions offered by the Guidelines may be quite helpful. The Guidelines support the responsibility for provision of adequate accessibility to education by defining a transparent procedure that rules the needs and measures at the annual level 1 not only in connection with transport, but also with other issues relating to infrastructure. The fact that TAAP definition and implementation fall under the responsibility of local authorities may imply that they will strive to find suitable solutions for all relevant issues concerning transport. The circumstance implying thatTAAP drafting should be carried out by the local authorities, reinforces their responsibility for adopting sustainable solutions1 which must never jeopardize quality. Of course 1 the problem of insufficiently developed municipalities remains the outstanding issue in the countries of the SEE region 1 hence the continued need for support coming from central level authorities. 5.2. Sustainability of Education Policies To make education policies sustainable and effective in the long run1 the recommendations given in previous sections should be heeded. Several specific recommendations are particularly emphasized. Local authorities and the schools under their jurisdiction should formally agree to carry out parts of education policies that they agree are responsible. Regular monitoring and evaluation 1 as well as regular meetings to discuss the progress and plan further activities 1 should sustain the education policies selected for implementation. Consistent fmancial 1 advisory, regulatory or political support should be secured for many education policies carried out at the local level to be successful. Obtaining such help from central authorities is crucial for both the implementation and sustainability of many policies. Capacity building of both local authorities and schools should enable them to improve their skills to carry out policies successfully1 improve selfmefficacy1 maintain motivation 1 start owning the implemented policies and generate ideas for improvement. All these should work toward sustaining selected policies. Parents and students should regularly be kept informed about the initiation, progress and impact of the implemented policies, as well as surveyed about their level of satisfaction with them. They will be the best monitors of any local policies. Schools and local authorities should network with other schools and local authorities not only to share information1 ideas and best practices1 but to also acquire I maintain allegiance with the teaching profession1 participate in a wider professional discourse 1 feel appreciated and renew I maintain an impetus for improvement. 6. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Improvement of accessibility to education is a continual, long-term endeavor. Implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the aforementioned policies will undeniably uncover new and unforeseen areas where improvements will be needed. By gaining experience/ the capacities of local authorities will improve so they will be ready to tackle new1 more complex policies. TheTAAP, ortheOverall StudentTransport Plan which is how they refer to it in Great Britain, represents a document rendered by the loca I authorities covering all the issues of importance for safe, sound and sustainable accessibility to educationa I institutions. With its scope 1 this document represents an integral part of an overall local policy of improvement of accessibility to social1 educational/ health institutions for all citizens. Within the aforementioned framework/ the TAAP suggested in these Guidelines should develop1 in the future 1 into a comprehensive document addressing all the issues connected to educational institution accessibility for children. , In developed countries the way of planning accessibility to educational and transportation services is based on clear procedures. Planning at the annual level represents a part of routine practice. In the last few years, the planning scope has been broadened. Since 2oo6, the practice of Overall Student Transport Plan drafting has been initiated in Great Brita in (see reference g). This document addresses the following issues: • The issue of safewalkingfrom/tothe nearest school through the creation ofsolutionsthat stimulate such practice (with the purpose of reducing the participation of parents in student transport), especially in rural areas and smaller municipalitiesi • Stimulating bicycle use, wherever conditions are favorable, through the construction of the required infrastructure (bicycle lanes, the possibility of safe bicycle storage)i • Improving the safe student transport criterion (possibility of seat reservation for younger children, introduction of seat belts in school buses, etc.)i • Boosting transportation comfort (air conditioned buses, etc.) In education, distance learning has been steadily gaining ground worldwide. Educational institutions in the SEE region have not yet fully embraced the potential of distance learning/ so this topic was not addressed in these Guidelines as a mainstream option for improving accessibility to education. However1 to improve accessibility to education for the most remote students/ it is likely that distance learning will need to be taken up by the local authorities and schools in the near future. Distance learning- especially via interactive technology that provides classroom-! ike1 real-life and hands-on experiences -would provide a comprehensive and advanced curriculum to students and professional development opportunities to teachers [37]. However1 this venture requires access to high-speed internet connections and the resources necessarytosupportand maintain these kinds of networks. Working on providing schools and municipalities with these kinds of resources is a task fit for local and central authorities/ who could 1 for example 1 provide incentives for telecommunication companies to provide the necessary services in those areas [37]. ss 86 7· LITERATURE AND DATA SOURCES 7 .1. Transportation 1. Rural Transport Handbook1 ARTS-Actions on the Integration of Rural Transport/ a project within the fifth framework programme of the European Union- competitive and sustainable growth 1 Project coordination: ETT- Equipo de tecnicos en Transporte yTerritorio s.a (Spain) 2. SchoolTransport1 Eighth Report of Session 2003-041 Vol. 11 House of Commons1 Transport Committee/ London 2003. 3· Home to School Travel and Transport Guidance1 Department for Education and Skills (DfES)1 Nottingham/ GB 1 2007 4· Policy for home to school transport arrangements for 2009-20101 Kirklees Co unci 11 WestYorkshire 1 G B1 2009 5· Sustainable Travel Strategy/ Kirklees Council1 WestYorkshire1 GB 2007. 6. Supporting Gypsy and Traveller pupils1 Guidance and Information Pack for schools1 Kirklees School Effectiveness Service/ WestYorkshire1 GB 2005. 7· SchoolTransport Service General Policy1 Reading Borough Cou ncil1 G B1 2008. 8. SchoolTravel Plan Case Study 3 -A medium/large rural primary1 Devon Count Council1 2006. g. Primary school transport1 Herefordshire Council 1 www.herefordshire.gov.uk 10. School travel plans1 Medway Council 1 Kent1 www.medway.gov.uk 11. Travel to School Policy for Children and Young People's Service1 Bristol City Council 1 CYPS Travel Team 1 2008 12. Transport- England1 Checklist for parents1 IPSEA -Independent Parental Special Education Advice 1 www.ipsea .org.uk 13. School Green Travel Plan1 Durham High School for Girls 1 www.dhsfg.org.uk 14. Transportation and School Busing -The School Bus1 History of Pupil Transportation/ Issues in Pupil Transportation/ www.education .stateuniversity.com 15. Moreira. da Cruz1 R.O et al.1 Outsourcing rural school transportation: A Brazilian handbook for practice at the municipallevel 1 Research in Transportation Economics (2o1o)/j.retrec. 2010.07.039· 16. E. de Boer1 The Dynamics ofSchool Location and SchoolTransportation 1 Illustrated with the Dutch Town of Zwij ndrecht1 TR News 2371 March- April 2005 17. Lack of Transport blights lives of poor children in the countryside1 ATL- Association of Teacher and Lecturers Press Release/ 2008 www.atl.org.uk 18. National summary sheet on the education system in Europe and ongoing reforms - Bulgaria1 2008 Education/ European Commission 19. Osnovne karakteristike projekta Bezbednost dece u Saobracaju (The basic characteristics of the project Child Safety in Traffic1 Grad Beograda 1 Sekretarijat za saobracaj (City of Belgrade1 Department for Transportation)/ 2005 20. Obrazovanje romske dece-inkluzija ili iluzija (Education ofRoma Children -Inclusion or lllusion) 1 Vreme Beograda- dodatak1 Vreme weekly1 24/og/2oog 21. Driavni pedadgoski standard osnovnoskolskog sustava1 odgoja i obrazovanja (The State pedagogical standards for primary school system education)1 www.narodne-novine.nn.hr/clanci/ sluzbeni/2oo8_o6_212g 22. Integrating School Bus and Public Transportation Services in Non-Urbanized Communities/ TCRP Report 56 -Transit Cooperative Research Program Sponsored by The Federal Transit Administration/ Transportation Research Board 1 National Research Council1 National Academy Press1 Washington DC1 1999 23. Integrating School Bus and Public Transportation Services in Non-Urbanized Communities - Implementation Guide, TCRPWeb Document 11, Multisystems lnc. 1 Cambridge, MA and others1 1999 24· Transportation Administration Manual for School Bus Transportation and Resources, Illinois State Board of Education1 Department ofTransportation and USDoT1 September 2010 25. General Education Eligibilit~ Pupil Transportation. New York City Department of Education1 http:// schools .nyc.gov/Offices/Transportation/ParentResources/GeneraiEducationEiigibility/default.htm . Retrieved 15 December 2010. 26. School Student Transport Scheme: Eligibility Requirements, http ://www.transport.nsw.gov.au/ssts. html (updated January 191 2010) 27. Auckland Regional Transport Authority School Travel Evaluation for the 2007 school yea0 http://www. travelwise.org .nz/media/pdf/2007_STPeval .pdf 28. School Bus Facts, National Association for Pupil Transportation/ July 101 2009 (http://www.napt.org/ associ ati ons/3103/files/S BI C2007FactS heet.cmf) 29. Depolo V1 (2oo1)1 Belgrade's Public Transport System on the way towards Economic and Institutional Changes - Is a spontaneous transition possible?, 1'' International Conference on Cost Effective Infrastructure and Systems to Improve Cargo and Passenger Transport in South East Europe 1 Conference Proceedings/ South East European Transport Research Forum - SETREF1 Budapest1 Hungary October 2001 30. Web pages of the communities: Osijek-Croatia 1 Bar-Montenegro1 Zrenjanin, Pancevo1 Kovin1 Backa Topola1 all from Serbia 1 Kozaska Dubica 1 Banja Luka1 all from Bosnia and Herzegovina 31. Studijajavnog prevoza Bijeljine (Public Transport Study of the Community of Bieljina) 1 Direkcija za izgradnju Bijelj ine1 Rep ubi ika Srpska- Bosnia i Herzegovi na 1 2008 (Depolo V. 1 team member) 32. Koncepcija organizovanja i vlasnicke transformacijejavnog gradskog saobracaja u Beogradu, (Contept of restructuring of the Public Transport Enterprise of the City of Belgrade) 1 Fact is and BC Excel1 Serbia1 Belgrade 1998 (Depolo V., team member) 33· Definisanje elemenata rada gradskih i prigradskih linijajavnog prevoza putnika na podrucju Beograda (Definition of the city and suburban lines performances in the area of Belgrade City)1 JUGINS- TEAM (Transport Engineering and Management) for the City Department for Transportation of the City of Belgrade 1 Serbia1 Belgrade 2002 (Depolo V. 1 team leader) 34· Opstine u Srbiji (Communities in Serbia) 20091 Republicki zavod za statistiku (Republic Institute for Statistics)1 Belgrade 35· Saobracaj, skladistenje i veze 2008 (Transport1 Warehousing and Telecommunications 2oo8) 20101 Bulletin No5151 Republicki zavod za Statistiku (Republic Institute for Statistics)1 Belgrade 36. 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Dropout prevention. (NCEE 2008-4025). Washington, D.C.: Institute for Education Sciences. 23. Jimenez, E. & Patrinos, H. A. (2oo8). Can cost-benefit analysis guide education policy in developing countries? (Research Working Paper No. 4568). Washington, DC: The World Bank. 24. Karsten, S. (2oo6). Policies for disadvantaged children under scrutiny: the Dutch policy compared with policies in France, England, Flanders and the USA. Comparative Education, 42(2), 261-282. 25. Kline, R. (2002). A model for improving rural schools: Escuela Nueva in Colombia and Guatemala. Current Issues in Comparative Education, 2(2), 170-181. 26. Lewis, L., Parsad, B., Carey, N., Bartfai, N., Farris, E., Smerdon, B., & Green, B. (1999). Teacher quality: A report on the preparation and qualifications of public school teachers. (NCES 1999-o8o). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Available online: http://nces.ed.gov/pubs99/199908o. pdf, as cited in Hare, D. & Heap, J. (2001). Teacher recruitment and retention strategies in the Midwest: Where are they and do they work? (Policy Issue No. 8). Chicago, I L: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Retrieved from: http://www. ncrel.org/pol icy/pu bs/html/pivol8/j une2001. htm. 27. Little, A. (2001). Multigrade teaching: Towards an international research and policy agenda. lnternationa/Journal of Educational Development, 21(6), 481-497. 28. Moretti, E. (2007). Crime and the costs of criminal justice. In Belfield, C. & Levin, H. (Eds.), The price we pay: economic and social consequences of inadequate education (pp. 142-59). Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, as cited in Institute for Education Sciences. (2oo8). Dropout prevention. (NCEE 2008-4025). Washington, D.C.: Institute for Education Sciences. 29. Muennig, P. (2007). Consequences in health status and costs. In Belfield, C. & Levin, H. (Eds.), The price we pay: economic and social consequences of inadequate education (pp. 125-41). 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Chicago, IL: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Retrieved from: http://www. ncrel.org/pol icy/pu bs/html/pivol8/j une2001. htm . 33· OECD. (2010). Education at a glance. Paris, France: OECD. 34· OECD. (2010). Strong performers and successful reformers in education. (Video series). Retrieved from http://www. pea rsonfou ndation.org/oecd/china. htm I. 35· Parsons, C. (1999). Mentors strengthen community service. Chester, VT: SerVermont, as cited in Haas, T. (2ooo). Balance due: Increasing financial resources for small rural schools. (ERIC Digest). Charleston, WV: AEL. Retrieved from: http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/due.htm. 36. Oun, G. & Wanjin, M. (2007). China's new national curriculum reform: Innovation, challenges and strategies. Frontiers of education in China, 2(4), 579-604. 37· Reeves, C. (2003). Implementing the No Child Left Behind Act: Implications for rural schools and districts. Chicago, IL: NCREL. go 38. Ringold1 D.1 Orenstein1 M.A.1 & Wilkens1 E. (2005). 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(NCEE 2008-4025). Washington1 D.C.: Institute for Education Sciences. 42. Sanders1 W. L.1 & Rivers1 J. C. (1996). Cumulative and residual effects of teachers on future student academic achievement. Knoxville/ TN: UniversityofTennessee Value-Added Research and Assessment Center. 43· Schweinhart1 L. J.1 Montie1 J. 1 Xiang 1 Z. 1 Barnett1 W. S. 1 Belfield/ C. R. 1 & Nores1 M. (2004). Lifetime effects: The High/Scope Perry Preschool study through age 40. Ypsilanti1 Ml: High/Scope Press. 44· S EDL. Connecting rural school improvement and community development. Benefits1 issue No. 1. Austi n1 TX: Southwest Educational Development Laboratory. 45· Teodorovic1 J. (2011). In press. Student background factors influencing student achievement in Serbia. Educational Studies. 46. The World Bank. A review of the Bulgaria school autonomy reforms. Washington/ D.C.: The World Bank. 47· The World Bank1 From Red to Gray- The "Third Transition" of Aging Populations in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union1 (2007). Washington1 D.C.: The World Bank. 48. The World Bank. Reform of the education system in Montenegro. (2007). Washington/ D.C.: The World Bank. 49· U.S. Bureau of the Census. (2oo6). Income in 2005 by educational attainment of the population 18 years and over. Washington/ DC: U.S. Government Printing Office 1 as cited in Institute for Education Sciences. (2oo8). Dropout prevention. (NCEE 2008-4025). Washington 1 D.C.: Institute for Education Sciences. so. Walberg/ H. J. 1 & Paik 1 S. J. (2ooo). Effective educational practices. Geneva1 Switzerland: International Bureau of Education. 51. Waldfogel 1 J. 1 Garfinkel/ 1. 1 & Kelly/ B. (2007). Welfare and the costs of public assistance. In Belfield/ C. & Levi n1 H. (Eds.) 1 The price we pay: economic and social consequences of inadequate education (pp. 162- 74). Washington1 DC: The Brookings lnstitution1 as cited in Institute for Education Sciences. (2oo8). Dropout prevention. (NCEE 2008-4025). Washington/ D.C.: Institute for Education Sciences. 52. Winkler1 D.R. (2oo8). Education finance in Latin America. Sao Paulo1 Brasil and Santiago de Chile : Cieplan and iFHC. 53· Wright1 S. P.1 Horn1 S. P. 1 & Sanders1 W. L. (1997). Teacher and classroom context effects on student achievement: Implications for teacher evaluation. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education1 111 57- 67. 54· Zavod za unapredivanje obrazovanja i vaspitanja. (2010). Katalog programa stalnog strucnog usavrsavanja nastavnika/ vaspitaca/ strucnih saradnika i direktora za skolsku 2010/2011. godinu. Beograd 1 S rbija: Zavod za unapredivanje obrazovanja i vaspitanja. 91 92 8. APPENDICES 8.1. Case studies This appendix contains a review of existing practices. It is classified by regions- the experience of EU countries and the USA is commented on separately/ with a special emphasis on the experiences of the SEE Region countries. Also1 classification is done with respect to modes of transport 1 thereby simplifying the use of the Guidelines. The review fulfills the general picture presented in Item 2.". For completing the general picture 1 visits were organized to a certain number of municipalities in Bulgaria and Serbia that were chosen as representative examples of the condition of student transport. In addition to the performed visits1 the Study team conducted surveys in a number of schools in Serbia. The insights obtained from literaturef as well as the knowledge acquired during visits to Bulgaria and Serbia 1 point out that there are common denominators of the policies regarding the responsibility for transportation service provision 1 implemented practical solutions1 issues related to the definition of the coverage of children1 entitlement to free transport1 service financing as well as other issues related to transport (other modes oftransport1 issues related to the improvement of transport capacity usage and manners of transportation demand management). 8.1.1. EU countries and the USA The selection of countries in this section was driven by the available literature 1 highlighting relevant experiences. The choice 1 however1 did not influence attitude creation and 1 moreover1 some of the experiences were instructive for creating the Guidelines. Hungary1 Spain and Greece were included in the ARTS (Action on the Integration of Rural Transport Service) Projectf a part of the Fifth EU Framework Programmef dedicated to innovative transport policies in EU countries. Transporting Children Using Public Transportation in Selected EU Countries Holland" Students mainly rely on cycling. At the age oh6, some switch to mopeds. Less than 30 percent of students use PT. In larger areas1 however1 education is the most important motive for travelling by PT. Separately organized school transport is rare 1 operating mostly in rural areas striving to attract students from urban areas. A student's home municipality is responsible for providing organized transport to schools. Until recently/ children under the age of~o were entitled to support for traveling to religious schools of choice at distances exceeding 4 kilometers on "the shortest possible road"/ the equivalent of an hour's walk. PT is also preferred for children who are mentally and physically able to use it (accompanied by parents if necessary). 27 Source: Enne de Boer1 The Dynamic of Schoo! Location and Schoo!Transportation 1 TR News 2371 March -April 2005 93 Hungarj' 8 In Hungarian families that do not own a car1 children aged 6-14 use PT (bus1 train) often suffer long transfer delays between two or more services. School transportation is funded at the municipal level. The provision of home-to-school transport is regulated by the Education Act 1996 (in England and Wales1 and similar legislation in Northern Ireland) which defines a maximum walking distances of two miles for children under eight1 and three miles for older children up to the age oh61 to the nearest school3°. Children whose distance from the ,nearest suitable schools" exceeds the maximum stipulated distance1 are entitled to free transportation. The statutory distances do not distinguish between urban and rural areas1 and do not take the nature of the route into account . The current practice strictly separates the pupils entitled to free transport from those paying the full price for it1 in case they don't attend the ,nearest available suitable school". In some districts (the Kirklees district School) pupils pay half fare1 and those over 11 years of age require a Young Person's Photocard31 • Children over 8 but under 11 who come from low-income families are entitled to free transportation if they live at a distance exceeding 2 miles from the nearest available school with space in the relevant year group (Low-income families are defined as those who are entitled to free school meals or those who are receiving their maximum level of Working Tax Credit (WTC)3"). Travel support for children from low-income families (defined as above) will be extended in one of two ways: to a choice of schools within 6 miles (but more than 2 miles) of the child's home 1 or to the nearest school that is preferred due to parents' religious beliefs up to a maximum distance of 15 miles from the child's home. A child's 'home' is the place where s/ he normally resides33. Outsourcing Transportation Services to Private Providers Holland34 The transport consequences of integrating schools into larger units were not taken into consideration. The planned physical relocation is unlikely to cause changes in the choice of travel mode. Students cycle distances of up to 5 kilometers all year rou nd1 and the school journey is unlikely to exceed that distance . Moreover/ PT is insufficient and therefore is not an attractive alternative. If the journey by PT takes more than 11/ , hours1 and if the commute can be reduced to less than half the time1 special transport must be provided. If special transport must be provided for one or two children/ municipalities will assign the remaining seats to other students. Municipalities often cooperate in organizing this transport1 usually under contracts awarded after competitive bidding. The contracts1 however1 make few stipulations about quality and safety. 28 ARTS: Action on the integration of Rural Transport service, is a project within the fifth framework programme of the Eu- ropean Union- competitive and sustainable growth. The main goal of the ARTS project was to test and demonstrate the effective provision of innovative transport services in the rural environment, DEMOSTE- DEVELOPMENT, Hungary, www. rura !-transport .net 29 Extracts from the document: School Transport- Eighth Report Session 2003-04, House of Commons, Transport Commit- tee, Volume I, 31 March 2004 30 Statutory walking distance is measured along the route that a child might reasonably be expected to walk to school (ac- companied if necessary)from its home and return along at the end of the school day. 31 Sustainable Travel Strategy, Kirklees Councii-WestYorkshire, England 3" Travel to school policy for Children and Young People's Services, Bristol City Council 33 Sa me as in foot note 29 34 Source: same as in footnote 27 94 The volume of transport often precludes the use of large buses, which would take too long to collect a full load. Most special transport is provided by minibuses and taxis, which pick up the children at home. Previously, only children ages 10 and older had to be provided with a bus seat. Three children aged 4-20 could be placed on two seats, and those under the age oho did not need a seat -they could set in someone's lap. Since January 2004f every child must be provided with a bus seat and seatbelt1 which must be fastened during the ride. This has increased the cost of transport considerably, leading to the standard of 6 kilometers. The Ul(3' Most LEAs contract at least some home-to-school transport out to the private sector. Some municipalitiesj 5 currently provide transport for pupils with SEN through private contractors. In cases of several individual contracts1 varying in the size of vehicles provided each day1 centralizing this service allows the combination of contracts and therefore a reduction in the need for additional vehicles and expenditures. Even if technically roadworthyf buses used for home-to-school transport are often 20-30 years old. It is unacceptable for school children to be forced to use the oldest buses on the road". The use of private operators increases the number of vehicles available for other purposes too. To improve the safety and comfort of school buses, LEAs should specify minimum service quality standards in tenders. The specifications for buses allocated to general public use were much higher than the specifications applied by the same authority for vehicles that convey school children. Contractual specification enables introducing requirements for vehicles1 providing thereby improvements of the service. These include using only vehicles below a certain age 1 which reduces carbon emissions 1 pollution etc. All vehicles under contract pass a semestral inspection by an independent garage and are issued a certificate to demonstrate their suitability. All drivers and escorts who work under contract are to pass a Criminal Records Bureau check before they start working'"· Although LEAs are required to secure the best value when negotiating school transport contracts1 contracts are traditionally awarded to the "lowest price bidder as a poor interpretation of best value provider". Most authorities ruled out the three-for-two rule-' 9 • The shortage of companies tendering for school bus contracts meant that it was time to look at the tendering regime 1 as many authorities interpret ,best value" as "lowest cost", which is not ideal',c. Hungary'' Over the last few years1 schools in rural areas in Hungary have closed their doors and moved to larger population centers1 thus forcing parents to drive their children to school twice a day. In order to contribute to school transport development1 two regular school buses have been introduced between Kecskemet and two nearby settlements1 Matk6 and Szarkcls. School buses operate every school day in the morning and in the afternoon with a fixed schedule. The local bus company Kunsclg Volcln has been contracted for the service. The average trip is 1.1.-1.2 km and takes 1.5-20 minutes. The demonstration started in September 2002 and has proved to be a great success1 both for parents and students. j~ Same as in footnote 29 3E Same as in footnote 33 -'7 Same as in footnote 3:1 38 Same as in footnote 32 39 Regulation 5(:1) of the Public Service Vehicle (Carrying Capacity). Regulation :10984 allows three seated children under :14 to count as two passengers if seat belts are not fitted. 40 Same as in footnote 3:1 4~ Source: same as in footnote 28 95 School Bussing Spain42 School transport is well funded by the state and is contracted to local operators. In many cases school buses and mini-buses operate with significantly underused capacity. Legal issues and lack of coordination between government departments (education and transport) usually imply that only students can use school transportation services. During the 2002/2003 school year, in the region of Galicia in three municipalities in the east of the Ourense province- a very rural and sparsely populated area -13 school services served stops in 36 villages, most of them without public transport. The services encompassed all types of passengers who travel to the three main villages, arriving early in the morning and leaving in the afternoon, according to school timetables. Shopping or going to the bank, visiting the doctor, taking the bus to the outskirts or just spending the morning in the main village are activities that could be arranged thanks to these new services. This sol uti on demonstrates how to integrate regular and school transport using underused school bus capacities. Greece 43 In the South Crete region (Messara Valley) which is mainly mountainous, sparsely populated and dominated by an agricu It ural population, the students of elementary and high schools are conveyed by their parents to the nearest public transport line. Local authorities of the Messara Valley already possessed a minibus, which was mainly being used only for school trips, until they decided to use it for transport of students to school. USA 44 Student transportation, also known as school bussing, has become one of the most important segments of the American education system. It is subject to the same rules one might find in classrooms, including the dictates of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, and a host of laws and rules governing disabled or special needs pupils. The number of school children using school buses soared: • in 1950,7 million children were transported by 115,000 school buses, • in 1960, 22,625,116 children were transported by 448,307 school buses. The fifty states spent $11,746,576,005 for the 1999/2ooo school year, which included expenditures for transportation and capital cost of purchase or school bus replacement. Public school transportation approximately amounts to $500 per year per pupil. The school bus remains the safest form of land transportation. It is safer than the automobile, truck, public bus, or train. School buses are designed and manufactured specifically for the safety and protection of student passengers. The UK Some local authorities have introduced yellow buses for their free home-to-school transport as an alternative to the existing school transport contracts. The vehicles are imported from the United States. They are modified to meet UK bus and coach regulations, including those relating to seat spacing, step heights and gangway widths. The buses are high-capacity, purpose-built vehicles, thereby not involving standing during either the ride or the need for double-decker buses. They are not wheelchair accessible, with the exception of one type, which has a lift. 4" Same as in footnote 28, RUTO project. 43 Same as in footnote 28, Messara Valley project. 44 Source: http: /led ucation .stat eu niversity. com/ pages/2512/Tra nsportatio n- School-Busing. htm I g6 The other key elements of yellow bus schemes are that each bus has the same driver every day1 who has received special training, and every child has an allocated seat, as is the case in the United States. The introduction of a "yellow bus" package of measures could generate a positive modal shift away from cars 1 improve the perception of home-to-school transport and could result in improved behavior and reduced vandalism. So farf the schemes have only been used in smaller areas. Yellow school bus schemes should focus on primary school children who travel more than a mile to school. Spending £184 million ($298 million) per year to provide buses for primary school children traveling more than a mile to school would result in benefits valued at £458 million ($742 million) per year (time savings for parents who no longer have to drive their children to school and therefore decreased congestion)''~. The Yellow Bus Scheme'" provided services to around 300 West Yorkshire schools by 2006. This allowed Metro"' to order a rolling stock of new vehicles used exclusively for home-to-school transport and educational trips. Vouchers I Subsidies for Parental/ Carpool Transportation The UK Where a pupil qualifies for travel support between home/care placement and school, the nature of the support is determined by the Local Authority primarily according to the pupil's specific needs, but consideration is also given to the availability and cost efficiency of each option. These options may include: • Bus or rail pass • Reimbursement for mileage for parents/carriers • Cycling allowance (including road safety training) • Escorts for walking/public travel''· Car Share I Park and Stride is an initiative designed to encourage parents to park away from schools and walk their children the rest of the route. Where possible, a school can identify a parking area which is a short distance away (it could be a supermarket or pub car park)1 gain permission to use the facility and 'Stride' to school from there·+J. 8.1.2. Current Practice in the SEE region Croatia Pursuant to the Law on Education 1 the funding of educational institutions is provided at the state or regional/local level. Funding is carried outthrough the budgets of authorities at the aforementioned levels. Among other things1 the provided funds are aimed at student transport1 expenditures on school meals and student accommodation in boarding schools. The state level of authority provides the funds for high- school students. Students bear a part of the expenses for these services. SEN students1 regardless of their age 1 are entitled to free services. 4 ~ Same as in footnote 3:1. 46 Source: same as in footnote 3:1. '17 METRO is the title of an official transport company- WestYorkshire1 England 48 Same as in footnote 3:1. 49 Same as in footnote 3:1. 97 According to the same Law1 transportation of primary school students as well as their accommodation in boarding schools should be funded from the local/regional self-governments' budget. In compliance with the State pedagogical standards for the primary schoollevel 1 there are some definitions that could be important for this study: • accessibility should be understood as the possibility of education in primary school or other educational institutions to be provided to all primary school students within an adequate home- to-school distance and transportation connection which is suitable regarding student safetyi • wherever possible 1 authorities should provide adequate space for students who stay at school after classes. The facilities for this purpose should be at such distance that transportation is not required; • accessibility of institutions in charge of additional educational programs must be defined in such a manner that would enable their accessibility to all the inhabitants within an areai In compliance with the aforementioned standards{ it is recommended for purposes of student safety1 and referring especially to areas without PT and pedestrian paths, that student transport should be organized regardless of the home-to-school distance. The same document also deals with the time spent in home-to-school transportation/ which should not exceed 2 hours per day. Schools are obligated to provide a room for students who come to school earlier and leave school later after classes. For the purpose of rationalization/ schools could have their own bus for student transportation. Funds for implementation of Standards must be provided from the state or regional/local authorities' budgets. Bosnia and Herzegovina The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina There are differences among canton regulations ruling the walking distance 1 as the key criterion for student transportation provision (both for the primary and secondary school level). If the walking distance is in the range of 2-5 kilometers or more1 the authority responsible for education is in charge of providing student transport. There are also differences in terms of responsibility for student transport provision ranging from the local to the state level. In some cases~ it is a local responsibility whereas1 in others1 the state level of authority participates in the local budget (in the form of a subvention). Students/parents should participate in the coverage of transportation service costs. The Republic ofSrpska \Nherever PT is available and its schedule is in line with students' needs 1 it will be considered an acceptable solution. Otherwise~ the student transport service should be contracted through public procurement. The contract with a chosen operator is to be signed by the School Principal. The operator should fulfill technical requirements for the vehicle 1 whereas the drivers should be provided with lists of students under their responsibility. SEN students are entitled to transportation compensation. Compensation corresponds to the current tariffs valid in the students' places of residence. Some examples show ticket price fluctuations for equidistant rides1 depending on the operatorsc. Following discussions between local authority representatives and the service providers1 it was agreed that the final fare should be the same for the same distances1 i.e. in accordance with the distance traveled (distances up to 5 km 1 up to :10 km 1 up to 20 km 1 and more than 20 km). For high school students1 a subvention of up to 30% will be provided by local municipalities/ whereas :15% will be granted by the operator. Families with sc The case of the Kozarska Dubica community. three children will have a discount for the third child, whereas those with 4 children will be entitled to a discount price for two children (an element of social policy on the local level). Montenegro Certain facts provide a picture of student transport 5 ~: • free student transportation for both primary and secondary school students is a part of the practice1 being financed mainly through municipality subventions and operators' discounts; • timetables are adjusted to the beginning of school classes; • wherever there is PT1 it is the main mode of student transport; • In some cases1 along with PT1 special offers are available. Typical I% these are mini buses for transportation of first and second class primary school students 1 i.e. children up to the age of 8; • schools are in charge of collecting data on transportation needs. According to the collected data1 operators issue student bus passes with a student's personal photo. Serbia Student transportation is provided pursuant to the Law on Educationf and local authorities are in charge of it. Almost as a rule 1 primary school students are entitled to free transportation if their homes are at distances exceeding 4 kilometers. Secondary school students are also provided with transportation services1 but subventions for them differ from municipality to municipality. The rate of subventions ranges from 20% to 40% of the total transportation costf while some municipalities provide a ~ooo/o subvention (see Table ~3). In compliance with data shown in the tables on pages ~~7- ~23 1 and based on the results of the surveys conducted in schools located within the Uzice School District1 a review of the level of subsidies provided by the municipalities has been drafted. The table shows the price lists of studenttransportation on a monthly basis (according to the survey data) solely for the purpose of demonstrating their order of magnitude. Transportation of students is organized mostly by regular PT1 but service financing is subject to negotiation between local authorities and service providers. There is also contracted service, mostly with private operators. The main problem with PT is the lack of coordination between their timetables and school activities. In some municipalities/ special incentives are recognized regarding service provision. In those cases1 free 1 or significantly subsidized transportation is available for those students who are continuing their education in local secondary schools/who choose one of the education profiles important for the local economy. A review ofthe following data is given hereafter: • Data on student transport/ systematized by different Serbian municipalities/ collected either from websites or statistical sources. These data include general information about the municipalities (area1 population1 etc.) 1 information on general accessibility conditions (road network conditions) 1 and finally/ information on student transport (including information collected from official municipal websites1 as well as the data obtained through interviews in a selected group of municipalities belonging to the educational districts ofUzice and Cacak). • In order to round off the picture of student transport conditions1 a survey of school management was conducted in a certain number of schools. The survey printed form as well as the results thereof are summarized in the tables below. s~ Bar Municipality 99 Table 13- Level of Subsidies Granted to Students in Serbia Transport Price Level ofTransport Costs Covered Municipality/Region RSD/month EUR/month by the Minicipality Vojvodina 20-40% depending on socioeconomic status of the family; Novi Becejl Srednjobanatski 30% for high school students n.a. District attending school within the municipal territory; so% if the route exceeds 6okm. 1oo% if students attend a school within the municipal territory; Apatin IZapadnobacki depending on the socioeconomic n.a. District status oft he family, if students attend a school out of the minicipal territory. 1oo% for elementary school Zrenjanin I Srednjobanatski students whose place of residence is n.a. District located at distance exceeding 4 km from the school. 1oo% for elementary and high school students who come to the Nova Crnja I Srednjobanatski n.a. minicipal center from Toba village; District 1oo% for students from the families who are social welfare beneficiaries. 100% for elementary and high school students attending school Secanj I Srednjobanatski within the municipal territory; n.a. District depending on socioeconomic status if they attend schools out of the municipal territory. all transport tickets amountig more Zitiste I Srednjobacki District n.a. than 4.200 RSD. Kovin I Juznobanatski District n.a. so% of monthly ticket price. Central Serbia Elementary school: Elementary school: so% for elementary school students; 2.7s2; high school: 26; high school: 28,6o so-100% for high school students. 3.ooo in minicipal in minicipal transport, Pozega IZiatiborski District transport, and 4.ooo- and 30,10-7o,so 7.ooo in inter-municipal in inter-municipal transport, depending transport, depending on direction on direction 2.700 in contracted 2s.7o in contracted 2s% for elementary school students; transport; 2.ooo- transport; 19-38.10 in so-100% for students from socially 4.ooo in contracted contracted transport; vulnerable families. Prijepolje I Zlatiborski District transport; 2.ooo-3.700 19-3s.23 in inter- in inter-municipal municipal transport, transport, depending depending on on direction direction Source of information: website of municipalities in Vojvodina and the tables on pages 111-116 Note: The EURIRSD exchange rate for 2010 was 1os RSDIEUR (website of the National Bank of Serbia) Data referred to in the following table are derived from Serbian national statistics and web presentations of the selected communities. 100 Table 14- Region ofVojvodina examples "";' OJ c ., "' • OJ ., "' c 'IV >--::;- " iii.-. "' 2 Cl c "' 2 .2 E OJ · - ~t; :::l ls " .~ .,. E ~~~~ c- o,§_ -· E.-. " ~ c ., . O_c Vl "' c "' 273 11.058 40,51 1.843 70 100 14 100 . network; Community authorities subsidize transportation costs and the z 0 ·c: transporter offers a discount on the . -o full basic cost of transportation; Ill Vi Secondary school students are en tit led to free transportation depending on their family social/ economic status. . Primary school students (140- 150 students) are entitled to free ~ u . transportation; Secondary school students (134 ·.::: students) are entitled to free .... .!!! transportation if they are students of 0 ·~-"" c "' u Ill Vl .... "' c 523 14-530 27,78 1.320,9 82 100 20 100 . schools located in Secanj; Out of a total of 338 secondary school students who travel to the Zrenjanin l/1 _c "' 0 community (neighboring community), ·c: the transportation cost is subsidized -o Ill for12o oft hem, in accordance with ~ . their family social/economic status. Monthly tickets for secondary school students are valid on weekdays, without limits. ti ·.::: . The municipality subsidizes all tl monthly tickets for students whose 0 ticket price exceeds 4,200 RSD, plus, QJ:.2 there are 20 students who are entitled .... Vl "' . Vl .... ·- -~ c 525 19-307 34,84 1.525,6 130 93,1 36 75 to free transportation; N_2l Due to scattered, distant settlements, Ill ·c: there are 105 remote classes of 10 -o primary schools and therefore, almost !l! \:0- go% of the teachers travel; ti ·.::: .... Vl . Secondary school students have 0 seasonal tickets that are valid for c:.2 regional bus transportation; .> ~ 730 36.214 49,61 3.621,4 111 100 43 100 • According to certain criteria, ~0 "' c 48 students are entitled to free "' _c 0 transportation and 202 students have c N :::> a so% discount on the ticket price; ~ Note: Local roads form part of the state roads, i.e. they are included in the total length of the state roads. 102 Central Serbia The tabulated data result from a visit made by the Study team to municipalities in Western Serbia that are under the Uzice and Cacak Regional Authorities, November 2010. Table 15 -Central Serbia- examples • Regular public service is used for student transport; • The operator's time schedule doesn't meet students' needs; • There are students who walk up to 7 kilometers to the nearest school/bus stop; • Schools collect data on student travelers and provide this information to the community authorities, who are responsible for service procurement; 249 85,5 146 77,4 Other school related issues: • There are 2 central primary schools, with 10 multi-grades each in rural areas • One Roma assistant in the Petar Lekovic school • No organized nor paid transportation for students with disabilities • In a case of longer absences from school due to health issues there is the possibility for students to have teachers visit them at home or the healthcare institution • There are severa I types of services in practice: -contracted service, -regular public transport service, -parent transportation (but some students also walk to school); • As for the contracted service, mini- buses are in use along three routes. This kind of service has been assessed as a rei ia ble one; • The public line has a circular scheme with one morning and one afternoon departure; • Schools collect data on student travelers and provide this information to the municipal authorities, who are responsible for service procurement; 12.729 • There is a compensation for trips made by private (parents') cars providing they transport three or more students. The compensation is based on the total length oft rips in one month and fuel consumption per 100 kilometers Other school related issues: • There are 2 central primary schools, one in Kosjeric, another 17km from the center of the municipality; • Central schools work on a two shift schedule, whereas the remote ones work on one shift schedule; • Central schools don't have canteens, whereas the remote ones do; • Students with disabilities are transported by taxi service, paid for by the local government. 103 • Transportation of student travelers is performed mainly by PT. Contracted bus service is also in practice; • The time schedule of PT is not in accordance with the school schedule; tJ • The average distance is 9-10 km, and travel time .9l, -~ depends on road quality (10-20 minutes per direction); 0(5 • The cost oftransportation service is partially covered by -~ ·.::: _8 827 39·S4° 47,81 494, 2S 434 S2,3 292 46,2 the municipality: so% for primary school students; 30% a..·.;:; for high school students; "' G. Other school related issues: • There are 8 central primary schools, 2S multi-grades in rural areas with 228 students; • Lack of qualified arts teachers. • There are 830 student travelers, out of which 433 are from primary schools and 397from high schools; • Transportation service is contracted through public procurement (pursuant to Serbian legislation). Service is contracted exclusively for sch oo I trans port purposes. Service is organized in full accordance with school schedules; • Primary school students cover so% oft he total service cost; the rest is covered by community subventions (2o%) and the operator's discount (30%). Secondary school students cover 6o% ofthetotal service cost; the rest is covered by the community (1s%), and provider discount (2s%); • Free service is granted to students whose parents/ guardians are entitled to unemployment benefits according to local regulations. It is also granted to disabled students (accompanied by an escort); students who belong to refugee families at the proposal of the School Principal following local regulations; students whoarethethird, forth, etc. child in the family; students u tJ ·.::: without one parent and students whose parents are "' 6 t\ voluntary blood donors; c ~ 0 • According to local regulations on student transport, the ~:g 836 45-167 S4, 03 716,94 S10 82,2 282 68,8 communitytransfersfundsto schools, upon being issued ·- ·::; ·c 0 0 1..9~ ro . an invoice on a monthly basis. . • Other school related issues: • Primary school "lvo Andric", Pranjani settlement: • The school area covers 1/3 oft he community area and encompasses three 8'h-grade remote classes and six 4th _ grade remote classes; • The school catchment is very large; it stretches for 6o kilometers; • Students who live in the most distant parts have to walk up to 12 kilometers to the nearest school/bus stop; • School has and accredited program uZnacaj skole za odrzivi demografski razvoj"- a program for professional development of school teachers. • The primary school "Takovski ustanak", Takovo, includes the central school and 17 remote classes with the total number of students being 220; • Transportation to the central school and remote classes is organized by contracted service and 40% of students use this service; • The longest traveling distance is 17 kilometers/3ominutes; 104 • There are several modes of student transportation: • public transportation, • transportation organized by parents and t • walking. c 0 :~ • For transportation services, the Community contracts a "'·- u..::.:. provider operating along the regular local networki .... 454 22-426 49t39 622,94 286 78,o 184 75,0 ::J _J"> • The transportation schedule is not in accordance with ~ school schedulesi student tardiness is quite frequenti 0 :2: • The longest traveling distance is 20 kilometers/40 minutesi • During the 2010/11 school year there were 440 students travelers. • About go% oftransportation needs is covered by contracted transport, whereas about 10% is covered by public (regular) service. Where there are no conditions for organized transportation service, studentswalki .... .... • Transportation along congested routes is covered by ·;::: .... Vl buses with 50 seats, whereas mini-buses operate along "' .!::! ·2~ 0 less busy ro utesi 1.ogo 33-466 30,70 682,g8 4°4 62,1 177 4 2,4 • The transportation time schedule generally is not in 2 u "' ·;:; accordance with the school schedulei student tardiness is "' 0 quite frequenti ~ • The longest distance for student travelers is 15 kilometers in each directioni • Schools are in charge of data provision for the purpose of assessing the number of student travelers (for distances exceeding 4 kilometers)i ti ·;::: .c .11! iJO • About so% of student transportation is covered by the ~.:.52 public transportation service (main provider), while the 636 115-918 182,26 1. 99 8, 59 498 78,5 347 6g,2 "' .... .... ·- remaining so% is covered by contracted operatorsi u"' > ~ • The maximum distance students travel is 40 minutesi 0 :2: 105 In addition to visits, the Study team conducted a survey in the schools of the Uzice school district. The questionnaire and survey results are in the appendix. SCHOOL TRAVEL QUESTIONNAIRE .. I"1ty: ... ............................................................ . M un1c1pa School name: Place: Total number of students: Number of shifts: ................. Shift starts at: • First: • Second: ' 1. How many students walk to' .. • the nearest school' ... ········· · ... • the nearest bus stop of regular public transport' .......... ....... 2. How many students travel to • from a village to the nearest school7 .......... ... .. school.. • from a village to the school in the community center' ... ········· ·.. 3· Please provide the number of • 1-4 grade ·········· ... ... students according to school • s-Bgrade ..... .... ... ... grades • secondary school ........ . .. .... 4· Is the regular Public Transport (PT) used for student transportation 7 • lfthe answer is yes, please state the number of lines' .......... ....... 5· Is the timetable in PT in • If not, what is the estimated waiting time for acceptable accordance with school shifts7 transport on the line (in minutes)' ........ .. . .. .. 6. Do you have contracted transportation for students7 " • If yes, on how many lines7 ........ .. . .. .. 7· Do pre-school studentstravel 7 • If yes, how many children do7 8. What is the longest travel ......... (min.) distance' • Provide length (in km) or duration (in minutes) or both (km) g. How much does the monthly ticket • Primary school .......... ....... in PT cost for students oP. • Secondary school ... . .. ....... 10. To what extent do parents cover • Primary school . ..... ...... % transportation costs' • Secondary school . ....... ...... % 11. Do community authorities cover transportation expenditures for • lfthe answer is yes, what percentage of the cost does the community cover7 ..... .. . ...... % socially marginalized families' 12. What is the monthly price for contracted transportation service • Please state the monthly transportation price . .......... . .. .. per student' (in RSD) • Could this solution be acceptable as an alternative to the contracted service7 ..... .. ...... . .. .. 13. Will there be any possibilities for • Which of the given reasons is the most important one- name at least two: (regularity of the service, safety, comfort, schoo I bus purchase7 enabling students to take part in after-school activities) ..... .... ... ... • Is it acceptable for the school to cover all school bus costs (driver, regular cost, depreciation, etc.)7 ..... .... ... ... Applies to children who walk to the nearest school for up to 4 kilometers ** The contracted transportation involves a special arrangement with the provider for exclusive transport of students and/or pre-school children. 106 This questionnaire is to be used for the project "Access to Educational and Transportation Services for Poor Children of South-Eastern Europe- Practical Guide for Local Authorities and Users in the Field ofTransport and Education", which is initiated by the World Bank- Serbia Country Office in Belgrade. Through your participation you will help us collect all the relevant information needed for defining a possible solution. The Study Team of the Project thank you for your collaboration. 107 SURVEY RESULTS- CONTINUE Table 16- Serbia SCHOOL DATA Name PS "Svetozar Markovic" PS "Emilija Ostojic" PS "Petar Lekovic" Village/city/ Municipality Broda revo/Prij epolj e Pozega/Pozega Pozega/Pozega Number of shifts 1 2 2 First shift starts at: B:oo 7:00/7:30 7:30 Second shift starts at: 12:30/13:30 13:30 Total number of students 527 1.000 1.262 How many students walk? 172 1.000 446 to the nearest school 172 906 425 to the nearest bus stop 94 21 How rna ny students t rave I? 251 94 197 from village to the nearest school 251 12 197 from village to the school in the 82 community center Please quote number of students 251 94 204 according to school level 1-4grade 115 14 7 5-Bgrade 136 So 197 secondary school level Is regular PT is used for students No Yes Yes transportation? How many lines are used for 6 5 students travelers' Is time table in PT in accordance No answer In accordance with school shifts? Do you have contracted Yes No Yes transportation for students? On how many directions' 5 108 Do pre-school students travel? Yes No answer No avaliable How many' 6 inforamtion Which is the longest travel distance? In minutes 40 In Kilometers 1S 10 24 How much is monthly ticket? for primary sc hoo Istudents 2.S72 for secondary school students To what extent do parents covertransportration cost? for primary sc hoo Istudents 2S% 30% so% for secondary school students Does community authority cover transportation exependituresfor Yes No answer Yes socially marginalized families? If yes, what is the coverage so% 100% percentage' What is the monthly price of contracted transportation service 2.700 2.310 perstudent?(in RSD) Will there be any posibiltyfor school bus purchase this solution could be acceptable as the alternative to the contracted Yes Yes Yes service Which of the quoted reasons is the most important one- quote at least two: regularity of service - + + safety + + + comfort + enabling students to taje part in the + + after school activities Is it acceptable for school to Yes, ifit isafordable cover all school bus costs (driver, No Yes for school budget regular cost, depreciation, etc.)? 109 SCHOOL DATA Agricultural SC PS "Dusan Name TchnicalSC GS "Sveti Sava" "Ljubo Micic" Tomasevic" Velika Zupa/ Village/city 1Municipality Pozega/Pozega Pozega/Pozega Pozega/Pozega PrijepoUe Number of shifts 2 2 2 2 First shift starts at: 7:00 7:00 7:20 7'3° Second shift starts at: 13'00 13:00 13:20 13:00 Total number of students 603 448 400 202 How many students walk? 485 to the nearest school to the nearest bus stop 485 How many students travel? 391 from village to the nearest school 39 1 from village to the school in the community center Please quote number of students 391 300 202 according to school level 1-4grade 81 s-8grade 121 secondary school level 391 112 300 Is regular PT is used for students Yes Yes Yes transportation? How many lines are used for students 6 3 1 travelers' Is time table in PT in accordance At acceptable Yes No answer No answer with school shifts? level Do you have contracted Yes Yes Yes Yes transportation for students? On how many directions' 2 3 3 1 Do pre-school students travel? No answer How many' 110 Which is the longest travel distance? In minutes 70 up to 20 50 In Kilometers 45 up to 30 40 10 How much is monthly ticket? for pri rna ry sc hoo Istudents direction Uzice: 4ooo; Direction for secondary school students 3000 at avregae lvanjica: s.6oo; direction: Kosijeric: 7-400 To what extent do parents covertransportration cost? for pri rna ry sc hoo Istudents so% for secondary school students 100% 100% so% Does community authority cover For 4-5 students transportation exependituresfor cost is covered No Yes Yes socially marginalized families? by school If yes, what is the coverage so% so% percentage' direction Uzice: What is the monthly price of 2ooo; Direction from 3.5ooto contracted transportation service 2000 lvanjica: 2.8oo; 400 per student? (in RSD) 4-000 direction: Kosijeric: 3.700 Will there be any posibiltyfor school bus purchase this solution could be acceptable as the alternative to the contracted Yes Yes Yes No answer service Which of the quoted reasons is the most important one- quote at least two: regularity of service + + safety + + + comfort + enabling students to taje part in the + after school activities Is it acceptable for school to cover In the students all school bus costs (driver, regular No No interest, Yes cost, depreciation, etc.)? 111 Bulgaria General data on student transport, collected by the Ministry of Education, are as follows: • Transportation for students and teachers is provided by the Central Government1 regardless of which mode of transport is in use (regular PTf contracted transport1 special school buses); • Free transportation is provided for students whose schools are closed; • The data base on transportation demand volume is updated three times during one school yeari • Data base updating is carried out by school headmastersi • Pre-school children are included in the transportation scheme, starting atthe age of 5- Collected data are transferred to the Ministry for the purpose of calculating the funds needed; • The funds are transferred to schools three times a yeari • Expenditures for transportation are calculated on the basis of distance and number of students. The tabulated data result from a visit made by the Study team to communities in Bulgaria, November 201.0. The difference between the table formats of the Serbian and Bulgarian reviews is due to different data obtained from the available sources. The state road quality data for the municipalities in Bulgaria were not at our disposal 1 hence the aspect of availability was not tabulated. 112 Table 17- Bulgaria Oil -;a ..c ~ .... Ill c ~ .:c "' "' Cl ."' ~ v 0 ·.;:; 0 0 >- .5 .1::! ... ,...!!! o::: "' "' lll..c Ill .... ~s "' 0 o;::, "' ... ... 0 "' ~ o c 'E - z "' c < ,- ~ E o';:t Q...£, - ..c ~ ~ 0 .... QJ en • Three schools have their own buses+ 0 > ':Q contracted transportation service; t ·c • Travel distance is the key criterion for t: 1 town transport. The longest distance takes one i:5 866/2.193,2 23.509/8.230 27,15/3,75 and 37 413 hour of travel time; 10 <+= villages • There is a discount on the total monthly 0 ~ bus pass price along existing public bus QJ en lines. Unit fare is calculated on the basis 0 of kilometers traveled. > l/1 ~ • There is contracted transportation for 2 ..<::: students with one private operator; "' QJ Q_ • All departures from villages are ~ ti coordinated with the beginning of school ·.::: activities; t: i:5 1 town • Transportation for students who live the ~ 174,72/9.024,5 23-990/13-302 137,31/1,47 and 2 town of Peshtera is also coordinated with N 5-344 "E villages the beginning of school activities. There 10 N 10 are three tours per day; Q_ • The contract with the operator is signed ~ bytheschool headmaster; .... QJ ..<::: • The contract with the operator is made on "' QJ Q_ a yearly basis; • The municipality has 3 buses. Transportation is organized for all students who need it. Buses also transport children to kindergarten. The municipality has 3 drivers and each tour is supervised by one teacher. Buses have 32 places; • The municipality manages and -"" organizes transport in order to eliminate "' > 0 competition between schools (to attract -"" 10 students). The initial timetable was ~ provided by a specialist. The municipality t introduced gradual beginning of classes :~ 1 town (7'451 8:oo and 8:15); 0 -~ 264/9-799,9 29.026/15-526 109,95/1,58 and 6 2.250 • Student data -travelers are collected -g villages through special paper forms completed _Q by parents, one month before the ~ >- beginning of the school year. That is -"" "' > how schools gain a clear insight into the 0 attend a nee of classes; -"" 10 a:: Before the introduction of school buses, the municipality had contracted service, but they abandoned it mainly due to the high price of service, low quality of buses (without air conditioning, safety measures, etc), lack of available seats (the operator used the same bus for the general public), etc. 113 8.2. Approximate Value of the Annual Expenditure Calculation Method for Service Contracting When analyzing the budget allocated to studenttransport, as described in Item 3.1.2.4. of these Guidelines, practical examples can be used 1 if available. Tables 18 and 19 systematize the data on public transport in Serbia in 2008 by municipality (most recently published data). The choice of municipalities is made in such a way that it represents qualities of the public transport network (according to level of development), performed transport operation (vehicle kilometers) and produced financial indicators. The currency conversion of income into euros is made on the basis of the dinar average exchange rate for 2008 (website of National Bank of Serbia). The second approach refers to estimates of vehicle kilometer prices given hereafter1 which are provided for the purpose of applying the simplified procedure of student contracted transport budget calculation (Figure 1.9). The calculations are primarily intended for professionals from local administrations (in charge of traffic), and they should help when estimating the necessary budget for student transport. It was considered that the most suitable solution would imply reviewing the calculation results graphically. For those purposes1 a calculation was completed taking in the following elements: • Minibus purchase price -€1.401 0001 and bus purchase price €280 1 ooo; • Depreciation rate -7% • Net employee income amounting to €3501 that is, €5001 with a coefficient of calculation into gross income that includes employers' obligations -1..52096 52 • Vehicle maintenance costs -1.0% of vehicle purchasing priceSJ • Costs of insurance 1 vehicle registration1 etc.- €1.1 ooo /vehicle • Lump sum for unforeseen expenditures- 5% of vehicle purchasing price 54 • Specific fuel consumption: for minibuses- 0.23 1/km, for buses- o.2sl/km. • Average price per 1 liter of diesel fuel - n.13", highlighting that each percent of fuel price increases the vehicle- kilometer price by o.6go/o (monthly salary amounting to €350), that is, by o.61o/o (monthly salary amounting to €500). Diagrams 1. and 2 are drawn up separately for minibuses and buses for two different salary levels of employees: €350 and €500. Table 1.9 demonstrates that the average operator's line length 1 operating along a network of up to 9ookm (the average network length is 427km) amounts to 44.28km, whereas the average operator's line length operating along a network of up to 35okm (the average network length is of 191km) amounts to 21.02km. Starting from this fact, and taking into consideration that most of the municipalities in Serbia are within the following domain, the recommended area is 20- 40 kilometers of average length 1 corresponding to the annual route of a single vehicle ranging from 25,ooo to 501 ooo kilometers, within which the vehicle kilometer price should be chosen. If necessary/ the analyst can also calculate the vehicle kilometer price for some other situation/other potential operator using the same simplified procedure 1 adjusting 1 however1 his/her calculation/diagrams to the input change. ~ 2 These data refer to current taxes and contributions prescribed in Serbia. For other countries of the Region these data were not available. s.> Sources: (:1) Study of Public Transport of Bijeijina1 Republic of Srpska1 Bosnia and Herzegovina1 (2) The Concept of Organiz- ing and Transformation of Ownership of Belgrade Urban Public Transport1 (3) Definition of Elements of Urban and Subur- ban Public Transport Lines in Belgrade. ~ 4 Sources the same as in 2 ~~ The average euro-diesel price is calculated on the basis of data on the average price of this fuel in Serbia, Croatia 1 Monte- negro, Macedonia, Bulgaria and Romania (:1.:13 €/I). 114 Table 18- Review of Produced Major Effects of Public Transport in Serbia in 2008 < > Note: the municipality is included in this category in order to increase data quantity. 1 115 Table 19- Network Length and Average Line Length No of vehicles Municipality/Area Network Length Number Average line in operation Type/Network Type (in km) of lines lenght (km) (year average) Plan and Hilly terrain- Central Serbia Extensive Networks Vranje 1.378 62 55 25,05 Pozarevac 2.020 58 go 22,44 KraUevo 1.284 49 61 21,05 CaCak 1.685 62 51 33, 04 Average 1.5g2 57.75 64,25 25.40 Networks up to goo km Bajna Basta 58o 14 21 27,62 Zajecar 813 6 9 90,33 Leskovac 595 49 40 14,88 Average 663 23,00 23.33 44,28 Networks up to 350 km VaUevo 138 16 14 g,86 Pozega 207 8 17 12,18 Krusevac 253 83 24 10,54 Parae in 339 34 26 13,04 Average 234 35. 25 20,25 11,40 Mountainous Extensive Networks Raska 1.352 13 50 27,04 Networks up to 350 km NovaVaros 290 10 13 22,31 Uzice 269 14 10 26,go Arilje 129 2 3 43,00 Kosjeric 76 1 2 38,oo Average 1g1 6,75 7,oo 32.55 Plain - Vojvodina Extensive Networks Backa Palanka 2.604 19 28 93,00 Vrbas 1-459 14 9 162,11 Stara Pazova 1.245 38 11 113,18 Average 1.76g 23,67 16,oo 122,76 Networks up to 350 km Sremska Mitrovica (1) 408 13 18 22,67 lndjija 317 24 16 19,81 Sombor 327 15 22 14,86 Average 351 17.33 18,67 1g,11 Extensive NetworksAverage 1,571 31,47 43,42 58,40 Average of Networks up to goo km 427 23,00 23,33 44,28 Average of Networks up to 350 km 191 19,78 15,31 21,01 116 Figure 27- Bus/minibus vehicle kilometer price in cases where the driver's net salary amounts to €350 g1 oo 8 1 oo 7/00 61 00 E ~ _c 5/00 (!) > '+- 0 - Minibus +-' 4/00 lll 0 - Bus u 3/00 2/00 1/00 0/00 Kms/year 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Li1 0 Ln 0 Li1 0 Li1 0 0 ci 0 rl rl 1'1 1'1 M M ~ ~ Ln <.D co " Figure 28- Bus/minibus vehicle kilometer price in cases where the driver's net salary amounts to €500 9/00 8 1 oo 7/00 6 1 oo - ~ > E _c (!) '+- 5/00 0 - Bus 4/00 ~ 0 - Minibus u 3/00 2/00 1/31 1/00 0 1 84 0/00 Kms/year 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ~ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Li1 0 Ln 0 Li1 0 Li1 0 0 ci 0 rl rl 1'1 1'1 M M ~ ~ Ln <.D co " 117 Example 1: Calculation of Required Funds for Contracting a Single Line Input data (1): Line length (km): 10 Number of students/day 125 Number of students in the first shift Gs Number of students in the second shift Go Based on the fact that the transportation service is performed in two shifts, the conclusion is that a vehicle will perform two tours daily, consisting of going to the starting point and returning to the end point- the school. This further means that the vehicle will be covering a daily distance equal to 4 line lengths. According to the algorithm in Picture 19, Daily Mileage =Line Length x 4 = 10 x 4 = 40 km Estimated funds required for contracting transportation will amount to: Input data (2): • The transport volume per tour will require a bus-type vehicle. • The average salary of the operator's employed personnel amounts to €350/month In Diagram 27 we are choosing the vehicle kilometer value for an annual mileage of 4o,ooo km (or higher, depending on the average market conditions for which the statistical data given as ani llustration in Table 18 could be used). The corresponding value for the given annual mileage and vehicle type is €2.27. Hence, the funds required for bus engagement will amount to: Annual volume of funds= daily mileage x statistical number of days x vehicle kilometer price = 40 X 295.67 X 2.27 = €26,846.84 Narrowed down to a single student, the annual expenditure will amount to €214.77, that is monthly- 214-77/10= €21.48 Using the same procedure, we can calculate the volume of annual funds involving an employee salary of €500. 118 Example 2: Calculation of Required Funds for School Bus Operation Input data (1): Line length (km): Number of students/day Number of students in the first shift 30 Number of students in the second shift 32 Based on the fact that the transportation service is performed in two shifts1 the conclusion is that a vehicle will perform two tours daily consisting of going to the starting point and turning to the end point -the school. This further means that the vehicle will be covering a daily distance equal to 4 line lengths. According to the algorithm in Picture 191 Daily Mileage= Line Length x 4 = 15 x 4 =Go km Estimated funds required for contracting transportation will amount to: Input data (2): • The transport volume per tour will require a minibus-type vehicle. • The average salary of the operator's employed personnel amounts to €350 /month Za razliku od prethodnog primera1 ovde smo izabrali godisnju kilometrazu tipicnu za skolski prevoz koja varira izmedu 24.000 i 35.oookm i zakljucili dace nam godisnja kilometraza u ovom primeru iznositi 3o.oookm. Odgovarajuca vrednost za datu godisnju kilometrazu i vrstu vozila iznosi 11 71 €. Hence1 the funds required for minibus engagement will amount to: Annual volume of funds= daily mileage x statistical number of days x vehicle kilometer price = Go x 295.G7 x 1.71 =€301 335·74 Narrowed down to a single student, the annual expenditure will amount to €489.291 that is monthly- 489.29/10= €48·93· 119 8.3. Forms Form 1: Application for home-to-school transport support SCHOOL TRANSPORTATION APPLICATION FORM ( SCHOOL AUTHORITY OF THE COMMUNITY OF: ................................................................ ) SECTION 1: STUDENTS' DATA ( Name: ............. ... . ...... . .... ... .... ) ( Surname: ) ( M ) ( F ) ( Data of birth: ..... ) ( Class: .... ) Scool for which application is submitted: SECTION 2: PARENTS'/GUARDIANS' DATA ( Name: ..... ... .... ... ...... ..... ....... ... .... ... .... ... .... ) ( Surname: ..... ..... ....... ....... ... .... ... ....... ..... . .. ) l [ Addeo% ...................... . Place: ...................... . Street/home number: How long do you live at this a dress? Years: Months: .... ....... . . ( Telephone: ) ( Mobile: .... ... .... ... .... ... . . .. ... .... ... . .. ) SECTION 3: PARENTS'/ ( Socal aid beneficiary: YES NO GUARDIANS' SOCIAL STATUS J Attachment: (social institution document) ( Attachd? YES NO ) SECTION 4: Name and surname (printed letters): DATA APPROVAL Signature: .... ........... ....... ...... ....... ..... . Date: To be filled by school service: Home/school destination (m): ~ Eligibilty code: ~ Distance assesed by: ~ Date: ~ Eligibility codes: Eligable for: free primary school transport ................ ........ ....... ............ code 1 free secondary school transport .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... code 2 subsidized primary school transport: ......... code 3 subsidized secondary school transport: ... .............. code 4 120 Form 2: Transportation needs form TRANSPORTATION NEEDS FORM FOR SCHOOL ( SCHOOL AUTHORITY OF THE COMMUNITY OF: ................................................................ ) Number of students for: Village free transportation subvented transportation TOTAL SCHOOL HEADMASTER APPROVAL DATE: ........................................... .. School headmaster (name and surname): ........................................ .. Signature: . . . .............................. ............................. ............... ........... (seal) 121 Form 3: Irregularity report form IRREGULARITY REPORT FORM ( SCHOOL AUTHORITY OF THE COMMUNITY OF: ...............................................................) TYPE OF IRREGULARITY: 1.. Students are late due to time table changes: (..,._ _ _ _ _.,) 2. Absence oftransportation: (..,._ _ _ _ _,) 3· Unclean bus: (..,._ _ _ _ _.,) 4· Nonventilated cabine: (..,._ _ _ _ _ .,J s. Faulty seats: (......__ _ _ _.,) 6. Bus driver's inappropriate behaviour: (_ _ _ _ _ _) 7· Escort person is inappropriate behaviour: ( ) (to be filed in case of contracted service _ _ _ _ _ _.,_ ..,. and school bus) 122 8.4. Additional Information on Select Education Policies Employing a variety of effective strategies for improving attendance and academic progression of Roma students. The following points summarize effective practices for Roma participation in education [38]: 1.) involving Roma in the design{ implementation 1 and evaluation of programs targeting their involvement in education; 2) encouraging involvement of Roma parents by bringing parents into the classroom as teachers' aides1 involving them in parent-teacher associations 1 and having regular parent- teacher interactions; 3) employing Roma assistants, mediatorsf peer advisors and education inspectors to assist in the classroom environment1 work with parents1 link Rom a communities and schools1 help with job placement and monitor the quality of Roma education; 4) utilizing health and social workers to increase outreach to Roma communities and identify families in need of assistancei 5) designing curricular and extracurricular activities on Roma language~ history and culturei 6) abolishing unnecessary channeling of Roma into separate classrooms and schools; 7) coordinating social assistance and education policies by providing school meals, linking school enrollments I graduation to social assistance and providing scholarships for low-SES studentsi 8) training teachers to accommodate learning in a multicultural environment and training local government officials to reduce discrimination by public service providers 1 and g) transporting Roma students from Roma settlements to integrated 1 mainstream schools. More detailed elaboration of these policies is offered in "Romain an expanding Europe: Breaking the poverty cycle" [38]. Developing trusting and respectful relationships with parents. A review of s~ studies on the impact of school 1 family and community connections on student achievement identified the following practices as effective in increasing parental engagement [~8]: ~) establishing routine 1 frequent and concerted communication (home visits from educators with similar cultural backgrounds or with knowledge about their culture); regular calls to and meetings with parents face-to-face 1 both routinely and when there are problems; translating relevant communication with families into their home languages; creating a school director% so parents can contact each other)i 2) creating a trusting and enticing atmosphere (holding small and friendly teacher parent conferences; inviting families to class to tell their education stories and share cultural traditions; asking about families' expectations for1 encouragement of and concerns about their children's education; offering childcare 1 meals 1 and transportation for major activities at school); 3) supporting parental involvement in decision making (consulting a representative sample of parents, not just the school board leadership, about school policies and plans, and their ideas about school development; developing ways for parents to voice their concerns with teachers1 counselors and the principal; training parents for participation in school governance councils or boards; asking the superintendent/ board members1 district staff to speak to parents at the school); and 4) providing smooth and successful transitions to the next schooling levels (offering incoming families and students tours oft he school and opportunities to observe classrooms; meeting with students and families at the feeder schools to introduce staff1 explain the school's programs and answer questions; making home visits the summer before school startsi working with families to prepare children for the next level and help them plan for the future). An even more detailed description of effective activities is given in "A new wave of evidence: The impact of school 1 family and community connections on student achievement" [~8]. 124 LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Figures Figure~ Projected Change in the Population Share o-1.4 Years in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union 1 2000-2025. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. Figure 2 Percentage of total population living in urban areas ("990-2020) ... Figure 3 Average distance between central and satellite schools1 UZice region 1 Serbia "4 Figure 4 Definition of student transport modes 27 Figure 5 Education policies that improve accessibility to education .......................... . 24 Figure 6 Action Plan: Goals and Participants ............................................. . 35 Figure 7 Total travel time components along the home-to-school route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 36 Figure 8 Quality Criterion ............................................................. . 37 Figure 9 Safety Crite ri on 38 Figure ~o Financial Criterion ............................................................. . 39 Figure 1.1. Transportation Annual Action Plan: Preparation Steps 43 Figure 1.2 Definition of the corridor demand procedure ..................................... . 44 Figure "3 Analysis algorithm for the possibility of using different options for student transport along a new demand corridor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 45 Figure "4 Basic characteristics of student transportation options ............................. . 46 Figure "5 Decision-making procedure for school bus option choice ........................... . 48 Figure "6 Two functions of remaining options .. 49 Figure "7 Algorithm for setting up a contracted transport route line .......................... . so Figure ,g Two-route connection procedure with one available vehicle ......................... . 52 Figure "9 Algorithm of the simplified annual budget calculation for contracted transport ....... . 6o Figure 20 Shared responsibility in AAP definition and monitoring .. 62 Figure 21. The Education Action Plan ... 63 Figure 22 Selection of education policies 66 Figure 23 Transportation Service Coverage. 74 Figure 24 The connection between terrain characteristics and maximum home-to-school walking distance ............................................... . 75 Figure 25 The connection between terrain characteristics and maximum home-to-school walking time ................................................... . Figure 26 Free transport and subvention criteria .. Figure 27 Bus/minibus vehicle kilometer price in cases where the driver's net salary amounts to €]50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~1} Figure 28 Bus/minibus vehicle kilometer price in cases where the driver's net salary amounts to €500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~~7 125 Tables Table 2 Data on student transport volume along house- school -house route . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Table 2 Review of student transportation modes (used by of all ages) for home-to-school trips on the municipality settlements- municipalitycentercircuits1 Central Serbia Region. 1.8 Table 3 Share of student (all ages)transportation mode usage for home-to-school trips within municipality centers 1 Central Serbia Region............ 1.8 Table 4 Transport Entitlement Criteria1 International Experience 20 Table 5 Overview of Roads Conditions in Selected Municipalities in the Republic of Serbia in 2008 . . . 23 Table 6 Proposed Approach for Selection and Analysis of Data Relevant forTAAP development.......................................................... 42 Table 7 Decision-making matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Table 8 Risk matrix- (possibility of appearance, risk description and suggested measures)...... 53 Table 9 Questions for Assessment of Educational Needs Related to Accessibility to Education. . 64 Table 20 Selection of Education Policies Aimed at Improving Accessibility to Education- Example 69 Table 1.1. Criteria according to Terrain Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Table 1.2 Reccommendations for Schools 1 Local and Central Government aimed at Improving Access to Education . . . . . 78 Table 23 Level of Subsidies Granted to Students in Serbia ................................... 200 Table 24 Region ofVojvodina examples 202 Table 25 Central Serbia- examples . . 203 Table 26 Serbia ........................................................................ 208 Table 17 Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Table 28 Review of Produced Major Effects of Public Transport in Serbia in 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . n.s Table 29 Network Length and Average Line Length.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . n6 126 ABBREVIATIONS AP Action Plan APB Action Plan Budget ECEC Early Childhood Education and Care EM IS Education Management Information System GDP Gross Domestic Product LAE Local Education Authority MTD Monthly Transport Diary NGO Non-Governmental Organization NSLP National School Lunch Program OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development PIS A Program for International Student Assessment PT Public Transport SEE South East Europe SEN Special Education Needs SES Socio-Economic Status SKGO Standing Conference ofTowns and Municipalities TAAP Transportation Annual Action Plan TEMPUS Trans-European Mobility Scheme for University Studies UNESCO United Nations Educational 1 Scientific and Cultural Organization VET Vocational Education and Training WB World Bank 127 DFI D Departme.ntfor InternatiOnal Development ~~