63480 v2 CONFERENCE EDITION GREENING THE WIND: Environmental and Social Considerations for Wind Power Development in Latin America and Beyond George C. Ledec Kennan W. Rapp Roberto G. Aiello SYNTHESIS REPORT Energy Unit Sustainable Development Department Latin America and the Caribbean Region The World Bank Greening the Wind: Environmental and Social Considerations for Wind Power in Latin America and Beyond Synthesis Report George C. Ledec, Kennan W. Rapp, and Roberto G. Aiello Energy Unit, Sustainable Development Department Latin America and Caribbean Region The World Bank June 2011 COPYRIGHT PAGE Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) reports are published to communicate the results of ESMAP’s work to the development community with the least possible delay. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this report are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, or its affiliated organizations, or to members of its board of executive directors for the countries they represent, or to ESMAP. The World Bank and ESMAP do not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. The boundaries, colors, denominations, other information shown on any map in this volume do not imply on the part of the World Bank Group any judgment on the legal status of any territory or the endorsement of acceptance of such boundaries. Table of Contents Foreword .......................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. v Acronyms and Abbreviations ............................................................................................ vi Executive Summary .......................................................................................................... vii Chapter 1: Objectives and Scope of this Report ................................................................. 1 Chapter 2: Environmental and Social Impacts of Wind Power Development.................... 3 2.1 Environmental and Social Impacts of Wind Farms.................................................. 5 2.1.1 Biodiversity Impacts ......................................................................................5 2.1.2 Local Nuisance Impacts .................................................................................6 2.1.3 Socio-economic and Cultural Impacts ...........................................................7 2.2 Environmental and Social Impacts of Complementary Infrastructure .................... 9 2.2.1 Impacts of Power Transmission Lines ...........................................................9 2.2.2 Impacts of Access Roads .............................................................................10 Chapter 3: Project-level Management of Environmental and Social Impacts .................. 11 3.1 Wind Project Planning .......................................................................................... 11 3.1.1 Site Selection of Wind Power Infrastructure ...............................................11 3.1.2 Wind Farm Layout and Micro-Siting .........................................................16 3.1.3 Phased Development of Wind Projects........................................................16 3.1.4 Wind Power Equipment Selection ...............................................................17 3.1.5 Stakeholder Consultation, Participation, and Communication ....................19 3.1.6 Land Acquisition, Displacement, and Compensation .................................20 3.1.7 Benefits-sharing Arrangements ...................................................................20 3.1.8 Environmental and Social Assessment .......................................................23 3.1.9 Bidding Documents and Contracts ..............................................................24 3.2 Wind Project Construction ..................................................................................... 24 3.3 Wind Project Operation ......................................................................................... 25 3.3.1 Post-construction Monitoring ......................................................................25 3.3.2 Operational Curtailment...............................................................................26 3.3.3 Wind Farm Maintenance Practices ..............................................................28 3.4 Off-Site Mitigation and Enhancement .................................................................. 29 Chapter 4: Final Considerations........................................................................................ 30 Foreword According to the International Energy Agency, electricity demand is projected to grow by around 30 percent by 2020. With growing attention to climate considerations and cost concerns regarding thermal generation as petroleum prices rise, alternative generation technologies will be increasingly important in tackling energy security issues. Renewable energy, and wind energy in particular, will be key in helping to meet this growing demand in a sustainable way. As wind power is one of the most promising renewable resources in existence today, it offers several potential benefits. In the past decade, the use of wind power has expanded dramatically around the world, boosted by favorable economics, increasing interest in low-carbon technologies, and supportive governmental policies driven by the benefits that wind can provide. Since wind power does not rely on imported fuels, it helps countries to better use local resources while diversifying generation sources. Furthermore, by relying less on petroleum-based fuels with potentially high and volatile prices, wind power can help reduce the risk profile of the sector. In addition, if wind energy displaces fossil fuel generated electricity, it can reduce carbon emissions in a cost-effective manner. Reducing carbon emissions has both environmental and economic value: the latter will become more evident as future uses of carbon-intensive fuels are further constrained. Wind power also has the potential to reduce air pollution at the local level by replacing more polluting sources of power generation, thereby improving environmental and human health. Finally, wind power stands out among all major power generation technologies (renewable or not) in that it requires almost no water, an increasingly scarce resource over much of the world. However, while wind development has many environmental and social benefits, it also poses various challenges, in particular for biodiversity and local communities. Therefore, development of wind power must be approached from multiple angles and developed in an environmentally and socially sustainable manner. Specifically, wind power development has important implications for biodiversity, visual impacts, noise, radar and telecommunications infrastructure, access roads, land acquisition, and benefits-sharing, all of which should be considered in the wind power development process. The World Bank is committed to supporting sensible paths toward sustainable development. As part of its efforts, the Bank recognizes the importance of global knowledge-sharing on important issues related to sustainable development. Building on the experience of the Sustainable Development Department of the Bank’s Latin America and Caribbean Region with wind power projects in Latin America, Greening the Wind: Environmental and Social Considerations for Wind Power Development in Latin America and Beyond examines key topics for consideration during the wind power development process with an emphasis on the complex social and environmental challenges that may arise, particularly with large-scale, grid-connected onshore wind farms. iii Wind power is an important part of the solution for the energy challenges that lie ahead. It is hoped that by sharing this report with industry, development organizations, research centers, governments, and NGOs, the power of the wind can be better exploited with less negative impact, therefore maximizing its benefits worldwide. Philippe Benoit Sector Manager, Energy Unit Latin America and the Caribbean Region World Bank iv Acknowledgements This report was prepared within the Energy Unit of the Sustainable Development Department of the Latin America and Caribbean Region of the World Bank. The Study Team was led by George C. Ledec and Roberto G. Aiello, with major inputs from Kennan W. Rapp and additional contributions from Pamela Sud, Almudena Mateos, and Megan Hansen. The report also benefitted from the suggestions and input from expert outside consultants, particularly Robert Livernash (social issues), Edward Arnett (bats), Carl Thelander and Ed West (birds). The authors gratefully acknowledge the helpful contributions and comments of our World Bank Group reviewers, Soren Krohn, Lakhdeep S. Babra, Glenn Morgan, Juan D. Quintero, Haddy Sey, Richard Spencer, Francis Fragano, Jorge Villegas, and Dana Younger; as well as from other reviewers, Rolf-Guenter Gebhardt, Diane Ross-Leech, Wayne Walker, Carlos Gasco Travesedo, Rafael Villegas Patraca, Michael Fry, and Andrea Pomeroy. From outside the Bank, Doug Mason, Paula Posas, William Evans, and Robert Goodland also provided useful information to the Study Team. Thanks are owed as well to those who have worked on the three wind power projects that were selected as case study examples for the report. This includes Walter Vergara, Alejandro Deeb, Alonso Zarzar, Adriana Valencia, Irene Leino, and Karen Bazex of the World Bank; Carlos Sánchez Cornejo and Zirahuén Ortega of the Federal Electricity Commission (CFE), Mexico; and implementation staff from the Medellin Public Companies (EPM) in Colombia, and the National Administration of Power Plants and Electric Transmission (UTE) in Uruguay. Lynn Zablotsky helped to edit the final manuscript. Finally, we wish to thank our supportive managers in the World Bank’s Latin America and Caribbean Region: Laura Tuck, Director; Philippe Benoit, Sector Manager; and Jocelyne Albert, Climate Change Coordinator, as well as the World Bank staff who helped to obtain the funding for our study. The financial and technical support by the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) is gratefully acknowledged. v Acronyms and Abbreviations BFD bird flight diverter CDCF Community Development Carbon Fund CDM Clean Development Mechanism CNH critical natural habitat EIA environmental impact assessment EMP Environmental Management Plan GHG greenhouse gas/gases, including carbon dioxide and methane ha/MW hectares per megawatt IBA Important Bird Area IFC International Finance Corporation IPP Indigenous Peoples Plan km kilometer(s) kph kilometers per hour LAC Latin America and the Caribbean m/sec meters per second MW megawatt(s) NGO non-governmental organization PCR physical cultural resources ROW right(s)-of-way RSA rotor-swept area SA social assessment SEA strategic environmental assessment SESA strategic environmental and social assessment US and USA United States of America WRA wind resource area vi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY i. This report identifies good practices for managing the key environmental and social issues associated with wind power development and provides advice on how best to address these issues in project planning, construction, and operation and maintenance. The report comprises two volumes: (i) the Synthesis Report provides advice on how to manage the environmental and social impacts of wind power projects, from initial planning through operation and maintenance; and (ii) the Full Report contains all of the information of the Synthesis Report, but also provides detailed background information on wind power, with a focus on two emerging themes of growing scientific and public interest: (i) biodiversity-related impacts and (ii) the broader socio-economic and cultural dimensions of wind power development. The Full Report further provides the analysis, case studies, scientific evidence, and references upon which the recommendations presented in the Synthesis Report are based. Like wind power itself, the scope of this report is worldwide although special attention is paid to the issues characteristic of the Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) region. While the Full Report’s principal focus is on land-based wind power, it also briefly addresses the environmental and social impacts related to offshore wind development. A. Overview ii. Wind power today is widely regarded as a key component of an environmentally sustainable, low-carbon energy future because it is renewable, requires almost no water, and generates near-zero emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. In many parts of the world, wind power has the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from electric power generation, thereby helping to limit the severe environmental and social consequences of human-induced climate change. The growth of wind power has also occurred due to its other positive attributes, including growing economic competitiveness. Wind power has become the world’s fastest-growing source of power generation. While most wind power development to date has been in Europe, Asia, and North America, it is also poised to grow rapidly in other regions, including Latin America. iii Notwithstanding its benefits, wind power poses several significant environmental and social challenges, most notably: (i) biodiversity-related impacts, (ii) visual and other local nuisance impacts, and (iii) a variety of socio-economic and cultural concerns. To realize the full economic and climate change benefits of wind power, it is important to minimize the potential adverse environmental and social impacts of wind farms and their associated infrastructure, using measures such as those described in this report. Doing so will help to ensure adequate public acceptance of wind power and the fulfillment of its promise as an environmentally sustainable energy source. vii B. The Challenges iv. The adverse biodiversity-related impacts of wind power facilities mainly involve birds, bats, and natural habitats: Birds can be killed by collisions with wind turbines and guyed meteorological towers (masts), sometimes in potentially significant numbers from a conservation standpoint. Bird species groups of special concern are birds of prey such as raptors, seabirds, migratory species, and grassland birds with aerial flight displays. Although modern large turbine blades appear to be moving slowly when viewed from a distance, the blade tip speed is actually very fast (up to about 270 kilometers per hour [kph]), such that the birds are struck by surprise. However, for some scarce, open-country species such as prairie grouse, the main conservation threat posed by wind power development is not collisions, but rather displacement from their habitat because the birds instinctively stay far away from wind turbines, transmission towers, and other tall structures. Bats tend to be killed by wind turbines at higher rates than birds, in part because bats are apparently attracted to wind turbines. Because bats are long lived and have low reproductive rates, they tend to be more vulnerable to the added mortality from wind turbines than most faster-reproducing small bird species. Natural habitats can be lost or fragmented when they are cleared to establish wind power facilities, sometimes with significant risks to biodiversity. For example, wooded mountain ridge-tops, particularly in the tropics, often harbor unique plant and animal species, due in part to their wind-swept micro-climate. Long rows of turbines with inter-connecting roads along such ridge-tops can disproportionately affect scarce, highly localized species. Constructing access roads to previously remote wind farm sites can also lead to the loss or degradation of natural habitats, either directly, through road construction and resulting erosion, or indirectly, through increased land clearing, wood cutting, informal mining, hunting, or other human activities facilitated by improved access. v. Wind power development involves local nuisance impacts which are sometimes of considerable public concern. Foremost among these are the visual impacts of large wind turbines and associated transmission lines, which some people regard as an eyesore. Visual impacts can be particularly sensitive in areas with high tourism potential and in popular recreation areas. To date, visual impacts have emerged as a leading socio-environmental constraint to installing new wind farms and associated transmission lines. This concern has been most pronounced in North America and Europe, but is also becoming evident in some developing countries. A special type of visual impact, shadow flicker, can be a problem when turbines are located relatively close to homes, creating an annoying effect of rapidly blinking shadows when the sun is near the horizon. Another type of nuisance impact is noise. Noise from wind turbines is evident only at rather close range (within 300 meters [m]), even though it is often mentioned as a concern by local residents when a new wind farm is proposed. In addition, electromagnetic interference represents yet another type of nuisance impact as it can limit the viii functioning of aviation radar, radio, television, and microwave transmission systems when operating wind turbines are within the line-of-sight of the radar or telecommunications facility. Furthermore, wind turbines can pose an aviation safety risk when they are located too close to airports or in agricultural areas where aerial spraying of pesticides takes place. Finally, there can also be very slight public safety risks from blade or ice throw. vi. Wind power development entails a variety of socio-economic and cultural issues that need to be carefully addressed. When it comes to the maintenance and/or enhancement of people’s livelihoods, the impacts of a typical wind farm project are often positive. The nature of the footprint of wind power projects permits most pre-existing land uses to continue. When direct economic benefits are factored in, such projects can increase income for rural landholders in the wind farm area and help generate employment and boost local economies. Land acquisition is typically done through negotiation of lease/rental or royalty payments, or less commonly, through outright purchase or expropriation. Whatever method is used, acquiring land without effective measures to address adverse impacts such as the full replacement of lost assets can lead to protracted negotiations between project sponsors and affected landholders over compensation terms. Under certain circumstances it can also lead to more serious social conflict. vii. Many of the areas with high wind power potential such as remote deserts, plains, and mountaintops are where indigenous peoples and other traditional rural populations tend to be found. Under such circumstances, the introduction of a wind farm by an external developer can unleash forces of cultural change that those living in the project influence area might find undesirable or even harmful. In addition, without adequate planning and care during project construction, wind projects can also sometimes damage physical cultural resources (PCR). C. Managing the Local Environmental and Social Aspects viii. Typically the single most important measure for managing environmental and social impacts is careful site selection of wind power facilities. Since many countries’ potential wind resources remain largely untapped, they typically have multiple options regarding where to locate new wind farms, for connection to a national or regional electricity grid. From a biodiversity standpoint, the lower-risk sites for wind power development tend to have low bird and bat numbers year-round and do not harbor species or ecosystems of conservation concern. In this regard, careful site selection is the most important measure to avoid or minimize other kinds of adverse local impacts, including visual impacts, noise, and electromagnetic interference. Careful site selection is also needed when considering wind power development on indigenous community lands. In addition, once the general site for a new wind farm has been selected, some negative impacts can be avoided or further reduced by adjusting the location of turbine rows and even individual turbines. The selection of wind power equipment, taking into account turbine size and other specifications, can also influence biodiversity as well as visual impacts. ix. A variety of planning tools are available to optimize site selection and manage environmental and social impacts. These tools include: ix Strategic environmental assessments (SEAs), a key tool for site selection of wind power facilities, typically produce overlay maps that show where the zones of high wind power potential—based mainly on wind speeds and proximity to the power transmission grid—are located in relation to the areas of major environmental and social sensitivity. Some SEAs also generate zoning maps for prospective wind power development. SEAs may recommend where wind farms or transmission lines should be prohibited, allowed only with special precautions, or actively promoted. SEAs are also important in terms of assessing the cumulative environmental impacts of multiple wind farms within a wind resource area (WRA). Environmental impact assessment (EIA) reports represent an essential tool for identifying and managing environmental impacts at the project level. An EIA report for a wind project is most useful when it includes an environmental management plan (EMP) that specifies each of the actions to be taken during project construction and operation to mitigate any adverse impacts and enhance any positive ones. Although many EIA studies cover social impacts (along with the biological and physical ones), it may be helpful to also carry out separate social assessments (SA), particularly for those wind power projects that could potentially impact (either positively or negatively) indigenous peoples or other vulnerable groups. Project legal agreements need to reflect agreed wind farm operating standards, which might specify post-construction monitoring and data-sharing, operational curtailment, and equipment and landscape maintenance. Environmental and social mitigation measures are much more likely to be implemented if they have been explicitly described and budgeted within signed project agreements, bidding documents, and contracts. x. Effective management of wind power impacts typically involves systematic stakeholder engagement. A key element of public consultation in the context of energy development is educating the public and decision-makers about the full range of trade-offs, impacts, and benefits associated with different technologies, including wind. While many people like wind power in general, they are often opposed to having wind farms or transmission lines in their “backyards.” In this regard, a participatory approach regarding the location of wind project infrastructure can have a decidedly positive impact on public attitudes towards particular projects. In addition, the early dissemination of information on the implications of proposed wind power development—for both the natural environment and local people—can facilitate thorough consideration of all relevant trade-offs during the decision-making process. xi. People who own or use land required for a wind project need to be suitably compensated. Land acquisition for wind power facilities frequently takes place through lease or rental payments, which often allow certain pre-existing land uses to continue. Sometimes land ownership is transferred to the wind project owner or operator, through either voluntary purchase or involuntary expropriation. When expropriation is used, providing for compensation to affected landholders at replacement cost, rather than relying on the cadastral values of the needed lands, is more satisfactory for the landholders since it enables the lost lands and related assets to be fully replaced based on market prices. Additional compensation payments might also be needed x for other adverse impacts stemming from wind projects, such as damage to property or disruption of productive activities during project construction. xii. As with other types of large-scale energy development, equitable benefits-sharing for local residents is an important issue for wind project planners. Benefits-sharing is additional to the payment of compensation for lost assets and can take many forms, including: (i) payment of rents or royalties to affected landholders and neighbors, (ii) clarification of property rights for host communities during project preparation, (iii) employment opportunities to local workers during construction or operation of wind power facilities, (iv) local benefits programs, and even (v) community ownership of wind farms. A broad conceptualization of benefits is the recommended approach to address issues of fairness that are of concern to those whose lands are directly or indirectly affected by wind power development. By adopting a benefits-sharing approach that goes beyond those who are immediately and adversely affected by wind farm construction and operation, project sponsors can find themselves in a much better position to influence public perceptions, improve community relations, and engage in effective risk management. xiii. During the installation of wind turbines, access roads, and transmission lines, the use of good construction practices will serve to minimize any adverse environmental and social impacts. As with any large-scale civil works, environmental rules for contractors should be specified in bidding documents and contracts. In addition, adequate field supervision by qualified personnel, along with transparent penalties for non-compliance, is also needed. xiv. Post-construction monitoring of bird and bat mortality is an indispensable tool for the environmental management of wind power projects. Such monitoring is needed to: (i) determine whether or not a significant bird or bat mortality problem exists at a given wind farm, (ii) predict the biodiversity-related impacts of scaling-up development within a particular wind resource area, (iii) enable adaptive management of wind farm operation to reduce bird or bat mortality, and (iv) advance scientific knowledge in a field that still faces a steep learning curve. Post-construction monitoring is carried out during the first two years or so of wind farm operation, and continued if significant mortality is found, so that mitigation measures can be tested and implemented. The data collected from each wind project should ideally be presented in a readily understood form, publicly disclosed, and collaboratively shared with other wind developers, regulatory agencies, and international scientific research networks and partnerships. Regarding bird and bat monitoring, it is also important to note that there is a very real—and sometimes significant—difference between real mortality and observed mortality at wind farms. Therefore, appropriate correction factors need to be used. xv. Certain changes in wind turbine operation can lead to substantial reductions in bat or bird mortality. For bats, the most important turbine operation change appears to be an increase in cut-in speed, which is the lowest wind speed at which the rotor blades are spinning and generating electricity for the grid. For migratory birds, the most important operating change is often short-term shutdowns, in which the rotor blades do not turn during peak migration events. Wind project planners can calculate the extent to which these types of operational curtailment would likely affect power generation and financial returns, and compare them with the anticipated reduction in bat or bird mortality. xi xvi. Wind farm maintenance practices can be an important tool for managing environmental and social impacts. Diligent equipment maintenance—such as capping holes in wind turbine nacelles—can help prevent unnecessary bird mortality or other environmental damage. In addition, landscape management at wind farms needs to consider a variety of environmental and social objectives. For best results, vegetation management at wind farms is carefully planned in advance, discussed with stakeholders, and recorded within the project’s Environmental Management Plan. Furthermore, managing public access to wind power facilities needs to take into account a variety of environmental and social objectives. Conservation offsets can also be useful in mitigating biodiversity impacts from wind projects and enhancing the projects’ overall conservation outcomes. xvii. Table ES.1 summarizes the main environmental and social impacts typically associated with wind power projects. The table sets out the options available for the mitigation of the negative impacts and enhancement of the positive ones of wind power projects, specifically in terms of: (i) biodiversity impacts, (ii) local nuisance impacts, and (iii) socio-economic and cultural impacts. D. Conclusions xviii. Wind power is an important part of global efforts to meet increasing energy needs. As many countries rapidly scale up their wind power development, ensuring that environmental and social impacts are adequately addressed will enhance the sustainable development benefits of this renewable energy technology. xii Table ES.1: Environmental and Social Impacts of Wind Power Projects and Corresponding Mitigation or Enhancement Options Impacts Project Mitigation/Enhancement Options Planning Construction Operation and Maintenance Biodiversity Impacts Bird Mortality: Birds collide with Careful site selection of wind farms and associated Use post-construction monitoring to: spinning wind turbines; also transmission lines to favor lower-risk sites (such as (i) verify actual bird impacts; (ii) enable meteorological towers with guy wires many cultivated lands, non-native pastures, and adaptive management; and (iii) assess and power transmission lines. Bird deserts away from oases), while seeking to avoid potential impacts of scaling up wind species groups of special concern higher-risk sites (such as many shorelines, development in the same general area. include raptors, seabirds, migratory wetlands, small islands, migration corridors, and Consider short-term shutdowns species, and birds with aerial flight designated Important Bird Areas). Within a planned (feathering) of turbines during peak bird displays. wind farm, adjusting the location of turbine rows or migration events. Also perform diligent individual turbines can further reduce adverse equipment maintenance to ensure that impacts. Consider choosing wind power holes in turbine nacelles are capped to equipment that is relatively more bird friendly prevent bird entry. (where consistent with other objectives), particularly in terms of larger turbine size, reduced or different night lighting, minimal number of guyed meteorological towers, power poles with bird-friendly configurations, and transmission lines with bird flight diverters in higher-risk areas. Bat Mortality: This occurs when bats Careful site selection of wind farms to avoid Use post-construction monitoring to: collide with spinning turbines or higher-risk sites (such as wetlands, wooded areas, (i) verify actual bat impacts, (ii) enable closely approach them, causing lung known migration corridors, and near caves). adaptive management, and (iii) predict damage from decompression. Bat potential impacts of scaling up wind mortality typically exceeds bird development in the same general area. mortality at wind turbines. Consider operating wind turbines at an increased cut-in speed (such as 6 m/sec instead of 3-4), which can substantially reduce bat mortality with relatively minor losses in power generation. Wildlife Displacement: Some Careful site selection of wind farms and associated open-country birds such as prairie transmission lines to avoid critical habitats and grouse are displaced from otherwise concentration areas for these sensitive species. suitable habitat because they instinctively stay away from tall xiii Impacts Project Mitigation/Enhancement Options Planning Construction Operation and Maintenance structures, including wind turbines and transmission towers. Large, shy wild mammals such as antelopes can also be displaced by the regular presence of wind farm employees. Natural Habitat Loss and Careful site selection of wind farms and associated Enforcing environmental Ensuring that wind farm personnel follow Degradation: Establishing rows of transmission lines to: (i) avoid existing and rules for contractors that environmental rules of conduct (as during wind turbines with inter-connecting proposed protected areas and other sites of high require, among others, construction). roads can involve the clearing and conservation value and (ii) avoid or minimize the minimum clearing of fragmentation of natural habitats, clearing and fragmentation of natural habitats in natural vegetation for all sometimes affecting scarce general, particularly native forests. Configuring wind farm facilities; no ecosystems such as mountain wind turbines and access roads to minimize the washing of machinery or ridge-top forests. Semi-arid clearing and fragmentation of natural habitats. With other pollution of ecosystems can also be degraded by respect to wind power equipment, overall land waterways or wetlands; careless off-road driving by wind farm clearing (on a per-MW basis) will be less with a and no hunting, off-road personnel. smaller number of larger turbines. driving, or other needless disturbance to natural habitats by construction workers. Overall Biodiversity Impacts: This Use planning tools to optimize project site Use landscape management at wind farms includes bird and bat mortality, selection and design; these tools can include to achieve desired objectives, which could wildlife displacement, and/or natural strategic environmental assessments (SEAs, include: (i) maintaining pre-existing land habitat loss and fragmentation. including cumulative impact assessments); project- uses; (ii) conserving and restoring natural specific environmental impact assessments (EIAs), habitats; (iii) managing land for species of including environmental management plans (EMPs) conservation interest; (iv) deterring bird or and sometimes pre-construction biodiversity bat use, as a means of reducing mortality; studies; overlay maps; and zoning maps. Support and (v) facilitating bird and bat monitoring. conservation offsets to protect and manage high- Manage public access as needed to protect quality habitats, or for other enhanced management vulnerable species and ecosystems, along of the species of concern, away from the wind with other objectives (where relevant) such project area. as: (i) maintaining previous land uses; (ii) ensuring public safety; (iii) minimizing the risk of sabotage or theft of wind power equipment; and (iv) promoting local tourism and recreation. xiv Impacts Project Mitigation/Enhancement Options Planning Construction Operation and Maintenance Local Nuisance Impacts Visual Impacts: Some people Thorough stakeholder engagement, including consider large wind turbines to be an prior consultation, participatory decision-making, eyesore. Local concerns about the and information disclosure and dissemination. visual impacts of wind turbines and/or Careful site selection of wind farms and associated their associated transmission lines can transmission lines, with special attention in areas be a constraint to wind power where local stakeholder sensitivities may be high, development, particularly in including sites importance for tourism and developed countries. recreation. Within a planned wind farm, adjusting the location of turbine rows or individual turbines to reduce perceived visual impacts. Choose wind power equipment with aesthetics in mind (where consistent with other objectives), such as a smaller number of (larger) turbines and reduced or different night lighting. Use planning tools to: (i) assess specific visual impacts (view-shed mapping, photo composition, virtual simulations, and field inventories of views); and (ii) include visual impacts among other considerations within SEAs, EIAs, overlay maps, and zoning maps. Shadow Flicker: This is a specialized Careful site selection to locate turbines where they Planting trees to provide a Consider short-term shutdowns of type of visual impact, in which would not produce shadow flicker around human visual screen. individual turbines during the brief periods spinning wind turbines create an dwellings. Use planning tools—standard industry when shadow flicker would affect annoying effect of rapidly-blinking software that predicts the location and timing of dwellings. shadows when the sun is near the shadow flicker. Stakeholder engagement with horizon. potentially affected households and businesses. Noise: Wind turbines produce both Careful site selection to locate turbines an adequate mechanical noise (turbine hum) and distance from human dwellings. Use planning aerodynamic noise (rotor swish), tools—standard industry software that predicts which humans readily notice within specific noise impacts on nearby buildings. 300 m or more. Stakeholder engagement with potentially affected households and businesses. Radar and Telecommunications Careful site selection to avoid installing turbines Interference: Operating wind within the line-of-sight of radar or turbines can interfere with the signals telecommunications facilities. Use planning tools received by radar and to assess these impacts within SEAs, EIAs, overlay xv Impacts Project Mitigation/Enhancement Options Planning Construction Operation and Maintenance telecommunications systems, maps, and zoning maps. For turbines within the including aviation radar, radio, line-of-sight of aviation radar, consider additional television, and microwave investments to relocate affected radar, blank out transmission. These impacts tend to be the affected radar area, or use alternative radar significant when wind turbines are systems to cover the affected area. within the line-of-sight of the radar or telecommunications facility. Aircraft Safety: Wind turbines can Careful site selection to maintain adequate distance In agricultural areas, use alternative pose a risk to aircraft if located too between airport runways and wind power facilities. systems, such as ground-level spraying or a close to airport runways. In Use planning tools to assess these impacts within shift to organic production. agricultural areas, the presence of EIAs, overlay maps, and zoning maps. Where turbines will preclude the aerial relevant, stakeholder engagement with agricultural spraying of crops. interests. Blade and Ice Throw: There is a very Careful site selection to locate turbines an adequate small risk of a loose rotor blade being distance from human dwellings. thrown as a result of severe mechanical failure. In cold climates, there is also a small risk of rotor blades throwing off chunks of ice when they begin to rotate. Socio-Economic and Cultural Impacts Land Acquisition Involving Careful site selection to locate turbines and Where expropriation and In cases of significant adverse impacts on Displacement: Although there are associated infrastructure in such a way as to avoid displacement are assets, conduct an ex-post evaluation to different means of acquiring land for a or minimize the need for expropriation and related involved, specific confirm that those assets have been wind farm, formal expropriation physical and/or economic displacement. Use of measures are needed to successfully replaced. involving negative impacts on land participatory planning tools, such as strategic ensure that affected and land-based assets is sometimes environmental assessments that incorporate people do not become necessary. attention to social issues (SESAs), to optimize worse off as a result of social values in project siting and design. At the any displacement project level, these tools can include social stemming from a project. assessments (SAs) and project-specific social Lost assets can be impact mitigation plans. replaced through the payment of compensation and/or the provision of a variety of local benefits. xvi Impacts Project Mitigation/Enhancement Options Planning Construction Operation and Maintenance Livelihoods and Income: Because Implementation of inclusive stakeholder Use of local labor in Use socio-economic monitoring to wind power development has shown engagement strategies. Use of the results of social wind farm construction. confirm that promised social benefits are potential for generating a number of analytic processes (such as SA) to develop delivered throughout the life of the project. localized social benefits, the impacts benefits-sharing arrangements based on one or Stakeholder consultation on, and on the people involved have tended to more of the following: (i) payment of rents or coordination of, landscape management be positive. royalties, (ii) clarification of property rights, actions. Use of qualified local labor to (iii) generation of employment; (iv) implementation assist with maintenance and security of of local benefit programs, and (v) promotion of wind turbine facilities. community ownership of wind farms. Indigenous Peoples: While Implementation of culturally differentiated Use socio-economic monitoring to indigenous peoples stand to benefit engagement strategies. Use of the results of social confirm that culturally compatible benefits from wind power projects in various analytic processes (such as SA) to develop an are delivered to the communities involved ways, their vulnerability can make Indigenous Peoples Plan (IPP) that provides for throughout the life of the project. wind power development on their both the mitigation of any adverse impacts and the lands particularly challenging. delivery of culturally compatible benefits to the communities involved. Physical Cultural Resources: Use of project-specific EIA to assess the Where physical cultural Use post-construction monitoring to Proximity of wind farms to areas probability of impacts on physical cultural resources are unearthed confirm that any continuing impacts on where physical cultural resources resources. In cases of confirmed presence of such during project physical cultural resources are being (such as archaeological or resources, incorporation of specific protection construction, use of adequately managed. paleontological remains) are known or measures into a project’s EMP. chance finds procedures suspected to exist can result in that are part of the EMP negative impacts on them. and the rules for contractors for a project. xvii Chapter 1: Objectives and Scope of this Report 1. Overview. This report, which is comprised of two volumes, identifies good practices for managing the key environmental and social issues associated with wind power development and provides advice on how best to address these issues in project planning, construction, and operation and maintenance. This volume, the Synthesis Report, which is intended for field use, provides advice on how to manage the environmental and social impacts of wind power projects, from initial planning through operation and maintenance. The accompanying volume is the Full Report, which contains all of the information of the Synthesis Report, but also provides detailed background information on wind power, with an emphasis on two emerging themes of growing scientific and public interest: (i) biodiversity-related impacts and (ii) the broader socio-economic and cultural dimensions of wind power development. In addition, the Full Report provides the analysis, case studies, scientific evidence, and references upon which the recommendations presented in the Synthesis Report are based. 2. Complementarity to Existing World Bank Group Guidelines. This report aims to complement, but not replace, the 2007 Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines for Wind Energy, which form part of the World Bank Group’s Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines for all types of development projects (superseding the earlier Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook). The EHS Guidelines provide a systematic overview of the typical environmental, as well as occupational health and safety, issues associated with wind farms. This report provides additional guidance on how to address specific complex environmental and social issues that have recently emerged as significant concerns in wind power projects, such as bird and bat conservation, visual impacts, and community benefits-sharing arrangements. The advice contained in this report does not constitute World Bank policy or guidelines. Rather, it is hoped that wind project planners and developers will make use of both documents as needed. 3. Relevance to World Bank Safeguard Policies and IFC Performance Standards. This report does not establish any new environmental or social policy or guidelines for the World Bank Group. Instead, it offers technical advice aimed at strengthening the design and operation of wind power projects in a manner consistent with existing World Bank Safeguard Policies and International Finance Corporation (IFC) Performance Standards.1 1 The World Bank Safeguard Policies that are most likely to apply to wind power projects are: (i) Environmental Assessment (OP/BP 4.01), in all cases involving World Bank–supported investment projects; (ii) Involuntary Resettlement (OP/BP 4.12),when compulsory land acquisition is required for the construction of the wind farm and associated infrastructure; (iii) Indigenous Peoples (OP/BP 4.10) when the wind project involves indigenous communities; (iv) Natural Habitats (OP/BP 4.04), when natural land areas (including the biologically active airspace above them) are significantly affected; (v) Forests (OP/BP 4.36), when forests of any kind would be affected; and (vi) Physical Cultural Resources (OP/BP 4.11), when wind project construction might affect archaeological, historical, or sacred sites or objects. Also, OP 8.60 on Development Policy Lending applies to World Bank support of specific country policies—potentially including wind power promotion—that are likely to “cause significant effects on the country’s environment, forests, and other natural resources.” The IFC Performance Standards that are especially applicable to wind projects include (i) Performance Standard (PS) 1, Social and Environmental Assessment and Management System; (ii) PS 2, Labor; (iii) PS 4, Community Health and Safety; (iv) PS 5, Land Acquisition and Involuntary Resettlement; (v) PS 6, Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Natural Resource Management; (vi) PS 7, Indigenous Peoples; and (vii) PS 8, Cultural Heritage. 1 4. Scope. Like wind power itself, the scope of this report is worldwide, although special focus is paid to the issues characteristic of the Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) region. Accordingly, in addition to drawing from the experiences of wind projects around the world, the discussion relies significantly on the lessons learned from three case studies involving World Bank-supported wind power projects in Mexico, Colombia, and Uruguay (Full Report Annexes 1-3). While the focus is mainly on the environmental and social impacts associated with large-scale, grid-connected wind farms, some of the advice provided may also be applicable to small-scale, off-grid wind turbines. In addition, impacts associated with power transmission lines and access roads are addressed as well since these works are an essential component or pre-condition of any grid-connected wind power project—as is the case for most other types of power generation. Finally, while the report’s principal emphasis is on land-based (onshore) wind power because, for economic reasons, it is still heavily preferred within LAC and other developing regions, the environmental and social impacts particular to offshore wind development are also briefly discussed in the Full Report. 5. Intended Audience. This report is intended for anyone with a strong interest in wind power and its environmental and social implications, including staff of the World Bank Group and other international development organizations; wind project investors and operators; government officials; energy and power sector planners; non-governmental organizations (NGOs) with an environmental, social, energy, and/or scientific focus; news media and bloggers; and any interested members of the public. Many of the environmental and social issues and approaches discussed in this report are likely to be relevant for most wind power projects, even offshore ones to some extent. 2 Chapter 2: Environmental and Social Impacts of Wind Power Development 6. Wind power infrastructure includes principally: (i) the wind turbines themselves, usually grouped as a “wind farm;” (ii) the power transmission lines (usually overhead, outside the wind farm itself) and transmission substations; and (iii) the access roads needed for construction and maintenance of the wind farms and transmission lines. There are also certain ancillary facilities, such as substations, offices and control rooms, maintenance depots, storage sheds, parking lots, and, in more remote areas, construction camps. Figure 2.1 shows the structural portions of a typical wind turbine, while Figure 2.2 illustrates the main elements of a typical onshore wind farm. Figure 2.1: Typical Structural Components of a Wind Turbine Source: World Bank Group 2007 Environmental Health and Safety Guidelines 3 Figure 2.2: Typical Elements of an Onshore Wind Farm Source: World Bank Group 2007 Environmental Health and Safety Guidelines. 7. The land footprint of an onshore wind farm is measured in several different ways: The land area cleared includes the space occupied by wind turbine platforms, access roads, parking lots, project offices, and other civil works, as well as any additional land cleared for the staging and maneuvering of heavy equipment used during turbine installation. The total land area cleared is variable, but is often in the vicinity of 1-2 hectares per megawatt (ha/MW). On a per-MW basis, wind farms comprised of larger turbines tend to require proportionately less land, because the total number of turbines and turbine platforms, interconnecting road area, and related facilities is less. The land area claimed by a wind farm is the space within which the turbine array, substation, and other wind farm facilities will fit. There is also sometimes an additional buffer area around the wind farm where landowners are prohibited from planting tall trees or erecting tall structures, designed to avoid affecting wind flows to the turbines. The wind farm area varies considerably based on wind conditions, topography, and other factors, but is often in the range of 10-30 ha/MW (sometimes more). Within the wind farm area, the roughly 90 percent of the land that is not cleared for wind power equipment is generally available to continue pre-existing uses, such as grazing or cultivation. The view-shed or “visual footprint” of a wind farm is the area within which the wind farm is visible. This area varies according to topography and turbine heights, and can involve a radius of up to 30 km (kilometers), although the more significant visual impacts occur within about 5 km. 4 2.1 Environmental and Social Impacts of Wind Farms 8. Wind power development comes with its own special set of environmental and social impacts that need to be properly managed, even though it often compares favorably on environmental and social grounds with other large-scale, commercially available power generation technologies (see Table 2.1 of the Full Report). 2.1.1 Biodiversity Impacts 9. To the extent that wind power and other low-carbon energy sources can mitigate global climate change by reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, scaled-up wind power development overall contributes positively to biodiversity conservation. Nevertheless, wind farms and their associated facilities can adversely affect biodiversity. The adverse biodiversity-related impacts of wind power facilities can involve birds, bats, and natural habitats. As with all other types of energy infrastructure, these impacts need to be assessed and adequately mitigated. 10. Bird Collisions with Wind Power Equipment. Birds are killed by collisions with wind turbines and guyed meteorological towers (masts), sometimes in potentially significant numbers from a conservation standpoint. Although modern large turbine blades appear to be moving slowly when viewed from a distance, the blade tip speed is actually very fast (up to about 270 kilometers per hour [kph]), such that the birds are struck by surprise. However, wind power is still a very small proportion of all human-caused bird mortality. In fact, wind farms kill far fewer birds in the aggregate than collisions with buildings (especially glass windows), vehicles, telecommunications towers, outdoor domestic cats, pesticides, or hunting. Nonetheless, bird mortality at certain wind farm locations can be of significant concern when considered at the species level. In particular, eagles and other large birds of prey (raptors) are long-lived and slow to reproduce, and some of these species collide with wind turbines at unsustainably high rates. For such species, wind turbine mortality in some locations can be a high proportion of total human-caused mortality. Other species groups of special concern in terms of collisions with wind turbines are seabirds, migratory species, and grassland birds with aerial flight displays. In the absence of effective mitigation measures (described below), the expected large-scale expansion of wind power capacity in many countries (by 1-2 orders of magnitude) could lead to significantly increased mortality for some species of conservation concern. 11. Bat Mortality at Wind Turbines. Bats are even more vulnerable to wind turbine mortality than most birds. Bats tend to be killed by wind turbines at significantly higher rates than birds, except at those sites where bats are naturally scarce or absent. The significantly higher mortality for bats has to do with the fact that: (i) for reasons that are still poorly understood, bats appear to be attracted to wind turbines (rather than simply encountering them by chance, as birds do), and (ii) unlike birds, bats can be killed just by closely approaching an operating wind turbine without even touching it, due to lung damage from rapid decompression (barotrauma). However, unlike birds, bats almost never collide with transmission lines, meteorological towers, or other non-turbine structures. Because bats are long-lived and have low reproductive rates, they tend to be more vulnerable to the added mortality from wind turbines than most faster-reproducing small bird species. Given this vulnerability, careful site selection 5 and other mitigation measures are needed to protect some bat species from large-scale wind power expansion. 12. Wildlife Displacement from Otherwise Suitable Habitat. For some scarce, open country bird species such as prairie grouse, the main conservation threat posed by wind power development is not collisions, but rather displacement from their habitat because these birds instinctively stay far away from wind turbines, transmission towers, and other tall structures. In addition, large, shy wild mammals (e.g., antelopes) might also be displaced from otherwise suitable habitat by the regular presence and circulation of wind farm employees and their vehicles. 13. Impacts on Natural Habitats. When located in areas of natural vegetation, wind farms can sometimes harm biodiversity through the clearing and fragmentation of natural habitats. For example, wooded mountain ridge-tops—particularly in the tropics—often harbor unique plant and animal species, due in part to their wind-swept micro-climate. In this regard, long rows of turbines with inter-connecting roads along such ridge-tops can disproportionately affect scarce, highly-localized species, through vegetation clearing as well as increased soil erosion. Another harmful impact of wind farms can occur if they reduce surface-level wind speeds enough to alter downwind sand dune formations, thereby potentially affecting the survival of endemic, dune-adapted plant and animal species. 2.1.2 Local Nuisance Impacts 14. Visual Impacts. Modern wind turbines that generate grid-based electricity are inherently tall, with large rotor-swept areas (RSAs), making them visible over long distances. Even though old-fashioned windmills are widely regarded as attractive and “quaint,” large, modern ones are sometimes considered to be an eyesore. While the largest land-based wind turbines can be seen from as far as 30 km away, the most significant visual impacts are likely to occur within 5 km. Visual impacts can be particularly sensitive in areas with high tourism potential and in popular recreation areas. To date, visual impacts have emerged as a leading socio-environmental constraint to installing new wind farms and associated transmission lines in certain locations. While this concern has been most pronounced in North America and Europe, it is also becoming evident in some developing countries. A special type of visual impact, unique to wind power, is shadow flicker, which can be a problem when turbines are located relatively close to homes or businesses, creating an annoying effect of rapidly blinking shadows when the sun is near the horizon. 15. Noise. Wind turbines produce both mechanical noise (“turbine hum”) from inside the nacelle and aerodynamic noise (“rotor swish”) from air movement around the rotor blades. Noise levels from large onshore wind turbines are typically well below the World Health Organization’s recommended limit for outdoor noise sources. In practice, noise from wind turbines therefore tends not to be a problem if human dwellings are sufficiently far away: 300 m (meters) is normally a comfortable distance from a noise standpoint; even shorter distances may be adequate, particularly when background noise levels (e.g., from a busy highway) are relatively high. Nonetheless, noise is frequently mentioned as a concern by local residents when 6 a new wind farm is proposed, and such perceptions need to be taken into account by wind project planners. 16. Telecommunications Interference. Operating wind turbines tend to interfere with the signals received by radar and telecommunications systems, including aviation radar, radio, television, and microwave transmission. These impacts are likely to be significant when the wind turbines are within the line-of-sight of the radar or telecommunications facility (see EHS Guidelines for further detail). 17. Aircraft Safety. Wind turbines can pose a risk of aircraft collisions if they are located too close to airport runways. In addition, in agricultural areas, the presence of wind turbines will preclude aerial spraying of pesticides in the immediate vicinity, due to the risk of airplane collisions. In view of the environmental risks posed by many pesticides, such restrictions on aerial spraying could be viewed as a beneficial side effect from an environmental standpoint. 18. Blade and Ice Throw. There is a very small risk of a loose rotor blade being thrown, as a result of severe mechanical failure; any such loose rotor blade would almost certainly fall within 300 m of the turbine. In cold climates, there is also a small risk of rotor blades throwing off chunks of accumulated ice when they begin to rotate; most ice pieces fall within 100 m of the turbine (see EHS Guidelines). Some wind turbine rotor blades (as with aircraft propellers) are equipped with heating elements to reduce ice formation. 2.1.3 Socio-economic and Cultural Impacts 19. Positive Social Impacts. When it comes to people’s livelihoods, the net social impacts of wind farms tend to be positive. Wind farms enable most pre-existing land uses to continue, which can increase income for rural landowners in the wind farm area and help boost local economies. Moreover, wind power projects have the potential for generating a variety of social benefits. Still, the sum of these benefits—particularly those at the local level—can vary widely from project to project, depending on such disparate factors as the socio-cultural characteristics of beneficiary groups, policy and regulatory frameworks for land taking and use, and project developers’ experience with different approaches to benefits-sharing. 20. Land Requirements of Wind Farms. In most regions, the negotiation of leases or easements is the most common way of acquiring land for wind farms. Easements tend to involve one-time or recurring payments for the use of the land needed for installation of the wind farm platform, building of access roads, and tending of transmission lines, typically for a fixed time period (30 years or more). The possibility of avoiding formal expropriation represents a major advantage for wind over some other types of renewable energy technologies (such as hydropower), which sometimes require payment of sizable compensation and/or the replacement of lost land and other assets. 21. Land Acquisition Involving Compensation. Where expropriation and the payment of compensation are necessary, it is generally considered good practice to apply a “replacement cost” standard. This is a method of asset valuation that includes all transactions costs and, notably, does not take depreciation into account, thereby ensuring the effective replacement of 7 lost assets based on prevailing market values. The overall goal of land acquisition in this case— whether or not physical displacement or resettlement is necessary—should be to ensure that affected people are no worse off as a result of any displacement stemming from the project. 22. Tenure-Related Conflicts. As is the case with any kind of construction or development involving land taking, where security of land tenure is lacking, a host of conflicts can ensue, putting at risk not only developers’ plans, but also the long-term security and economic viability of the host communities. In many parts of the developing world, conflicting and overlapping claims to land are common and enforcement is frequently lacking, especially in the remote areas that are often the richest in terms of wind resources. Tenure-related insecurity can be addressed by making the pre-construction clarification of property rights one of the explicit local benefits provided by the project. Members of the communities involved can feel validated and supported in knowing that what is likely a long-standing concern of theirs is being addressed, while the developers of a given project can gain reassurance from knowing that it will not be delayed or even undone by conflicts over the lands needed. 23. Impacts on Indigenous Peoples. For some indigenous communities, wind power represents a culturally compatible form of development that can help build sustainable economies with non-polluting renewable energy. But because developing wind on indigenous lands can also be sensitive, careful planning is needed from the start. When the World Bank Group supports a project affecting indigenous peoples, it requires the project sponsor to prepare and implement an Indigenous Peoples Plan (IPP). Such a plan is designed to set out the measures by which the project sponsor will ensure that: (i) any indigenous peoples involved receive culturally relevant social and economic benefits; and (ii) any adverse impacts on said peoples on account of the project are avoided, minimized, mitigated, or compensated. The IPP serves as an appropriate vehicle for summarizing the findings of the social analysis conducted, as well as the outcomes of a free, prior, and informed consultation process. This, in turn, provides a critical opportunity for documenting the nature and extent of community-level support for the proposed project. 24. Impacts on Physical Cultural Resources. When wind power projects are sited in or near areas where physical cultural resources (PCR) such as archaeological or paleontological remains are known to exist, these resources are likely to be impacted as a result of project construction and/or operation. Even if the existence of PCR is not known up front, they can be uncovered during civil works requiring the movement of earth. In this regard, the legal and regulatory frameworks of most countries, which can be complemented by project sponsor policy statements modeled on UNESCO standards, provide guidance on the handling and preservation of physical resources having significant cultural, historical, aesthetic, or religious value for different groups. The application of chance finds procedures and similar measures provided for in these frameworks can help to ensure that wind projects are not developed at the expense of the cultural patrimony of a wind resource area (WRA). 8 2.2 Environmental and Social Impacts of Complementary Infrastructure 2.2.1 Impacts of Power Transmission Lines 25. Most wind power projects require the installation of power transmission lines, of variable length, to connect with the national or regional power grid. While the main focus of this report is on the environmental and social impacts associated with wind turbine facilities (wind farms), it is important to address the impacts of power transmission lines since they are an essential component or pre-condition of any grid-connected wind or other type of power generation project. However, within a wind farm itself, the power transmission cables between each turbine and the substation are usually buried underground, which is good practice with respect to worker safety, visual impacts, and avoiding bird mortality. 26. Bird Mortality at Power Transmission Lines. Overhead power transmission lines can kill birds through collisions or electrocution. Bird collisions frequently involve the top (grounding) wire, which is typically the least visible. Particularly vulnerable to collisions are relatively fast-flying, heavy-bodied birds with limited maneuverability during level flight. Such birds include pelicans, cormorants, herons, storks, ibises, flamingoes, waterfowl (ducks, geese, and swans), cranes, bustards, and coots. Power line collisions are usually most problematic over wetlands since these habitats tend to have high bird concentrations in general, but particularly for most of the species groups with high collision vulnerability. Unlike birds, bats do not normally collide with power lines or other structures besides wind turbines. As for bird electrocutions, most typically involve raptors (hawks, owls, eagles, and vultures) or other medium-to-large birds that perch on the lines or power poles and complete a circuit by simultaneously touching two live wires, or a live wire and grounding element. Some relatively long-lived, slowly-reproducing bird species have suffered significant population declines due to collisions or electrocutions at power transmission lines. Thus, when assessing the bird mortality risks associated with a wind power project, it is important to consider the effects of any new overhead transmission lines, along with the turbines and meteorological towers. 27. Forest Fragmentation. To prevent physical interference with power lines and possible electrical shorts, tall trees are not allowed within the rights-of-way (ROWs) for the lines. When a transmission line—from a wind farm or any other power generation facility—crosses forested areas, the result can be deforestation that incrementally adds to the project’s carbon footprint. The forest fragmentation that results can also be problematic for those arboreal wildlife species that never come to the ground during their life cycle and thus do not cross the ROWs. 28. Visual Impacts. In most areas, overhead power transmission lines are presently a much more widespread feature of the landscape than wind turbines. Visual impacts of transmission lines are sometimes of concern, particularly in areas that are important for tourism and recreation. 29. Land Acquisition Issues. The installation of transmission lines does not usually require expropriation, unless dwellings are too close to the ROW. Acquisition of the ROW for the lines can be through direct land purchase, but more often it is done via the imposition of easements. This normally involves the payment of an easement fee as compensation for restrictions on the 9 residential and commercial use of the land under or near the lines, and for periodic access to the towers by the maintaining utility. Most types of previous economic activities can continue within the ROW. In most cases, no compensation is paid for decreases in property values as a result of transmission lines installation, although it is good practice to seek out ways of addressing the economic, safety-related, or aesthetic concerns of landowners whose properties are traversed by the lines. 2.2.2 Impacts of Access Roads 30. For some wind power projects, the most significant environmental impacts can result from road construction and improvement rather than from the wind turbines or transmission lines. Wind power projects often require: (i) new access roads to reach the wind farm site; (ii) major widening of existing roads to facilitate the passage of very large trucks, hauling rotor blades, nacelles, and turbine tower sections; and (iii) new roads to connect all of the turbines on a wind farm. Some wind power projects also build or improve access roads to benefit local communities, even if these roads are not needed for wind farm construction or operation. 31. Road construction or improvement can bring major economic and social benefits to local communities. For example, improved year-round access to agricultural lands facilitates increased farm production and improved marketing. The access roads built or improved as part of wind farm construction might also improve local residents’ access to health, education, and other services, as well as stimulate a range of increased economic activity. 32. Nevertheless, the potential adverse environmental and social impacts resulting from road construction or major improvement also need to be carefully assessed. These can involve: (i) direct impacts resulting from the road works themselves, as well as (ii) indirect (induced) impacts resulting from new or increased human activity that is made feasible by the improved road access. Among others, the direct impacts include: (i) loss of natural habitats from clearing for the road right-of-way; (ii) fragmentation of forests or other natural habitats; (iii) loss of strips of land and land-based assets requiring some form of compensation; (iv) altered drainage patterns of waterways; (v) soil erosion and landslides; (vi) pollution and sedimentation of aquatic ecosystems; (vii) airborne dust; (viii) blockage of fish and wildlife movements; and (ix) traffic-related fatalities of humans and animals. The indirect impacts—which are often more severe and/or difficult to mitigate, particularly in developing countries—can include (i) new human settlement of previously remote areas, with possible impacts on indigenous lands; (ii) deforestation or other clearing or degradation of natural habitats; (iii) logging and other wood cutting, often at unsustainable levels; (iv) informal mining development and the associated environmental impacts; (v) illegal or unsustainable hunting or harvest of vulnerable species; (vi) social conflicts between long-time residents and newcomers over access to land or other natural resources; and (vii) the potential spread of human diseases (including HIV-AIDS) by construction workers or road users. 10 Chapter 3: Project-Level Management of Environmental and Social Impacts 33. This chapter describes project-level good practices aimed at mitigating adverse environmental and social impacts and enhancing the positive impacts of wind power projects. As detailed in the case examples and literature references in the Full Report, the good practices described here are normally technically feasible and often cost-effective. All of them have been implemented in, or at least proposed for, wind projects somewhere in the world. While the emphasis is on land-based (onshore) wind power technologies and practices, some of the good practices discussed are also applicable offshore. 3.1 Wind Project Planning 3.1.1 Site Selection of Wind Power Infrastructure 34. The Importance of Site Selection. In general, the single most important measure for managing environmental and social impacts is careful site selection of wind farms and their associated transmission lines and access roads. Site selection largely pre-determines the resulting environmental or social impacts, along with the extent to which follow-up environmental or social mitigation or enhancement measures might—or might not—be effective. Since many countries’ wind resources remain largely untapped, they typically have multiple options regarding where to locate new wind farms, for connection to a national or regional electricity grid. Attractive areas for wind power development are defined predominantly by wind conditions and relative proximity to existing transmission lines. However, environmental and social considerations also need to be taken into account in site selection, along the lines discussed below. 3.1.1.1 Biodiversity Considerations 35. Higher-Risk Sites. From a biodiversity conservation standpoint, the more problematic sites for wind power infrastructure tend to have one or more of the characteristics listed below. Depending on specific circumstances, wind project planners who encounter one or more of these characteristics should ideally either search for an alternative project site, or carry out more detailed due diligence to ensure that the biodiversity-related risks are manageable. i. Protected Areas. Around the world, many types of national parks, wildlife refuges, forest reserves, and other protected areas have been established to conserve in perpetuity their biodiversity, outstanding natural beauty, and/or physical cultural heritage. Present-day efforts to locate wind farms within protected areas are often highly controversial with environmental NGOs and other stakeholders. ii. Critical Natural Habitats. Critical natural habitats (CNHs) generally comprise sites of known high biodiversity conservation value, whether or not they are located within 11 protected areas.2 CNHs include areas that are considered important for the survival of endangered, vulnerable, rare, and migratory species. Various country-level lists and maps of CNHs have been prepared by government agencies and conservation NGOs. Particularly useful, in terms of identifying sites that would best be avoided for wind power development, are the Important Bird Areas (IBAs) that have been designated for many countries by the NGO BirdLife International and its affiliates. iii. Wildlife Migration Corridors. For migratory birds, many of the key migration “bottlenecks,” staging areas, and concentration points are already well known; in some countries, these sites may be visited by large numbers of birdwatchers. For migratory bats, there is comparatively little knowledge of areas where bats tend to concentrate during migration, although shorelines, mountain ridges, and/or mountain passes are likely possibilities. Migration corridors are also important for the survival of many populations of large mammals that need to walk long distances to reach seasonal food supplies and are often displaced from wind farms by the near-constant presence of employees and their vehicles. Due diligence for wind farm site selection is most effective when it is done in consultation with government agencies and conservation NGOs, who are likely to have information about important wildlife migration corridors—whether or not they lie within existing or proposed protected areas. iv. Wooded Areas. Forests and woodlands frequently hold higher bat populations than more open habitats, particularly for the tree-roosting bat species that are killed at wind turbines in disproportionately high numbers. Forest clearing (typically 1-2 hectares per megawatt [ha/MW]) and fragmentation to install wind turbines and associated roads can adversely affect a variety of animal and plant species, particularly those that are naturally restricted to mountain ridge-tops. In predominantly agricultural landscapes, the remaining shelterbelts and other naturally wooded areas tend to have relatively greater biodiversity conservation value. Moreover, clearing wooded land for wind power production or transmission produces incremental greenhouse gas emissions when the felled biomass is burned or decomposes. For these reasons, it is generally more problematic from an environmental standpoint to locate wind farms, transmission lines, and access roads in forested areas than in most types of open areas. From a biodiversity standpoint, clearing native forest is more problematic than clearing forest plantations of non- native species. v. Wetlands. Wetlands include marshes, wooded swamps, inter-tidal mudflats, lakes (natural or impounded), lagoons, ponds, rice paddies and other flooded fields, streams, rivers, bays, and estuaries. They are considered high-risk sites for locating wind turbines because they tend to attract concentrated populations of birds and bats. Wetlands also tend to be high-risk sites for overhead power transmission lines, 2 The World Bank’s Natural Habitats Policy (OP 4.04, Annex 1) contains a detailed definition of “critical natural habitats,” and the IFC’s Performance Standard 6 on Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Natural Resource Management has a broadly similar definition of “critical habitat.” 12 because they often hold concentrations of aquatic bird species that are highly prone to power line collisions. In addition, wetlands can also be environmentally problematic sites for installing wind farms because turbine access roads, if built on top of dikes with inadequate drainage, can adversely affect wetland hydrology and the movements of aquatic fauna. vi. Shorelines. The shorelines of oceans, seas, or large lakes (including cliff-tops) tend to be windy, but they also tend to have concentrated bird and bat populations, so they are higher-risk sites for locating wind farms. However, adequate setbacks from the shoreline can substantially reduce bird mortality, often with little or no reduction in favorable wind speeds. vii. Small Islands. Small islands can be high-risk sites for installing wind power facilities, especially if they either contain nesting seabird colonies or lie along major bird or bat migration pathways. viii. Native Grasslands or Shrub-Steppe. These naturally open ecosystems merit careful biological review during wind project site selection because they might be important habitats for shy species of birds or large mammals that could be displaced (frightened away) from important areas of habitat. ix. Near Caves. Caves and similar underground structures (such as abandoned tunnels and mine shafts) sometimes harbor large numbers of breeding or roosting bats. 36. Lower-Risk Sites. Conversely, as a first approximation, lower-risk sites for wind power development tend to have low bird and bat numbers year-round, and do not harbor animal or plant species of conservation concern. Such lower-risk sites often fall into one of the following categories. Nonetheless, specific screening of these sites as part of the environmental assessment (EA) process is still important. Given the gaps in knowledge (especially about risks to birds and bats), there is always the potential for surprise findings, even at previously assumed low-risk sites. i. Most Cultivated Lands. Extensive areas under cultivation are less likely to harbor bat or bird concentrations, or species of conservation interest. In terms of minimizing tradeoffs with biodiversity, such lands can be ideal sites for wind farm development. However, there are some exceptions to this general rule, including: (a) certain grain fields (especially near wetlands) that may seasonally attract large migratory bird flocks and (b) irrigated fields in desert areas, which due to the local abundance of fresh water, serve as oases that can attract large numbers of birds and other fauna. ii. Non-native Pastures. Pasture lands with predominantly non-native grasses or other forage plants tend not to harbor important populations of the grassland bird species of greatest conservation concern, which could be harmed by collisions or habitat displacement. However, some non-native pasture lands are located within important migratory bird corridors or in areas of high raptor densities. 13 iii. Deserts. Open, barren desert lands tend to have relatively low bird and bat densities, and are thus often well-suited for wind power development. Exceptions to this rule include desert areas with freshwater oases or near coastlines and deltas, where bird numbers can be high. 3.1.1.2 Local Nuisance and Safety Considerations 37. Managing Visual Impacts through Site Selection. Special attention is needed in site selection for wind farms and associated infrastructure in areas of high (actual or potential) importance for tourism and recreation. In some such areas, carefully sited wind farms could bring in additional visitors who wish to view the turbines. In other areas of great or pristine natural beauty, the installation of wind turbines and power lines might reduce overall tourist visitation. Wind project planners can minimize risks by carefully assessing the visual impacts prior to construction. Viewshed mapping, photo composition, virtual simulations, and field inventories of views are all useful tools for determining the visibility of a proposed project and the characteristics of the views. However, the level of acceptability of a proposed wind farm, in terms of its aesthetic impacts, can vary widely by location, based largely on the preferences of local residents and other interested stakeholders. 38. The careful placement of turbines will avoid problems with shadow flicker. During wind farm planning, the dwellings that would be affected by a significant amount of shadow flicker (particularly around sunset) can be identified by using standard industry software. Alternatives include changing the locations of particular turbines (where still consistent with efficient wind power generation), short-term shutdowns of particular turbines during shadow flicker periods, or planting trees as a visual screen around the affected houses. 39. Managing Noise, Radar, Telecommunications, and Public Safety Impacts. Careful site selection is the most important tool for avoiding problems with these very site-specific issues. Noise from wind turbines is effectively avoided as a problem by ensuring that turbines are located an adequate distance from any human dwellings (other than the wind project offices themselves); standard industry software exists for calculating theoretical noise impacts on nearby buildings. A distance of about 300 m from dwellings is sufficient to avoid most significant noise impacts; this measure also minimizes any risk to the public from blade or ice throw. Interference with radar and telecommunications systems can also be effectively avoided through careful site selection, including avoiding the installation of turbines within the line-of-sight of the radar or telecommunications facility. Wind turbines can sometimes be safely located within the line-of-sight of aviation radar, particularly when additional investments are made to relocate the affected radar, blank out the affected radar area, or use alternative radar systems to cover the affected area. Risks of aircraft collisions with wind turbines and overhead transmission lines are minimized by maintaining adequate distances between airport runways and wind power facilities. In agricultural areas, aerial spraying can be replaced with ground-level spraying or a shift to organic production. The EHS Guidelines provide more details on managing these issues, as well as those related to occupational health and safety. 14 3.1.1.3 Socio-economic and Cultural Considerations 40. In cases where wind power development is externally directed, attitudes toward specific projects emerge from the interplay of the outside agent’s actions and the local residents’ interests. In this regard, while many people like wind power in general, they do not want wind farms or transmission lines in their “backyards.” A participatory approach to wind project siting that takes into account socio-economic and cultural, as well as environmental, criteria tends to have a positive impact on public attitudes toward a project. As a result, such an approach can lead to decreases in public resistance and social conflict. 3.1.1.4 Site Selection and Zoning Tools 41. Strategic environmental assessments (SEAs) are a key tool for wind power planning, providing information that would not normally be covered in a project-specific environmental impact assessments (EIAs). SEAs are known by different names, including sectoral and regional environmental assessments, and vary greatly in their scope and level of complexity. In terms of wind power planning, among the important functions that SEAs perform include: (i) macro-level site selection (within a country or region) of the optimum wind resource area (WRA) or sub-region for developing new wind farms and power transmission corridors; (ii) assessing the cumulative environmental impacts of multiple wind farms within a WRA; (iii) developing common good practice standards for use by all the wind power developers within a WRA (such as for post-construction monitoring, operational curtailment, or social benefits- sharing); (iv) developing mechanisms for information exchange and shared responsibilities between different wind farm operators; (v) analyzing alternative power generation options (in addition to wind) within a particular planning area; and (vi) providing a platform for involving different stakeholders, including the most vulnerable, in the decision-making process regarding wind development. Some types of SEAs focus on particular issues, such as the cumulative impacts of multiple wind farms within a WRA on migratory birds or other wildlife. This type of study is also called a cumulative impact assessment. Certain SEAs also address social opportunities, constraints, and risks at the regional level, in effect making them the integrated tool known as the strategic environmental and social assessment (SESA). In this regard, governments interested in scaling up wind power could help optimize environmental and social—as well as economic—outcomes by promoting SEAs in areas with high wind potential, well in advance of issuing wind development concessions and permits. 42. Overlay Maps. Since potential wind power resources remain largely untapped in most countries, they typically have multiple options regarding where to locate new wind farms, in terms of the connection to a national or regional electricity grid. For macro-level site selection of new wind power development, SEAs provide overlay maps that show where the zones of high wind power potential are located, in relation to the areas of major environmental and social sensitivity. Environmentally or socially sensitive areas are likely to include, among other things: (i) protected areas and other sites of concern from a biodiversity standpoint, (ii) areas important for tourism where visual impacts would be of concern, (iii) areas with uncertain or disputed land ownership, (iv) areas with indigenous or other traditional rural populations where greater-than-usual efforts might be needed to obtain broad community acceptance, (v) radar and 15 telecommunications facilities where turbines could cause interference, and (vi) areas close to airports. 43. Zoning Maps. In addition to overlay maps that show areas of overlap and potential conflict, some SEAs also produce zoning maps for prospective wind power development, recommending such zones as: (i) “Red” Exclusion Zones, where wind farms or transmission lines would be prohibited; (ii) “Yellow” Precautions Zones, where wind farm development would need to follow special precautions based on the specific natural or cultural resource(s) of concern; and (iii) “Green” Promotion Zones, where wind farm development could be actively promoted, subject to the standard environmental and social due diligence, or perhaps pre-screened for expedited approval. Aside from minimizing environmental and social conflicts, a coordinated planning approach with zoning maps can facilitate wind power development by identifying areas where the electric grid will require expansion or reinforcement. Chapter 3 of the Full Report discusses in detail the methodology used by a recently-completed SEA with zoning maps for Wyoming, USA and an SEA currently under preparation for the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico. 3.1.2 Wind Farm Layout and Micro-Siting 44. Once the general site for a new wind farm has been selected, adjusting the location of turbine rows or individual turbines can significantly mitigate some environmental and social impacts. Risks to biodiversity can sometimes be substantially reduced by locating turbines a fairly short distance from specific areas of high bird or bat use, or the habitats of species of conservation concern—consistent with the presence of favorable wind conditions. Such sites may include shorelines, canyon rims, mountain passes, ponds, and even refuse dumps that attract birds; these sites should be identified and demarcated prior to construction, as part of the EIA process. In addition, having a relatively wide space between turbines is considered helpful to migratory birds that fly through a wind farm at RSA height, although there may be trade-offs with aesthetic and other social considerations. Care should also be taken to configure turbine arrays so as to avoid creating a barrier between important bird nesting and feeding areas. Turbines can be selectively located within a wind farm so as to minimize the number and length of new roads, which can help minimize the loss and fragmentation of natural habitats. To reduce visual and noise impacts and for basic safety reasons, it is best to avoid placing turbines in close proximity to dwellings. 3.1.3 Phased Development of Wind Projects 45. Within a particular wind resource area (WRA), the phased development of wind power projects can prevent large-scale, essentially irreversible mistakes in wind farm site selection. Under this approach, only one wind farm is installed, and then systematically monitored for environmental and social impacts. If the monitoring shows adverse impacts (such as bird and bat mortality) to be acceptably low, then scaling up with additional wind farms is warranted in nearby areas with similar characteristics. 16 3.1.4 Wind Power Equipment Selection 46. The choice of wind power equipment—turbines, met towers, transmission lines, and even lighting fixtures—can substantially affect environmental impacts. 3.1.4.1. Wind Turbines 47. Turbine Size. On a per-MW basis, larger wind turbines tend to be less risky for birds (perhaps also bats) than smaller turbines. The advantages of larger wind turbines include: (i) wider spaces between each turbine in a row; (ii) a rotor-swept area (RSA) higher off the ground, enabling more birds to safely pass underneath; and (iii) a smaller total number of turbines, which may reduce overall bird and bat collision risks. A possible exception might be for birds and bats that migrate at night, typically around 100-600 m above ground level, where the upper RSA of the larger turbines might encroach into their flight paths. However, when wind turbines are located away from major migration corridors (as they ideally would be), a smaller number of large turbines is generally preferable to a larger number of smaller ones, in terms of reducing bird and perhaps also bat collisions. 48. On a per-MW basis, larger wind turbines also have other environmental advantages over smaller ones. Less land area needs to be cleared of its vegetation since fewer turbine platforms are needed. Given that large turbines can be visible for a long distance in any case, a smaller number of turbines are generally considered to have less of a visual impact, on a per-MW basis. 49. Other Turbine Specifications. Besides size, other attributes of turbines and other wind farm equipment can have environmental implications, which should be considered, among other factors, when choosing equipment: i. Turbine Color. Presently, almost all large wind turbines worldwide are painted white or off-white, sometimes with red stripes on the rotor blades and corporate logos on the nacelles. White is considered the color of choice in terms of minimizing adverse visual impacts for most people. To date, scientific data are lacking as to whether changing turbine colors could significantly reduce bird collisions with rotor blades (see Chapter 3 of the Full Report for details). Currently, the strongest case for considering alternative turbine colors might be to paint the bottom 3-5 m of the turbine tower a darker color, while leaving the rest of the tower white; this could reduce the mortality of birds that hit the tower (not the rotor blades) close to the ground. A relatively narrow, darker base to a very tall (50-60 meter) tower would mostly be visible within the wind farm itself, rather than from further away where aesthetics-related issues would mostly arise. ii. Wind Farm Lighting. Wind farm lighting includes: (a) aircraft warning lights that are installed on tops of some turbine nacelles and (b) night lights around wind farm buildings, parking lots, or other facilities. To minimize the risks that night-flying migrant birds will be attracted to wind turbines during overcast weather, aircraft warning lights would ideally be: (a) white strobe lights (rather than solid or slowly 17 pulsating red or white lights) and (b) placed atop a limited number of turbines to help show the wind farm outline, rather than on every one—consistent with local regulatory requirements. In many low-risk cases far away from airports, such lights might not be needed at all; for example, US law requires aircraft warning lights only on structures 200 feet or higher. If aviation regulations provide flexibility concerning the type of aircraft warning lights to be used, it would also be important to consult with local residents regarding their preferences. In addition, wind farm night lighting close to ground level should be minimized—in ways that do not compromise worker safety and operational security—to avoid attracting migratory birds during cloudy weather and bats and nocturnal birds that seek out the flying insects that concentrate around night lights. This implies using, whenever feasible, (a) sensors and switches to keep lights off when not needed and (b) lighting fixtures that are hooded and directed downward, to minimize the skyward and horizontal illumination that could attract night-flying birds and bats to the vicinity of wind turbines. iii. Perchable Structures. Modern, tubular towers are widely regarded as more bird-friendly than older lattice-work towers, since birds (particularly raptors) frequently perch on the latter, in close proximity to the spinning rotor blades. However, even tubular towers have some structures on which birds can perch, including some that are considered indispensable such as the anemometer and safety railings atop the nacelle and others for which good alternatives exist (external ladders are not needed when staircases or elevators are inside the turbine tower). To minimize risks to birds, turbine towers would have only those perchable structures that are clearly needed for operational efficiency or worker safety. 3.1.4.2 Meteorological Towers 50. Meteorological towers can kill birds—sometimes proportionately more than wind turbines because: (i) their guy wires can be nearly invisible to flying birds, particulary in fog, dim light, or at night; and (ii) birds that are buffeted by high winds often lack the maneuverability to avoid the guy wires at the very last moment. Some meteorological towers (also known as met towers or masts) do not use guy wires, but these are considerably more expensive to procure and install. Moreover, the installation requires greater use of heavy machinery and sometimes the construction of additional access roads. However, un-guyed met towers might be considered for wind power projects located along bird migration pathways or in other areas with large concentrations of birds, particularly if species of conservation concern are involved. If guyed met towers are used, project developers and operators should leave standing only the minimum number of towers needed for proper wind farm functioning. Typically, this means having one, occasionally two, towers per wind farm. 3.1.4.3 Transmission Lines 51. The most important tool for mitigating the environmental and social impacts of overhead power transmission lines is careful alignment, to avoid crossing sensitive or populated areas. In addition, equipment selection can also make a significant difference with 18 respect to one type of transmission line environmental impact, bird mortality, in terms of both collisions and electrocutions. 52. Reducing Bird Collisions. When attached to overhead transmission line grounding wires, devices known as bird flight diverters (BFDs) make them more visible to flying birds, thereby significantly reducing collisions for many species. BFD designs exist in different shapes and colors; some flap in the breeze, while others are stationary. BFDs are commercially available under brand names that include Firefly and BirdMark. In general, BFDs are inexpensive to install when the power line is first under construction, but much more expensive to retrofit. If installed properly, BFDs do not affect electricity transmission performance. Accordingly, the routine use of BFDs is highly recommended when constructing or replacing transmission lines in higher-risk areas, particularly wetlands. 53. Reducing Bird Electrocutions. Certain configurations of medium-voltage power poles, power lines, and associated equipment (insulators, transformers, etc.) are considered bird-friendly because they pose little or no electrocution risk. In general, bird-friendly configurations are those in which: (i) electrified wires are at least 2-3 m apart (greater than the wingspan of the largest local raptor species) if at the same height and (ii) insulators, transformers, and similar devices either point down from the cross-pole where a bird might perch, or are otherwise outside the normal stretching reach of a perched bird. 3.1.5 Stakeholder Consultation, Participation, and Communication 54. Consultation. From the earliest phases of a wind power project, information on the implications of the proposed project for both the natural environment and local people should be adequately disseminated, so that all trade-offs can be properly considered—as in the course of a public hearing—during the decision-making process. Typically this is the objective of policies and procedures on the disclosure and dissemination of project-related information, which find their most direct expression in EIA legislation in different countries. While such information-sharing is a necessary prior step in any consultation process, it is not in itself sufficient. 55. Consultation with Indigenous Peoples. One of the ingredients in successful stakeholder consultations involving indigenous peoples is to earn the trust of community leaders. This can be difficult, especially where indigenous communities report having had bad experiences with outside developers. The record of various developers with indigenous engagement has shown that a key element in building trust among indigenous stakeholders, and helping to ensure that wind projects sited on indigenous lands are based on relevant and accurate information, is to employ socio-cultural experts who are intimately familiar with the project setting and the people(s) in question. 56. Participation. In engaging a range of stakeholders around questions of wind power development, the most socially equitable and sustainable outcomes tend to be achieved when public participation is sought. “Participation” denotes a more meaningful and informed process of involvement with stakeholders, in which key groups actively participate in defining and 19 implementing the project or cluster of projects in question. Public participation tends to be most effective when it is facilitated in a structured and sequenced manner. 57. Communication. Where stakeholders are sophisticated or where there is the potential for substantial conflict, it is advisable to have a targeted public communication strategy. A lack of communication between residents in a wind resource area on the one hand and developers, equipment suppliers, and local bureaucrats on the other may become a catalyst for social mobilization and protest actions against specific projects. Often people want assurances not just that they are being heard, but that their views and preferences are being respected. If they accept a consultation and participation process as legitimate, they are much more likely to go along with final decisions taken, even if they do not agree with all of them. 3.1.6 Land Acquisition, Displacement, and Compensation 58. In the unlikely event that wind project construction should require involuntary resettlement, it is important for the developer to proceed with care. The World Bank’s experience is that physical displacement and resettlement can result in long-term hardship, impoverishment, and environmental damage unless appropriate measures are carefully planned and carried out. Among the measures that the Bank requires in the projects that it finances include carrying out socio-economic surveys and conducting censuses, developing an entitlement framework, defining a consultation and participation strategy for affected persons, and preparing, implementing, and monitoring mitigation plans centered on the replacement of lost assets and the restoration of incomes. 59. Replacement Cost Standard. When expropriation is required in wind projects, it is desirable that compensation for affected assets be paid at replacement cost. In addition to depending on clear and consistent methods for asset valuation, the calculation of replacement cost ensures that the assets are not downgraded in value (as by taking depreciation into account), thereby allowing for their effective replacement according to prevailing market values. It should also include transaction costs and cover land and related assets such as crops, fences, trees, and other improvements on the affected land. Other solutions such as “land-for-land” can be offered as well; this approach is especially desirable when the livelihoods of the affected people are land-based. 60. Compensation for Related Damages. It is good practice for a developer to make prompt and adequate payments for “related damages,” which can be defined as unforeseen or additional damages tied to temporary impacts during the construction of a wind project. The need to make such payments is usually provided for in the relevant legislation of many countries, if not in the project developer’s operating policies. 3.1.7 Benefits-sharing Arrangements 61. Going Beyond Compensation. Compensating people who have lost land and other assets, whether temporarily or permanently, on account of land acquisition for wind power development is an important step. However, project developers should also concern themselves with delivering tangible benefits to area residents, with the aim of not only securing the lands 20 needed for a project, but also sustaining local livelihoods, improving incomes, and enhancing local people’s skills and knowledge. By going beyond those who are immediately and adversely affected by the construction and operation of a wind farm, sponsoring companies can find themselves in a much better position to manage public perceptions, improve overall community relations, and engage in effective risk management. Where public utilities and other government entities are involved, taking an approach to scaling-up wind power that involves the broad sharing of benefits can serve as a means of supporting regional economic development, achieving equity in the distribution of public resources, and fostering political support through enfranchisement. 3.1.7.1 Lease/Rent and Royalty Payments 62. A common way of sharing benefits in connection with wind power development is to provide lease/rent or royalty payments to the owners of the lands needed for a wind farm’s operation, above and beyond what they would receive as compensation. The most common type of contract for doing so provides for the payment of royalties as a percent of gross revenue, or a percent over billing. This arrangement provides an incentive to both the developer and the landowners to maximize the productivity of the wind farm. It is also easy to verify. To prevent the landowners from receiving lower-than-expected payments due to technical factors such as erratic wind patterns, increased turbine maintenance, or operational curtailment (for birds, bats, or shadow flicker), royalty schemes usually also include a guaranteed minimum payment. 63. Lump Sum and Fixed Fee Arrangements. Other types of payment structures include lump sum payments—a relatively uncommon arrangement since it preempts the possibility of an ongoing economic agreement between the landowner and developer—and a flat or fixed fee arrangement. The latter type of payment arrangement provides both landowner and developer with some certainty regarding future income or payment streams. However, among its disadvantages are that the payments do not mirror the actual revenue generated, and it eliminates the incentive for the landowner to cooperate with the developer to ensure optimum power generation. 64. Multiple Landowners. In cases involving multiple landowners, developers usually take one of two approaches: (i) basing payments on the power generated by specific turbines located on the individual plots of land or (ii) basing payments on the average output of all the turbines in the project, multiplied by the number of turbines located on an individual plot of land. The second option is easier to verify and document and carries the least risk for the landowner. It is good practice—insofar as it can help to avoid social conflict—to offer to pay some share of the royalties generated by the operation of the wind farm to all landowners with holdings within the wind farm area, including those who choose to opt out and not have turbines erected on their plots. 3.1.7.2 Local Benefits Programs 65. In addition to sharing financial benefits, some wind power developers take the extra step of engaging local communities and other relevant stakeholders in the design and implementation of collective benefits programs. Such programs, which are often based on the 21 provision of services, construction of public infrastructure, in-kind donations, and the like, tend to be essential elements of corporate social responsibility and/or community relations strategies pursued by private-sector developers. 66. Local Benefits and Carbon Finance Projects. Public or quasi-public sector actors interested in wind power projects might also be interested in enhancing their local credentials through the sponsorship of local development programs, but other incentives come into the picture here. Various wind power developers in both the private and public sectors are relying on carbon finance credits to help them overcome financial, regulatory, and other barriers to wind power development. The demonstration of sustainable development impacts—which in practice has often meant providing for local benefits for the larger host community, not just those people who are immediately affected—is a requirement for all projects registered with the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol. One World Bank–administered carbon fund, the Community Development Carbon Fund (CDCF), even goes so far as to provide for payment of a premium on the value of emission reductions, for use in funding the implementation of local development activities. 3.1.7.3 Local Employment Opportunities 67. Although wind power projects are less labor-intensive than projects in other sectors such as water and sanitation or transport, job creation for wind projects can be significant. Wind energy development can boost the local economy by creating short-term jobs during the wind farm construction phase and long-term employment during the operation and maintenance phase. The jobs generated during the construction phase of a project generally last about a year. In the case of longer-lasting operations and maintenance jobs, it is estimated that one job is created for every five to eight MW of installed capacity. For wind projects in developing countries, employment levels can be even higher due to lower pay rates. Moreover, in areas with exceptional wind resources and the potential for large-scale wind energy development, there may be sufficient demand for the establishment of local facilities that produce wind turbine towers or other equipment. 3.1.7.4 Community-Based Wind Power Schemes 68. Wind power projects based in specific communities could be an important way to advance wind power market growth. Such projects have the following advantages: i. Locally-owned and controlled wind power generation serves as a welcome source of new income for farmers and landowners. ii. Locally-owned wind farms can substantially broaden tax bases in jurisdictions where there is a mechanism for local income taxation, thereby benefiting entire communities. iii. Local ownership galvanizes support for wind energy, engages rural and economic development interests, and builds a larger constituency with a direct stake in the industry’s success. 22 69. Wind Cooperatives in Europe. Local ownership of wind power projects—in the form of cooperatives—has played an important role in the development of wind energy in Denmark and elsewhere in northern Europe. In the Danish context, the advantages of investing in wind cooperatives have included the following: i. Wind cooperatives provide good economic return combined with relatively low risk due to small shares. ii. Investors perceive that they personally contribute to enhanced environmental quality through their actions. iii. People invest in local production and generate local tax revenues. iv. Investors tend to view wind projects favorably. Based on the European experience, the question therefore arises: Can the cooperative model work in developing countries? It is possible that creating the enabling conditions for European-style cooperatives would require legal and regulatory reform in many cases, making the cultivation of home-grown local ownership models a more attractive alternative. 3.1.8 Environmental and Social Assessment 70. Environmental impact assessment (EIA) reports for wind power projects represent an essential tool for identifying and properly managing site-specific environmental and social impacts. While an SEA can identify relatively broad zones of environmental suitability, the project-specific EIA is the appropriate instrument for a more detailed, micro-level screening of specific wind farm sites, and even of specific turbine placements within a wind farm. Moreover, EIA reports also typically document and explain the process used to select the project site, including the environmental, social, and other criteria by which alternative sites were evaluated. EIA studies are required for all wind power projects that receive support from the World Bank Group. As the environmental and social impacts of wind power development become better known, an increasing number of governments are also likely to require EIAs for wind projects. 71. Pre-Construction Biodiversity Studies. As part of the project-level EIA process, it is often important to carry out specialized, site-specific studies of particular bird or bat species, species groups, or natural habitat areas that may be of special concern in the context of the proposed new wind project (see Chapter 3 of the Full Report for details). 72. Environmental Management Plans. EIA reports for wind power projects are most useful if they include some type of environmental management plan (EMP; sometimes other names are used) that specifies actions to be taken during project construction and operation to prevent, minimize, mitigate, or compensate for any adverse environmental impacts, and to enhance any positive impacts. For each recommended mitigation, enhancement, monitoring, and/or training activity, the EMP would ideally specify: (i) an implementation schedule, in 23 relation to construction activities and turbine operation; (ii) the institutional responsibilities for carrying out the environmental management actions and supervising compliance; (iii) the corresponding one-time and recurrent costs; and (iv) the dedicated source(s) of funds to cover these environmental management costs. 73. Although many environmental impact assessment studies address social impacts along with the biological and physical ones, it is good practice to carry out separate social assessments (SAs), particularly for those wind power projects that may have an impact (whether positive or negative) on indigenous peoples or other vulnerable groups. SAs establish the combined analytical and participatory approach that allows the client to: (i) document ethnic and racial diversity and gender issues that are part of the project setting, (ii) analyze formal and informal institutions in the project setting, (iii) undertake a systematic stakeholder analysis covering both those potentially affected by a project and those who may influence the project’s outcomes, (iv) develop a systematic consultation and participation process based on the results of the stakeholder analysis, and (v) identify and address social risks. Some of these risks may be related to the reputation of the project and its sponsors. 3.1.9 Bidding Documents and Contracts 74. Wind project bidding documents and contracts need to reflect key environmental and social standards, as well as the specific agreements reached for impact mitigation or enhancement. Bidding documents and contracts for turbine installation, access roads, and any other civil works should specify the main environmental and social management measures during construction, so that all contractors and sub-contractors are aware of them and can adjust their construction budgets and schedules accordingly. In addition, project procurement plans should take into account the technical specifications for turbines and other wind power equipment that would be more environmentally and socially benign, in terms of biodiversity, visual impacts, or other criteria—consistent with availability and cost constraints. For project operation, contracts and (where applicable) bidding documents need to reflect agreed wind farm operating standards, which might specify post-construction monitoring and data-sharing, operational curtailment (adjusted cut-in speeds and short-term shutdowns), equipment and landscape maintenance, and decommissioning requirements for turbines that are no longer operational. It is much more feasible to implement environmental or social mitigation measures (including operational curtailment, discussed below) if these measures have been explicitly described and costed within signed project agreements and contracts. 3.2 Wind Project Construction 75. Environmental Rules for Contractors. During the installation of wind turbines, access roads, and transmission lines, the use of good construction practices will serve to minimize adverse environmental and social impacts. These good practices include: (i) minimizing any clearing of natural vegetation during turbine installation; (ii) locating worker camps, storage sheds, parking lots, and other construction-related facilities so as to avoid or minimize the removal of natural vegetation, opting instead to use previously cleared or degraded lands; (iii) installing sufficient drainage works under all access roads, to avoid flooding land and 24 damaging streams; (iv) implementing adequate measures to control soil erosion and runoff; (v) ensuring proper disposal of all solid and liquid wastes; (vi) refraining from washing of vehicles or changing of lubricants in waterways or wetlands; (vii) ensuring that locally obtained construction materials (such as gravel, sand, and wood) come from legal and environmentally sustainable sources; (viii) following chance finds procedures if archaeological, historical, or other relics are unearthed during project construction; (ix) restoring cleared areas where feasible to minimize the wind project’s environmental footprint, although the area around each turbine should typically have minimal or short ground cover for the duration of post-construction monitoring of bird and bat mortality; and (x) enforcing good behavior by construction workers, including limits on hunting, fishing, wildlife capture, bushmeat purchase, plant collection, unauthorized vegetation burning, speeding, off-road driving, firearms possession (except by security personnel), or inappropriate interactions with local people. 76. Getting Results on the Ground. To help ensure that the environmental and social measures agreed on paper become a reality on the ground, strict field supervision of construction work needs to be carried out by independent, knowledgeable personnel. In this regard, project sponsors and construction supervisors should ensure that financial or other penalties such as termination or black-listing are sufficiently strict to promote good compliance by contractors, subcontractors, and construction workers and enforced in a consistent and transparent manner. 3.3 Wind Project Operation 77. After site selection, the operation of wind projects usually provides the best opportunities for effectively mitigating environmental and social impacts. During project operation, bird and bat monitoring are a key element of good environmental management. Also of particular significance for bird and bat conservation are some potentially cost-effective options for operational curtailment. Furthermore, the careful management of wind farm landscapes can significantly enhance environmental and social outcomes. It is typically during the operational phase that local residents and other stakeholders (besides the project sponsor) begin to reap financial and other benefits from a project’s generation of electricity. 3.3.1 Post-construction Monitoring 78. Post-construction monitoring of bird and bat mortality is an indispensable tool for the environmental management of wind power projects. This type of monitoring is low-cost, yet essential in terms of: (i) knowing whether or not a significant bird or bat mortality problem exists at any given wind farm—pre-construction studies cannot definitively determine this; (ii) predicting the biodiversity-related impacts of scaling-up development within a particular WRA; (iii) adaptive management of wind farm operation to reduce bird or bat mortality; and (iv) advancing scientific knowledge in a field that still faces a steep learning curve. Such monitoring involves periodic searching for bird and bat carcasses around turbines, met towers, and transmission lines. It should be carried out for at least the first two years of wind farm operation since bird and bat mortality can vary from year to year, especially due to weather conditions. The monitoring should continue for longer if significant mortality is found, so that mitigation measures can be tested and implemented. To cover most of the area in which 25 turbine-killed birds or bats would fall, the search area should encompass a radius equivalent to the maximum RSA height around each turbine to be searched. To minimize any conflicts of interest (real or perceived), post-construction biodiversity monitoring needs to be contracted to an independent entity, rather than carried out directly by the wind farm operator or project sponsor. Whenever possible, the data collected from each wind project should be: (i) presented in a readily understood form; (ii) publicly disclosed; and (iii) collaboratively shared with other wind developers, regulatory agencies, and international scientific research networks and partnerships. 79. In bird and bat monitoring, there is a very real—and sometimes very large— difference between real mortality and observed mortality at wind farms. Annex 4 of the Full Report explains technical correction factors that account for the difference between real bird and bat mortality and the (sometimes much lower) observed mortality at wind power facilities. The key correction factors to take into account are: (i) area not searched, (ii) searcher efficiency, and (iii) scavenger removal of carcasses. For large raptors and other very large birds, the difference between real and observed mortality is likely to be relatively small. However, as explained in Annex 4 of the Full Report, for small birds and (especially) bats, this difference can be much larger—perhaps as high as a factor of 50. 80. Socio-economic monitoring following construction is often also needed to ensure that compensation for temporary or permanent land acquisition has been paid, royalty-sharing agreements are being complied with, and goods and/or services promised as part of a local benefits program are being delivered. Chapters 3 and 4 of the Full Report provide further technical guidance on post-construction monitoring of environmental and social issues. 3.3.2 Operational Curtailment 81. Changes in how wind turbines are operated can substantially reduce bat or bird mortality. Operational curtailment refers to selected, short-term periods when the rotor blades are intentionally kept from rotating, in order to prevent turbine-related mortality during high-risk periods for birds or bats. Rotor blades rotate and produce electricity when they are aligned perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The blades are kept from rotating when they are aligned parallel to the wind, a position known as “feathering” (posicion bandera in Spanish). When the rotor blades are feathered, the turbines are not generating electricity. Even without operational curtailment for bird or bat conservation reasons, wind turbine rotor blades are often feathered because: (i) wind speeds are too low for the rotors to turn; (ii) wind speeds are too high, risking damage to the turbines if the rotors were kept turning; or (iii) for equipment maintenance or repair. 3.3.2.1 Cut-In Speeds 82. Higher Cut-in Speeds Reduce Bat Mortality. The cut-in speed is the lowest wind speed at which the rotor blades are spinning and generating electricity for the grid. Some recent research at wind farms in the US, Canada, and Germany shows that by increasing the cut-in speed during periods of bat activity from the usual 3.5-4.0 meters/second to about 6 m/sec, bat mortality can be reduced substantially (by 50-74 percent), while reducing power generation by 26 1 percent or less. Such remarkable findings are explained by both biology and physics: bats fly around mostly at low wind speeds and mainly at night—and, at higher latitudes, during only a portion of the year. Low wind speeds contain relatively little energy that can be converted into electricity, and many WRAs have frequent low-wind periods. 83. Wind projects may thus be able to substantially reduce turbine-related bat mortality by increasing the cut-in speed. This could be done through either: (i) conducting research trials, monitoring the effects on bat mortality, and then choosing a turbine cut-in speed that optimizes between bat conservation and power generation, or (ii) presumptively choosing to operate at a higher cut-in speed (around 6 m/sec) during the time of night (1/2 hour before sunset until sunrise) that most bats are flying, with the expectation that bat mortality will be reduced. This approach could be optimized further, especially in temperate latitudes, by raising the cut-in speed only during the times of year when bats are present, or when they are seasonally most abundant. In this context, the ideal wind turbine models are those which can be automatically programmed for different cut-in speeds at different hours of day or night. Chapter 3 of the Full Report provides further technical guidance on adjusting turbine cut-in speeds, along with a discussion of the Uruguayan case study where experimentation with a higher cut-in speed is planned if significant bat mortality is found with the standard cut-in speed. 3.3.2.2 Short-Term Shutdowns 84. Short-term shutdowns of wind turbines can be a valuable tool in reducing mortality during periods of especially high migratory bird or bat use. Short-term shutdowns can be defined as one, or some combination, of the following: (i) seasonal, such as during peak migration periods, which (for species of special concern) might last for only a few days or weeks; (ii) time of day; (iii) on-demand in real time, such as when large at-risk flocks are spotted; or (iv) after a maximum “kill quota” is reached based on independent post-construction monitoring. During short-term shutdowns, the rotor blades are feathered. Short-term shutdowns are most effective when the bird or bat species of concern are migratory in some sense, in that they spend a relatively small portion of the year in the wind farm area. When the shutdowns are infrequent or for only brief periods, the effect on power generation and power sale revenues can be insignificant. Shutdowns are harder to justify as a wildlife mitigation tool when the species of concern spend a large proportion of the year around the wind farm. Unplanned shutdowns tend to involve greater uncertainty and financial risk for operators than in the case of shutdowns planned well in advance. 3.3.2.3 Financial and Economic Considerations 85. The implementation of operational curtailment (increased cut-in speed or short-term shutdowns) should take into account the effects on the financial returns of the wind power operator. Because many regulatory systems only pay wind generators for the electricity they generate, rather than also for capacity as is the case for “firm” power generators, a wind project—like a run-of-river hydropower plant—might be disproportionately affected by measures that curtail power production. In addition, many wind power facilities have been designed (without bats in mind) to operate at low wind speeds in order to maximize the capacity utilization factor as well as power output. Any possible change in maintenance or other operating 27 costs involved with a particular operational curtailment regime also needs to be considered. It is therefore important for wind project planners to assess in advance the financial and power supply implications of any proposed operational curtailment regime, in comparison with the potential reductions in bird or bat collisions. Such cost-benefit assessments—carried out as part of project feasibility and environmental assessment studies—could help wind power developers and public regulators to: (i) understand the full implications of each proposed operational curtailment measure under expected operating scenarios and (ii) define the relative effectiveness of different alternatives for reducing bat or bird mortality. 3.3.3 Wind Farm Maintenance Practices 86. Wind farm maintenance practices are often an important tool for managing environmental and social impacts. Proper maintenance of wind power equipment—a task that can also be a source of employment for qualified local workers—can help prevent unnecessary bird mortality or other environmental damage. For example, capping holes in turbine nacelles will keep birds and bats from entering turbines to nest or roost inside (at their great peril, due to the proximity to the spinning rotors). This can be a standard item on wind turbine maintenance checklists. 87. As during construction, it is important to instruct wind farm employees and contractors to follow rules of good environmental and social conduct during project operation. Among others, such rules include: prohibitions on off-road driving (which damages vegetation and compacts soils), speeding (risky to people, livestock, and wildlife), wildlife capture, bushmeat purchase, firearms possession (except by security personnel), and inappropriate interactions with local people. 88. Landscape Management. Landscape management at wind farms needs to take into account a variety of different—sometimes conflicting—objectives, including: (i) maintaining pre-existing land uses; (ii) conserving and restoring natural habitats; (iii) managing land for species of conservation interest; (iv) deterring bird or bat use, as a means of reducing mortality; and (v) facilitating bird and bat monitoring. For best results, vegetation management at wind farms should be carefully planned in advance and recorded within the project’s Environmental Management Plan. In addition, landscape management decisions are ideally discussed and coordinated between wind farm owners and operators, landowners, local residents, environmental agencies, conservation NGOs, and any other relevant stakeholders. 89. Managing Public Access. Decisions about how much public access to allow at wind farms and associated transmission line corridors involve balancing a variety of environmental and social objectives. These objectives include: (i) maintaining previous land uses, (ii) ensuring public safety, (iii) minimizing the risk of sabotage or theft of wind power equipment, (iv) protecting vulnerable species and ecosystems, and (v) promoting local tourism and recreation. In areas where hunting is inadequately regulated from a conservation standpoint or illegal hunting is common, a wind project can substantially mitigate or enhance its biodiversity impact by effectively enforcing a prohibition on hunting and shooting within the wind farm area. Such a prohibition is highly advisable in any case to reduce the risk of damage to turbines from gunshots; it could also help to offset turbine-related bird mortality by reducing the 28 hunting-related mortality. However, in situations where new restrictions on formerly legal hunting activities could lead to adverse impacts on local livelihoods, it is good practice for the project developer to take this into account and to design and implement remedial measures as needed. 3.4 Off-Site Mitigation and Enhancement 90. Conservation Offsets. Conservation offsets (sometimes called compensatory mitigation) can be a very useful tool for mitigating the biodiversity-related harm and enhancing the overall conservation outcomes of a wind power project.3 Off-site conservation investments can successfully mitigate the biodiversity-related impacts of wind projects, in a complementary manner to the on-site measures within the wind farms’ boundaries. To be successful, off-site conservation activities need to be properly planned and executed, with clear implementation responsibilities and adequate, up-front funding commitments as part of the overall wind power project. Off-site conservation options include financial and other support by the wind project sponsors for the improved protection and management of: (i) natural habitats of similar or greater conservation value to those affected by the wind project and (ii) particular bird, bat, or other species of conservation interest. Further guidance and recent examples can be found in Chapter 3 of the Full Report. 3 Under the World Bank’s Natural Habitats Policy OP 4.04 and Forests Policy OP 4.36, as well as the IFC’s Performance Standard 6 on Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Natural Resource Management, some type of conservation offset might be needed if a wind project results in the significant loss or degradation of natural habitats. Such loss or degradation could happen if, for example, a new wind farm were to (i) clear away a significant area of biologically distinctive ridge-top vegetation for the installation of turbines and access roads; (ii) fragment a significant area of natural forest or other native vegetation, through access roads and transmission lines; or (iii) ecologically degrade an area by removing a significant proportion of its bat, raptor, or other bird population. From an ecological standpoint, a terrestrial natural habitat comprises not only the land surface and vegetation, but also the airspace above, as high up as there is significant natural biological activity. 29 Chapter 4: Final Considerations 91. Making a “Green” Technology even Greener. Wind power has emerged as a rapidly growing power generation technology, with important climate benefits. Given the widely recognized need to find increased sources of low-carbon electricity, wind power is poised for continued rapid growth worldwide. Yet along with this growth comes the realization that wind power development poses its own particular set of environmental and social issues, as do all large-scale power generation technologies to varying degrees.4 Consequently, as with any type of infrastructure or energy development project, it is important to acknowledge, assess, and mitigate any significant adverse environmental and social impacts that may arise during project planning, construction, and operation. 92. Wind-Specific and Broader Environmental and Social Impacts. This report has identified the diverse range of environmental and social impacts that tend to accompany land-based wind power development; the main impacts are set out in Table ES.1 following the Executive Summary. Some of these impacts are particular to wind turbines and include bird and bat collisions, visual impacts (including shadow flicker), and radar and telecommunications interference. Other impacts are associated with power transmission lines, which are needed to deliver wind-generated as well as other types of electricity to consumers; these impacts can also involve bird mortality and visual impacts, as well as the taking of land needed for transmission corridors. Still other impacts have to do with many kinds of large-scale civil works, including but not limited to wind farms. This latter category of impacts can be negative or positive, and includes land clearing to install wind turbines and associated facilities, land acquisition leading to a loss of assets (even though pre-existing land uses can often continue), increased local income and employment generation, cultural impacts on indigenous and other traditional rural populations, effects on physical cultural resources, disturbance to wildlife and sensitive ecosystems from the activities of construction workers and wind farm personnel, and the wide range of direct and induced impacts related to access road construction and improvement. 93. Feasible Mitigation and Enhancement Measures. For each of the environmental and social impacts identified, this report discusses feasible measures that can be used to mitigate the adverse effects—and enhance the positive ones—of wind power development. These suggested measures are based on existing technologies and good practices that are already in use to varying degrees. Among the key mitigation and enhancement measures, careful site selection stands out as particularly important. Among the range of potential sites with highly favorable wind conditions and adequate proximity to transmission lines, choosing the lower-risk sites—in terms of biodiversity, local nuisances, and socio-economic and cultural impacts—will reduce the need for potentially costly mitigation measures and improve environmental and social outcomes in general. Another important consideration is effective stakeholder engagement, which is important in addressing a broad spectrum of environmental and social concerns, from visual impacts to compensation and benefits-sharing. The report presents a variety of planning tools that can be used to improve site selection, engage effectively with stakeholders, optimize project design, and select mitigation and enhancement measures. Some mitigation and enhancement 4 Table 2.1 of the Full Report provides an illustrative listing of some of the diverse environmental and social impacts often associated with different power generation technologies. 30 measures typically involve multiple objectives and thus are best selected with these tradeoffs in mind; examples include wind farm landscape management and decisions about public access. Other mitigation or enhancement measures are aimed at addressing specific issues, such as compensation for land taken, benefits-sharing with local communities, post-construction bird and bat monitoring, increased turbine cut-in speeds, short-term turbine shutdowns, environmental rules for contractors and construction workers, and conservation offsets. The extent to which many environmental and social mitigation or enhancement measures are implemented will often be influenced by cost-effectiveness or other financial or economic considerations. 94. Learning Curve. This report discusses feasible measures for managing environmental and social impacts that are based on existing knowledge and currently available technologies. For some types of impacts, such as bird and bat mortality at wind turbines, many gaps remain in scientific knowledge; as this knowledge improves over time, mitigation measures can be further optimized. There is also room for innovation and learning regarding how to best use benefits-sharing arrangements and other measures for addressing socio-economic and cultural issues in wind power development. Another important variable is technological change in turbine design and other advances in the wind power industry. As learning improves and technologies change, the preferred environmental and social mitigation and enhancement measures will also change over time. In this regard, this report describes environmental and social good practice measures that are available today and already in use. Appropriate use of these measures will help to ensure that wind power maintains its positive environmental image and fulfills its potential as an environmentally and socially sustainable energy source. 31 Wind power is widely regarded as a key component of an environmentally sustainable, low- carbon energy future because it is renewable, requires almost no water, and generates near-zero emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. Nonetheless, wind power development can involve significant environmental and social impacts that need to be fully recognized and appropriately managed. Of particular concern are: (i) impacts upon birds, bats, and natural habitats; (ii) visual impacts, noise, radar and telecommunications interference, and other local nuisance impacts; and (iii) land acquisition, benefits-sharing, indigenous communities, and other socio-economic and cultural issues. Greening the Wind: Environmental and Social Considerations for Wind Power Development in Latin America and Beyond, describes the key environmental and social impacts that are associated with large-scale, grid-connected wind power development. It builds upon recent World Bank experience with wind power development in Latin America and other regions where wind power is growing rapidly. This book describes good practices and provides advice for the planning, construction, and operation of land-based wind power projects. Energy Unit Sustainable Development Department Latin America and the Caribbean Region The World Bank