Republic of Moldova    TEACHERS SABER Country Report 2014    100098  Policy Goals Status 1. Setting Clear Expectations for Teachers There are clear expectations for what students should learn and what teachers are supposed to do in  Moldova. However, the proportion of school time dedicated to instructional improvement is limited. 2. Attracting the Best into Teaching Entry requirements, teacher salaries, and career advancement opportunities may not be appealing for  talented candidates. 3. Preparing Teachers with Useful Training and Experience Current teacher initial education systems may not be best suited to ensure good quality teachers.  Beginning teachers have opportunities to develop practical teaching skills, but only for a limited period of time before they are expected to teach without guidance. 4. Matching Teachers’ Skills with Students’ Needs There are official systems in place to identify teacher shortages in hard-to-staff schools and by subject  areas, but mechanisms to address those shortages do not always work. 5. Leading Teachers with Strong Principals There are some training programs to support the professional development of principals in the area of  school administration, and principals are expected to monitor teacher performance. At the same time, there are no specific training requirements to ensure that principals have the necessary skills to act as instructional leaders and successful managers. 6. Monitoring Teaching and Learning Moldova’s systems to assess student learning lack reliable information that may be used to inform policy  and teaching. Teacher performance is evaluated every 5 years within a complex process of attestation, but the evaluation system needs reform to be more effective. 7. Supporting Teachers to Improve Instruction There are opportunities for teacher professional development, but teachers are required to pay for some  of their own professional development activities. 8. Motivating Teachers to Perform There are some mechanisms in place to hold teachers accountable. At the same time, new  remuneration programs need to be designed and introduced to attract, develop, and retain teachers and school directors in an efficient and effective manner, while enhancing teaching quality and staff performance.  THEWORLDBANK MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  OverviewofSABERͲTeachers teacherforce,aswellascopiesofsupportingdocuments.  The full database is available at the SABERͲTeacher Thereisincreasinginterestacrosstheglobeinattracting, website. retaining, developing, and motivating great teachers. Box1.Teacherpolicyareasfordatacollection Student achievement has been found to correlate with 1. Requirementstoenterandremaininteaching economic and social progress (Hanushek & Woessmann 2. Initialteachereducation 2007, 2009; Pritchett & Viarengo 2009; Campante & 3. Recruitmentandemployment Glaeser2009),andteachersarekey;recentstudieshave 4. Teachers’workloadandautonomy shown that teacher quality is the main schoolͲbased 5. Professionaldevelopment predictor of student achievement and that several 6. Compensation(salaryandnonͲsalarybenefits) consecutiveyearsofoutstandingteachingcanoffsetthe learningdeficitsofdisadvantagedstudents(Hanushek& 7. Retirementrulesandbenefits Rivkin 2010; Rivkin et al. 2005; Nye et al. 2004; Rockoff 8. Monitoringandevaluationofteacherquality 2004; Park & Hannum 2001; Sanders & Rivers 1996). 9. Teacherrepresentationandvoice However, achieving the right teacher policies to ensure 10. Schoolleadership that every classroom has a motivated, supported, and  competent teacher remains a challenge because To offer informed policy guidance, SABERͲTeachers evidence on the impacts of many teacher policies analyzestheinformationcollectedtoassesstheextent remains insufficient and scattered, the impact of many towhichtheteacherpoliciesofaneducationsystemare reformsdependsonspecificdesignfeatures,andteacher aligned with those policies that the research evidence policies can have very different impacts depending on to date has shown to have a positive effect on student thecontextandothereducationpoliciesinplace. achievement. SABERͲTeachers analyzes the teacher  policy data collected to assess each education system’s Anewtool,SABERͲTeachers,aimstohelpfillthisgapby progress in achieving 8 Teacher Policy Goals: 1. Setting collecting, analyzing, synthesizing, and disseminating clear expectations for teachers; 2. Attracting the best comprehensive information on teacher policies in into teaching; 3. Preparing teachers with useful training primary and secondary education systems around the and experience; 4. Matching teachers’ skills with world. SABERͲTeachers is a core component of SABER students’ needs; 5. Leading teachers with strong (Systems Approach for Better Education Results), an principals; 6. Monitoring teaching and learning; 7. initiativelaunchedbytheHumanDevelopmentNetwork Supporting teachers to improve instruction; and 8. of the World Bank. SABER collects information about Motivatingteacherstoperform(seeFigure1). different education systems’ policy domains, analyzes it  to identify common challenges and promising solutions, Figure1:8TeacherPolicyGoals and makes it widely available to inform countries’ decisionsonwhereandhowtoinvestinordertoimprove educationquality.  SABERͲTeacherscollectsdataontencoreteacherpolicy areastoofferacomprehensivedescriptiveoverviewof the teacher policies that are in place in each participating education system (see Box 1). Data are collected in each participating education system by a specializedconsultantusingaquestionnairethatensures comparability of information across different education systems. Data collection focuses on the rules and  regulations governing teacher management systems. The 8 Teacher Policy Goals are functions that all highͲ This information is compiled in a comparative database performingeducationsystemsfulfilltoacertainextent where interested stakeholders can access detailed in order to ensure that every classroom has a information organized along relevant categories that motivated, supported, and competent teacher. These describe how different education systems manage their  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 2 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  goals were identified through a review of evidence of differduetothepoliticaleconomyofthereformprocess, research studies on teacher policies, and the analysis of lack of capacity of the organizations in charge of policies of topͲperforming and rapidlyͲimproving implementing them, or the interaction between these education systems. Three criteria were used to identify policies and specific contextual factors. Since SABERͲ them:teacherpolicygoalshadtobe(i)linkedtostudent Teacherscollectslimiteddataonpolicyimplementation, performance through empirical evidence, (ii) a priority the assessment of teacher policies presented in this for resource allocation, and (iii) actionable, that is, report needs to be complemented with detailed actions governments can take to improve education information that describes the actual configuration of policy. The 8 Teacher Policy Goals exclude other teacherpoliciesontheground. objectives that countries might want to pursue to increasetheeffectivenessoftheirteachers,butonwhich ThisreportpresentsresultsoftheapplicationofSABERͲ thereis,todate,insufficientempiricalevidencetomake Teachers in Moldova. It describes Moldova’s specificpolicyrecommendations. performance in each of the 8 Teacher Policy Goals, alongside comparative information from education Byclassifyingcountriesaccording totheirperformance systems that have consistently scored high results in on each of the 8 Teacher Policy Goals, SABERͲTeachers international student achievement tests and have canhelpdiagnosethekeychallengesthatcountriesface participated in SABERͲTeachers. Additional detailed inensuringtheyhaveeffectiveteachers.Foreachpolicy descriptive information on Moldova’s and other goal, the SABERͲTeachers team identified policy levers educationsystems’teacherpoliciescanbefoundonthe (actionsthatgovernmentscantaketoreachthesegoals) SABERͲTeacherswebsite.Datapresentedhereareasof and indicators (which measure the extent to which July2014. governments are making effective use of these policy levers). Using these policy levers and indicators, SABERͲ CountryContext Teachers classifies education systems’ performance on The Republic of Moldova, a resourceͲpoor and landlocked eachofthe8TeacherPolicyGoalsusingafourͲcategory country, is undergoing a difficult transition from a planned to scale (latent, emerging, established, and advanced), a market economy. Although a deep economic collapse which describes the extent to which a given education marked its first decade of independence1 , economic growth systemhasinplaceteacherpoliciesthatareknowntobe resumed in 2000 and continued at an average annual rate of related to improved student outcomes (Annex 1). The 5.9percentuntilthe2008globalfinancialcrisis.Theeconomy recovered from the 2008Ͳ09 global economic crisis with main objective of this assessment is to identify the average annual GDP growth exceeding 5 percent over 2010Ͳ strengths and weaknesses of the teacher policies of an 2013. As a result, among all its regional partners, Moldova education system and pinpoint possible areas for experienced the highest cumulative GDP growth, relative to improvement. For a more detailed report on the eight the preͲcrisis year of 2007. At the same time, as a small open teacherpolicygoals,policyleversandindicators,aswell economyinwhichagriculturehasasignificantrole,Moldova’s as the evidence base supporting them, see Vegas et al. growth performance has been strong but volatile, reflecting (2012). vulnerability to climatic and global economic conditions. Officially, the GDP per capita is about USD 2,037 2 , but this The main focus of SABERͲTeachers is on policy design, estimate does not account for the high share of the informal ratherthanonpolicyimplementation(thoughavailable economy, which, according to estimates, is about 45 percent evidenceonimplementationisprovidedtohaveamore of the officialGDP3. Significant structuralchanges are shaping Moldova’seconomyandincreasingthedemandforskills. realistic picture of the situation given the issues with  enforcement of the legislation in the country). SABERͲ In Moldova, primary education begins at the age of six Teachersanalyzes the teacher policiesformallyadopted and lasts four years (Annex 2). Secondary schooling by education systems. However, policies “on the coverseight yearsandisdividedintofiveyearsoflower ground”, that is, policies as they are actually secondary (gymnasium) which is compulsory and three implemented, may differ quite substantially from years of upper secondary school education (lyceum). policies as originally designed.  In fact, they often do Aftergraduatingfromthegymnasium,childrenhavethe  1 2 During1991Ͳ1999GDPdeclinedbyalmost60percent(withtheexceptionof IMF,WorldEconomicOutlookDatabase,April2013. 1997whenMoldovagrewby1.6percent). 3 Schneiderandothers,2008.  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 3 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  opportunitytocontinuetheireducationinlyceumsorgo based term contracts with the retired staff (instead of for vocational education. In 2012, out of the 38,600 thepreviouslifetimetenurearrangements)thatallowed graduates of lower secondary education, almost half naturalattrition. (46.5 percent) continued studying in lyceums, 21.4 percent in secondary vocational education institutions Before going into details of the state of affairs in all 8 and 19.2 percent in secondary specialized educational TeacherPolicyGoals,itisimportanttonotethatinterms institutions. of educational achievements, students from rural schools significantly lag behind their peers studying in Graduates of the gymnasiums can enter trade schools, urban schools (Figure 2). That is why this study, where the studies last a year, vocational schools (three whenever possible, looks at the ‘teachers’ situation’ in years) or colleges (four to five years). High school Moldovafromurbanandruralperspectives.Indeed,the graduates canbeenrolledintradeschoolsorvocational OECD Programme for International Student Assessment schoolsforayearandincollegesfortwotothreeyears. (PISA) 2009 Plus results show that performance gap of Advanced technical/vocational education is provided by studentsfromvillages(where56.7percentof15Ͳyearold collegesandconsistsofshortͲcyclespecializedcoursesin childrenofMoldovaarestudying)withtheirurbanpeers agriculture, teacher training, arts, mechanics, constitutes about one year of schooling. The difference construction, wood processing, economics and others. with peers from large cities is much higher—more than The duration of the program depends on the field of three years of schooling. 4The quality is higher in large study. Vocational schools issue qualification certificates, cities also when socioeconomic factors are taken into while colleges award diplomas. Higher education is account. Overall, schools in Moldova are more divided into two cycles: (i) the licentiate lasting three to segregatedthanintheaveragePISAparticipantcountry. four years (leading to a Bachelor degree), and (ii) the Moldova has high social stratification in schools and Master(lastingonetotwoyears). educationislessequitablecomparedtoOECDcountries. In2013/2014schoolyear,2,958educationalinstitutions operated in Moldova, including 1,440 preͲschool institutions, 1,374 primary and secondary schools, 67 vocational schools, 45 colleges and 32 higher education institutions. During 2013/2014 academic year, nearly 55,000 teachers were employed in the education sector of the Republic of Moldova, including 32,100 in primary and secondary schools. While the teaching corps is overstaffed, there are hidden shortages of teachers of certainsubjects,inparticularthesciencedisciplines. The Government of Moldova’s primary objective in education is to improve the quality, efficiency, and relevanceoftheeducationsystemtomeettheneedsof the labor market and the broader economy. However, the country’s demographic and fiscal realities have not made it easy for the government to fulfill this mandate. In2011,thegovernmentembarkedonthepoliticallyand socially difficult but vital reform of rightͲsizing the overstaffedandoversizedschoolnetworksoastoadjust to the sharp studentͲage population decline (by more than40percentoverthelasttwodecadessince1991).In 2011Ͳ2013,thenumberofschoolteachersdecreasedby 15.2 percent due to introduction in 2012 of the needsͲ  440scorepointsinPISArepresentaboutayearofschooling.  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 4 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  Figure2.Studentperformancebyschoollocation SABERͲTeachers considers two policy levers school systemscanusetoreachthisgoal:(1)clearexpectations PISAresults:Moldova for what students should know and be able to do, and 600 how teachers can help students reach these goals; (2) 502 452 500 useful guidance on teachers’ use of time to be able to 409 416 374 400 improveinstructionattheschoollevel. PISAscores  300 (1) In Moldova, there are expectations for what 200 students are expected to learn and for what teachers 100 are supposed to do. The Ministry of Education is 0 responsible for setting education goals and controlling Village Small Town City Large the national curriculum. General education goals are Town City Reading Mathematics stipulated in the Law of Education (Art. 5), and in the Science Linear(Mathematics) Core Curriculum (20105). There are officially stipulated  requirements for the minimum education, curriculum, PISAresults:OECDAverage and skills students must attain in every subject by every 600 grade. In every school there are also some optional 485 497 507 496 471 500 electivecoursesthatcanbechosenbytheschoolfroma listrecommendedby MinistryofEducation,andschools PISAscores 400 have the option of designing elective courses based on 300 localinterestanddemand. 200 100 Thetasksteachersareexpectedtocarryoutareofficially 0 stipulated.Teachertasksgobeyondclassroomteaching. Village Small Town City Large Their responsibilities include tasks such as supervising Town City Reading Mathematics students, grading assessments, and standing in for Science Linear(Mathematics) absentteachers.Whilethereareclearlydefinedteacher  tasks, there is no clear statement in the law as to what Note:WorldBankstaffcalculationsbasedonPISA2009Plusindividuallevel percentage of time teachers should allocate to any of data. these tasks (except for actual teaching time in the classroom)6. Moldova’sTeacherPolicySystemResults  Information on school climate in PISA 2009 Plus Goal1:Settingclearexpectationsforteachers questionnaires administered to principals provides Establishedzzz| useful insights on the hindrances to student learning includingfrom“teachingstaff”prospective(Table1).For Setting clear expectations for student and teacher example, principals report hindrances to student performance is important to guide teachers’ daily work learning “to some extent” or “a lot” due to teachers andalignnecessaryresourcestomakesurethatteachers having low expectations of students; and teachers not can constantly improve instructional practice. In meetingindividualstudents’needs. addition, clear expectations can help ensure there is coherence among different key aspects of the teaching profession,suchasteacherinitialeducation,professional development,andteacherappraisal.   5Thecurriculumisunderrevisionsinceitistooheavy,andagreaterfocuson 6The stavka system pays teachers by hours of classroom teaching (teachers’ interdisciplinaryapproacheswithbetteralignmentofcurriculumandteaching base salary) and compensates them additionally for grading student materialsandtextbooksisneeded.Also,whilethecurriculumiscompetenceͲ notebooks and other pedagogical and nonͲpedagogical tasks. One stavka based, evaluation still largely focuses on students’ ability to reproduce constitutes 18 to 20 hours a week of classroom teaching (for primary and materiallearned,ratherthanontheircompetencies. secondaryschoolingaccordingly).  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 5 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  Table1.Schoolclimate Table2.Settingexpectationsforstudents %ofstudents Perceptionsofstudents: %ofstudents Perceptionsoftheprincipals: "InyourRomanian Moldova OECD "PerceivedHindrancesto Moldova OECD languagelessons,how Total Urban Rural average StudentLearning” oftendoesthefollowing (‘Tosomeextent’and‘Alot’) Total Urban Rural average occur?" Mostlessons/AllLessons Teachersnotmeetingindividual Theteacherexplains studentsneeds 25% 27% 23% 29% beforehandwhatis expectedofthestudents 37% 38% 36% 47% Teacherslowexpectationsof Theteachertellsstudents students 47% 51% 45% 23% inadvancehowtheirwork Studentsnotbeingencouraged isgoingtobejudged 54% 54% 55% 57% toachievetheirfullpotential 29% 25% 31% 24% Theteacherasksstudents toexplainthemeaningofa Teacherabsenteeism 22% 25% 20% 18% text 53% 60% 49% 52% Studentabsenteeism 70% 78% 65% 48% Theteacherasksquestions thatchallengestudentsto Studentsskippingclasses 46% 59% 36% 33% getabetterunderstanding PoorstudentͲteacherrelations 25% 28% 23% 14% ofatext 59% 63% 55% 58% Note:WorldBankstaffcalculationsbasedonPISA2009Plusdata. Studentslackingrespectfor  teachers 28% 28% 28% 24% Thestudentswerealsoaskedaboutteachers’helpinthe Teachersbeingtoostrictwith course of studies. The results show that the majority of students 24% 24% 23% 12% the students in Moldova think that teachers listen to Staffresistingchange 27% 24% 30% 28% what they say (76 percent agree or strongly agree) and Note:WorldBankstaffcalculationsbasedonPISA2009Plusdata. thattheywillreceiveextrahelpfromtheireducatorsifit  isneeded (80percent).Studentswhothoughtthattheir At the same time, recent assessment showed that teachers listened performed better in PISA reading, measures on strengthening the integrity of the math, and science tests than their peers who strongly Baccalaureate exams system in 2013Ͳ2014 laid the disagreed with the relevant statements (Figure 3 and groundworkforamoremeritͲbasedwayofdetermining Table3). university admission and increased students’ and  teachers’effortsintheclassroom. Table3.Perceptionsofstudentsastoteachers’help  Perceptionsofstudents: %ofstudents ‘Howmuchdoyou Moldova OECD PISA 2009 Plus also looked at the issue of setting clear disagreeoragreewith Total Urban Rural average expectationsforwhatstudentsshouldknowandbeable eachofthefollowing to do (see Table 2). The students were asked, for statementsaboutteachers example,whether: atyourschool?’ agree/stronglyagree x theteacherexplainsbeforehandwhatisexpectedof IfIneedextrahelp,Iwill thestudents(37percentofstudentsreportedthatin receiveitfrommyteachers 80% 77% 83% 78% most or all of their lessons, they get relevant Mostofmyteachersreally guidancefromteachers;thisis10percentagepoints listentowhatIhavetosay 76% 76% 80% 78% Note: World Bank staff calculations based on PISA 2009 Plus individual level lowerthaninOECDcountries,onaverage); data. x theteachertellsstudentsinadvancehowtheirwork isgoingtobejudged(54percentofstudentsgetsuch informationinmostorallofthelessons).  In terms of the urban/rural differences in Moldova, two questionsstandout,namelywhether: x the teacher asks students to explain the meaning of atext;and x theteacherasksquestionsthatchallengestudentsto getabetterunderstandingofatext.  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 6 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  Figure3.Students’perceptionsofteachers’helpand types of activities, while Ontario currently devotes 30 studentperformanceinPISA2009Plus percent(DarlingHammond&Rothman2011). 440 70%  420 60% 400 50% Reading, Figure4.Teachers’officialtasksrelatedtoschool 380 40% meanscore 360 30% improvement 340 20% schoolinternal Mentorpeers Collaborateon Participatein 320 10% Math, development 300 0% meanscore curriculum Designthe evaluation Agree Agree Stronglyagree Stronglyagree Disagree Disagree Stronglydisagree Stronglydisagree Science, school meanscore plan  %of students Moldova  9 9 9 Mostofmyteachersreally IfIneedextrahelp,Iwill listentowhatIhavetosay receiveitfrommyteachers  Bulgaria     Note: World Bank staff calculations based on PISA 2009 Plus individual level 9 9 9 data. Macedonia 9  Kazakhstan 9 9 9 9 (2)Guidanceonteachers’useoftimecouldfocusmore Japan 9 9 9 9 on ensuring that expectations are set in a way as to Shanghai  9   improveinstruction.Teachers’workingtimeinMoldova Singapore 9 9 9 9 is officially defined as the number of hours spent at Source:SABERͲTeachersdata school(asopposedtomerelycountingcontacttimewith students).Globalexperiencesuggeststhisdefinitionmay InMoldova,theschoolͲbasedmentoringandsupervision be conducive to learning, because it recognizes that practiceshavebeensuccessfullyintroducedatpreschool teachers normally need to devote some time to nonͲ level but are yet to be established in primary and teaching tasks, such as lesson planning, the analysis of secondaryeducation. student work, and professional development, as well as administrativetasks. Goal2:Attractingthebestintoteaching  Emergingzz|| NonͲteachingtasksrelatedtoinstructionalimprovement are an officially required part of teachers’ basic tasks in The structure and characteristics of the teaching career Moldova.Suchtasksincludecollaboratingonelaboration can make it more or less attractive for talented of school development plans, contributing to the design individuals to decide to become teachers. Talented of the curriculum, and participating in internal school peoplemaybemoreinclinedtobecometeachersifthey evaluations (Figure 4). However, it is unclear what see that entry requirements are on par with those of percentage of time teachers are expected to devote to wellͲregardedprofessions,ifcompensationandworking suchtasks. conditions are adequate, and if there are attractive career opportunities for them to develop as  professionals. SABERͲTeachers considers four policy Successful education systems such as Ontario, Finland, levers that school systems can use to reach the goal of Japan, South Korea, and Singapore devote considerable attracting the best to the teaching profession: (1) time at the school level to activities that are related to requirements to enter the teaching profession; (2) instructionalimprovement,suchascollaborationamong competitive pay; (3) appealing working conditions; and teachers on the analysis of instructional practice as well (4)attractivecareeropportunities. as mentoring and professional development (Darling  Hammond & Rothman 2011, DarlingͲHammond 2010, (1)InMoldova,therearevariouspathwaystoenterthe Levin2008).Inaddition, thesesystemstendtodevotea teaching profession, but formal requirements to smaller share of teachers’ time to actual contact time becomeaprimaryorsecondaryschoolteacherinsome with students than other systems do, and a larger share of those pathways are below those in topͲperforming to teacher collaboration, onͲsite professional internationaleducationsystems.Teachersofpreschool, development, and research on the effectiveness of primary, and secondary education institutions are hired various teaching strategies. Japan, for example, devotes by school directors. The legislation stipulates that about 40 percent of teachers’ working time to these  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 7 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  candidates for a position in the education sector should Lifelong teacher training is provided within the systems have the qualification of educator, primary education of both formal and nonͲformal education, by secondary teacher or school teacher but this requirement is not specialized and higher education institutions, as well as adheredtoinreality. by a number of nonͲgovernmental organizations whose  curriculaareauthorizedbytheMinistryofEducation. Initialteachertrainingisdonein:  x secondary/postͲsecondary specialized education In summary, preͲschool and primary teachers’ institutions, called colleges, whose graduates are qualifications are obtained in pedagogical colleges, awarded the qualification of educator, primary which are vocational institutions, and in universities. educationteacherorschoolteacher; Secondary education teachers in Moldova receive their x higher education institutions (at pedagogical initialteachertrainingin coursestaken after12yearsof faculties), whose graduates are awarded the schooling. Thus, formal requirements to become a qualificationofteacherofcertainschoolsubjects; primary or secondary school teacher are below those in x higher education institutions, at nonͲpedagogical topͲperforming international education systems. faculties, provided that the students study a psychoͲ Teachers in Moldova, before being appointed to a pedagogical module equivalent to 60 transferable teachingposition,arenotrequiredtohaveanyminimum academiccredits; amount of practical professional experience (except the x continuous training institutions which provide reͲ practicalcoursewithinthepreͲserviceprogram);norare qualification courses to holders of higher education they required to pass an interview stage assessment. diplomas. There are written exams as part of individual course In order to provide the education sector with teaching programs, and there is one officially mandated final staff, the government approves each year’s admission written exam in pedagogical programs (within the preͲ plan to the pedagogical specializations. According to serviceprogram). policy,graduateswhosestudiesarefinancedbythestate budget may be requested to work for three years in the Both the concurrent and alternative models for teacher educational institutions designated by the Ministry of trainingexist.Concurrentprograms,whichteachsubject Education,butinpracticethegraduatescanchoosetheir knowledge and pedagogic skills relatively workplaces(Table4). simultaneously, are one pathway to enter the teaching profession. To qualify as a teacher, a candidate must The statistical data show that the number of graduates undergo a course of study that includes: 270 hours from teacher training specializations exceeds by pedagogy, 270 hours psychology, 300 hours teaching approximately four times the number of vacancies in methods, 60 hours professional ethics and 900 hours of educational institutions, while the share of graduates practical professional experience. The Education Code assigned by the Ministry of Education to work in (article 132) also allows for an alternative program as educational institutions does not surpass 30 percent of well:anyonewithabachelor’sdegreecantakeapsychoͲ the total number of graduates. As a rule, not more than pedagogicalcourseandbecomeateacher. 50 percent of the assigned graduates come to jobs  designatedbytheMinistryofEducation.Thebondingof Virtually all highͲperforming countries require that the stateͲfinanced graduates by the Ministry of teachers have an educational level equivalent to ISCED Education is de jure mandatory, but de facto 5A (a bachelor’s degree) and offer multiple pathways to enforcementofthatruleisanissue. enter the teaching profession, either through Table4.Teachertrainingandrecruitment consecutive programs or alternative programs. Consecutive programs allow individuals who have a  2010 2011 2012 2013 Bachelor’sdegreeinadisciplineotherthaneducationto Graduatesofteachertraining gainateachingcertificateafteronesemesterofstudyat specializations 3887 4527 4326 3642 university. Alternative programs are designed to meet Thedemandfortheteachingstaff 1156 1005 733 1052 theneedsofaspecificcountrycontext.Accordingtothe Assignedworkplace 794 841 733 781 National Bureau of Statistics, the proportion of Cametotheworkplace 355 381 671 453 Moldovan teachers who have higher education is quite Source:MinistryofEducation,2014 high: 88.2 percent in the 2013/2014 school year. At the  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 8 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  same time, almost a third of teachers do not have (3) Working conditions may be appealing enough to additionalpedagogicalqualificationsobtainedthrougha attract talented individuals to the teaching profession. nationalattestationprocess. Working conditions may play an important role in the  decision to become a teacher. Talented candidates who Of course, the causality may flow both ways:  more have opportunities in other professions may be qualified teachers may help their students to better discouraged from choosing to become teachers if results,butmorequalifiedteachersmayalsobeassigned workingconditionsarepoor. to schools with better environments and stronger  students,especiallygiventheimportantdefactoroleof Two key measures of working conditions indicate mixed teacherschoosingtheirplacement.Nevertheless,global results in Moldova.  In the area of the physical work experience suggests the importance of developing the environment, the average school was built in 1971, and knowledge and professionalism of the teaching force as many facilities require rehabilitation and investment. alongͲruninstrumentforstrengtheningquality. However, studentͲteacher ratios, which are another  indicatorofteacherworkingconditions,aresimilartoor (2) Teacher pay may not be appealing for talented smaller than those in highͲperforming international candidates. The minimum teacher salary is 1,800 MDL7 education systems. The primary school studentͲteacher (preschool education teachers after pedagogical ratio is 12.0:1, the secondary school ratio is 10.9:1 and college), or 2,200 MDL (secondary education teacher the lyceum ratio is 12.6:1. The overall studentͲteacher withuniversitydiploma)permonth.Forcomparison,the ratiois11.9:1(Table6andFigure5). starting salary of a public servant with a comparable  degreeisapproximately2,174MDL.Intheprivatesector, Table6.StudentͲteacherratiosinMoldova the minimum salary for a similarly skilled qualified Typeofeducational individualstartsatabout2,700MDLpermonth.Teacher Total Urban Rural institution payvariesdependingonworkexperience,teachingrank, Primaryschool 12.0 14.3 9.3 typeofschool. Gymnasium 10.9 11.7 10.8 Basedonacceptancerates,theteachingprofessionisnot Lyceum 12.6 12.8 12.4 veryprestigiousintheRepublicofMoldova(Table5).The Overall 11.9 12.7 11.4 students admitted to pedagogical fields of study usually Source:MoldovaEducationManagementInformationSystem(EMIS)data, havelowlyceumgraduationscores. 2013.Note:NumberofstudentsperteacherismeasuredusingfullͲtime equivalentteachers. Table5.Enrolmentinpedagogicalspecializations,2013  Minimumscore Figure5.StudentͲteacherratio,primaryschool Ratioof applications requiredforadmission Fieldofstudy Applications* to BudgetͲ Privately SouthKorea 22 admissions financed financed Singapore 18 Teacher education Shanghai 11 andtraining 3153 2.1 5.15 5.05 Japan 16 Sciencesof Kazakhstan 17 5.68 5.37 education 1079 1.7 Macedonia 12 Economic 5.88 5.44 sciences 7782 4.2 Bulgaria 18 Law 3708 8.2 7.83 5.82 Moldova 12 Medicine 1146 2.6 8.54 8.27 0 5 10 15 20 25 *Note:Onecandidatecouldapplyforseveralspecializations  Source:MinistryofEducation,2013 Source:SABERͲTeachersdata    7DataasofJuly2014.  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 9 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  (4) Opportunities for career advancement may be Mathresults 9.5 appealingenoughtohelpattracttalentedindividualsto the teaching profession. Teachers in most education 8.5 systems are offered opportunities for promotion to 7.5 principal positions at some point in their careers. In 6.5 addition to these “vertical” promotions, most highͲ 5.5 performing education systems offer teachers the 4.5 possibility of “horizontal” promotions to academic 0% 20% 40% 60% positions that allow them to grow professionally as Shareofteacherswithfirstorhighestdidacticalrank teachersandyetremaincloselyconnectedtoinstruction, Note:EMIS,2013. instead of moving up to managerial positions (OECD  2012,DarlingͲHammond2010). However, as there are no standards in place yet, the  assessment of performance is rather weak. The PoliciesinMoldovaoffervariousopportunitiesforcareer attestation process is considered quite bureaucratic by advancement to teachers. Teachers have the option of teachers and has very few features that focus on applying to either school administration posts (such as observationofdailyteachingpractices. school principals) or academic leadership positions. Policies require that promotion opportunities are linked The second teaching rank is awarded at the subnational to teacher performance. This link between promotion level (raion), while the first and highest teaching ranks decisions and performance is another way of improving are awarded at the central level by the Ministry of career opportunities in the teaching profession for Education. The teaching rank has to be confirmed attractivecandidates. (renewed) every five years. Of the total number of candidateswhoweresubjecttocertificationin2013,28 In order to encourage the teaching staff to continue percent were able to obtain a higher teaching rank; the honing their skills, three teaching ranks have been sharewas23percentinruralareas,versus34percentin institutedintheRepublicofMoldova.Theholdersofthe urbanareas(Table7). higher ranks earn salary supplements.  The teaching ranks are to be awarded based on performance, on the Table7.Teacherswithawardedorconfirmedteaching ranks,2013 resultsofcontinuoustrainingofthecandidateandonthe outcomes of his/her methodological and teaching  Confirmationofthe Awardofahigher activities. As expected, teacher qualifications, teachingrank teachingrank particularly at the first or highest rank, have a positive No. % No. % correlationwithstudentperformance(Figure6).  Rural 2,549 77% 7,75 23% Figure6.Proportionofqualifiedstaffversusstudentpass Urban 2,119 66% 1,074 34% rateandperformanceinBaccalaureateexams PassRate Total 4,668 72% 1,849 28% 100% Source:MinistryofEducation,2014 90%  80%  70% Holding a teaching rank is not mandatory. About a third 60% ofstaff(31percent)donotholdanyrank,58percentof 50% teachers hold the second rank awarded at the subͲ 40% 30% national level, 9 percent hold first rank, and 2 percent 0% 20% 40% 60% holdthehighestrank.Therearesignificantdiscrepancies Shareofteacherswithfirstorhighestdidacticalrank inholdersoftheteachingranksinruralandurbanareas (Figure7).  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 10 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  Figure 7. Distribution of the teaching staff by teaching rank try out their pedagogical theories, subjectͲmatter andlocation knowledge,andclassroommanagementskills,thebetter preparedtheywillbefortheirjob.MosthighͲperforming 0.5% 5.4% 100% 4.7% systems require their teacher entrants to have a 15.8% considerable amount of classroom experience before 80% 58.8% becoming independent teachers (DarlingͲHammond 60% 56.1% 2010, Ingersoll 2007). In Moldova, teachersͲinͲtraining 40% must acquire three months of classroom experience 20% 36.0% within their university practical activities (900 hours of 22.7% practical activities for primary and secondary level of 0% education);thisislesspracticalexperiencethanrequired Rural Urban Nodegree Seconddegree bymosthighͲperformingsystems. Firstdegree Highestdegree   Source:MoldovaEMIS,2013 After their teachersͲinͲtraining become teachers, highͲ  performing systems have programs aimed at facilitating their transition into the profession—programs that Goal3:Preparingteacherswithuseful include mentoring and other support—that usually last trainingandexperience longer than seven months for both primary and secondary school teachers.  These programs have the Emergingzz|| potential to make teachers more effective in the  classroom and reduce teacher turnover. In Moldova, by Equipping teachers with the skills they need to succeed contrast, novice teachers were not required to intheclassroomiscrucial.Teachersneedsubjectmatter participateininductionprogramsormentoring.Thenew and pedagogic knowledge, as well as classroom Education Code envisages the provision of mentoring managementskillsandlotsofteaching practiceinorder assistanceinthefirstthreeyearsofactivity. to be successful in the classroom. In addition,  preparation putsall teachersonan equalfooting,giving Figure8.Requiredclassroomexperience,primaryschool themacommonframeworktoimprovetheirpractice. teachers  3months SABERͲTeachers considers two policy levers that school months than24 months months orless orless 12Ͳ24 More systems can use to reach this goal: (1) minimum 12 standardsforpreͲservicetrainingprograms;(2)required  classroomexperienceforallteachers.   Moldova 9   Bulgaria 9    (1) Teacher initial education may not be providing prospective teachers with the necessary practical Macedonia  9   knowledge and skills to be successful in the classroom. Kazakhstan  9   Virtually all highͲperforming countries require that Japan    9 teachers have an educational level equivalent to ISCED 9  Shanghai   5A (a bachelor’s degree), and some systems, such as Singapore   9  Finland, require, in addition, a researchͲbased master’s degree (OECD 2011). As mentioned earlier, formal SouthKorea 9    requirements to become a primary or secondary school Source:SABERͲTeachersdata  teacher in Moldova are below those of topͲperforming  internationaleducationsystems.  (2) Practical classroom experience requirements for teachersͲinͲtrainingcouldbestrengthened,particularly forsecondaryschoolteachers.Practicalexperienceisan important factor in teaching quality. The more teachers  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 11 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  Goal4:Matchingteachers’skillswith systems often offer monetary and nonͲmonetary students’needs incentives (such as bonuses and subsidized education/scholarships) for teachers to teach these Establishedzzz| subjects.  In Moldova, identification of a need has not  always led to success in meeting it.  In the 2014/2015 Ensuringthatteachersworkinschoolswheretheirskills school year, for example, there was substantial demand are most needed is important for equity and efficiency. for math or chemistry teachers, but the Ministry’s First, it is a way of ensuring teachers are distributed as incentives did not successfully mobilize sufficient efficiently as possible, making sure that there are no teachersinthesesubjectareas(Table8). shortages of qualified teachers at any given grade,  education level, or subject. Second, it is a means of Table8.Thedemandforteachingstaffbyselectedsubjects, ensuring all students in a school system have an equal 2014/2015schoolyear opportunity to learn. Without purposeful allocation Subjects Demand Assigned systems, it is likely that teachers will gravitate towards forwork schools serving betterͲoff students or those located in Preschoolpedagogy 191 77 more desirable areas, deepening inequalities in the Mathematics 125 0 system. Physics 56 0  Chemistry 25 0 SABERͲTeachers considers two policy levers that school systems can use to reach this goal: (1) incentives for History 25 15 teachers to work in hardͲtoͲstaff schools; and (2) SpeechTherapy 10 0 incentivesforteacherstoteachincriticalshortageareas. Totalforvarioussubjects 1090 600  Source:MoEdata,2014. (1)Therearemechanismstoidentifyteachershortages  in hardͲtoͲstaff schools. Attracting effective teachers to Table 9 shows principals’ responses to PISA 2009 Plus work in hardͲtoͲstaff schools (schools that are in questions related to staffing shortages and disadvantaged locations or serve underprivileged demonstratingperceivedhindrancestoschools’capacity populations) is a challenge for many countries, and it to provide instruction. Overall, 15 percent of Moldovan often requires a specific set of incentives, such as students study in schools that report lacking qualified monetary bonuses or opportunities for promotion. (See teachersinmath(‘tosomeextent’or‘alot’),12percent Figure10forsomeexamples.)InMoldova,teacherswho lack teachers for science and 10 percent lack Romanian work in hardͲtoͲstaff schools are offered housing language teachers (though the situation, according to support. There is also a oneͲtime financial incentive of survey of principals, is better than in OECD countries). 30,000MDLforbeginnerteachers(paidgraduallyduring Theshortagesarehigherinruralareas,asistypicallythe the first three years) who agree to work in certain rural caseinmanycountries. areas.  Ministry of Education data show that all young teachers who came to work in rural schools have Table9.Staffing:shortageofqualifiedteachers received this incentive. The new Education Code Perceptionsoftheprincipals: %ofstudents envisagestheprovisionofaoneͲtimefinancialincentive "PerceivedHindrancestoSchools Moldova CapacitytoProvideInstruction” OECD for young teachers coming to work according to the (Tosomeextent/Alot) Total Urban Rural average repartition in rural and raion schools, and in some hard to staff urban schools. Also, the young teachers from Lackofqualifiedteachersof ruralandraionschoolswillbenefitinthefirstthreeyears Romanianlanguage 10% 8% 11% 13% ofsupportforutilitiespayments. Lackofqualifiedmathteachers 15% 13% 16% 18%  Lackofqualifiedscienceteachers 12% 9% 14% 18% (2)Moldovahasamechanismtosystematicallyidentify criticalshortageareas,butitisnotalwaysabletomeet Lackofqualifiedteachersofother subjects 22% 14% 29% 23% the identified needs. Critical shortage subjects—those Source:WorldBankstaffcalculationsbasedonPISA2009Plusindividuallevel forwhichthereisashortageofteacherstomeetstudent data. needs—are present in many education systems, and   SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 12 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  This results in a situation when teachers deliver classes Goal5:Leadingteacherswithstrong in three, four, or even five subjects, particularly in rural principals areas (often without relevant qualifications). Indeed, as mentioned above, training in dual pedagogical Emergingzz|| specializations, for example, mathematics and physics,  Romanian and English languages, is allowed in higher The quality of school heads is an important predictor of education. But despite periodical attempts to ensure student learning. Capable principals can act as multidisciplinary teacher training, relevant policies have instructional leaders, providing direction and support to notbeendevelopedyet.Nevertheless,4,029teachersin the improvement of instructional practice at the school Moldova (11.2 percent) teach between 3 to 5 subjects level.Inaddition,capableprincipalscanhelpattractand (14.6 percent in rural and 6.1 percent in urban areas, as retaincompetentteachers. shown in Figure 9). Also, specialization in one or two  school subjects usually ensures more inͲdepth SABERͲTeachers considers two policy levers that school knowledgeofthedisciplinebytheteacher. systemscanusetoreachthisgoal:(1)educationsystem’s investment in developing qualified school leaders; (2) Figure9.Distributionoftheteachingstaffbynumberof decisionͲmaking authority for school principals to subjectstaught supportandimproveinstructionalpractice.  1.4% 0.4% 100% 3.3% 0.7% (1) In Moldova, there are some training programs and 5.1% 9.9% inͲservice programs to support the professional 80% 23.0% development of principals, but there are no minimum 26.2% requirements to become a principal, beyond being an 60% experienced teacher. There are also different inͲservice manager training modules that are focused on 40% 70.9% strengthening management and leadership skills. 59.2% 20% Research from highͲperforming education systems suggests principals can develop leadership and 0% management skills also through supported work Rural Urban experience or through specific training courses. HighͲ One Two Three Four Five performing systems such as Japan, South Korea,  Source:EMIS,2013 Shanghai, and Singapore require the participation of  applicants to principal positions in specific coursework Figure10.IncentivesforteacherstoteachinhardͲtoͲstaff schools and/or a specialized internship or mentoring program aimed at developing essential leadership skills (OECD, salaryinhardͲ 2012;DarlingͲHammond2010). Higherbasic Promotion Subsidized education Monetary  Housing support schools toͲstaff To become a school principal in Moldova, an applicant must have a Bachelor’s degree and at least five years of  teaching experience. School principals’ salaries depend Moldova   9  9 on their didactic and managerial degrees, work Bulgaria  9    experience,type/sizeofschoolinwhichtheyteach,and Macedonia   9   the number of students, but not their performance. Kazakhstan 9  9  9 National Baccalaureate exams results demonstrate that Japan  9 9  9 schoolprincipalqualificationispositivelycorrelatedwith Shanghai 9  9 9  theperformanceandsuccessrateofstudents. Singapore       SouthKorea 9    9 School principals are encouraged, but not required, to Source:SABERͲTeachersdata attend professional development courses and to obtain Note:SingaporehasnospecificincentivestoattractqualifiedteacherstohardͲ toͲstaff schools, but it does have a centrallyͲmanaged teacher deployment managerial degrees. Principals without managerial systemthatensuresanequitableandefficientdistributionofteachers. degrees can remain in post without participating in  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 13 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  professional development. Such participation is their role in selection, promotion and guidance of the mandatory only for principals who want to confirm or teachingstaff. obtain a higher managerial degree. In such cases, the principals are required to accumulate a certain number (2) Principals in Moldova are officially required to ofprofessionalcredits.Thesecreditscanbeobtainedby monitor teacher performance, but they are not following training courses, drafting institutional expected to provide support and guidance to teachers development strategies, planning and proper for the improvement of instructional practice. Once management of the educational process and financial education systems get talented candidates to become resources,anddevelopingandimplementingprojects. principals, they need to structure their time to focus on  improving instruction (OECD 2012, Barber & Mushed Thepresentsystemofrecruitmentandpromotionofthe 2007). HighͲperforming education systems such as managerial staff does not incentivize upgrades of the Finland, Ontario, and Singapore think of their principals level of qualification. Principals’ salary supplements as instructional leaders. Principals are expected to be depend more on the number of students in institutions knowledgeable in teaching and curriculum matters, as thattheyleadthanthemanagerialgradesthattheyhave. well as to provide guidance and support to teachers. Thus, in the case of teachers, for didactical ranks the They evaluate teachers, provide feedback, assess the salaries are increased by 30 percent (second didactical school’sneedsforprofessionaldevelopment,anddirect rank), 40 percent (first didactical rank), and 50 percent instructional resources where they are most needed (highest didactical rank), whereas for managerial ranks (DarlingͲHammond&Rothman2011). the increases are lower, at 5, 10, and 20 percent  respectively. In part as a result, the share of principals In Moldova, principals are expected to hire and dismiss withthefirstandthehighestmanagerialranksdoesnot teachers, assess teachers’ performance, evaluate the exceed 4 percent, with significant differences between overall school’s performance, manage the schools ruralandurbanareasintermsofthelevelofqualification budget, represent the school, respond to subnational ofthemanagerialstaff(Figure11). andlocalauthorities,and assumesometeachingduties.  Many of the tasks that are expected from principals in Figure11.Distributionofthemanagementstaffby Moldova are aligned with instructional leadership tasks managerialdegreeandlocation that research suggests are associated with high student performance, though their administrative load may be 0.3% 3.3% especiallyburdensomeandmaydetractfromtheirability 100% 2.3% 8.2% tomanageteacherseffectively(Table10). 80% 24.8%  33.8% Figure12.Mechanismstosupportthedevelopmentof 60% principals’leadershipskills othertraining 40% requirements Mentoringor 72.6% Coursesor internship program 54.7% 20% 0% Rural Urban  Nodegree Seconddegree Moldova 9  Firstdegree Highestdegree Bulgaria    Macedonia 9  Source:EMIS,2013  Kazakhstan  9 The new Code of Education envisages election of Japan  9 Shanghai 9  principals based on a competitive recruitment process Singapore 9 9 andtheirappointmentforafiveͲyearperiodoftime.The SouthKorea 9 new methodology for election and appointment of the Source:SABERͲTeachersdata managers of educational institutions will be focused on  enhancing the educational management and increasing    SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 14 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  Table10.Managementoftheschoolbyprincipals identify good practices which can be shared across the Perceptionsoftheprincipals: %ofstudents systemtoimproveschoolperformance. “thefrequencyofthefollowing  Moldova activitiesandbehaviorsinyour OECD SABERͲTeachersconsidersthreepolicyleversthatschool schoolduringthelastschool average year”(Quiteoften/Veryoften) Total Urban Rural systemscanusetoreachthisgoal:(1)availabilityofdata onstudentachievementinordertoinformteachingand Imakesurethattheprofessional policy; (2) adequate systems to monitor teacher developmentactivitiesof performance; (3) multiple mechanisms to evaluate teachersareinaccordancewith theteachinggoalsoftheschool 97% 97% 96% 87% teacherperformance.  Iensurethatteacherswork accordingtotheschool’s (1) Moldova’s systems to assess student learning lack educationalgoals 98% 97% 98% 92% reliable information that may be used to inform policy and teaching. All highͲperforming education systems Iobserveinstructionin 90% 96% 86% 50% ensure that there are enough student data to inform Iusestudentperformanceresults teachingandpolicy,buttheydosoinverydifferentways. todeveloptheschool’s 95% 98% 93% 75% Regardlessofthemechanismtheydecidetofollow,highͲ educationalgoals performingsystemsensurethatthreemainfunctionsare Igiveteacherssuggestionsasto fulfilled: (1) There is a system to collect relevant and howtheycanimprovetheir teaching 95% 98% 92% 69% complete data on student achievement regularly; (2) There is a mechanism for public authorities to have Imonitorstudents’work 95% 95% 95% 66% access to these data so that they can use it to inform Whenateacherhasproblemsin policy; and (3) There is a mechanism to feed these data his/herclassroom,Itakethe and relevant analyses back to the school level, so that initiativetodiscussmatters 89% 93% 86% 85% teachers can use it to inform the improvement of Iinformteachersabout instructionalpractice. possibilitiesforupdatingtheir 96% 98% 94% 88%  knowledgeandskills InMoldova,threetypesofnationalevaluationsareused Ichecktoseewhetherclassroom fortheassessmentofschoolperformance: activitiesareinkeepingwithour educationalgoals 98% 99% 97% 71% x final examinations in primary education, which Whenateacherbringsupa are conducted based on the tests developed by classroomproblem,wesolvethe the Agency for Quality Assurance of Ministry of problemtogether 94% 94% 94% 93% Education (AQA) and are administered by the educationalinstitutions; Ipayattentiontodisruptive behaviorinclassrooms 92% 94% 91% 89% x gymnasium graduation examinations, which are conducted based on the tests developed by the Itakeoverlessonsfromteachers AQA and are administered by the educational whoareunexpectedlyabsent 49% 51% 48% 29% institutions; Note: World Bank staff calculations based on PISA 2009 Plus individual level data. x Baccalaureate examinations, which are developed and administered by the Agency for Goal6:Monitoringteachingandlearning QualityAssuranceoftheMinistryofEducation.  Establishedzzz| Thoughdatafromthesenationalexaminationsaremade  available to inform policy, the primary and gymnasium Assessing how well teachers are teaching and whether exams are conducted by schools and lack students are learning or not is essential to devise standardization. The difference between final scores of strategies for improving teaching and learning. First, the lyceum graduates assigned by teachers in their identifying lowͲperforming teachers and students is schools for the three lyceum years and the ones at critical for education systems to be able to provide Baccalaureate examinations are high (Figure 13). The strugglingclassroomswithadequatesupporttoimprove. Baccalaureate examinations, recently reformed, are Second, teacher and student evaluation also helps reliable. At the same time, the Baccalaureate exams  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 15 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  taken upon completion of the upper secondary reform teacher training, qualifications upgrades, and education are not enough, as they are not designed to practice). measure quality improvements, but rather to provide a  gatewaytouniversityadmission. Table11.Assessmentmethodsinschools  Howoftenare %ofstudents studentsassessed Moldova OECDaverage Over the last decade, Moldova participated in three usingthefollowing 1Ͳ5times 1Ͳ5times different international assessments: Trends in atleast atleast oncea oncea ayear ayear methods? never never International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) in 2003, Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) in 2006, and Programme for International Standardizedtests 4% 82% 13% 24% 68% 8% Student Assessment (PISA) in 2009 Plus. However, none TeacherͲdeveloped of those have been applied continuously, which would tests Ͳ 26% 74% 3% 37% 61% allow tracking of trends in education quality in the Teachers’judgmental country. ratings 1% 33% 63% 7% 35% 58%  Studentportfolios 4% 53% 42% 24% 55% 20% Figure13.Averagescoresbylyceumgradesand Studentcoursework/ baccalaureatescores projects/homework Ͳ 11% 89% 1% 28% 70% Moldova Urban Rural Scores Difference Standardizedtests 6% 79% 13% 2% 84% 12% 9.0 2.5 TeacherͲdeveloped tests Ͳ 32% 68% Ͳ 21% 78% 1.96 Teachers’subjective 8.0 2.0 ratings 0% 32% 63% 1% 34% 62% 1.67 1.53 Studentportfolios 1% 60% 39% 6% 48% 45% 7.0 1.5 Studentcoursework/ projects/homework Ͳ 18% 82% Ͳ 6% 94% Note: World Bank staff calculations based on PISA 2009 Plus individual level 6.0 1.0 data.  5.0 0.5 Schools, according to the principals (Table 12), use assessments for various purposes: to inform parents 4.0 0.0 about their child’s progress or to monitor the school’s Rural Urban Total progress from year to year (98 percent of Moldovan students study in such schools); to identify aspects of instructionorthecurriculumthatcouldbeimproved(94 Lycee Baccalaureate Difference percent); to make judgments about teachers’  Source:QualityAssuranceAgencyoftheMinistryofEducation,2014 effectiveness or to make decisions about students’  retention or promotion (93 percent); to compare the Itisimportanttonote,however,that Moldovanschools school to local or national performance (86 percent); to most frequently use the following forms of assessment: comparetheschoolwithotherschools(77percent);and student coursework, homework and projects, teacherͲ to group students for instructional purposes (43 developed tests and subjective ratings (Table 11). percent). Student portfolios and standardized tests are also regularlyused. Atthesametime,theevaluationsdevelopedbytheAQA and the classroom assessments by teachers are still knowledgeͲbasedratherthanfocusedoncompetencies. To ensure that evaluations and classroomͲbased formative assessments are in line with the new curriculum, the Ministry will need to build capacity of QAA practitioners and teachers (it is also necessary to  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 16 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  Table12.Useofassessments (seeabove),theeffectivenessofthesemechanismsmay Perceptionsofthe %ofstudents be limited. Research suggests that no single method of principals:“Inyourschool, Moldova OECD evaluating teacher performance is failͲsafe. Most highͲ areassessmentsof Total Urban Rural average studentsinusedforanyofthe criteria for assessment. Ideally, an evaluation system followingpurposes” Yes(used) includesacomprehensiveteacherevaluationframework Toinformparentsabout theirchild’sprogress 98% 99% 97% 98% that combines student results, teachers’ portfolios, Tomakedecisionsabout classroom observations and feedback from students’retentionor students/parents.Internationalexperienceandresearch promotion 94% 94% 94% 77% onthetopicbothsuggestthatnoneoftheseapproaches Togroupstudentsfor taken separately can produce a balanced and objective instructionalpurposes 43% 43% 43% 50% evaluationofteacherperformance. Tocomparetheschoolto   performance 86% 84% 89% 53% Researchhasshownthatevaluationscombiningmultiple Tomonitortheschool’s methods and sources of information (such as student progressfromyeartoyear 98% 98% 98% 76% academic achievement, classroom observations and Tomakejudgmentsabout teachers’effectiveness 94% 92% 95% 47% student survey results) might be more effective.  In Toidentifyaspectsof Moldova,asinmanytopͲperformingeducationsystems, instructionorthe explicit criteria are used for assessing teacher curriculumthatcouldbe performance. Figure 14 and Table 13 highlight some of improved 95% 96% 94% 77% thesecriteria. Tocomparetheschoolwith otherschools 77% 77% 77% 45%  Note:WorldBankstaffcalculationsbasedonPISA2009Plusdata. Table13.Methodsusedtomonitorteacher’spractice  Perceptionsofthe %ofstudents  principals:“Duringthelast Moldova OECD (2) There is a system in place to evaluate teacher year,haveanyofthe Total Urban Rural average performance.Teachersundergoexternalevaluationson followingmethodsbeen usedtomonitorthe a regular basis, so there is a formal evaluation system. practiceofRomanian However, these external evaluations happen only once languageteachersatyour every five years, and there are no formal internal school?” Yes(used) evaluations.Establishingalistofperformancestandards Testsorassessmentsof studentachievement 99% 100% 99% 58% for beginning teachers through to “master” teachers Teacherpeerreview(of could help to guide various aspects of the career path, lessonplans,assessment includinginitialteachertrainingandteacherappraisalfor instruments,lessons) 94% 98% 92% 56% promotions.  These promotions would include both Principalorseniorstaff horizontal promotions (to acknowledge teachers and observationsoflessons 99% 100% 99% 68% allowthemtostaywiththeseniorteachingpractice)and Observationofclassesby inspectorsorotherpersons vertical promotions to other senior positions, which externaltotheschool 77% 77% 77% 28% might include managerial or other positions of Note:WorldBankstaffcalculationsbasedonPISA2009Plusdata. leadership. The new Education Code envisages revising   bothinternalandexternalevaluationsystems.  (3) Policies stipulate a variety of mechanisms to measure teacher performance despite a lack of supportive structures. While policies require student performanceandteacherevaluationsbeusedtoprovide amorecompleteunderstandingofteacherperformance, without schoolͲlevel student achievement data and principals trained in teacher pedagogy and evaluation  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 17 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  Figure14.Criteriatoevaluateteacherperformance activity), trainings at the local level (75 hours of classroom and 225 hours of individual work), through Subjectmatter achievement didactic scientificͲmethodological activities, community assessment knowledge academic Students’ Teaching methods methods activities, mentoring, and other activities. However, for Student the individual work, no formal proof of completion is  required. And, in fact, teachers with higher rank need 9 9 9 9 lesstrainingthentheoneswithnodidacticrank.Teacher Moldova professional development is provided but is not always Bulgaria  9   free of charge. Teachers bear some of the costs, when Macedonia  9 9 9 theschoolbudgetisinsufficienttocoverit. Kazakhstan 9 9 9 9  9 9 9  (2) Teacher professional development includes Japan 9 9 9 activities that have been found by research to be Shanghai  associated with instructional improvement. Research Singapore 9 9 9  suggests that effective teacher professional SouthKorea 9 9 9  developmentiscollaborativeandprovidesopportunities Source:SABERͲTeachersdata for the inͲschool analysis of instructional practice. As mentioned earlier, highͲperforming education systems Goal7:Supportingteacherstoimprove likeJapanandOntariodevoteasmuchas30percentof instruction school time to professional development and instructional improvement activities.  Some of these Establishedzzz| include observation visits to other schools, participation  inteacherorschoolnetworksaswellasopportunitiesto Support systems are necessary to help improve engageinresearch,mentoringorcoaching. instruction at the school level. In order to constantly  improve instructional practice, teachers and schools (3) Teacher professional development is formally need to be able to analyze specific challenges they face assigned by principals based on perceived needs. in classroom teaching, have access to information on Assigning professional development to teachers when best practices to address these challenges, and receive theyscorelowonperformanceevaluationsisonewayof specificexternalsupporttailoredtotheirneeds. potentially improving instructional practice. Teacher  professional development can be targeted to meet the SABERͲTeachersconsidersthreepolicyleversthatschool needsofspecificteachers. systems can use to reach this goal: (1) availability of  opportunities for teacher professional development; (2) Figure15.Typesofprofessionaldevelopment teacher professional development activities that are Observation Mentoring/c collaborativeandfocusedoninstructionalimprovement; networks networks Research Teacher oaching School (3) ensuring teacher professional development is visits assignedbasedonperceivedneeds.   Moldova 9 9 9 9 9 (1) Teachers are required to participate in professional 9 9 Bulgaria 9 9 9 development.Teacherperformanceisevaluatedoncein Macedonia 9 9 9 9 9 five years through the soͲcalled attestation process. 9 9  Kazakhstan 9 9 Teachers who aspire to confirm or obtain a higher Japan 9 9 9 9 9 didactic rank are required to participate in professional 9 9  Shanghai 9 9 development activities and accumulate at least 50 (for Singapore 9 9 9 9 9 second rank), 60 (first rank), or 80 (higher rank) Source:SABERͲTeachersdata professional credits. The credits can be accumulated by mandatory professional internship courses, workshops, trainings at the national level,  (150 hours of direct contact and 450 hours of classroom and individual  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 18 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  Goal8:Motivatingteacherstoperform professional standards or manager professional standardsinplaceyet. Emergingzz||   (3) Teacher compensation is barely linked to teacher Adequate mechanisms to motivate teachers are a way performance. While the base salary varies with teacher forschoolsystemstosignaltheirseriousnessinachieving workload, relevant experience, and professional education goals, make the teaching career attractive to qualification, student assessments are not used to competent individuals, and reward good performance influencecompensation.Theteacherattestationsystem whileensuringaccountability. (promotion ranks) is taken into account in order to  establish salary differentials, as described above (see SABERͲTeachersconsidersthreepolicyleversthatschool Goal 5). Bonuses can be an effective tool for improving systems can use to reach this goal: (1) linking career teacher motivation, assuming that there is a valid and opportunities to teachers’ performance; (2) having wellͲaccepted system of performance evaluation in mechanisms to hold teachers accountable; (3) linking place. Individuals are attracted into the teaching teachercompensationtoperformance. professionforawiderangeofreasonsanditisimportant  to reward highͲperforming teachers with both (1)InMoldova,promotionopportunitieshavealimited performancebonusesandnonͲmonetaryincentivessuch linktojobperformance.Thoughofficialpolicystipulates as awards, professional development opportunities and that performance on the job factors into whether funding for schoolͲbased research that serve as an teachers receive openͲended appointments, there is no inducementforteacherstoimproveperformance(Figure requirement for a probation period before teachers 17). receive an openͲended appointment. Usually, teachers  are hired with openͲended appointments, especially in Figure17.TeacherPerformanceIncentives subjectareaswherethereisanundersupplyofteachers (likemathorchemistry)andinruralareas.  Figure16.Incentivesforhighperformance Individual monetary SchoolͲ bonus bonus level  Moldova   Bulgaria 9  Macedonia 9  Kazakhstan   Japan  Shanghai 9 9  Singapore 9  Source:Bruns,B.,FilmerD.,PatrinosH.A.2011. SouthKorea 9 9 Source:SABERͲTeachersdata  PolicyOptions (2) There are mechanisms in place to hold teachers This SABER country report has offered a snapshot of accountable. Requiring teachers to meet some Moldova’s key teacher policies and how they compare standards to remain in the teaching profession can withthoseoftopglobalperformersineducation,aswell facilitatetheremovalofineffectiveteachers.InMoldova, as with regional countries. This section suggests some teacher performance is evaluated every five years, and policy options for further improvement of the teacher there are official mechanisms to address cases of policy framework. These recommended measures in all misconduct, child abuse, absenteeism and poor performance. However, there are no teacher  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 19 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  eight policy goals are derived from the above analysis not deterred or kept out of school by lengthy andinterviewsconductedinMoldova. qualificationrequirements. x Put in place standards for career advancement Goal1:Settingclearexpectationsforteachers and promotion so that career pathways for the There are clear expectations for what students should teachingprofessionareclear. learnandwhatteachersaresupposedtodoinMoldova. However, teachers do not set clear expectations of Goal3:Preparingteacherswithuseful students, and their pedagogical effort for teaching and trainingandexperience regularly checking for student learning is an issue. In Current teacher initial education systems may not be addition, the proportion of school time dedicated to bestsuitedtoensuregoodqualityteachers,inparticular instructional improvement is limited. To support in rural areas. Beginning teachers have opportunities to progress, it is important to know how much time develop practical teaching skills, but only for a limited teachers devote to each type of task (such as lesson periodoftimebeforetheyareexpectedtoteachwithout planning, analysis of student work, professional guidance. development, and administrative tasks), as well as x Requiremoreextensiveteachingpracticebefore whethertheyactuallyengageintheofficialtasksrelated teachersobtaincertification. toschoolimprovementandtowhatdegree. x Require junior teachers to participate in Thefollowingmeasuresmayhelpsetbetterexpectations induction programs and receive mentoring by forteachersinMoldova: highͲperformingcolleagues. x Set expectations for what percentage of x Conduct a review or evaluation of preͲservice teachers’ working time should be dedicated to programswithinpedagogicalinstitutions,tohelp teaching and what percentage should be used them respond better to teachers’ professional for other necessary activities that may requirementsandstudents’learningneeds. contribute to instructional improvement Goal4:Matchingteachers’skillswith (includingworkingonlessonplans,havingoffice hoursforstudents,gradingassessmentsandthe students’needs tasksmentionedabove). There are official systems in place to identify teacher x Develop professional standards and descriptors shortages in hardͲtoͲstaff schools and by subject areas, and performance indicators for teachers, to be but the mechanisms to address those shortages are not used for teacher selfͲevaluation and evaluation alwaysworking. processes. x Provide multiple incentives to teachers to work Goal2:Attractingthebestintoteaching in hardͲtoͲstaff schools in rural areas (e.g. promotion, higher salary, scholarships for Entry requirements, teacher salaries, and career education,orhousing). advancement opportunities may not be appealing for x Providemoreincentivestoteacherstoteach talentedcandidates. criticalshortagesubjects,inparticularinrural x Strengthen selectivity of entry requirements for areas. teachertrainingprogramsatuniversities. x Consider offering incentives to practicing x Ensure teachers get competitive pay, especially teachers (and not only beginning teachers) to attheentrylevel. increase the number of experienced teachers x Create a mentoring program and make it workingwithdisadvantagedstudents. possiblefornonͲcertifiedteachersͲinͲtrainingto x Helpteachersacquirenewskillssothattheycan workinschoolwhiletheyarestillobtainingtheir teachcriticalshortagesubjects. certification, to ensure that top candidates are    SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 20 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  Goal5:Leadingteacherswithstrong  principals x Oncethatstepiscompleted,ensurethatstudent achievement data collected are comparable There are some training programs to support the yearͲonͲyear, so that it becomes possible to professional development of principals in the area of evaluate teacher and school performance over school administration. Principals are expected to time. monitor teacher performance. At the same time, there x Put in place professional standards and are no specific training requirements to ensure that performance indicators for teachers, which are principalshavethenecessaryskillstoactasinstructional essential to establish the criteria for teacher leaders and successful managers. The following evaluations. measures may help to ensure principals are more x Provide teachers with frequent constructive effectiveleaders: feedbackinclassroompractice. x Conductaneedsassessmenttobetter understandthespecificneedsandissues Goal7:Supportingteacherstoimprove principalsfaceintheirwork. instruction x Provideprincipalswithanobligatory There are opportunities for teacher professional mentorshipprogram,instructionalleadership development,butteachersarerequiredtopayforsome training,andongoingprofessional of their own professional development activities. Some development. possiblemeasuresinclude: x Ensurethatstudentachievementandteacher performancearefactoredintoprincipal x Continue to require that primary and secondary performancereviewsandthattheycarry school teachers participate in professional significantweightinthereviewprocess. development activities and how often it should x Ensure that principals see professional happen. development of teachers and school x Focus more on improving the quality of improvementastheircoreresponsibility. professionaldevelopment activities, rather than x Develop professional standards and descriptors onincreasingtheirquantity. or performance indicators for principals, to be x Monitor the supply and demand for particular used for managers’ selfͲevaluation and professional development activities, as well as evaluationprocesses. ensuring that those activities respond to real trainingneeds. Goal6:Monitoringteachingandlearning x Develop a school based system for professional Moldovalacksreliablesystemstoassessstudentlearning developmentandcollaboration. thatmaybeusedtoinformpolicyandteaching.Teacher x Monitor the effects of participation in performance is evaluated every five years within a professionaldevelopmentactivities. complex process of attestation and it uses multiple x Ensure that schools have adequate funding to mechanisms that can assess effective teaching. Some invest in the professional development of policyoptionsinclude: teachers,particularlyinruralareas. x Promote diversification of training programs, x Revamp the student assessment system. and increase training support for Reliableandtimelydataonstudentperformance underperformingteachers. in national and international assessments x Develop a mentoring program to support provide important information on school and underperformingteachers. system performance, and is a key tool in promoting accountability. Strengthening this system is fundamental to allow informed policy making and increased accountability at the schoollevel.  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 21 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  Goal8:Motivatingteacherstoperform There are some mechanisms in place to hold teachers accountable. At the same time, a new remuneration programneedstobedesignedandintroducedtoattract, develop, and retain teachers and school directors efficiently and effectively, and to improve teaching quality and staff performance. The following options mighthelptomotivateteacherperformance: x Reward highͲperforming teachers with more desirable incentives—monetary, as well as nonͲ monetary (such as awards and professional developmentopportunities). x Ensure that teachers are recognized and rewarded for investing time and effort into activities related to instructional improvement by making the latter a prominent part of the teacher standards and of the criteria for performanceappraisal. x Ensurethatmonetaryperformancebonusesand nonͲmonetary incentives are set so that they serve as an inducement for teachers to improve performance (i.e., ensure that they are tied to measures that capture effective teaching and that they are significant enough to act as an incentive).    SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 22 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  Acknowledgements Hanushek, E. A., & S. G. Rivkin.(2010). “Generalizations ThisreportwaspreparedbyMaryBreeding(Consultant, about Using ValueͲAdded Measures of Teacher World Bank), Andrew Trembley (Consultant, World Quality.” American Economic Review. 100 (2): Bank), Anatol Gremalschi (Director of Education 267–71. Programs, Institute for Public Policy), and Anna Olefir Hanushek, E. & Woessmann (2007). “Education Quality (Operations Officer, GEDDR), under the direction of and Economic Growth.” Washington, DC: The Halsey Rogers (Lead Economist, GEDDR, World Bank). WorldBank. We are especially grateful for the leadership of Liliana NicolaescuͲOnofrei,theDeputyMinisterofEducationof Hanushek, E. & Woessmann (2009). “Schooling, Moldova,andtheassistanceofVioricaPosticaandRima Cognitive Skills, and the Latin American Growth Bezede(Consultants)inpreparationofthisreport. Puzzle.”NBERWorkingPaper15066.Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). References Herrmann, M. A., & Rockoff, J. E. (2009). 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Officialdocuments 1.EducationalLawofRepublicofMoldovanr.547,from 21.07.1995,http://lex.justice.md/  2.Regulationsforthecertificationoftheteaching staff–MinistryofEducation,2013, http://www.edu.md/ro/regulamentulͲdeͲatestareͲaͲ cadrelorͲdidactice/  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 24 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014   Annex1.SABERͲTeachersRatings This fourͲtiered rating system represents a continuum from systems with more comprehensive, developed The SABERͲTeachers team has identified policy levers policies oriented toward learning to systems with no (actions that governments can take) and indicators policies at all (or, in some cases, policies that are (which measure the extent to which governments are detrimental from the perspective of encouraging making effective use of these policy levers) for each of learning). SABERͲTeacher ratings can be defined in the the eight policy goals referenced in this country report. followingmanner: For example, for Teacher Policy Goal 1, Setting Clear  ExpectationsforTeachers,theSABERͲTeachersteamhas x Advanced—Systems that are rated “advanced” identifiedthefollowingpolicyleversandindicators: toward a particular policy goal are those that  have multiple policies conducive to learning in Table14.SettingClearExpectationsforTeachers place under each of the policy levers used to defineapolicygoal.  x Established—“Established” systems are those that have at least one policy/law in place that usesthosepolicylevers.  x Emerging—“Emerging” systems may have only some appropriate policies in place under the  policygoal.   Foreachgoalinthecountryreport,wedefinethegoalin x Latent—“Latent” systems are those that have the first paragraph of the country report, identify the noneorfew.PleaserefertoVegasetal.2012for levers in the second paragraph, and the remaining a detailed review of policy levers and indicators paragraphs are used to provide details about the assessedforeachgoal. indicatorsthatmeasureeachofthelevers.   Please reference the Vegas et al. (2012) background Using the policy levers and indicators, SABERͲTeachers paper, “What matters most for teacher policies? A classifieseducationsystems’performanceoneachofthe framework for building a more effective teaching 8TeacherPolicyGoalsusingafourͲcategoryscale(latent, profession,”formoredetailsaboutthesedefinitionsand emerging, established, and advanced), which describes adetailedreviewofpolicyleversandindicatorsused by theextenttowhichagiveneducationsystemhasinplace SABERͲTeachers.  teacher policies that are known to be related to improvedstudentoutcomes.  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 25 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014  Annex2.EducationsysteminRepublicofMoldova  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 26 MOLDOVA|TEACHERPOLICY  SABERCOUNTRYREPORT|2014   www.worldbank.org/education/saber  The Systems Approach for Better Education Results (SABER) initiative produces comparative data and knowledge on education policies and institutions,withtheaimofhelpingcountriessystematicallystrengthen their education systems.  SABER evaluates the quality of education policies against evidenceͲbased global standards, using new diagnostic toolsanddetailedpolicydata.TheSABERcountryreportsgiveallparties with a stake in educational results—from administrators, teachers, and parents to policymakers and business people—an accessible, objective snapshot showing how well the policies of their country's education systemareorientedtowardensuringthatallchildrenandyouthlearn.  Thisreportfocusesspecificallyonpoliciesintheareaofteacherpolicies. ThisworkisaproductofthestaffofTheWorldBankwithexternalcontributions.Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governmentstheyrepresent.TheWorldBankdoesnotguaranteetheaccuracyofthedataincludedinthiswork.Theboundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The WorldBankconcerningthelegalstatusofanyterritoryortheendorsementoracceptanceofsuchboundaries.  SYSTEMSAPPROACHFORBETTEREDUCATIONRESULTS 27