Human Development el 4 l3 209 June 2002 Findings reports on ongoing operational, economic, and sector work carried out by the World -____ ___ - - . Bank and its member govemments in the Africa Region. It is published periodically by the |L.; . | L, 1 ' ,: |: i 1' * l Knowledge and Learning Center on behalf of the Region. The views expressed in Findings are those of the author/s and should not be attributed to the World Bank Group. http://www.worldbank.org/afr/findings *I .*: -;Skills and Literacy Training for Better Livelihoods A review of approaches and experiences K.X D iscussions of Education for All primary school certificate, and are tend to neglect the question therefore not open to the un- 0 1 l } of vocational education for il- schooled. In effect, there is no literate adults, younger and older. policy for VTE for non-literate Organizations that specialize in vo- people. cational training - FAO, ILO - rec- If this were to change, one key ognize that literacy and numeracy question would be whether people \ C X - ~~~~are essential for workers to increase should become literate, before tak- their productivity and incomes. ing up VTE, or be enrolled in VTE This applies to people who have programs that incorporate literacy waged jobs, as well as to the large and numeracy. With the support of Q majorities of men and women in Af- the Norwegian government, AFTHD rica, who farm and pursue variet- (Human Development Department, ies of self-employment.2 Most of Africa Region, World Bank) there- them have either not acquired the fore commissioned a study3 of two skills of literacy at all, or have mas- approaches: literacy programs that tered them insufficiently to be able have incorporated some form of to use them in daily life. They are VTE, and VTE programs that have among the poorest and some two- incorporated literacy education as thirds are women. In effect, the lack a helpful supplement. of literacy is not only a gap in Edu- The study addressed four main cation for All, it is also obstructs questions: the reduction of poverty. l.What approaches have been Many countries do have literacy used? programs and even skills training 2.What are the documented out- programs for poor people. Yet their comes and impacts of these ap- institutions of vocational and tech- proaches? nical education (VTE) tend not to 3.What are the lessons regarding dr Ll be involved. Most require their en- management, implementation trants to have earned at least a and resource requirements? 4.What approaches are likely to be Q. 1: What approaches have rural and mostly women. Just two most effective under conditions been used? very small programs catered for prevailing in Sub-Saharan Africa, Programs could, as Rogers (1997: people in waged employment. and what are the pitfalls to avoid? 47) pointed out, be divided into five groups: Q.2: What are the documented Methods Literacy-led approaches outcomes and impacts of these 1 Literacy as a prerequisite for live- approaches? Constraints restriteds tHoevstud to lihood. Training in a livelihood is All five types had examples of ef- dourcoumntaryrevie ws. Honeve, in the main aim, but people are re- fective efforts. Success in both live- four countriesd - Guinea, Kenya, quired first to master literacy suf- lihood and literacy is likely, if two Senegfielad Ugservandat-iont lew ficiently to cope with the conditions are satisfied: first, the aendtield thedob mervato souple- livelihood's operating and devel- program is well run with compe- mented the documentary sources. For more general experiences, the opment requirements. tent, reliable and adequately sup- study scanned published literature, 2.Literacy followed by separate live- ported instructors, and, second, plusthey scarchivedp ishfeiteenabiuat lihood training. Here, learning lit- the program is well adapted to the eralu multhe hiater and nongoeernbil- eracy is regarded as a self-stand- interests and conditions of its par- mental, multilagene ind E goperand ing and worthwhile aim in itself ticipants. menthl amercica in Europe and and is undertaken first. Thereaf- Hard data were not available on ter, training is offered in either the impacts of livelihood training Quality of available information livelihoods or some form of in- on production, productivity and come-generating activity. There is standards of living. However, indi- Between 1965 and 1975, no systematic connection be- vidual interviews and focus group UNESCO's Experimental World Lit- tween the two. discussions were virtually unani- eracy Programme pioneered both mous that people who had com- combining VTE with literacy and Livelihood-led approaches pleted literacy courses tended to be systematically evaluating processes 3.Livelihood training leading to lit- more willing to take initiatives in and outcomes. Unhappily, its glo- eracy. Here, groups start out developing their livelihoods or in bal evaluation (UNDP/UNESCO, learning a business, but come to taking an active interest in the op- 1976) produced only hypotheses recognize that their progress will erations of their cooperatives. For rather than conclusions, largely be frustrated, unless they mas- example, SODEFITEX (Society for because measurement and record- ter literacy sufficiently. the Development of Textile Fibers) ing had proved exceedingly diffi- 4.Livelihood and literacy inte- in Senegal reports that cotton farm- cult. The subsequent quarter of a grated. Here, training in a liveli- ers, who had succeeded in their century has produced little im- hood and instruction in literacy combined livelihood/literacy provement. What the study en- begin simultaneously, often with course, were 6 per cent more pro- countered in 2001 echoed an OED the content of literacy derived ductive than those who remained (Operations Evaluation Depart- from or influenced by the liveli- illiterate. Even more important in ment, World Bank) observation in hood. the view of SODEFITEX, such farm- 1993: "After 30 years of lending, the S.Literacy and livelihood training in ers were more energetic in forming Bank still knows little about the parallel but separately. Programs organizations capable of (a) man- impact of its education projects on in this group recognize the im- aging the commercialization of the output measures such as quality, portance of both components, cotton crops; (b) managing agricul- access, and internal efficiency, let start both at the same time, but tural credit; and (c) serving the alone development." (IBRD-OED omit to develop any systematic public interest through assuring 1993) connections between them. food security and organizing village The study was then able only to stores for veterinary medicines, ag- follow UNESCO's example and of- Almost all the programs exam- ricultural inputs and other supplies. fer its conclusions more as prob- ined addressed people in self-em- Similarly, in the other three case abilities than certainties. ployment, or 'livelihoods'. The countries, claims by successful learners were very poor, mostly learners that they had adopted more productive agricultural or forms of governmental organization cessful participants. In contrast, livestock practices were common, that would allow local offices to two other organizations, World as were claims that people felt they develop the required flexibility. Education and PACT, both work- could no longer be easily cheated As regards the design of projects, ing with poor rural women in Nepal, when they bought inputs or sold eight points emerge. First, as the do without external sources of produce. SODEFITEX case suggests, pro- credit. Instead, they train their par- These psychosocial aspects and grams that start from livelihood ticipants first to build up and man- outcomes are not normally consid- skills seem to stand a stronger age a group's savings, then use the ered in designing VTE policy. None- chance of success. Corroborating savings to make small loans to their theless, as they do impinge on the evidence comes from Kenya, where members. Both organizations note productivity of current livelihoods the national program is literacy-led, that even the poorest women find and on the willingness to seek op- but encourages income-generating it possible to save a coin or two portunities to develop new liveli- projects. The Vihiga District had a during a month. hoods, they should be taken into total of 110 literacy centres, only Fourth, programs that work with account as likely effects of VTE 10 of which had income generat- established groups of people seem training with literacy. ing projects. These 10 had average to be more successful than pro- attendance rates of 80 per cent, grams that invite independent in- Q.3 What are the lessons regard- while the remainder had rates of dividual applicants. ADRA, ing management, implementation only 20 per cent. Clearly, very poor SODEFITEX, PACT, World Educa- and resource requirements? adults, younger or older, do appre- tion and the Rukungiri Women's A first important impression is ciate concrete reasons to justify Groups in Uganda offer examples. that organizations more concerned their setting aside time over sev- In the absence of such groups, it with livelihoods seem to be better eral months to learn new skills and would probably still be worth tak- at designing and delivering effec- information. ing the time to identify promising tive combinations of livelihoods and Second, deriving literacy/ common purposes and to work on literacy than organizations that are numeracy content from livelihood forming purpose-driven groups. more focused on education. FAO skills and integrating it with the Fifth, there is a strengthening with Farmer Field Schools, ILO livelihood training from the very consensus that programs that are with its West African ACOPAM work start seems more promising than well-negotiated with their prospec- and IFAD with a number of loans either running the two components tive learners in association with for primarily agricultural projects parallel or using standard literacy local authorities and leaders are seem to have supported effective materials to prepare people to train likely to be more effective than combinations of livelihood and lit- for livelihoods. This does not mean those that are simply put on offer. eracy training. Projects run by that the literacy content must be Sixth, planners would be prudent NGOs like World Education and limited to the livelihood. Indeed, to allow for some 360 hours of class PACT, that integrate livelihood, so- PACT in Nepal shows that a com- tuition and practice to enable av- cial development and literacy ap- bination of livelihood with social erage learners to achieve adequate pear particularly effective. The im- and local political action can be a mastery of literacy. Some lan- plication would be that policy for powerful motivator of sustained guages with small and reliably pho- VTE with literacy should consider learning. netic alphabets could well require operating through agencies, both Third, livelihood-plus-literacy fewer hours, while others, which governmental and nongovernmen- programs seem to improve their use more expansive and complex tal, that work with people in their chances of success, if they incor- codes, could demand more. How- actual livelihoods and employment. porate training in savings, credit ever, constraints have often pres- A second impression is that NGOs and business management, along sured designers into allocating too seem on average to be more flex- with actual access to credit. Two few hours for tuition and practice, ible than governmental agencies in organizations, SODEFITEX in with disappointing outcomes. In responding to local and changing Senegal and ADRA (Adventist De- addition to these 360 hours, plan- needs. Policy makers for VTE velopment and Relief Agency) in ners would of course have to pro- should then consider both (a) stron- Uganda, use their own funds to vide for sufficient time for the live- ger partnerships with NGOs and (b) make small loans available to suc- lihood and business training. Seventh, SODEFITEX suggests Q.4 What approaches are that, if at all possible, a livelihood/ likely to be most effective under This article was written by John literacy course should be taken in conditions prevailing in Sub-Sa- Oxenham and is based on the a single session. Breaks of a month haran Africa, and what are the study referred to in footnote 1. For or two seem to increase dropout pitfalls to avoid? more information, please e-mail rates. Overall, the study suggests that john.oxenham@yahoo.co.uk Eighth, two cadres of instructors policies for VTE with literacy for are necessary, one to teach the live- very poor non-literate people would References lihood and business skills, the be worthwhile. However, VTE policy other to teach literacy and in the countries of Africa would numeracy. Most people with suffi- need to take a long view. The is- IBRD-OED. 1993. Developing Hu- cient literacy can readily learn how sues of supporting environments, man Resources in Sub-Saharan to teach literacy to others. It is less catering for diversity, institutional Africa, Operations Evaluation easy for nonspecialists to learn how norms, flexible response to chang- Department of the World Bank to teach specialized livelihood ing demands, relatively complex Rogers, Alan. 1997. Women, lit- skills. Also, instructors of both curricula and capacity building eracy, income generation, Educa- kinds work more reliably when they counsel that gradualism, decen- tion for Development, Reading receive not only moral recognition, tralization and partnerships should UNDP/UNESCO. 1976. The Experi- but some material reward as well. be the key words of any strategy. mental World Literacy Programme: On the financial resources The kinds of literacy crusades un- a critical assessment. UNESCO needed for livelihood/literacy pro- dertaken by Cuba, Nicaragua and (United Nations Educational, Sci- grams, scarcely any data were Ecuador in Latin America, or by the entific and Cultural Organiza- available. Sums mentioned ranged Total Literacy Mission of India tion). Paris from US$63 per participant in a would be quite inappropriate. On program supported by FAO in 1989 the contrary, patient assessments 1 The full text of the study summarized down to US$4 per person enrolled of the environments and potentials here is in the Africa Region Human De- velopment Working Paper Series, Skills in Uganda in 1999. The study then of particular localities and patient and Literacy Training for Better Liveli- hoods: a Review ofA Aroaches and Ex- can offer no guidance here. The negotiations with the likely users periences, March 20UT 2 For brevity, the term 'livelihoods' will be only observations possible are that of VTE with literacy and their lead- used, for most of the people in view do (a) the costs of programs that com- ers are more likely to pave the way but construct relative bine livelihood, business and lit- for successful efforts in both edu- rpoo ivelihoods out ofcombinationds Of eracy skills are likely to be higher cation and poverty reduction. tion, casuallabor and othesrvices. 3The contractor was the Institute for In- than those of simple literacy pro- ternational Cooperation of the German Adult Education Association (Institut grams; and (b) even so, the costs fuer Internationale Zusammenarbeit/ Deutsche Volkshochschule Verband, LIZ, would not be inordinate. DVV).