77940 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection Working Paper 5  |  Wood-based Biomass Energy Hannah Behrendt Carole Megevand Klas Sander April 2013 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection Working Paper 5  |  Wood-based Biomass Energy Hannah Behrendt Carole Megevand Klas Sander April 2013 Working Paper 5: Wood-based Biomass Energy iii Contents ACKNOWLEDGMENTS................................................................................................................................... v Introduction...............................................................................................................................................1 CHAPTER 1. Wood-based Biomass Energy in the Congo Basin......................................3 Consumption Profiles............................................................................................................................................. 3 Demand for Fuelwood and Charcoal............................................................................................................... 6 Production of Charcoal.......................................................................................................................................... 7 A Critical Sector but Mostly Informal................................................................................................................ 7 A Large Contributor to the Economy........................................................................................................ 7 A Poorly Organized Supply Chain.............................................................................................................. 8 The Defaulting Price Structure.................................................................................................................... 9 Air Pollution and Impacts on Health..............................................................................................................10 CHAPTER 2. Impacts on Forests...................................................................................................... 13 Wood Supply for the Wood-based Energy Sector....................................................................................13 Impacts on Deforestation and Forest Degradation..................................................................................14 CHAPTER 3. Prospects and Recommendations..................................................................... 17 Trends in Energy Profiles in the Congo Basin.............................................................................................17 Recommendations: How to Limit Adverse Impacts on Natural Forests..........................................18 Put the Woodfuel Energy Sector Higher on the Political Agenda...............................................18 Formalize the Fuelwood/Charcoal Value Chain.................................................................................19 Diversify the Supply Side of the Value Chain......................................................................................19 Foster Community Involvement Through Clear Devolution of Rights...................................... 20 Identify Priority Areas with Potential for Charcoal Plantations......................................................21 Conclusion and Outlook.................................................................................................................23 References..................................................................................................................................................25 iv Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protecttion Figures Figure 1.1: Combustible Renewables and Waste (percent of total energy) in 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Figure 1.2: Total Energy Use, Combustible Renewables and Waste Energy Use, and Population in Africa, 2008. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Figure 1.3: Efficiencies of Alternative Kiln Technologies.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Figure 1.4: Death attributable to indoor air pollution.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Figure 3.1: Number of People Relying on the Traditional Use of Biomass in the IEA New Policies Scenario (millions). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 tables Table 1.1: Number and Share of People Relying on the Traditional Use of Biomass (million). . . . 4 Table 1.2: Energy Consumption Portfolio and Access to Electricity in Congo Basin Countries, 2008 (and 2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Table 1.3: Fuelwood Production (cubic meters, thousand). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Table 1.4: Charcoal Production from Charcoal Plants (metric tons, thousand). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Table 1.5: Estimated Deaths and DALYs Attributable to Indoor Air Pollution, 2004.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Table 2.1: Basic Data on the Wood Energy Sector in Central Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 boxes Box 1.1: Urbanization Shaped by Rural Lifestyles – Bangui, Central African Republic.. . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Box 1.2: Political Economy of the Charcoal Trade Network (Kinshasa and Lubumbashi)................. 9 Box 1.3 Rwanda: Scarcity of Forests Spurs Reforestation.............................................................................10 Box 2.1: Ibi Bateke (Democratic Republic of Congo) – Tree Intercropping Afforestation in Degraded Savannah Lands.................................................................................................................14 Box 2.2: Cameroon: Different Supply Areas Power the Urban Centers..................................................15 Box 3.1: Lesson Learned: Long-term Rights to Forest Land and Devolution of Management Authority Provide Strong Motivation for Communities to Participate in Sustainable Woodfuel Production................................................................................................................................ 20 Working Paper 5: Wood-based Biomass Energy v Acknowledgments This Working Paper 2: Wood-based Biomass Energy, is one of the outputs of the global study on “Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protec- tion�, that was conducted by a multi-disciplinary team under the leadership of the World Bank at the request of the COMIFAC (Regional Commission in charge of Forestry in Central Africa) to strengthen the understanding of the deforestation dynamics in the Congo Basin. This Working Paper was prepared by Hannah Behrendt, Carole Megevand and Klas Sander. The report was ably edited by Sheila Gagen. Maps and illustrative graphs were prepared by Md. Aminul Islam. The study benefited from financial support from various donors, including: Norway through the Norwegian Trust Fund for Private Sector and Infrastructure (NTF-PSI), the Program on Forests (PROFOR), and the Trust Fund for Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development (TFESSD). Working Paper 5: Wood-based Biomass Energy 1 Chapter Introduction 1 Congo Basin countries rely more on wood-based is cheaper and easier to transport and store. Urban biomass to meet their energy needs than most lifestyles tend also to be more energy intensive other countries in the world. However, the energy because households in urban areas tend to be smaller, profiles vary from one country to another, based on leading to less efficient fuel use for cooking per capita. access to electricity, and availability and cost of wood In addition, charcoal is often the primary cooking fuel and fossil fuel energy. In the Democratic Republic of for many small-scale roadside restaurants and in kitch- Congo, combustible renewables and waste (over- ens of larger public institutions, such as schools and whelmingly fuelwood and charcoal) made up 93 universities, hospitals, prisons, as well as small-scale percent of total energy use in 2008—in a context in industries. which less than 12 percent of the population had access to electricity in 2009. In contrast, in Gabon …supplied by an inefficient sector the reliance on biomass energy is significantly lower due to an extensive electricity network and subsidized Charcoal is produced mostly using traditional gas for cooking. In Gabon and the Republic of Congo, techniques, with low transformation efficiencies combustible renewable and waste constitute just more (earth pit or earth mound kilns). The organization of than 50 percent of energy use. These two countries the charcoal supply chain is also notoriously inefficient, also have similar rates of access to electricity—both relying on poorly designed regulatory frameworks that around 37 percent. eventually lead to massive informality in the sector. The pricing structure of woodfuel sends perverse signals: A growing demand... pricing relies on incomplete accounting of different costs along the value chain and, in most cases, the Woodfuel production is increasing in Congo primary resource (wood) is taken as a “free� resource. Basin countries. In contrast to China, India, and Under-priced woodfuel generates inefficient and much of the developing world, where the extent unsustainable practices. Economic signals in the wood- of wood-based biomass energy has peaked or is fuel supply chain do not allow the producer to apply expected to peak in the very near future, consumption sustainable forest management techniques. Areas that of wood-based biomass energy is likely to remain at supply a growing urban demand extend over time and very high levels in the Congo Basin and even continue can radiate as far as 200 km from city centers, gradu- to increase for the next few decades. In 2007, Congo ally degrading natural forests. Basin countries’ total production of fuelwood exceeded 100 million cubic meters. The biggest producers were A major threat to forests the Democratic Republic of Congo, with 71 percent of total regional fuelwood production, and Cameroon Under a “business as usual� scenario, charcoal (21 percent), reflecting their shares of the region’s supply could represent the single biggest threat population. to Congo Basin forests in the coming decades. Wood extraction for domestic fuelwood or charcoal Urbanization often produces a shift from fuel- production constitutes one of the major threats on wood to charcoal consumption, because charcoal forests in the Congo Basin, with a steady increase in 2 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection wood removals in recent years. It is estimated that and better understand the deforestation dynamics in more than 90 percent of the total volume of wood the Basin. It presents the main findings related to the harvested in the Congo Basin is for woodfuel and that woodfuel sector in the Congo Basin and its potential on average 1 cubic meter (m3) of woodfuel is required impact on forest cover. It is based on an in-depth anal- per person per year. ysis of the sector (past trends and future prospects). It also builds on results derived from a modelling exer- In rural areas, generally sparsely populated, woodfuel cise conducted by the International Institute for Applied consumption is no longer considered a major direct Systems Analysis (IIASA) that examined the national cause of forest degradation or loss. Woodfuel collection and regional trends in in wood-based biomass energy can, however, become a severe cause of forest deg- use and the impacts on Congo Basin forests. radation and eventual deforestation when demanded by concentrated markets, such as urban household The report is structured as follows: markets, industries, and other businesses. For instance, Kinshasa’s woodfuel needs (approximately 5,000,000 Chapter 1 gives an overview of the woodfuel sec- ƒƒ m3/year) are met mostly through informal harvesting tor in the six Congo Basin countries, including an from degraded forests within a radius of 200 km. As analysis of its impact so far on forest cover. a result, forests within the 200 km radius are experi- Chapter 2 presents the prospects of energy needs ƒƒ encing severe degradation, while the peri-urban area and production in the near future, and the poten- within a radius of 50 km of Kinshasa has been largely tial impacts on forest under a “business as usual� deforested. It is estimated that fuelwood collection scenario. leads to clearing 60,000 hectares (ha) of forests each Chapter 3 identifies potential key levers in the ƒƒ year in the Democratic Republic of Congo. woodfuel sector that could limit adverse impacts on forest cover. The chapter builds on the analysis This report aims at providing some thinking on of the previous chapters and recommends priority how Congo Basin could meet their energy needs activities for Basin countries to address the current in a forest-friendly manner. It is one of a series of and future drivers of deforestation. outputs prepared during a two-year exercise to analyze Working Paper 5: Wood-based Biomass Energy 3 Chapter 1 Wood-based Biomass Energy in the Congo Basin Consumption Profiles In the 47 countries comprising SSA, the majority of the rural and urban population relies on wood-based Reliance on wood-based biomass energy from biomass to satisfy their energy needs, especially for fuelwood and charcoal is far greater in Sub-Saharan cooking.1 About 80 percent of SSA households rely on Africa (SSA) than in any other region in the world. In biomass for their daily energy needs and for cooking— 34 countries worldwide, wood-based biomass energy far more than in any other region in the world (IEA satisfies more than 70 percent of energy needs, and 2010a). In 2006, it was estimated that in rural areas, in 13 countries it satisfies more than 90 percent—the 93 percent of the population in SSA depended on majority of these countries are located in SSA (Trefon biomass resources for their primary cooking fuel, and et al. 2010). Most of the consumption of biomass energy is in the residential sector for cooking (and to a 1 This includes island states, such as Madagascar, Comoros, and São Tomé & lesser extent heating). Príncipe. Figure 1.1: Combustible Renewables and Waste (percent of total energy) in 2007 Source: World Bank, 2011 4 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection even in urban areas almost 60 percent of people use (overwhelmingly fuelwood and charcoal) made up biomass for cooking (IEA 2006). 93 percent of total energy use in 2008—in a context in which less than 12 percent of the population had In most countries in Africa, energy from biomass access to electricity in 2009 and fossil fuels met only makes up the majority of the energy portfolio. Figure 4 percent of the Democratic Republic of Congo’s 1.2 plots use of energy from combustible renewables energy use in 2008. Kinshasa alone, with 8–10 mil- and waste (almost exclusively woody biomass for lion inhabitants, uses 5 million m3 of fuelwood or these countries) against their total energy use, with the equivalent per year. In contrast, in Gabon the the size of the country markers indicating total popu- reliance on biomass energy is significantly lower due lation. The closer a country is to the 100 percent line, to an extensive electricity network and subsidized gas the higher the percentage of biomass energy in the for cooking. In Gabon and the Republic of Congo, country’s total energy use. The figure shows that all combustible renewable and waste constitute just Congo Basin countries for which data were available above 50 percent of energy use. These countries use more than 50 percent biomass energy. While also have similar rates of access to electricity—both Gabon and the Republic of Congo only marginally about 37 percent. However, access to electricity is not exceed the 50 percent line, the figure shows that the necessarily a precise indicator of the extent to which Democratic Republic of Congo is one of the greatest biomass is used. While access to electricity is higher users of biomass energy, in absolute terms and also as in Cameroon at close to 49 percent, combustible a percentage of total energy use. renewables and waste still constituted more than 70 percent of total energy—a slight increase from 2007, Energy profiles vary from one country to another in which may be explained by consumers switching to the Congo Basin, based on country wealth, access to the relatively cheaper biomass when confronted with electricity, and availability and cost of wood and fossil price shocks in fossil fuels. Gabon and the Repub- fuel energy. Table 1.2 gives some key insights into lic of Congo, on the other hand, both witnessed a the role of wood-based biomass energy in different biomass energy use decreasing about 5 percentage countries in the region. In the Democratic Repub- points from 2007 to 2008. lic of Congo, combustible renewables and waste Table 1.1: Number and Share of People Relying on the Traditional Use of Biomass (million) Region/Country Total Percent Rural Urban Africa 657 67 481 176 Sub-Saharan Africa 653 80 477 176 Developing Asia 1,937 55 1,694 243 China 423 32 377 47 India 855 75 765 90 Other Asia 659 63 553 106 Latin America 85 18 60 24 World 2679 40 2235 444 Source: IEA 2010b. Working Paper 5: Wood-based Biomass Energy 5 Figure 1.2: Total Energy Use, Combustible Renewables and Waste Energy Use, and Population in Africa, 2008 Source: World Bank 2011. Note: Data not available for Central African Republic and Equatorial Guinea. Energy use in kiloton of oil equivalent, combustible renewables and waste in metric tons of oil equivalent, population is total. Table 1.2: Energy Consumption Portfolio and Access to Electricity in Congo Basin Countries, 2008 (and 2009) Energy use Combustible Energy use (kg of oil renewables Fossil fuel energy Electric power Access to (kt of oil equivalent nd waste consumption consumption electricity Country equivalent) per cap.) (% of total energy) (% of total) (kWh per capita) (% in 2009) Cameroon 7,102 372.1 71.0 23.9 262.6 48.7 Central African Rep. — — — — — — Democratic Republic of 22,250 346.3 93.4 4.0 95.2 11.1 Congo Republic of Congo 1,368 378.4 51.3 43.5 150.2 37.1 Equatorial Guinea — — — — — — Gabon 2,073 1,431.5 52.5 43.8 1158.0 36.7 Source: World Bank 2011; IEA 2010b: The Electricity Access Database (http://www.iea.org/weo/database_electricity10/electricity_database_web_2010.htm). For 2008 access to electricity and rural/urban breakdown, see http://www.iea.org/weo/database_electricity/electricity_access_database.htm. Note: Given that detailed data on wood energy consumption are often not available, the numbers presented in this table deviate slightly from other documentation. However, general trends are usually confirmed by different data sources. 6 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection in 2007, almost 75 percent of it in the Democratic Demand for Fuelwood and Charcoal Republic of Congo. Cameroon follows, with nearly 10 Demand for woodfuel, and for charcoal in particular, percent of the region’s charcoal production; however, continues to increase in Congo Basin countries. This is because the country constitutes more than 20 per- not surprising, given their continued population growth. cent of the region’s population, per capita charcoal In 2007, the Congo Basin countries’ total production consumption is relatively low compared with other of woodfuel exceeded 100 million cubic meters, the countries in the region. biggest producers being the Democratic Republic of Congo, with 71 percent of total regional fuelwood Typically, the move to urban areas is associated with production, and Cameroon (21 percent). However, consumption switching from fuelwood to charcoal, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon the latter being cheaper and easier to transport and also make up about 70 percent and 20 percent of the store. Because fuelwood is heavy and bulky, and thus region’s population. difficult and costly to transport over longer distances, it is often converted into charcoal if it is to be used some Charcoal production in the Congo Basin region more distance from the forest where it was harvested. This than doubled between 1990 and 2007, with an shift does not systematically apply, as shown by the estimated 2.4 million metric tons of charcoal produced example of Bangui (see box 1.1). Table 1.3: Fuelwood Production (cubic meters, thousand) 1990 1995 2000 2005 2007 Cameroon 7,648 8,722 9,111 20,421 21,586 Central African Republic 3,055 3,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 Democratic Republic of Congo 44,183 58,759 64,903 71,066 73,209 Republic of Congo 974 1,069 1,153 1,369 1,275 Equatorial Guinea 447 447 447 400 187 Gabon 3,203 3,612 3,996 4,388 4,522 Congo Basin Total 59,510 75,609 81,611 99,644 102,779 Source: United Nations 2009 Table 1.4: Charcoal Production from Charcoal Plants (metric tons, thousand) 1990 1995 2000 2005 2007 Cameroon 216 289 99 105 232 Central African Republic 0 0 21 120 182 Democratic Republic of Congo 791 1,200 1,431 1,704 1,826 Republic of Congo 77 102 137 165 181 Equatorial Guinea Gabon 10 13 15 18 19 Congo Basin Total 1,094 1,604 1,704 2,112 2,440 Source: United Nations 2009. Working Paper 5: Wood-based Biomass Energy 7 a pit, whereas in the latter it is stacked in a polygo- Box 1.1: Urbanization Shaped by Rural Lifestyles – nal shape. The wood is then covered with grass and Bangui, Central African Republic sealed with a layer of soil in both cases before the kiln Greater Bangui, the capital of the Central African is lit. Both types of kilns yield only low-quality charcoal. Republic, presents a specific profile with most Once the earth pit kiln has been lit, it requires between households still relying on fuelwood. With an 3 to 15 days of continuous attention, depending on estimated 800,000 inhabitants, greater Bangui the size of the kiln. The efficiency of earth mound kilns grows at an annual rate of nearly 3 percent; the is higher than that of pit kilns, but can still be as low as city is characterized by uncontrolled urbanization, 8 percent (Seidel 2008). A multitude of interventions linked to poverty and insecurity. It still contains in many SSA countries have attempted to overcome plenty of partially rural areas and open spaces. this challenge by promoting more efficient kilns for Firewood constitutes 92 percent of household energy consumption in the area, and urban charcoal production, however, adoption rates have attitudes are strongly influenced by rural lifestyles. been limited. The informal—and often illegal—nature of Wealthier people are significantly more likely charcoal production may be responsible for this. Higher than poor people to use coal and gas. Wood material costs, increased labor input, but also lack of energy consumption ranges between 280,000 knowledge all represent disincentives for charcoal to 500,000 metric tons of wood per year—an burners to adapt improved technologies in situations informal turnover of around CFA 2 to 3 billion where they are not rewarded with increased prices or (Marien 2009). where the risk of discovery may require abandoning the production site. Urbanization usually changes the way that people consume energy, generally being associated with a more energy-intensive lifestyle. Households in urban A Critical Sector but Mostly Informal areas are often smaller than in rural areas, contributing to less efficient fuel use for cooking per capita. Besides A Large Contributor to the Economy being used by households, charcoal is also often the In most Sub-Saharan African countries, the wood- primary cooking fuel for many small-scale roadside based biomass energy sector employs a significant restaurants and in kitchens of larger public institutions, workforce, generally providing a regular income to such as schools and universities, hospitals, and prisons. tens—if not hundreds—of thousands of people. A large Charcoal is also widely used for cottage industries, for number of traders are generally involved in buying, example, bread baking, small metal smelting opera- transporting, and re-selling wood-based biomass. tions, and brick kilns. The multiplier effect, triggered by Those basing their livelihood on the sector tend to urbanization, is not to be underestimated; one study be members of the poorer households (who work as for Dar es Salaam suggests that 1 percent of urbaniza- small-scale producers/collectors, traders, transporters, tion leads to a 14 percent rise in charcoal consumption or retailers) who often have limited alternatives for (Hosier, Mwandosya, and Luhanga 1993). earning cash income. The charcoal trade chains in Congo Basin2 consist of Production of Charcoal a multitude of “small� actors with limited power over the entire chain. However, this does not mean that Charcoal is produced mostly using traditional tech- their work is not profitable. Furthermore, actors have niques, with low transformation efficiencies. Earth pit recently been starting to employ strategies of vertical kilns or the slightly more efficient earth mound kilns are traditionally used for charcoal production in many 2  The cases of Kinshasa and Lubumbashi were thoroughly studied and are believed to parts of the world. In the former, wood is stacked in represent the situation more generally in the Congo Basin. 8 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection Figure 1.3: Efficiencies of Alternative Kiln Technologies Source: Sepp 2008. integration, trying to fill several positions within the sector tend be overcomplicated, costly, bureaucratic, supply chain in order to increase their profit margins. and often unenforceable, given the limited means This is particularly the case for transporter/traders and available to local government representatives for exe- depot owners operating their own trucks. cuting their duties. The contribution of the wood-based biomass energy Generally, regulations relate to the way forests should sector to the wider economy is estimated to be several be managed and harvested for energy purposes. The hundred million dollars for most SSA countries. It is regulatory burden mainly falls on producers, requiring often considered to be the most vibrant informal sec- them to engage in sustainable management of their tor, with the highest value added in SSA. Despite the forests. Most of the time, these requirements are sector’s importance to local economic development, impossible to fulfill for various reasons—incapacity to its contribution to government revenues is limited due prove “land/tree ownership,� costly preparation and to widespread evasion of licensing fees and transport implementation of sustainable forest management levies. National and local governments are estimated plans, bureaucratic processes (from fiscal and/or forest to lose several tens or even hundreds of millions of administrations)—which makes informality the only dollars annually due to their failure to effectively govern solution for the woodfuel sector. the sector. At present, only small numbers of urban-based fuel- A Poorly Organized Supply Chain wood traders are typically able to obtain exploitation Fuelwood utilization—especially the extraction of permits, often resulting in an oligopolistic fuelwood fuelwood from forest resources—tends to be charac- industry. Rural users often have to compete with terized by poor policy frameworks often following a demands from urban and industrial users and among “command and control� structure rather than facilitat- the rural users themselves (Arnold and Persson 2003). ing sustainable management of forests and extraction Most license systems still operate as mere revenue of fuelwood in collaboration with local stakeholders. collection systems (a colonial-era heritage), without the In most countries, regulations set up for the woodfuel number of licenses or quantities of harvestable wood licensed linked to any kind of sustainability measures. Working Paper 5: Wood-based Biomass Energy 9 In most countries, transporters and/or wholesalers part of the price is composed by the transportation and dominate the woodfuel supply chain and reap dispro- retailing costs, down the supply chain. portionately large profits, leaving the producers with marginal benefits. The under-priced woodfuel generates inefficient and unsustainable practices. Prices paid to the producers The political economy of the charcoal trade network are not high enough to stimulate adoption of sustain- has been analyzed for Kinshasa and Lubumbashi able practices. However, a study of the case of Rwanda (Trefon et al. 2010), giving a detailed account of the illustrates the fact that a price properly paid against the different actors, including their strategies, relationships, value of the resource can generate more sustainable and power (see box 1.2). behaviors (see box 1.3). The Defaulting Price Structure There is an urgent need to modernize the sector. Cor- Woodfuel is largely under-priced. The pricing structure ruption and oligopolistic marketing structures obstruct of the woodfuel relies on incomplete consideration of any attempt to formalize the woodfuel value chains. the different costs all along the value chain. In most Governments have put in place regulations that limit cases, the primary resource (wood) is taken as a “free� access rights to local resources, but it is perceived resource: uncontrolled open access to trees tend to that if communities benefit from their new rights and significantly undermine the production costs. The larger responsibilities, government forest officers may lose personal (albeit illegal) advantages, and wholesalers Box 1.2: Political Economy of the Charcoal Trade Network (Kinshasa and Lubumbashi) The supply chain begins with charcoal producers who obtain (often temporary) access to trees through a process of negotiation involving tribal chiefs, private farmers, and, to a lesser extent, state officials. The specifics of gaining access to primary resources depend on whether the producer is local to the area, and whether he is working with a group or alone. Once the producer has obtained the right to cut some trees, a charcoal kiln is constructed for production. Because charcoal production provides a means of earning money with relatively few up-front invest- ments (compared with agriculture), it has become an increasingly popular profession. During the dry season, charcoal producers are joined by farmers trying to earn extra cash. Charcoal producers have several different options for selling their produce. In some cases, they take their charcoal to the city by bicycle, sometimes renting one for this purpose. If operating in a group, charcoal produc- ers may designate one or several members of the group to sell their produce, sharing the profits. Roadside sales of charcoal also take place, with charcoal producers selling to drivers passing by. These may be travelers returning to the city, or professional traders who travel back and forth between the outskirts and city center to buy and sell charcoal (and other produce). In Lubumbashi, it is common for these traders to operate by bicycle, whereas the greater distances in Kinshasa mean that trucks are generally used. In rural areas, intermediaries collect charcoal produced in their region until they have enough to fill a truck, arranging a trader to pick up their produce. Trucks are also frequently used for transporting charcoal to Lubumbashi. Traders tend to form groups in order to share a truck and sell their charcoal to vendors in the large charcoal depots, or to depot owners, who in turn sell it to smaller-scale retailers or those consumers who are able to buy entire bags of charcoal at once. The small-scale retailers then resell the charcoal on urban markets or street corners, where consumers purchase charcoal on a daily basis. Source: Trefon et al. 2010. 10 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection may see their economic dominance diminished. Most Box 1.3: Rwanda: Scarcity of Forests Spurs of the time, strengthening existing law and governance Reforestation systems cannot provide a solution to the biomass The example of Rwanda provides evidence of a energy supply chain, and a profound reform of the feedback mechanism called the “forest scarcity� policy and regulatory frameworks is necessary to “mod- hypothesis, meaning that deforestation makes ernize� the sector (ESMAP 2010). forest products scarcer and increases the eco- nomic value of remaining forests. This increased value in turn directly translates into better forest management and the establishment of woodlots Air Pollution and Impacts on Health and tree plantations. With growing scarcity of woodfuel, agricultural production gradually loses With the vast majority of households in the Congo its relative advantage, and woodfuel production Basin region using wood-based biomass energy, indoor becomes a viable option for local landholders. air pollution constitutes an important threat to people’s As a consequence, forest cover begins to rise. health, with women, traditionally in charge of house- However, this development comes at a price, as keeping and cooking, particularly at risk. Traditional forest ecosystems undergo the transition from a stoves commonly used in SSA burn inefficiently, with (semi-)natural state with rich biodiversity, to more smoke and gases produced by incomplete combustion artificially planned plantations and often fragile causing long-term respiratory health complications and monocultures. deaths. Particulate matter levels from solid biomass Source: ESMAP 2010. fuel use in households may be 10–50 times higher than the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline Figure 1.4:Death attributable to indoor air pollution 9 104 466 18 484 396 World Health Organization Regions Africa region European region American region Southeast Asian region Total IAP-attributable 9 deaths (000) Eastern Mediterranean region Western Pacific region Source: WHO 2009b. Working Paper 5: Wood-based Biomass Energy 11 Table 1.5: Estimated Deaths and DALYs Attributable to Indoor Air Pollution, 2004   Population using solid fuel (%) Deaths per year DALYs /1000 people per year Cameroon 83 11,400 21 Central African Republic >95 3,000 23 Democratic Republic of Congo >95 75,600 44 Republic of Congo. 85 1,000 8 Equatorial Guinea no data — — Gabon 28 100 2 Source: WHO 2009a. Percentage of population using solid fuels, source: WHO Millennium Development Goals, including World Health Survey 2003 results. Note: Health outcomes: Estimates of deaths and DALYs (Disability Adjusted Life Year) from acute respiratory infections (children under age 5), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (adults over 30 years) and lung cancer (adults over 30 years) attributable to indoor smoke from solid fuels are based on the methods outlined in WHO (2009a), using the exposure data and GBD 2004 update of WHO estimates of national health data (WHO 2009b). values (Pennise et al. 2009; WHO 2005) and strong of disease caused by indoor air pollution (CREFES scientific evidence links indoor air pollution resulting 2010).3 from the use of solid fuels to preventable diseases such as child pneumonia (Smith et al. 2000; Dherani The problem of indoor air pollution can be addressed et al. 2008). Additional daily discomfort for women, in several different ways, including changes in behavior such as cough, headache, stinging eyes, and backache to reduce exposure to smoke, improved ventilation, are commonly associated with traditional cooking improved cookstoves, or cleaner fuels. Improved stoves methods (World Health Organization, 2009b). deliver a range of benefits and co-benefits, increas- ing energy efficiency and saving fuel, while reducing According to WHO estimates, in 2004, more than emissions that negatively impact people’s health and 90,000 deaths in the Congo Basin region could be climate change. attributed to indoor air pollution, with 75,600 occurring in the Democratic Republic of Congo, where more than 95 percent of the population uses solid fuel. 3 The 19 worst-affected countries are: Afghanistan, Angola, Benin, Burkina The Democratic Republic of Congo is among the 20 Faso, Burundi, Chad, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, countries affected most by indoor air pollution, with Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Niger, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, approximately 5 percent or more of the total burden Somalia, and Tajikistan. Working Paper 5: Wood-based Biomass Energy 13 Chapter 2 Impacts on Forests (Marien 2009). The example of the IBI Bateke project Wood Supply for the Wood – based Energy is certainly one of the most promising pilot initiatives Sector in the vicinity of Kinshasa, on the Plateau Bateke (see Wood extraction for domestic fuelwood or charcoal box 2.1). production constitutes one of the major threats to forests in the Congo Basin, with a steady increase in Table 2.1: Basic Data on the Wood Energy Sector in Central wood removals in recent years. It is estimated that Africa more than 90 percent of the total volume of wood har- vested in the Congo Basin is for woodfuel (see table FAO Classification Amount 2.1) and that on average 1 cubic meter of woodfuel is Countries required per person per year. Area (million ha) 529 Population (million inhabitants) 105 Plantations can supply wood-based biomass for energy. Forests Pointe-Noire, located on the edge of a forest savannah Area (million ha) 236 mosaic, is a port and industrial city with about 1 million Area (ha/inhabitant) 2.2 inhabitants. Despite being located at the center of an Standing stock oil production area, domestic energy consumption Volume (m3/ha) 194 is based primarily around wood. About half of the Total volume (million m3) 46,760 estimated 500,000 m3 of woodfuel consumed each Biomass (m3/ha) 315 year is harvested informally in gallery forests, while Total biomass (million m3) 74,199 53 percent of the total wood energy is produced as a Carbon (ton/ha) 157 by-product of the 40,000 ha of industrial eucalyptus Total carbon (million tons) 37,099 plantations (managed by the firm Eucalyptus Fibers Production Congo). The eucalyptus plantations, within 20 to 40 Wood energy (x 1,000 m3) 103,673 km of the city, provide most of the fuelwood con- Industrial timber 12,979 sumed in Pointe-Noire, while considerations of cost Sawnwood 1,250 and transport mean that the wood harvested from Some calculated ratios gallery forests up to 80 km from Pointe-Noire tends Consumption of wood energy (m3/inhabitant) 0.99 to be converted to charcoal. Pointe-Noire’s domestic Production of wood energy/total woody 90 energy supply is relatively sustainable, with little defor- production (%) estation and degradation (Marien 2009). Plantations of Mampu acacia in the Kinshasa area are helping to Source: Marien 2009. Note: Estimates indicate that most of the removed wood is used as fuelwood; provide wood energy sustainably; 8,000 ha of plan- however, because the majority of fuelwood collection activities are within the tations, managed in blocks of 25 ha, feature a combi- informal economy, the quantities of wood removals may be underestimated. FAO = Food and Agriculture Organization. nation of crop rotation and wood energy plantations 14 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection changes are the main contributors (Dewees 1989; Impacts on Deforestation and Forest ESMAP 2001; Arnold, Köhlin, and Persson 2005). Fuel- Degradation wood harvesting for energy is most likely not depleting In rural areas, fuelwood consumption is no longer con- wood stocks beyond what would be cleared for these sidered a major direct cause of deforestation and forest activities. In this it differs from charcoal production, degradation. Nevertheless, fuelwood is often still por- which exerts pressure on the region’s forests, partic- trayed as a fuel source associated with energy poverty ularly in peri-urban areas (Martinet, Megevand, and and forest depletion, a remnant of the “fuelwood crisis� Streck 2009). era of the 1970s and 1980s (Hiemstra-van der Horst and Hovorka 2009). However, it is now acknowledged Woodfuel collection becomes a serious threat to forests that demand for woodfuel in rural areas usually comes in densely populated areas. Woodfuel can be a cause of from dispersed rural populations and does not repre- severe forest degradation and eventually deforestation sent a threat to fuelwood natural resources. Analyses when demanded by concentrated markets, such as showed that a great portion of the fuelwood supply urban household markets, industries, and other busi- in rural areas comes from trees outside forests, dead nesses. In densely populated rural areas, the supply— branches and logs, and even forest residues. When consumption balance is usually defined by a high deficit woodfuel is collected from natural forests, the regener- for fuelwood, which creates huge pressure on forested ation capacity largely offsets the biomass withdrawals. It areas surrounding the cities. With weak regulations and is thus is seldom a primary source of forest degradation control over woodfuel harvesting, operators are likely to or forest loss. harvest as close to markets as they can in order to max- imize their profit, resulting in forest degradation in forest Clearance of land for agriculture, commercial and res- areas around urban markets (Angelsen 2009). Similarly, idential development, and other permanent land-use industrial and other business demand for woodfuel can Box 2.1: Ibi Bateke (Democratic Republic of Congo) – Tree Intercropping Afforestation in Degraded Savannah Lands In 2009, through its BioCarbon Fund, the World Bank began financing an afforestation and clean energy project in the Democratic Republic of Congo that was based on intercropping techniques; it intended to purchase 500,000 tons of carbon credits to be generated by the project until 2017. The initiative is being carried out by a local Democratic Republic of Congo organization called NOVACEL, which has been exploring tree planting, agricultural intercropping, and carbon sequestration techniques to be used in degraded savannah grasslands on the Bateke Plateau targeting some 4,220 hectares. The land has been legally titled by the government in the form of a 25-year lease to directors of NOVACEL. The project uses forestry and agroforestry plots to introduce cassava intercrops, which have so far been successful. NOVACEL is also researching agroforestry techniques for intercropping trees with manioc plantations, using various species of acacia and eucalyptus trees. The project serves multiple purposes, with the main goal of increasing the yield of fuelwood for charcoal supply to high-demand markets in Kinshasa, while reducing degradation and deforestation of the remaining forests. Other important goals are to reduce water loss and improve soil fertility, promote carbon sequestration, create permanent and temporary employment (an estimated 55 to 60 permanent jobs and up to 400 temporary jobs), enhance community development, and reduce poverty. The project has the potential to create a carbon sink capable of sequestering around 1 million tons of CO2 until 2017 and 2.4 million of tons of CO2 over 30 years. Source: World Bank 2009. Working Paper 5: Wood-based Biomass Energy 15 be a serious threat to local forest resources if not prop- erly regulated, given a potentially large demand within a Box 2.2: Cameroon: Different Supply Areas Power small geographic area. the Urban Centers The market for fuelwood in Cameroon consists Supply basins extend over time to satisfy the growing of a set of supply areas to urban centers. These urban demand for energy, as figure 2.1 shows for areas coincide with the main zones of vegetation: Kinshasa, a megacity of 8 to 10 million inhabitants, the Sahel supply chain (area of Marouam, Garoua, located in a forest-savanna mosaic environment and Kaélé Mokolo), the savannah supply chain on the Bateke Plateau in the Democratic Republic (area of Bamenda), and the forestry supply chain (area of Yaounde). The fuelwood supply chains of Congo. The city’s wood energy supply of about are experiencing a crisis that is both physical and 5,000,000 cubic meter per year is mostly informally economic. The pressure of urban demand for harvested from degraded forest galleries within a radius fuel is leading to deforestation, particularly in the of 200 km from Kinshasa. With gallery forests most Sahelian and savannah areas. affected by degradation from wood harvesting, even Source: Koto-Same et al. 2002. forests beyond the 200 km radius are experiencing gradual degradation, while the peri-urban area within a radius of 50 km of Kinshasa has suffered total defor- estation. It is estimated that 60,000 ha per year are the Virunga National Park, more than half of its surface cleared for fuelwood. area having suffered deforestation (Marien 2009). In addition to meeting the energy requirements of Goma The conflicts can also severely impact the forests, city,4 an estimated 200,000 metric tons of woodfuel through the settlement of refugees and their associ- are needed for refugees each year. Several projects ated needs, including energy. The eastern Democratic have tried to address the energy challenge, including Republic of Congo has endured several decades of projects by the World Wildlife Fund or United Nation conflict and faces numerous interconnected chal- Refugee agency (UNHCR), typically focusing on strate- lenges—humanitarian crises as a result of the dis- gies to increase wood resources through the establish- placement of more than a million refugees in the ment of community plantations of fast-growing species Goma area, as well as the ecological crisis affecting such as acacia and eucalyptus (Marien 2009). 4 The 300,000 inhabitants of Goma city consume an estimated 500,000 m3 of fuelwood per year, depending on it largely to meet their energy needs, with 97 percent of the population relying entirely on woodfuel (Forests Monitor 2007; Marien 2009). Working Paper 5: Wood-based Biomass Energy 17 Chapter 3 Prospects and Recommendations over the next decades, based on prospects of popula- Trends in Energy Profiles in the Congo tion growth, increased urbanization, and relative price Basin changes of alternative energy sources for cooking. In contrast to China, India, and much of the developing High oil prices may prevent the poor from ascending world, where the use of wood-based biomass energy the “energy ladder.� It was anticipated that with rising has peaked or will be peaking in the very near future, income and stable prices, consumers would be able consumption of wood-based biomass energy is likely to move from fuelwood to charcoal, and then to fossil to remain at very high levels in SSA and may even con- fuels (for example, liquefied petroleum gas); however, tinue to grow for the next few decades. Estimates in examples in different countries show that this phenom- the World Energy Outlook 2010 predict that by 2030 enon has not applied. A regional study for Southeast more than 900 million people in Sub-Saharan Africa Africa estimated that charcoal consumption between may rely on wood-based biomass energy (IEA 2010b). 1990 and 2000 grew by about 80 percent in both Lusaka and Dar es Salaam (SEI 2002). Between 2001 Charcoal consumption in the Congo Basin is expected and 2007, the number of households in Dar es Salaam to remain very high or even increase in absolute terms using charcoal for cooking increased from 47 percent Figure 3.1: Number of People Relying on the Traditional Use of Biomass in the IEA New Policies Scenario (millions) 1000 900 People relying on traditional use of biomass (million) 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Sub-Saharan Africa India China Rest of Developing Asia Latin America 2004* 2009 2015 2030 Source: IEA 2010 (*IEA 2006). 18 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection to 71 percent, while the use of liquefied petroleum gas transform their energy sector, particularly for house- (LPG) has declined from 43 percent to 12 percent. In holds. Wood-based biomass energy has so far been Senegal, consumers also switched back en masse to seen as a traditional sector and has been generally using wood-based biomass for cooking after the elim- given very little attention. The REDD+ mechanism ination of subsidies caused prices for LPG to increase could offer an opportunity to “modernize� this segment significantly (World Bank 2009). of the energy sector. The below recommendations should be considered as pillars for any future REDD+ In some cases, rising fuel prices may even force activities that aim to tackle the challenge of biomass wealthier segments of society to revert to wood-based energy in the Congo Basin. fuels. In Madagascar, for example, the upper-middle class—increasingly unable to afford LPG —has begun Put the Woodfuel Energy Sector Higher on the to switch back to charcoal. The reliability of supply is Political Agenda another issue that keeps consumers using wood-based The wood-based energy sector deserves greater atten- biomass: not only can the purchased quantity be tion from policy makers. The importance of woodfuel adjusted to the cash availability of the household, but as a source of energy in Africa is undisputed. However, wood-based biomass is also available through a wide until now, very little attention has been given to it in network of retailers, and there is never a shortage of the policy dialogue, and accordingly the sector is poorly wood-based biomass. In contrast, the supply of other featured in official energy policies and strategies. There fuel options—especially LPG—has been reported by are many reasons for this, including (1) the wood- consumers to be unreliable and, thus, unattractive for based energy sector is perceived as “old-fashioned� regular use. and “backward� and policy makers are more interested in more modern and supposedly cleaner sources of energy; (2) the wood-based energy sector is usually Recommendations: How to Limit Adverse associated with forest degradation and deforesta- tion and is seen as a harmful sector that needs to Impacts on Natural Forests be eradicated; (3) the sector is poorly documented Woodfuel energy use is very often reported as one of and does not benefit from any reliable statistical data the major drivers of deforestation and forest degrada- (which tends to minimize its role in terms of contribu- tion in the Congo Basin. In the Democratic Republic tion to economic growth, employment, and so on); of Congo, for instance, fuelwood collection has been and (4) the mostly informal governance of this sector cited as the primary cause of forest degradation and often motivates rent-seeking behaviors, and conflicting one of the three most important deforestation factors. interests may hamper any reforms. This last situation However, the impacts of woodfuel collection on forest applies particularly in the Congo Basin countries. are rather diverse and complex and certainly deserve more analysis. Moreover, the informality of the sector There is a need to change the perception of policy has generated a vacuum for reliable data (in terms of makers: wood energy is generally perceived as tradi- both quantity and quality). tional and old-fashioned, which sometimes diverts the technical and political attention of energy ministries, This chapter aims to provide some recommendations despite the fact that a vast majority of the population and guidance on how the REDD+5 agenda can provide heavily relies on wood energy for their subsistence Congo Basin countries with appropriate incentives to needs. Lessons could be drawn from Europe and North 5 REDD+ encompasses activities related to avoiding deforestation and forest America that place wood energy among the most degradation, as well as conservation, sustainable forest management, and enhancement of forest carbon stock in developing countries. modern energy sources. Wood energy (for heating, Working Paper 5: Wood-based Biomass Energy 19 electricity generation, and sometimes cooking) is Adapt the legal and regulatory framework in a ƒƒ indeed the fastest-growing renewable energy source participatory manner. Formulation of a national or in Europe and North America. Very modern, high tech- regional woodfuel policy must be based not only on nology is developed to increase efficiency when using sound baseline information but also on a consen- wood for energy purposes; the European Union is sual vision, high-level commitment, and ownership. investing heavily in wood energy technology and plan- Such a policy must combine “upstream� and “down- tations. This can also happen Africa—as one of several stream� aspects of the value chain. This requires pillars of future energy development—with advanced streamlining sector policies as well as cross-sec- cookstove technology, advanced charcoaling technol- toral coordination of such policies. Developing a ogy (potentially with co-generation of electricity as cross-sectoral woodfuel strategy can represent a done in Brazil), and improved forest management. valuable starting point, especially if led by a joint working group or some other central government Formalize the Fuelwood/Charcoal Value Chain office (for example, the office of the prime minister The informal nature of the wood-based energy sector or ministry of finance). The process for developing is probably one of the biggest barriers to the develop- such a woodfuel strategy should facilitate contri- ment of a sustainable sector. The inappropriate eco- butions from all relevant stakeholders through an nomic structure of the supply chain curbs the capacity intensive consultation process and assigning clear for actors in the chain to adopt sustainable practices roles and responsibilities. It is expected that such —at all levels, but specifically at the production level, participatory approaches enhance the ownership where farmers bear the largest burden of the costs of policy reforms at all stakeholder levels, which is with little leverage on the end-product price. important for long-term success and sustainabil- ity. After that, objectives and content should be The formalization of the fuelwood/charcoal value translated into sectoral or regional “action plans,� chain should be given a priority and should lead to and communicated to a wider public so as to foster the revision and modernization of the regulatory acceptance of and to provide confidence in the framework (as described above). This formalization upcoming measures and changes. will break the oligopolistic structure of the sector and open up to a more transparent marketing framework. Diversify the Supply Side of the Value Chain The economic value of the resources will thus be The charcoal value chain in the Congo Basin currently better reflected in the pricing structure and appropri- relies overwhelmingly on natural forests. Although ate incentives could be set up. To do so, the following natural forests are expected to continue supplying much steps are necessary: of the raw material for charcoal production, they will be unable to meet demand in a sustainable manner, since Understand the “political economy� of the informal ƒƒ it is expected to increase substantially. There is a need fuelwood/charcoal value chain. A political econ- to ensure that the whole charcoal value chain properly omy analysis of the sector should be a prerequisite integrates sustainability of the wood supply. To do so, to the revision/adjustment of the legal and regu- policy makers should consider the following two options. latory framework, as proposed below. As a matter of fact, the informal sector involves a large number Maximize potential of sustainable harvests from ƒƒ of operators, including small-scale producers/ natural forests. Due to a lack of reliable data on collectors, traders, transporters, or retailers. Robust forest resources, harvesting and licensing decisions understanding of interactions among the various are made without accurate estimates of the stand- stakeholders as well as their roles in the informal ing stock or resources available; thus, it is vital to charcoal value chain will help inform the prepara- conduct more accurate assessments. Once this is tion of a legal/regulatory framework. accomplished and harvesting plans are developed, 20 Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection Box 3.1: Lesson Learned: Long-term Rights to Forest Land and Devolution of Management Authority Provide Strong Motivation for Communities to Participate in Sustainable Woodfuel Production In Niger and Senegal, a considerable annual increase in the forest stock was reported after local communities took over the management of their forest resources. Community-based woodfuel production (CBWP) has proven instrumental in promoting forest rehabilitation and reducing deforestation rates. Decentralization and devolution of management authority have taken hold in natural resource management. Local communities readily respond to these government initiatives because they provide improved autonomy and self-reliance at the local level. Furthermore, evidence suggests that households involved in sustainable woodfuel production markedly increase their income and thus improve their economic security. In turn, community members observe local rules—established in local conventions or contracts—and engage in sustainable manage- ment and control of access. In areas where CBWP has taken hold, incidences of fires and illegal exploitation have declined significantly. In countries where communities benefit from tax collection (for example, Niger, Senegal), revenues are used for investments in social infrastructure (schools, wells, primary care health centers, etc.). Furthermore, the community members’ concomitant rise in social status is not merely symbolic, but translates into increased bargaining power with forestry officials and traders. On the other hand, it must be noted that low management capacities and weak transparency within local management structures remain pressing problems that require continuous external support. Source: ESMAP 2010. their compliance in their implementation must be Adequate incentive frameworks might be nec- continually monitored. essary in the early stages to trigger local-level Special consideration should also be given to tim- investments in establishing planted woodlots and ber waste management in logging concessions: a agroforestry systems. As farmers begin to secure large portion of the timber logged in industrial con- financial benefits from the sale of wood for char- cessions is usually left in the concession and could coal, it is likely that other farmers would engage be valorized for charcoal. However, thus far, there is in similar activities. In this context, the potential no integration of the two value chains (timber and of carbon-finance opportunities must be further charcoal) and potential synergies are not fostered explored. in existing regulations. Foster Community Involvement through Clear Increase sustainable wood supply through tree ƒƒ Devolution of Rights plantations and agroforestry. Small-scale planta- tions and woodlots could increase the supply of Community-based forest management approaches wood to produce charcoal and trigger economic can successfully expand the supply and relieve natural opportunities and land-use planning in rural areas. forests from unsustainable withdrawals. However, Private or group-based woodlots/plantations could, communities will invest in adopting sustainable forest in the long term, complement supplies. Similarly, practices or tree plantations/agroforestry systems only planting trees in farmlands (“trees outside forests�), if they are given enough visibility on land/tree tenure through agroforestry systems adapted to Congo issues. In many cases, clarification of land/tree rights Basin areas, represents a significant opportunity is an important prerequisite to any actions to support to maximize timber production, while at the same sustainable forest management practices for the wood- time increasing agricultural productivity rates. fuel sector. Working Paper 5: Wood-based Biomass Energy 21 Strengthen the devolution of rights and responsi- ƒƒ Identify Priority Areas with Potential for bilities over forest resource management provides Charcoal Plantations incentives for local stakeholders to engage in man- An integrated land-use approach should guide the aging their resources by applying core principles identification of areas for the establishment of planta- of sustainable forestry. Ideally, technical oversight, tions and woodlots for sustainable charcoal production. including capacity building, is provided by com- The following principles could be used to guide the munity authorities. This model entails community decision-making process: no natural forest area should involvement in the sustainable management of be converted to plantations—even for degraded natural public forests and the use of sustainable resources forests, it is preferable to improve production through for commercial purposes. enrichment planting rather than full conversion to Community-based woodfuel production schemes plantations or woodlots—and plantations should be have already been implemented in a few African established on degraded lands. countries, such as Niger, Senegal, Rwanda, and Madagascar. The almost 20 years of experience Growing urban needs in terms of both food and shows promising results and proves that sustain- energy must be addressed. Pressures on forests able production of woodfuel can be achieved around urban centers are not only driven by energy through a devolution of rights and responsibilities needs but also respond to growing demands for to the local stakeholders (see box 3.1). food. Most of the time, fuelwood collection is directly Adjust the role of government entities. By decen- ƒƒ linked with agricultural practices (slash-and-burn) and tralizing management of local forest resources, the in some cases, is seen as a by-product of agricultural role of central government could be reduced to the expansion. Growing urban needs in food and energy primary function of setting up a supportive policy consumption and increasing pressure on forest in framework, while local government institutions these densely populated areas can thus not solely be would be able to concentrate on serving their cli- addressed through a purely energy perspective but ents regarding technical matters, capacity building, require a more integrated approach that would address and providing advice on sustainable forest manage- the various driving forces of forest degradation and ment, in addition to enforcing modern, progressive deforestation. laws and revenue collection systems. Working Paper 5: Wood-based Biomass Energy 23 Conclusion and Outlook Reliance on wood-based biomass for energy in REDD+ provides an important opportunity for the Congo Basin is expected to remain at very Congo Basin countries to develop strategies that high levels or even increase in absolute terms work toward sustainable development while over the next decades, based on prospects on protecting the natural and cultural heritage of the population growth, increased urbanization, and relative region. This new, dedicated focus on forest protection price changes of alternative energy sources for cooking. within international climate agreements, in combination Under a business-as-usual scenario, it is thus likely to with the availability of new financial resources, moves become the number one driver of forest degradation sustainable forest management up in the political and deforestation. agenda and has in many countries facilitated a dia- logue among forest agencies and those ministries and New environmental finance mechanisms can entities that regulate broader industrial and agricultural help Congo Basin countries transition toward a development. forest-friendly development path. Environmental finance includes climate funding for adaptation and mit- In that specific context, the Congo Basin coun- igation efforts in general, and REDD+ in particular, but tries could define a transformational approach also financing for biodiversity, wetlands, or soil resto- to their energy sector. Political action is crucial to ration. When accessing these new resources, countries foster development and enable forest protection, in may consider a number of issues to prioritize activities particular through the necessary formalization of the and effectively allocate these new funds. It is there- sector and the establishment of a regulatory framework fore up to national governments to define how these that properly factors the “real value� of the resources. various mechanisms fit into their own development, In addition, ambitious plans for plantations could dras- how to best use such resources, and whether and how tically contribute to an increase in timber supply, while to meet the relevant criteria of funds or mechanisms, limiting the pressure on natural resources. and to assess the benefits and risks associated with particular funds, including the costs of putting into place relevant information and institutional conditions. 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