93047 Policy Note 1 Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments that they represent. Policy Note 1 Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth Outputs of the “Skills for Economic Growth and Diversification in Botswana” analytical work: Policy Note 1: “ Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Economic Growth” Policy Note 2: “Labor Market Signals on the Demand for Skills” Policy Note 3: “Skills Needs of the Private Sector” Policy Note 4: “Skills Implications of Botswana’s Diamond Beneficiation Strategy” Summary Report Contents Contents v Acknowledgments vii Abbreviations and Acronyms ix Context of the Study 1 1. Overview 2 2. Education and Economic Growth: The Rationale 2 3. Snapshot of the Education System 3 4. The Quality Challenge in Basic Education 4 Technical and Vocational Education and Training: The Challenge 5.  of Creating Relevant Skills 7 6. Tertiary Education: Supporting the Transition to a Knowledge-Based Economy 11 7. Conclusion and Policy Recommendations 14 References 22 Figures Figure 1. Impact of Schooling on Economic Growth 2 Figure 2. Proportion of Batswana Students Achieving Low International Math Benchmark on TIMMS 2007 5 Figure 3. GDP per capita and TIMSS 2007 Math Scores of Selected Countries 5 Figure 4. SACMEQ 2007: Grade 6 Reading Scores of Batswana Students 6 Figure 5. Grade 6 Reading Scores on SACMEQ 2007, by Region 6 Figure 6. Comparison of Urban-Rural Difference in TIMSS 2007 Scores of Three Countries 6 Figure 7. Enrollments at Various Levels of Education in Botswana, 1974–2007 9 Figure 8. Institutional Utilization of Technical Colleges, 2010 10 Figure 9. Three Most Improved Countries in Math Scores, TIMSS 2003 and 2007, by Student Achievement Quartile 15 Figure 10. Articulations in the Education System of Singapore 17 Figure B4.1 ITE Governance Structure 19 Figure 11. Comparison of Botswana, Other SSA, and UMIC Firms Offering Formal Training, by Firm Size, 2010 20 Acknowledgments This Policy Note, and three others that address skills for eco- Country Manager, Botswana; Peter Materu, Sector Manager; nomic diversification in Botswana, was prepared by Tazeen and Ritva Reinikka, Sector Director, HD Africa, provided over- Fasih (Task Team Leader). Background papers and/or em- all guidance for the project. pirical analysis for the set of notes were prepared by Sonali Initial versions of the background papers were presented to key Ballal, Kevin Macdonald, Letsema Mbaya, Professor Chris- education stakeholders in Botswana at two workshops. One of the topher Mupimpila, Professor Nathan Okurut, Peter Orazem, two workshops was co-organized with the Ministry of Education and Professor Happy Siphambe. and Skills Development (MoESD); critical input provided during Valuable comments on an initial draft of this note were re- the workshop helped shape the current version of this note. ceived from Sajitha Bashir, Deon Filmer, Peter Darvas, Keiko The World Bank is grateful for the support provided by MoESD, Inoue, Nathalie Lahire, Maureen Lewis, Peter Materu, Shwetle- particularly by PS Mrs. Grace Muzila and DPS Dr. Theo Mooko, na Sabarwal, Cristina Panasco Santos. The peer reviewers were at various phases of the preparation of this report. In addition, Wendy Cunningham, Amit Dar, Raja Bentaouet Kattan, Zeinab the author would like to thank officials of the MoESD and the Partow, Harry Patrinos, Jan Rutkowski, and Douglas Zinhua Botswana Training Authority (BOTA) for sharing valuable data Zeng. Ruth Kagia, Country Director; Constantine Chikosi, and information. Abbreviations and Acronyms BGCSE Botswana General Certificate of Secondary Education BIUST Botswana International University of Science and Technology BNVQF Botswana National Vocational Qualifications Framework BOCODOL Botswana College of Distance and Open Learning BOTA Botswana Training Authority BTEP Botswana Technical Education Program CITF Construction Industry Trust Fund CPS Botswana’s Country Partnership Strategy DVET Department of Vocational Education and Training EMIS Education Management and Information System GDP Gross Domestic Product GLS Grant-Loan Sponsorship Program ICT Information Communication Technology IIT Indian Institute of Technology ITE Institute of Technical Education, Singapore JCE Junior Certificate Examination MIC Middle-income Country MoESD Ministry of Education and Skills Development MoLG Ministry of Local Government MoLH Ministry of Lands and Housing MoLHA Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs NCE National Commission for Education NCQF National Credit and Qualifications Framework NDP National Development Plan NHRDS National Human Resource Development Strategy PPP Public-private Partnership PSLE Primary School-Leaving Examination R&D Research and Development RNPE Revised National Policy on Education (1994) SACMEQ Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality SENAI National Service for Industrial Apprenticeship, Brazil SES Socioeconomic Status STEM Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics TEC Tertiary Education Council TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study TVET Technical and Vocational Education and Training UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization VAT Value-Added Tax VTC Vocational Training Center UMIC Upper-Middle-Income Country All dollar amounts in U.S. dollars unless otherwise indicated. Context of the Study Human development is one of the pillars of Botswana’s Coun- try’s skills base: “Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile try Partnership Strategy with the World Bank (2009–13). The to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth” (note 1), Country Partnership Strategy (CPS) is in line with Botswa- “Labor Market Signals on the Demand for Skills” (note 2), na’s “Vision 2016,” which, in terms of human development, “Skills Needs of the Private Sector” (note 3), and “Skills Im- envisions the transformation of Botswana to “an educated plications of Botswana’s Diamond Beneficiation Strategy” and informed nation” and to “a prosperous, productive and (note 4). The key findings and recommendations of these four innovative nation” as two key cornerstones of the strategy. In notes were then integrated into a short Summary Report. line with these objectives, the World Bank with support from The first note assesses the strengths and weaknesses of Bo- the Ministry of Education and Skills Development (MoESD) tswana’s education system (i.e., basic, technical and vocational, embarked on analytical study entitled “Skills for Economic and higher education) and recommends policy interventions Growth and Diversification in Botswana.” The work is in- to strengthen students’ acquisition of relevant knowledge and formed by Botswana’s need to diversify its economy to facil- skills. The second note examines both current labor and skills itate stronger, more sustainable economic and employment demand (based on available labor market data) and expected growth and, concurrently, equip its workforce with a variety skills demand (based on the government’s economic strate- of skill sets that meet employer needs. gies). On the basis of this analysis, the note offers recommen- The objective of the exercise is to provide the government dations on skills development and government programs. The of Botswana with concrete suggestions for policy interventions third note uses the findings of an employer-employee survey that strengthen the skills base of the workforce and thus facil- conducted in Botswana in 2010 to identify skills needs and itate economic growth, diversification, and employment. The gaps from the viewpoint of the private sector. The last note recommendations offered by this and the other notes that make examines the skills implications of the government’s diamond up the study, are based on analyses of available data and inter- beneficiation (processing) strategy and suggests actions that national best practices. Four policy notes were developed, each can be undertaken to ensure that the nation’s skills base sup- of which touches on crucial aspects of strengthening the coun- ports, rather than hampers, implementation of the strategy. Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth | 1 1. Overview Economic literature has questioned the role of education in driving economic growth because economic modelling has Botswana’s economic growth has hinged on its abundant nat- been unable to identify years of education as a key determi- ural resources—particularly diamonds, which generate nearly nant of growth (figure 1A). More recently though, it has been half of its fiscal revenues. In terms of sustainable growth, this determined that it is not just years of education, but also the dependency on natural resources poses the biggest challenge quality of education (or actual learning), that determine the for the country. To prepare Botswana for “life after diamonds,” contribution of education to economic growth (figure 1B). the government developed a growth paradigm in its “Vision The literature thus postulates that the quality of human cap- 2016” strategy document (Presidential Task Group 1997),1 ital is determined by two factors: (i) various levels of education which suggests that the development of “new economy” skills and (ii) the quality of education provided. There are strong in- will play an extremely important role in the country’s future. ter-linkages between capital and investment on one hand, and Botswana is aiming to develop new engines of growth, supple- the quality of human capital available in an economic system on menting the diamond industry with manufacturing, financial, the other. R&D can lead to new innovations or the adaptation and transport services, and transforming the country’s entre- of existing international and/or national knowledge and tech- preneurship sector into a buoyant, productive, and innovative nology. Similarly, R&D can develop a nation’s capacity to absorb private sector led by entrepreneurs with cutting-edge skills. A existing technology, thus increasing total factor productivity. In key ingredient of this strategy is the development of a holistic general, tertiary education is expected to create high-end skills approach to skills development. needed for innovation. The critical mid-level skills required for Botswana has achieved high enrollment in basic education the absorption and/or adaptation of technology gained from ei- (90 percent in primary education) and the government con- ther tertiary or technical and vocational education. tinues to invest a high share of gross domestic GDP—almost Students who complete basic education are expected to have 8 percent—in the education sector. In 2010–11, expenditures achieved a certain level of skills that allow them to successfully on education amounted to 25 percent of total government ex- perform in postbasic education. Recent research shows that penditures. Nevertheless, a skills constraint is repeatedly cited rapidly advancing knowledge economies need certain addi- as a major challenge for businesses in the country. In 2010, the tional key competencies that create the basis for adaptability Enterprise Survey for Botswana reported that of the 10 major and continuous learning. In addition to cognitive, academic, business constraints, the majority of firms in the country re- and technical skills, these competencies include problem solv- ported skills shortage as the key problem (World Bank, 2010a). ing, creativity, interpersonal skills, work ethics, and manage- The country also has high unemployment rates reported at ap- ment skills. The primary and basic education sector is respon- proximately 17.8 percent and approximately 27 percent, when sible for inculcating such skills in individuals who go through discouraged jobseekers are included (CSO, 2011). the education system (World Bank 2010b). This note reviews the current landscape of the education sector in Botswana and attempts to identify key bottlenecks Impact of Schooling on Figure 1.  in the supply of relevant skills for economic diversification. Economic Growth Recommendations for preparing students who can be readily Panel A. Impact of Years of Schooling integrated into the labor market are then offered, using exam- ples of best practices from successful case studies. Conditional Growth 2 Education and Economic Growth: 2.  The Rationale 1 The key factors that drive self-sustained economic growth over the long term are innovation, knowledge sharing, and research and development (R&D) (Romer 1986; Lucas 1988; Grossman and Helpman 1991; Aghion and Howitt 1992). 0 Factors such as the quality of education, cognitive skills, technical and specialized skills, innovation, and technology absorption determine the efficiency with which capital and labor are used and thus influence economic growth. Accord- ing to structural models of economic development, countries –1 need to diversify into manufactured exports to achieve sus- tainable growth (Chenery 1979; Syrquin 1989). Recent eco- nomic literature provides evidence of the positive effects of export diversification on per capita income growth (Leder- –2 man and Maloney 2007). –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 Conditional years of schooling 1 All government documents cited in this report are identified by the min- coef = 0.264058, se = .07839797, t = .34 istry or agency of the Republic of Botswana that produced them; they are listed in the Reference list under “Botswana, Republic of.” 2 | Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth Panel B. Impact of Test Scores improve the quality of education, as shown in Botswana’s par- ticipation in international assessments over the last decade. Conditional Growth 4 3. Snapshot of the Education System 3 Primary and secondary education in Botswana lasts for a to- tal of 12 years: 7 years of primary, 3 years of junior secondary, 2 and 2 years of senior secondary education (a 7–3–2 system). Primary and junior secondary school comprises ten years of 1 basic education. Pupils sit for three nationwide examinations: the Primary School-Leaving Examination (PSLE), taken at the 0 end of primary education; the Junior Certificate Examination (JCE), taken at the end of junior secondary school; and the Bo- –1 tswana General Certificate in Secondary Education (BGCSE), taken at the end of senior secondary school. The language of –2 instruction in lower primary schools (grades 1–4) is predomi- nantly seTswana, the local language, while the language of in- struction in upper primary and beyond is English. –3 Preprimary education in Botswana is mainly provided by the private sector and is quite limited in enrollment. Approx- –4 –1.5 –1.0 –0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 imately 17.5 percent of children younger than 6 years were enrolled in preprimary education in 2010 (CSO 2012). At the Conditional test score primary level, Botswana achieved the high net enrollment rate coef = 1.9804387, se = .21707105, t = 9.12 of 90 percent in 2002, which has since been maintained. How- Source: Hanushek and Wößmann (2007). ever, in the last 10 years, the remaining 10 percent of children Note: These are added-variable plots of a regression of the annual rate of not in school have still not been successfully integrated into growth (in percent) of real GDP per capita in 1960-2000 on the initial level the education system (CSO 2012). of real GDP per capita in 1960, average test scores on international student achievement tests, and average years of schooling in 1960. The transition rate from primary to secondary education has been quite high—between 96 and 100 percent—over the ARG = Argentina, AUS = Australia, AUT = Austria, BEL = Belgium, BRA = Brazil, CAN = Canada, CHE = Switzerland, CHL = Chile, CHN = last five years. In other words, almost all students who com- China, COL = Colombia, CYP = Cyprus, DNK = Denmark, EGY = Arab Rep. plete primary school enroll in lower secondary school, irre- of Egypt, ESP = Spain, FIN = Finland, FRA = France, GBR = United Kingdom, spective of their performance on the PSLE. This is a result of GHA = Ghana, GRC = Greece, HKG = Hong Kong (China), IDN = Indonesia, the government’s drive to achieve universal basic education. IND = India, IRL = Ireland, IRN = Islamic Republic of Iran, ISL = Iceland, ISR = Israel, ITA = Italy, JOR = Jordan, JPN = Japan, KOR = Republic of Korea, Across junior and senior secondary school (Forms 1 through MAR = Morocco, MEX = Mexico, MYS = Malaysia, NLD = Netherlands, 52), the gross enrollment rate stands at approximately 61.3 per- NOR = Norway, NZL = New Zealand, PER = Peru, PHL = Philippines, PRT cent (CSO 2011). In addition to general education programs, = Portugal, ROM = Romania, SGP = Singapore, SWE = Sweden, THA = students also enroll in postprimary technical and vocational Thailand, TUN = Tunisia, TUR = Turkey, TWN = Taiwan, URY = Uruguay, USA = United States, ZAF = South Africa, and ZWE = Zimbabwe. institutes and teacher training institutes. Total enrollment at the postbasic level in all these institutions was estimated at 80 Source: Reproduced from Hanushek and Wößmann (2007), figure 4a and b, pp7. percent in 2007–08 (WDI and GDF). Multiple alternatives exist for students who choose to leave The Revised National Policy on Education (RNPE) has been school, whether at the primary, junior secondary or senior the strategic policy for the education sector in Botswana since secondary level. Primary school-leavers who do not progress 1994 and is consistent with the nation’s strategy documents, to the junior secondary level may enroll for vocational train- especially “Vision 2016.” A holistic approach towards skills ing in the Brigades, a vocational training program, or apply to development led Botswana to develop a National Human Re- be unqualified teachers for at least two years as a precondition source Development Strategy (NHRDS), which seeks to de- for admission to a Primary Teacher Training College. Junior velop an economy that values “the quality, productivity, and secondary school-leavers have several options. They may pro- motivation of its people as the country’s single greatest and ceed to senior secondary school if they perform well on the valuable resource” (National Human Resource Development JCE; or opt for vocational training at the artisan level, primary Council). NHRDS aims to transform the country’s economy teacher training, or secretarial or commercial training. into one that benefits from “value-added” processes contrib- Students who complete senior secondary education may be uted by a highly skilled workforce. admitted to degree programs at the University of Botswana. Fi- NHRDS takes a life-cycle approach to human resource de- nally, the government sponsors students to attend overseas in- velopment, where each stage of the learning cycle is strength- stitutions of higher education when the subject of study is not ened and built upon to create a successful education and offered locally, as in the case of architecture and pharmacology. learning system. Botswana has achieved a high enrollment rate in basic education, but students’ transition to higher lev- 2 In Botswana education system, primary education grades are called els of education is uneven, with relatively high dropout rates Standard, and secondary education consists of Forms 1–5, which is equivalent at transition stages. More importantly, more work is needed to to grades 8 to 12 in other education systems. Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth | 3 The Ministry of Education and Skills Development (MoESD) The analysis in this section uses data from international as- is responsible for the delivery of education in the country. Cer- sessments and identifies the following points: tain other ministries share aspects of this responsibility, for in- stance, the mandate for early childhood care and development • Botswana performs poorly on international assessment, (for the age group 0–4 years) lies with the Ministry of Health, in for a country with its level of GDP per capita. However, its partnership with the Ministry of Local Government (MoLG), performance is close to other negative outliers that have a and the Ministry of Lands and Housing (MoLH). The mandate similar economic structure (i.e., lack of a manufacturing for preprimary education is lies with MoESD, but as mentioned industry). earlier, this level of education is largely delivered by the pri- • There are considerable disparities in achievement by region vate sector. Similarly, for primary education, delivery is a joint on international assessments. responsibility of MoESD, MoLG, and MoLH.3 Additionally, both the Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs (MoLHA) and • Student with lower socioeconomic status (SES) perform MoESD are responsible for the delivery of vocational training; much worse on international assessments than students the Botswana Training Authority (BOTA) was established as a with better SES; however, these disparities in learning out- parastatal corporation under MoLHA.4 The responsibility for comes are not driven by the SES itself, but rather, by ru- BOTA has since been transferred to MoESD. ral versus urban school characteristics. In other words, if Tertiary education also lies under the authority of MoESD. low-performing children with lower SES were to enroll in Under RNPE, the Tertiary Education Council (TEC) was pro- better-quality schools, the disparity will disappear. posed as a parastatal agency to coordinate and manage Bo- tswana’s tertiary education institutions and inform policy. The Botswana participated in TIMSS, in 2003, 2007 and 2011. Tertiary Education Act of 1999 actually established the Coun- These assessments augment data on primary enrollment and cil, which is composed of representatives of the government, completion rates to help measure how much students have the private sector, tertiary education institutions, the academ- learned throughout the primary cycle through eighth grade. ic community, and students (TEC 2010a). TIMSS data specifically facilitates an estimate of how many The new National Human Resource Development Strategy grade 8 students are able to attain various performance stan- aims to achieve Botswana’s economic vision by improving the dards in mathematics and science. effectiveness of existing components of the country’s education Although Botswana has improved its score over time, the and learning systems and by creating a more unified system. data shows that Botswana lags behind its peers in mathematics For instance, NHRDS will seek to incorporate all postsecond- and science educational attainment. Figure 2 presents the pro- ary education under the umbrella of tertiary education. Tertiary portion of students in the country whose scores hit the “low” education will be governed by MoESD through three units re- international benchmark on TIMSS 2007. Students able to at- sponsible for different areas: the Human Resource Development tain this benchmark “have some knowledge of whole numbers Council—policy, planning, and steering; the National Qualifi- and decimals, operations, and basic graphs” (IEA 2008, 113). cations Authority—regulations and accreditation (the Authority Only 32 percent of students were able to reach this benchmark will incorporate the National Credit and Qualifications Frame- in Botswana; in other words, 68 percent of Batswana students work, or NCQF); and the Botswana Examination Council—ed- cannot be described as having some knowledge of whole ucational assessments. The act that will enforce NHRDS was due numbers and decimals, operations, and basic graphs. to be presented to parliament for approval in 2012. Botswana’s performance on TIMMS is comparable to coun- tries with similar resource-intensive economies. Though its students ranked “low” on the TIMSS math assessment, com- The Quality Challenge in Basic 4.  paring these students to those of countries with similar types Education of economies leads to interesting hypotheses. Looking at the regression analysis of TIMSS 2007 math scores and GDP per In Botswana, the main challenge of the basic education sys- capita for countries participating in the assessment (figure 3), tem remains the low quality of education. This is evidenced it is clear that Botswana is grossly underperforming for a coun- not only by international assessments in which Botswana has try with its level of GDP. However, it is among the negative participated over the last decade, but also by the deteriorat- outliers—all of which are non-manufacturing, resource-in- ing performance of its students on national examinations. As tensive economies (with the exception of El Salvador). If one mentioned by the President of Botswana in his State of the accepts that TIMSS achievement is a measure of the formation Nation Address in November 2011, student performance on of human capital (analogous to gross fixed, or physical, capi- the BGCSE has declined consistently over the last five years tal), then a possible implication of this finding—though not (Office of the President 2011). conclusive—is that resource-intensive economies use less hu- man-capital-intensive production technology. Improving the 3 MoESD is responsible for curriculum development, the employment of quality of education will therefore be crucial if Botswana is to teachers, teachers’ salaries, general welfare, and the provision of textbooks for break its reliance on natural resources and develop manufac- both students and teachers. MoLG is responsible for providing infrastructure, turing and service sectors. feeding pupils at school, stationary and school furniture, as well as the salaries Inequity of educational quality within Botswana is another of non-teaching staff. 4 Parastatals include a wide range of enterprises/semi-autonomous enti- major challenge for the country. Looking at the grade 6 read- ties owned at least 50% by the Government, either profit making or non-profit ing scores of Batswana students on the Southern and East- making. ern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality 4 | Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth Figure 2. Proportion of Batswana Students Achieving Low International Math Benchmark on TIMMS 2007 100 75 50 25 0 Korea, Republic Japan Singapore Hong Kong, China Czech Republic Slovenia United States Hungary Russian Federation Lithuania Sweden Australia Armenia Italy Norway Malta Serbia Malaysia Cyprus Bosnia and Herzegovina Ukranie Israel Bulgaria Lebanon Romania Thailand Jordan Tunisia Turkey Georgia Iran, Islamic Republic Bahrain Indonesia Egypt, Arab Republic Syrian, Arab Republic Algeria Morocco Oman Colombia Botswana Kuwait El Salvador Saudi Arabia Ghana Qatar Source: World Bank staff computations using TIMSS data (see IEA 2008). Figure 3. Regression Analysis of log GDP per capita and TIMSS 2007 Math Scores of Selected Countries 600 500 Norway 400 Iran, Islamic Republic Bahrain Algeria Oman Botswana Kuwait El Salvador Saudi Arabia 300 7 8 9 10 11 lgdppc Source: World Bank staff computations using TIMSS data (see IEA 2008). Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth | 5 (SACMEQ) 2007 assessment, students from the lowest SES the same socioeconomic background). In Japan and the Unit- fared the worst in learning (figure 4). Almost 90 percent of ed States, the urban-rural difference is much smaller than that students with the highest SES could read for meaning or in Botswana, with most of the difference attributable to socio- better, whereas only 56 percent of students from the lowest economic background. This finding matches what economic wealth quartile reached the same level of competency. research postulates: that family background has an impact on student achievement. However, in Botswana, the urban-rural Figure 4. S  ACMEQ 2007: Grade 6 Reading Scores of difference is both more pronounced and attributable almost Batswana Students entirely to differences in educational quality. There were almost 810 primary schools in Botswana in Basic reading or worse 2011, of which 60 were private. In an attempt to identify dis- Botswana 24.20 parities across regions, a 2005 analysis of SACMEQ II data Reading for meaning found that the infrastructure of schools, as measured by an index that tracked classroom furniture, toilets per pupil, Interpretive reading classroom libraries, classroom space, teacher housing, and Highest SES (25%) 10.90 school resources, were quite equitably distributed across re- Inferential reading gions in Botswana (Keitheile and Mokubung, 2005). How- Lowest SES (25%) 43.50 ever, there were some issues in the distribution of classroom Analytical reading libraries and the allocation of school resources in the West- Critical reading ern and Gaborone Regions. In addition, there was a major % of Students performing below level 4 variation in classroom space among schools in the Central Source: SACMEQ 2010. South Region. Note: SES – socioeconomic status. “Highest” and “Lowest” here indicate income quartile.  omparison of Urban-Rural Difference in TIMSS Figure 6. C 2007 Scores of Three Countries Similarly, learning disparities are also apparent among regions (figure 5). Students in Gaborone, for example, per- 600 formed as much as 1 standard deviation (100 points) better than their counterparts in the southern region of the country on the SACMEQ 2007 reading assessment for grade 6. In fact, the score of the region managing to score next best after Gabo- rone is already half a standard deviation lower. These findings indicate major disparities in the quality of education delivered 500 across Botswana. Grade 6 Reading Scores on SACMEQ 2007, Figure 5.  by Region Western 400 Southern South Central Northern Gaborone Central South Central North 300 Botswana Japan United States 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 Source: SACMEQ 2010. Di erence in TIMSS Math Score between small communities/rural areas and urban areas due to di erences in education quality In addition to improving educational quality, equity in the TIMSS Math Score in small communities/rural areas of students’ family backgrounds provision of quality education must be improved if Botswa- were the same na intends to compete in the global economy. Going back TIMSS Math Score in small communities/rural areas to TIMSS data, a comparison of Botswana to Japan and the United States reveals differences in the urban-rural divide Source: World Bank staff calculations based on TIMSS 2007 data (see IEA 2008). and the socioeconomic background of students in the three Note: Math scores were decomposed using the Oaxaca-Blinder model countries. Figure  6 decomposes/disaggregates the urban-ru- adapted from labor market studies. ral difference in TIMSS 2007 student scores for each country into a portion attributable to differences in students’ socioeco- Another study using SACMEQ III results from 2010–2011 nomic background and a portion attributable to differences (SACMEQ 2011) identifies that overall, almost 81 percent of in the quality of education in urban and rural areas (in other students in standard 6 (grade 6) in Botswana had access to words, the difference in achievement if students came from some learning materials, but only 62 percent had sole use of 6 | Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth a mathematics textbook. There were some significant varia- stitutions was formalized in 1962, with national trade testing tions among regions with respect to the availability of these conducted by the Botswana Training Center of the Ministry school supplies, with the Northern Region recording the low- of Labor. est proportion of basic learning materials and the Western The most salient characteristics of the TVET system in Region reporting that only 47 percent of students had sole Botswana are: use of a mathematics textbook. On the other hand, classroom size and the pupil-teacher ratio did not show much disparity • Botswana has continued to modify its skills development across regions. and training system to adapt to the changing needs of its Reluctance or inability to send children to school, togeth- economy. However, the country still faces high unemploy- er with poor student achievement due to family background, ment despite a trained workforce; clearly, a skills mismatch require demand-side interventions to support families in exists in the labor market. overcoming barriers to accessing education. On the other • The training system in Botswana has a severe shortage of hand, if the disparity in educational quality arises from the skilled trainers in critical fields of specialization, such as schools themselves, the government needs to invest more in heavy plant, refrigeration and air-conditioning and electri- the supply side, including school infrastructure, teaching sup- cal (BOTA 2010a). plies, textbooks, and school management, among other things (Fasih 2008). • There is limited potential for mobility across fields of spe- Botswana presents an interesting paradox in this regard. The cialization in order for trainees to enhance their employ- government pays generously for supply-side inputs for basic ability. Additionally, there is no potential to move from education. There are no school fees, though parents contribute TVET programs into academic fields or vice-versa. some sports and development fees. Students are provided with • Employers are not satisfied with the system for monitor- textbooks, as well as basic learning materials, such as pencils ing apprentices or the behavioral skills that young trainees and notebooks. School infrastructure is also relatively good bring to the labor force. across the country. Finally, virtually all teachers in the country are trained: almost 95 percent of 13,509 teachers in 2011. And Organizational Structure of TVET in Botswana yet the country has been unable to attain a higher level of ed- ucational quality. Vocational and technical training in Botswana falls under the How is it that various countries have managed to improve Department of Vocational Education and Training (DVET) their learning outcomes? TIMSS and SACMEQ data clearly of MoESD. However, two organizations monitor this train- show that the students coming from poorer socioeconomic ing, namely; the Botswana Training Authority and the Ter- backgrounds perform much worse on these assessments than tiary Education Council. BOTA oversees training up to and do students from better-off backgrounds. However, the reason including the certificate level, while TEC focuses on the for this poor performance is not their socioeconomic back- post-certificate through university levels (BOTA 2010a). grounds, but rather, the difference in the quality of education There have been past attempts to coordinate TVET in the being provided to them. country, long before the 1993 report of NCE. In 1972, for in- stance, the National Employment, Manpower, and Incomes Council was established, and in 1985, the National Industrial Technical and Vocational Education 5.  Training and Technical Education Council was set up. How- and Training: The Challenge of ever, these efforts did not yield a unified approach to skills Creating Relevant Skills training in Botswana. In the 1993 Report, the National Com- mission on Education noted that the lack of coordination was The main aim of Botswana’s technical and vocational educa- due to splitting the responsibility for training between two tion and training (TVET) system is to develop a well-trained ministries: the (then) Ministry of Education and the Minis- workforce with the skills necessary to foster economic devel- try of Labor and Home Affairs. Therefore, the commission opment.5 Vocational training is long established in Botswana, recommended that there be a single organization responsible even prior to 1966, when the country became an independent for skills training in Botswana. According to its report, BOTA republic. The system of evaluating trainees in vocational in- would resolve the problem of lack of coordination in skills training by becoming the only organization responsible for 5 The National Commission for Education (NCE) report of 1993 defined implementing TVET in the country. vocational education as training that applies to the development of skills to The role of BOTA is to register and accredit TVET institu- the level of skilled worker or ‘craftsman’ and is used synonymously with skills tions and trainers; support and promote training institutions; training (NCE 1993). In other words, vocational training is about acquiring develop and review programs and curricula; develop nation- business skills for either employment or self-employment. The minimum entry requirement for this type of training is a junior secondary school certificate. al standards and awards schemes; conduct assessments and The same document defines technical training as the training that refers to certifications, research, staff training, and development; and preparation for the technician level of employment, in which the application monitor and evaluate training institutions by creating and us- of technical knowledge is the major component of the skilled worker (NCE ing a database (Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs, 1997). 1993). This implies that a technician requires intensive advanced knowledge BOTA was set up in 2000 as a semi-autonomous body respon- and is someone who can work with minimum supervision or none at all. The commission specifically stated that this type of knowledge should be acquired sible for executing and coordinating the National Vocational in engineering disciplines. Entry requirement for this level of study is a senior Education and Training System and worked initially under the secondary school certificate. auspices of the Ministry of Labor and Home Affairs, and more Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth | 7 recently, MoESD. It is governed by a board composed of rep- cation (now MoESD). Thus, until recently, a distinction was resentatives of the government, private training institutions, made between brigades and conventional Vocational Training employers, and employee organizations (Ibid.). By 2010, the Centers (VTCs). Brigades were private, small or medium-sized, Training Authority had accredited over 200 TVET institutions rural, community-based organizations that combined training in Botswana (BOTA 2010a). with production. Invariably, the organizations received finan- In the 1993 report, NCE also recommended the creation of cial and technical support from the government, which consol- a Tertiary Education Council, which it argued should be re- idated their existence in 1977 by establishing the Brigades De- sponsible for the coordination and management of tertiary in- velopment Center in, what was then, the Ministry of Education. stitutions in Botswana and advise the government on tertiary Through this center, the government subsidized the training education policy and development (NCE 1993). The commis- and infrastructure development of individual Brigades. sion felt that the establishment of the TEC would encourage Unlike the conventional VTCs, Brigades have been the competition among tertiary institutions and safeguard aca- most widely accessible vocational training centers with the demic freedom by removing the direct influence of politicians largest enrollment. The main certifications offered by the Bri- and civil servants from the management of tertiary education; gades are the National Craft Certificate, and the Trade Test at the same time, the government would not lose control over Certificates of the London Institute of City and Guilds. The technical training programs. quality of training has been uneven among the Brigades, as The Tertiary Education Act of 1999 established TEC as a stat- some have had better funding and staffing than others. These uary body whose functions are to formulate policy on tertiary factors prompted the government to take over the institutions education and advise the government accordingly; coordinate in 2006, enabling it to update training courses and meet the long-term planning and the overall development of tertiary ed- challenges of competition in the world market. ucation; liaise with both the public and private sectors on all In 1983, Botswana passed the Apprenticeship and Industri- matters relating to human resources development and require- al Training Act, which defined the TVET program structure ments; develop plans for funding tertiary education research, in the country. The act established employer-based training including the recurrent and development needs of public ter- through apprenticeships. Under this system, technical and tiary institutions; receive and approve applications seeking to vocational training consisted of nine months of on-the-job establish private tertiary institutions; review and approve pro- training and three months of institutional training each year. grams of study within private tertiary institutions; ensure the In 1986, the trade testing center, the Botswana Training Cen- establishment of quality assurance procedures in all tertiary in- ter in Gaborone, was expanded and renamed the Madirelo stitutions; ensure the audit of physical facilities and assessment Training and Testing Center. The Center administered Trade of their adequacy in tertiary institutions; and accredit6 private Tests B and C, as well as that for the National Craft Certificate. tertiary institutions. At the same time, institutional training was provided by the TEC is comprised of representatives of the government, the Ministry of Education’s Department of Technical Education private sector, tertiary institutions, the academic community, through Botswana Polytechnic, the Automotive Trades Train- and students (TEC 2010). Its day-to-day affairs are managed ing Center, and four new VTCs built between 1986 and 1988. by a secretariat, headed by an executive secretary. TEC began Over time, additional VTCs were built, bringing the current operations in 2002 and has since issued the following policy number to eight. These conventional VTCs are state-owned, documents: “Tertiary Education Policy,” “The National Human medium-sized or large, urban-based institutions under DVET. Resource Development Report,” and “The Funding Strategy Therefore, they have been well-resourced and for the most and Formula for Tertiary Education Institutions” (TEC 2010a). part, without the financial problems that beset the Brigades. The government is planning to merge BOTA and TEC in or- In the past, TVET programs in Botswana have experienced der to enhance coordination and coherence in postsecondary serious problems. During the period of the sixth national de- training. It is hoped that the merger will occur during the period velopment plan (NDP 6, 1985–91), the number of apprentices of the tenth National Development Plan (NDP 10, 2009–2016). in various trades grew. However, employers did not register as many apprentices as expected because they felt the quality of Institutional and program structures VTC training was lower than expected, which was traceable to the inadequate practical experience of their instructors (MoF- Brigades were first established as training institutes in 1965 DP 1991). As a result, the VTCs were underutilized. It was as a solution to the problem of primary school-leavers. They also felt that the minimum qualification entry for an appren- grew rapidly in the 1970s. These institutions trained pupils up ticeship program (a junior secondary certificate) was too high to the level of Trade Test C, offering education combined with for this type of training, while the four-year training duration work experience in Brigade production units. The three-year was too long for some trades. training program covered about 10 trades, but concentrated The shortfall in apprentice training prompted the govern- mainly on building and carpentry (NCE 1993). ment to introduce a two-year full-time VTC course in order Brigades operated autonomously until 2006, when the gov- to reduce the excess capacity of these institutions. Thus, the ernment decided to place them under the Department of Vo- VTCs ran two programs concurrently: (i) the normal four- cational Education and Training of the then Ministry of Edu- year program, in which trainees worked with companies for nine months each year, and (ii) the two-year, full-time train- 6 About the Tertiary Education Council-Origins of the Council, ing program. However, as discussed in a subsequent section, http://www.tec.org.bw/about_us/origins_of_the_council.htm; Downloaded: employers continue to consider the training period too long 09/16/2010.TEC, Gaborone. 8 | Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth and the educational quality inadequate for immediate em- junior secondary education is almost 100 percent, which can ployment of trainees. be attributed to the country’s policy of universal basic ed- During the Eighth National Development Plan (NDP 8, ucation (MoFDP 2009). The transition rate from junior to 1997–2003), the Botswana Technical Education Program senior secondary or TVET education rate is 66.1 percent, (BTEP) was developed. It aimed to diversify the technical and implying a dropout rate of almost 34 percent. Pupils with vocational training curriculum and was initially developed at junior secondary education who do not proceed to the se- two levels: Foundation and Certificate. The program was de- nior secondary level require skills training for the job market signed to improve both the quality of and access to TVET and or self-employment. Vocational and technical training at the was developed in collaboration with key employers. Although VTCs is one option for this group. Junior school-leavers may it combines some theoretical teaching, it focuses principally on also enroll at other colleges, for example, the primary school practice. BTEP courses are certified jointly by MoESD and the teacher training colleges. However, the expansion of prima- Scottish Qualifications Authority. All BTEP courses integrate ry and junior secondary education has not been matched by training in six key skills, regardless of vocational orientation: a similar growth in skills and academic training at higher communication, numeracy, ICT, personal and interpersonal levels of the education system. Figure 7 shows the widening skills, entrepreneurship, and problem solving (BOTA 2010a). gap between secondary education on the one hand, and skills BTEP presently offers training in the following vocational training at the secondary, TVET, and university levels on the areas: agro-based industries; applied laboratory science; busi- other. ness; business administration; building construction; clothing design and textiles; electrical and mechanical engineering;  nrollments at Various Levels of Education in Figure 7. E hairdressing and beauty therapy; health and social care; hos- Botswana, 1974–2007 pitality and tourism; hospitality operations, ICT (including network technician and system administrator); mathematics PSE SSE VTE UNE and science; multimedia; and sports, recreation, and leisure 350000 (BOTA 2010a). 300000 The current structure of BTEP consists of various levels of 250000 training, including Foundation, Certificate, Advanced Certif- icate, and Diploma, for which the Botswana National Voca- 200000 tional Qualification Framework has established standards. Al- 150000 though the BTEP program has been introduced in most TVET 100000 colleges, the National Craft Certificate and the certifications 50000 granted by the Madirelo Training and Testing Centre are also still followed in all TVET institutes and colleges. The program 0 YEAR 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 and its curriculum are subject to review every five years, but it appears that these reviews are neither comprehensive nor de- Source: Republic of Botswana, Education Statistics, various issues. tailed enough to respond to the needs of the economy. Accord- Note: PSE – primary education; SSE – secondary education; VTE – voca- ing to the National Human Resource Development Strategy, tional training and education; UNE – university education (University of the process of curriculum and program design will be coordi- Botswana). nated through sectoral committees in the future, which has the potential to improve the relevance of its training. Enrollment in Vocational and Technical Institutions stood BOTA began to develop the Botswana National Vocation- at 12,701 students in 2006 (table 1), while enrollment in the al Qualifications Framework (BNVQF) in 2002 in order to eight technical colleges under DVET was 5,098 in 2010. How- regulate technical and vocational education and training pro- ever, these enrollments represent an underutilization of most vided by Brigades, technical colleges, and private providers. of these colleges. As per the data received from DVET, the The framework governs courses below the diploma level. The institutions have capacity for 8,450 students, but only 5,098 development process is ongoing; as of 2010, 1,421 unit stan- were enrolled. Botswana also boasts good infrastructure for its dards and 111 qualifications had been developed by various TVET colleges, however, most lack properly trained lecturers. task forces (BOTA 2010a). However, few providers use the BNVQF qualifications and non-BNVQF qualifications are  nrollment in Vocational and Technical Training, Table 1. E also recognized. The six key skills taught by BTEP programs Selected Years also have standards defined by the BNVQF. With the financial and technical support of the European Union, Botswana has 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 also been working to develop a National Credit and Qualifica- Male 6,226 7,092 6,728 7,997 7,698 tions Framework in conjunction with the country members of Female 3,713 4,415 4,154 4,783 5,003 South African Development Community. Total 9,939 11,507 10,882 12,780 12,701 Enrollment and access to TVET Source: Botswana Statistics 2011. The importance of TVET is underlined by the increase in the dropout rate at the junior secondary level. As mentioned in the previous section, the transition rate from primary to Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth | 9 Institutional Utilization of Technical Colleges, 2010 Figure 8.  (percent of full trainee and lecturer capacity, respectively) Lecturers Trainees Oodi College of Applied Arts and Technology Selebi Phikwe Technical College Palapye Technical College Maun Technical College Jwaneng Technical College Gaborone Technical College Botswana College of Engineering and Technology Francistown College of Technical and Vocational Education 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Percent Source: DVET 2011 (shared with the author by the MoESD). Note: Oodi College had just been established and hired staff in preparation for enrolling students in 2011. As seen in figure 8, most of the colleges are operating with include those that are sent by companies, must pay the total a less-than-optimal level of teaching staff.7 Yet at a glance, cost of the training programs that they attend. there does not appear to be a direct correlation between staff In 2007, the government also began sponsoring trainees en- numbers and institutional utilization in terms of enrollment, rolled at the diploma level in private TVET institutions. This since three of the eight colleges have higher than full capacity increased enrollment in private institutions at the cost of the enrollment and very small staffs. It is worth noting that the government’s technical colleges. However, every year the gov- skills mismatch for trainers is also a major impediment for the ernment specifies the number of students who can enroll in colleges. In other words, there is a mismatch in the specialist various private institutions and in specific fields of study. And areas of teachers as opposed to the specialist areas offered by it specifies which courses in particular institutes are available the colleges (BOTA 2010a). (Disaggregated data by teacher for sponsorship. This is also the case at the tertiary level (see specialization was not available at the time this note was draft- the section below on tertiary education). In a way, this pol- ed to confirm this assertion.) icy appears to be a government quality control mechanism for training providers. Support for the private sector has also Funding TVET in Botswana created some competitiveness between providers, which helps improve the quality of the education provided. Students in technical and vocational colleges in Botswana Overall, TVET in Botswana is funded through taxes im- are either government sponsored or self-sponsored. Gov- posed on employers. The construction and tourism industry ernment-sponsored students (at the diploma level or high- had already been employing a levy for training, and in 2008, er) have their tuition and living expenses paid by the Grant- the Ministry of Labor and Home Affairs introduced the levy Loans Sponsorship Program. This program was designed to system for all vocational training in the country. The levy is offer support on a sliding scale through a combination of based on the annual turnover of any company in Botswana reg- grant and loans, based on a student’s field of study; however, istered under the value-added-tax (VAT) system. The tax rates given the virtual non-repayment of loans, it has become en- are as follows: (i) for companies with an annual turnover of less tirely a grant program (BEST 2009). In 2006, the government than 250,000 pula, no technical and vocational training tax; stipulated that all government-sponsored students must pay (ii) for companies with an annual turnover of between 250,000 5 percent of the total annual cost of the TVET programs and 2 billion pula, 0.2 percent of turnover; and (iii) for compa- offered by secondary schools and technical and vocational nies with an annual turnover of more than 2 billion pula, colleges, or 750 pula a year. The amount paid by the govern- 0.2 percent of turnover for the first 2 billion pula, and 0.05 per- ment is 14,250 pula, resulting in a total annual training cost cent for any amount in excess of that amount (BOTA 2010a). of 15,000 pula.8 Non-government-sponsored students, who The Botswana Unified Revenue Service collects the training levy through the VAT system; the monies are then deposited 7 DVET figures provided to author in 2011. It is not clear how DVET into the Vocational Training Fund. Employers are reimbursed determines the optimal level of staff. in the form of training grants issued by the fund for the costs 8 To give an indication of the costs, according to the 1997 National Policy incurred in training citizen employees, provided their courses on Vocational Education and Training, the estimated annual cost of appren- ticeship in a big company was 22,000 pula per trainee, while the institutional cost of training in a VTC was between 11,000 and 15,000 pula per trainee Brigades, 6,000 pula (Ibid.). This situation has not changed significantly over (MoLHA 1997). Apprenticeships in smaller companies were estimated to time, particularly for training in the VTCs. (Note: One U.S. dollar is approxi- cost, on average, 4,000 pula per trainee annually, and apprenticeship in the mately equivalent to 6.5 pula). 10 | Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth are approved or accredited by BOTA. Despite the existence of training provided by the VTCs to be insufficient or dated, giv- a mandatory training levy, the volume of grants reclaimed by en rapid changes in technology, particularly ICT. employers is very small. Of the 7,000 firms that contribute to Employers also do not find new graduates’ behavioural skills the Vocational Training Fund, only 1,000 have utilized a grant or work ethics appropriate for the world of work. A World Bank to date. As a result, approximately 200 million pula remained supported survey of employers and employees (World Bank unutilized in the Fund in 2010 (BOTA 2010a). 2010a) suggests that only 28 percent of employers in Botswana ranked general technical and vocational skills as very import- Relevance and employment of TVET graduates ant or critical for their skilled employees, whereas 62 percent ranked responsibility and trustworthiness in this category. This Despite the various steps taken by the government to improve finding resonates with the findings of the BTEP tracer study, in the TVET system, employers still appear to be unsatisfied with which most employers were willing to hire unqualified employ- the labor force in Botswana. They complain of “unfinished ees who were both willing to learn and easily available (BOTA products” or the low-quality of skills produced by the educa- 2010a). In terms of apprenticeships, there is no regular moni- tion system.9 Additionally, employers are not satisfied with the toring of apprentices by VTCs once graduates enter the work- long duration of BTEP apprenticeship programs. place. Employers felt that apprentices tended to drop out of the A tracer study conducted by the Construction Industry program, leaving them with sunk costs and no replacements. Trust Fund suggested that roughly 59 percent of its graduates Given the above discussion, Botswana’s skills training sys- found employment after completing its training course (CITF tem urgently needs to improve the relevance and quality of 2006). Employers responded that the training did contrib- its programs if the country is to achieve its goal of becoming ute to skills formation, but that worker skills still need to be a knowledge-driven economy. Graduates of the TVET system substantially improved. The 41 percent unemployment rate still face high unemployment because employers are dissat- among CITF graduates, coupled with the fact that over the last isfied with the level and quality of training provided. The in- 10 years the number of legal foreign workers has been among frastructure for training is in place, but there is a shortage of the highest in the construction industry (22 percent of all such trainers with critical skills. Employers are paying a training workers were employed in construction in 2010 (CSO 2012)), levy, but these funds are underutilized. points to either a quality issue or an issue of a high reserva- tion wage on the part of Batswana workers. With respect to quality, the tracer study found that unemployed respondents Tertiary Education: Supporting the 6.  claimed that employers did not accept CITF training or that Transition to a Knowledge-Based they sought work experience. Economy Another tracer study, of students graduating with BTEP qualifications in 2007 (BOTA 2010a), found that almost 51 Globalization has encouraged higher education to embrace a percent of these graduates did not find employment after role in economic development and the creation of knowledge graduation. The key reasons for unemployment were cited as a societies. In the initial period after independence, Botswana mismatch of the skills in demand with their areas of study, low primarily focused its efforts on primary and secondary edu- salaries, and employers’ demand for more practical experience cation. Given its successes in basic education and the growing (e.g., via apprenticeships). importance of skilled graduates in the global economy, higher BOTA has conducted two tracer studies of vocational education has assumed greater importance in Botswana. In re- training institute graduates, in 2005 and 2010. The results sponse, tertiary education policy became more market orient- also suggest a graduate unemployment rate of around 50 ed, entrepreneurial, and geared towards satisfying labor force percent. The key reason for unemployment was the unavail- demands. As discussed earlier, the Tertiary Education Coun- ability of employment opportunities in their field of special- cil was formed in the early 2000s to address the demands of ization. Additionally, 33 percent of employers interviewed changing and expanding tertiary education. Botswana’s cur- in 2005 stated that graduates lacked industry experience. rent postsecondary education system (including the postsec- The 2010 tracer study also emphasized the lack of mobility ondary technical education discussed in the previous section) across areas of specialization as a barrier to employment and has been classified by UNESCO, as shown in table 2. suggested the need to offer courses that equip trainees with Student enrollments in tertiary institutions have increased multiple skills. There is, moreover, no vertical or horizontal in recent years due to increased transition and completions articulation across the academic, technical, and vocational rates in basic and secondary education. Specifically, the share education streams in Botswana. This problem contributes of 18–24-year-olds who participate in tertiary education in- to the low prestige of the TVET system and contributes to creased from 5.8 percent in 1996 to 12 percent in 2001. The unemployment if job opportunities within a specific field of tertiary education attainment rate has now reached 7 percent specialization are not available. overall (up from 2 percent in 1995). As of 2002, more than Further, as indicated by the results of the various tracer 20,000 students were enrolled at the undergraduate level in studies, another major concern for Botswana is that both me- Botswana and South Africa. chanical and electrical engineering graduates as well as ICT As recently as 2010, 22 percent of full-time students enrolled graduates of technical institutes also have high unemployment in the University of Botswana were studying science, technolo- rates. Similar to other fields of training, employers regard the gy, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects (University of Botswana 2011). A major increase in enrollments occurred 9 Author interviews with individual employers conducted in 2010–11. in 2007 when the government agreed to provide grants for stu- Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth | 11 Table 2. UNESCO Classification of Post-secondary Education in Botswana Level ISCED Qualification level Institution Post-secondary Non-tertiary 4A Certificate Botswana Institute of Administration and Commerce Teacher Training College 4B Diploma Institutes of Health Sciences Auto Trades Training Center Roads Training Center Vocational Training Center Tertiary Stage 1 5 Bachelor’s, post- graduate, University of Botswana master’s degrees Botswana College of Agriculture Tertiary Stage 2 6 Doctoral degree University of Botswana Botswana College of Agriculture Source: TEC (2006). dents in certain faculties of some private institutions. Enroll- Botswana International University of Science ment in these institutions rose by 9,946 between 2006–07 and and Technology 2007–08 (BEST 2009). Recently, 16 institutions registered with TEC to offer diploma and undergraduate programs in Botswa- Botswana International University of Science and Technol- na. Additionally, a school of medicine was established at the ogy (BIUST), the second university developed by the gov- ernment, was established by an Act of Parliament in 2005. University of Botswana to train medical doctors. BIUST, which will ultimately have a capacity of 6,000 full- time equivalent students, is currently under construction on University of Botswana 2,500 hectares in the town of Palapye. BIUST is expected to Established in 1982, the University of Botswana was until be a high-quality research-intensive university with a focus recently the only university in Botswana. Through 1994, the on STEM degree programs at the bachelor’s, master’s and university mainly focused on certificate, diploma, and bach- doctoral levels. It will have only four faculties: Science, En- elor-degree programs. But given the evolving role of tertiary gineering, Technology, and Management/Entrepreneurship.10 education in the economy, the university has begun to offer BIUST was conceived as a world-class African university more advanced degrees. Total enrollment at the university that would offer cutting-edge knowledge, attract first-rate fac- was 15,731 in 2010, with 56 percent of these students female ulty (recruited internationally as well as from the African dias- and almost 11,952 enrolled in bachelor-degree programs pora), provide a resource-rich environment, foster links with industry (via the existing Botswana Innovation Hub, among (University of Botswana 2011). However, looking at table 3, other programs), and promote applied research and modern it is clear that the majority of students are concentrated in teaching methods conducive to innovation and entrepreneur- social sciences, business, or humanities faculties. As of 2010– ship. Public-private partnerships (PPPs) are at the heart of 11, approximately 50 students were enrolled in master- and the university’s strategy, which aims to have the private sec- doctoral-level programs. tor—via funding the development of university infrastructure, It is clear from the distribution of student enrollment shown and direct participation in university governance—ensure not in table 3 that the focus of these students is on developing mid-level skills, not highly specialized, research-oriented skills. 10 See the university’s website at http://www.biust.ac.bw. Table 3. University of Botswana, Enrollment by Faculty/School, 2008–2011 Faculty 2008–09 2009–10 2010–11 Business 3818 3935 4141 Education 1711 1710 1970 Engineering and Technology 822 852 961 Graduate Studies 1416 1448 1391 Health Sciences 445 498 571 Humanities 2376 2489 2805 Science 1475 1314 1277 Social Sciences 2358 2439 2615 Source: University of Botswana (2011). 12 | Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth only the quality and relevance of its programs, but also facili- earlier in this Note, GLS was created in 1995 and was origi- tate cost containment and efficient resource use. nally designed to attract students to fields in high demand. The BIUST project has, however, been beset by serious For instance, the scheme had five categories of classification, troubles. Phase 1, the construction of a small seed campus for the first being for education in skills in highest demand. This several hundred students (the so-called “Founding Develop- category offered students the incentive of a 100 percent grant ment”), has incurred significant delays and cost overruns. As both for tuition and living expenses. Category 2 fields were of September 2010, completion progress was at about 60 per- supported by a 100 percent grant for tuition and 50–50 grant- cent, against a scheduled 80 percent, so the opening planned loan as a maintenance allowance. At Category 5, both tuition for March 2011 was delayed until December of that year. fees and living expense support were offered on a 100 per- Phase 2, the formulation of the university’s academic strategy cent loan basis. As pointed out previously, the program has in and completion of campus infrastructure via PPPs, is similar- practice become exclusively a grant program. Lack of an ef- ly facing serious setbacks. For one thing, current estimated fectively managed beneficiary database and lack of follow-up costs for this phase have nearly doubled since 2008, with the on individual cases (the result of limited staff numbers and required government contribution increasing commensurate- poor recovery capacity), as well as the limited information ly. Another central problem appears to be BIUST’s struggle to provided to beneficiaries on their roles and responsibilities, develop an academic strategy, in particular, one that maintains all led to the limited recovery. (This issue is not discussed fur- the PPP philosophy. ther here because it falls outside the scope of this note). The revised strategy aimed at attracting high-level academic Based on their field of study, tertiary students can be en- staff also seems to be facing opposition not only because it rolled within or outside of Botswana. In 2007, approximately costs more than other options, but also because of the oppo- 7.5 percent of all such students were enrolled in South Afri- sition of vested interests. For example, the University of Bo- ca, another 7.5 percent in universities across the world, with tswana recently expanded into engineering programs, raising the rest enrolled in Botswana. It is clear that as Botswana questions about “program alignment”—that is, whether it strengthens its own tertiary education system, fewer students makes sense to duplicate existing programs. In addition, after will be sent abroad for specialization. In terms of the distri- some uncertainty about the fate of BIUST, given the high cost bution of enrollment in various priority areas, the lowest per- of its development, the key issue remains whether or not to be centage enrolls in Category 1 programs, despite the fact that guided by the PPP philosophy or turn to a more traditional the government offers the best financial incentives for these financing model. However, the potential consequence of that programs. Rather, the highest concentration of students has approach would be to turn the university into a low-quality consistently been in Category 3 fields. educational institution. A detailed review of the GLS system conducted for the De- partment of Student Placement and Welfare of MoESD in 2009 Other institutes of higher education (BEST 2009) points out several key problems with the pro- There are a number of other institutes that offer tertiary educa- gram. The report suggests that the reason why enrollment in tion in Botswana, such as the Botswana College of Agriculture, Category 1 skills is low is that these courses require a strong ba- Institutes of Health Sciences (currently five in number), teach- sic education in mathematics and science. By the time students er training colleges, the Botswana Accountancy College, and a reach the tertiary level, it is hard to remedy weak or poor-qual- number of private institutes accredited by TEC. However, these ity learning in these subjects, thus enrollment in science and institutions mainly offer diploma or bachelor-level courses. As engineering remains low. Additionally, there is a lack of career mentioned above, some programs in certain private colleges education in basic and secondary school that would highlight are allowed to enroll government-funded students, a policy the potentials of these courses at the tertiary level. that has increased enrollment in these schools substantially. Second, specialization in engineering and the sciences re- According to private providers, TEC plays a quality assur- quire students to be enrolled outside of Botswana because ance role, as the accreditation process is quite comprehensive specific fields of tertiary study are not offered in the coun- and ensures a high-quality education.11 Indeed, they claim that try. Such external placements are much more expensive than the quality of government-run tertiary institutions tends to be placements in Botswana, hence budgetary constraints some- lower because these institutions do not have to go undergo a times hinder enrollment. And even though the government quality assurance process. However, no data on student assess- has declared certain fields of study to be a priority, programs ment scores or employment outcomes was available to verify in lower-priority categories offer good job opportunities and such claims. In addition, private education providers express a good return on the labor market. For example, a law degree concern over the quality of students enrolling in their institu- is a Category 3 program in the GLS framework, but the gov- tions, as these students do not appear to be well trained for a ernment offers hardly any incentive for this course of study. high standard of undergraduate study. In order for tertiary education to produce high-level re- search and innovation, emphasis must be placed on teaching Financing students in higher education research skills at existing tertiary institutions. However, GLS In Botswana all students enrolled in government-run high- finances students only at the undergraduate level. At present, er education institutions are sponsored by the government employers finance the studies of students pursuing master’s through the Grant-Loan Sponsorship Program. As discussed and doctoral degrees, based on employer requirements. Giv- en that the government is the largest employer, most highly 11 Author interviews with private tertiary education providers in 2011. qualified individuals are employed in the public sector. More- Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth | 13 over, it is not economically viable for the relatively small pri- • Develop a system of monitoring and evaluation for the vate sector to cover the cost of postgraduate training. As a BTEP apprenticeship program that uses continual feedback result, employers are more likely to hire expatriates with the mechanisms to improve the responsiveness of these posi- skills acquired in tertiary education. tions to employers’ skills demands. • Complete BIUST and attract international talent—both fac- Conclusion and Policy 7.  ulty and students—through the use of incentives. Recommendations In the long-run, it should: This Policy Note has discussed the landscape of Botswa- na’s education sector and its current outcomes. The country • Establish an educational research institute under MoESD. boasts high investments in education, yet faces significant • Redesign the GLS program so that it targets higher-level challenges of educational quality compared to countries with STEM skills at the postgraduate level. similar levels of GDP per capita. Given the country’s vision • Develop selected faculties at University of Botswana and of reducing its reliance on its main natural resource—dia- BIUST as a center of excellence in science and technology monds—and shifting towards a knowledge-based economy, teaching through viable, sustainable financing, including the education sector will need to be a principal focus of re- research and consultancy revenues, donations, and private form in coming years. capital. As the preceding sections have made clear, several major ini- tiatives are needed. These actions are briefly listed here in terms The following paragraphs detail specific policy recommenda- of chronological priority, and are followed by more detailed rec- tions for different levels of the education system in Botswana. ommendations grouped by educational level. First, the quality of basic education needs to be improved. Second, the capacity Basic education of TVET training staff must be bolstered. Third, collaboration between universities, industry, and other research centers must Policy recommendation #1: Target underperforming schools increasingly be developed so that tertiary education is aligned and populations. The experience of other countries lends cre- with the needs of the labor market and the nation. dence to the notion that targeting underperforming subpopu- In terms of priority, in the short-term the government lations benefits educational quality and equity. In general, tar- should: geting these groups has been crucial to the progress of countries that have shown large increases in TIMSS scores. Figure 9 pres- • Focus and prioritize the quality of inputs supplied to remote ents the scores of the three most improved countries that partic- and rural schools to ensure equitable distribution of basic ipated in TIMSS 2003 and 2007 and shows how much each stu- education resources and outcomes so that every Batswana dent achievement quartile contributed to their increased scores. student is equipped with basic literacy and numeracy skills. For example, Ghana experienced a 34 point increase on TIMSS math scores between 2003 and 2007. Increases in the average • Urgently complete the Botswana National Qualification score for the lowest-achieving student quartile contributed Framework and introduce the process of articulation within 6.8 points, or 20 percent, of that 34 point increase. In Armenia, the education system. This framework will establish hori- the increase in the average score of the lowest-achieving student zontal and vertical pathways across technical and academic quartile contributed 30 percent of the increase, and in Lebanon, streams of study, improving students’ employment and life- 9 percent. long learning opportunities. As the figure makes clear, the top three most improved • Introduce pre-entry courses in STEM college programs to countries did not ignore their lowest-performing students, improve the quality of learning at higher levels of education. a finding that suggests that if improvement in educational quality is to occur in Botswana, it must target interventions to • Hire expert trainers in the fields of TVET specialization that poorly performing students. Such targeting would not require are in demand and ensure that the technical training curric- additional resources, as the country already has a high level of ula respond to the needs of employers. education expenditure; what is needed is better allocation of these resources to ensure that all regions are equitably served. In the medium-term, Botswana should: Policy recommendation #2: Develop a monitoring and evaluation system for student achievement. For effective • Adopt a monitoring, evaluation, and research system in or- policy making, good data and country-specific research are der to understand the process of student learning, identify prerequisites. A number of countries experiment with vari- issues related to inadequate student performance on inter- ous policies, engaging in constant monitoring and evaluation national assessments, and inform the design of interven- to identify positive or negative impacts. Most countries have tions that would align national educational outcomes with dedicated institutions that are tasked with monitoring educa- the needs of the global economy. tional quality through student assessments and instructional • Define mechanisms for using the training levy so that these quality. funds cater to the specific needs of employers, for instance, To date, the government of Botswana has not created a ded- by supporting specific types of technical training at BO- icated institution to conduct research in education. The De- TA-accredited institutions. partment of Education of the University of Botswana has par- 14 | Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth Three Most Improved Countries in Math Scores, TIMSS 2003 and 2007, by Student Achievement Quartile Figure 9.  40 Portion of increase attribute to the highest achievement quartile 30 Portion of increase attributed to the second highest achievement quartile Portion of increase attributed to the second lowest achievement quartile 20 Portion of increase attributed to the lowest achievement quartile 10 0 Ghana Armenia Lebanon England Taiwan Basque Tunisia Serbia Slovenia Source: World Bank staff calculations, based on TIMMS 2003 and 2007 data (see IEA 2004 and 2008). tially served this role. MoESD has only a Division of Planning, unit of MoESD, which operates across its primary, second- Statistics, and Research, the role of which includes monitor- ary, and TVET departments, needs to develop key input and ing, research, and the collection of statistics for the country’s performance indicators across the education sector, which in- education management and information system (EMIS). The spectors would then monitor by school. Additionally, this di- division has been unable to be effective. Due to limited ca- vision should report to the Planning, Statistics, and Research pacity, the EMIS is still not well developed; for instance, only Department of MoESD, where it can support the monitoring information on total enrollment in primary and pre-primary of educational outputs. education is available through 2011. For postprimary educa- tion, however, the data is less current. Even the enrollment Technical and vocational education and data that is available is generally not disaggregated geograph- training (TVET) ically. This makes it difficult to meaningfully analyze data for policy making. Available data is also not effectively researched Whereas unemployment caused by lack of demand in the la- or utilized for policy purposes, such as that on educational bor market cannot be addressed by education and training quality available through TIMSS and SACMEQ. Given the systems, unemployment caused by skills mismatches should availability of such valuable data, Botswana could make much be. As evidenced by the tracer studies reviewed in this section, better use of its monitoring and research systems to improve unemployment in Botswana appears to be the consequence of educational quality (see box 1 for a good-practice example). inadequate training or training in fields of specialization that MoESD recently approved the structure of a reorganized are not in demand on the labor market. The recommenda- Department of Planning, Statistics, and Research that up- tions discussed below complement one another and seek to grades the current division into a department. The new de- reduce the information asymmetry that can cause skills mis- partment needs to be equipped with appropriate human and matches, while providing opportunities for the workforce to physical inputs as soon as possible so that it may begin per- improve its skills base for the emerging knowledge economy. forming the important task of monitoring and evaluation in Recommendation #4: Establish better linkages between the education sector. It is urgent that this department become TVET and academic education programs. Trainees com- rapidly fully operational with the capacity to ensure effective pleting TVET programs in Botswana have the opportunity implementation of the various ongoing educational programs to enter the labor market or become self-employed. Howev- in the sector (see box 2 for a description of four core programs er, there are no opportunities for further education for this specified by National Development Plan 10). In sum, it is pro- group, for instance, entering diploma-level training or the ac- posed that the ministry adopt the following approach: ademic stream in order to improve their skills. As such, they have no further opportunities for skills growth. This is a char- acteristic of many education and training systems around the Policy ➞ Experiment and Measurement ➞ Evaluate ➞ Scale Up/Adapt world, leading the TVET system in Botswana to be dubbed a “dead-end stream.” Policy Recommendation #3: Give MoESD Inspectorate Yet successful education systems and growing knowledge Services a more effective role in the education system. This economies have managed to develop flexible systems that sup- Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth | 15 Box 1. Current Landscape of TVET in Botswana There are presently eight colleges run by the Department of Vocational Education and Training of MoSED: • Botswana College of Engineering and Technology in Gaborone, the commercial and administrative capital of Botswana located in the southeast part of the country. • Gaborone Technical College in Gaborone. • Francistown College of Technical and Vocational Education , located in the second-largest city of Botswana the northeast. • Jwaneng Technical College in a diamond-mining town in the southwest. • Maun Technical College in a tourist town in the northwest. • Oodi College of Applied Arts and Technology in a township close to and north of Gaborone. • Palapye Technical College in Palapye, a fast-growing town in the central part of the country, soon to host the second university in Botswana. • Silebe-Phikwe Technical College in a copper-mining town in the eastern part of the country. Description of TVET institutions. Geographically, the technical colleges are spread across Botswana, although two are in Gaborone, while a third (Oodi College), is only 30 kilometers from Gaborone. The Botswana College of Engineering and Technology was previously the National Centre for Vocational Training, which was upgraded in 1979 to become Botswana Polytechnic. The Polytechnic has become the major center for training technicians in the country and offers certificates and diplomas in civil, mechanical, and electrical engineering in association with the City and Guilds London Institute. The most recently created colleges are those in Francistown and Oodi. All the colleges offer the new vocational educational and training courses of study of the Botswana Technical Education Programme (BTEP). In addition to the eight colleges listed above, other government institutions train technicians, such as the Botswana College of Agriculture, the Botswana Institute of Administration and Commerce, and the Roads Training College. Fur- thermore, large employers, such as government departments and parastatal corporations, have their own training centers in which they conduct employer-based technical and vocational training. Currently there are more than 200 training institutes accredited by BOTA to provide vocational training in the country. Distance and open education programs. These programs are expected to soon offer additional options for school-leav- ers. In 1998, Botswana established the Botswana College of Distance and Open Learning (BOCODOL), a semi-autono- mous institution that offers distance education courses in preparation for the JC and BGCSE examinations. The college is intended for school-leavers who either want to upgrade the level of education they previously completed or are en- rolling at the JC and BGCSE levels for the first time. BOCODOL inherited courses and programs that were previously administered by the Ministry of Education’s Non-formal Education Department. Presently, it also offers professional and vocational courses at various levels, from certificate to degree programs. These courses are accredited by BOTA and the Tertiary Education Council. Student enrollment at BOCODOL has risen significantly, from 3,758 in 2002 to 5,162 in 2004, 5,513 in 2006, and 6,488 in 2008. Sources: MoFDP 2009; BOTA 2010a. port learners to advance through a system according to their moving the country towards a competency-based approach ability. For instance, in Singapore, after 10 years of basic ed- to learning and accreditation. Rapid completion of the frame- ucation (6 years of primary and 4 years of secondary educa- work and its implementation are urgent in order for Botswana tion), students enter Junior Colleges for a General Certificate to create a credits-based training and education system with for Education Advanced Level, which prepares them for uni- horizontal and vertical articulation. The merger of BOTA and versity study; or the Polytechnics, which offer a wide range of TEC is one of the key steps towards implementing this ap- three-year diploma courses that prepare students for mid-lev- proach. el professions and management; or the Institute of Technical There are two main benefits of articulation. First, it im- Education, which offers certificate-level courses that empha- proves the image and prestige of TVET because this educa- size hands-on learning. The complete education system has tional stream is no longer a dead-end, but offers opportunities formal articulations that allow students to progress from the for further growth based on student performance. Second, the Institute of Technical Education to diploma-level studies in a credit-based system offers students the flexibility of transfer- Polytechnic to a degree program in a university, depending on ring credits across specializations in both vocational and tech- their performance (figure 10). nical education. The Botswana National Vocational Qualification Frame- Recommendation #5: Improve the quality of TVET cur- work, in development since the early 1990s, and BTEP are ricula and training. The skills training system in Botswana 16 | Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth Box 2. Informed Policy Making: The Case of Jordan A successful example of the monitoring and evaluation of educational outcomes comes from Jordan, a middle-income country (MIC). Over the past two decades, the Jordanian education system has made significant advances. Net enrollment in basic education increased from 89 percent in 2000 to 97 percent in 2006. Additionally, the quality of education has im- proved, as witnessed by improved student scores on international educational assessments. Jordan participated in TIMSS 1999 and ranked third from the bottom in both science and math. Additional international assessments were also conduct- ed around that time, in particular, the International Assessment of Educational Progress in the early 1990s (for which the results were also poor). These results sparked efforts to reform educational quality. Jordan established benchmarks for 13-year-olds’ achievement relative to 19 countries that participated in TIMSS 1999; identified areas of strength and weakness in different subjects; conducted a thorough review of curricula and developed new textbooks to meet the learning needs associated with inter- national benchmarks; compared the performance of students by school and region; identified cognitive processes with a view toward informing teacher training; conducted a massive upgrade of teacher training through a university bridging program; and targeted negative and positive influences of classroom practices, together with those of out-of-school activ- ities and attitudes. In 2003, Jordan again participated in TIMSS and showed a remarkable improvement over its 1999 scores. Its students performed above the international average in both math and science, and have since shown further improvement. A recent study estimates that more than two-thirds of the improvement in TIMSS scores came from improved effectiveness in the use of resources, or the increased value-added of Jordan’s teachers. Source: Abdul-Hamid, Abu-Lebdeh, and Patrinos (2011). needs to be responsive to its main stakeholders and clients,  rticulations in the Education System Figure 10. A including students and employers. Expert trainers are needed of Singapore to attract students to TVET colleges and/or institutes so that these institutions can be operated at capacity. Expert trainers, however, are in short supply. There is thus an urgent need to Universities hire trainers internationally and/or train them locally. MoESD has a teacher training program in the Francistown College of Technical Vocational education that offers a two-year teacher training diploma course. The government is currently review- ing this course, creating a critical opportunity to incorporate Institute of Other the competency-based approach to teaching and learning in Junior College Polytechnic Technical Training the curriculum. (30%) (40%) Education Providers/LM An additional challenge in TVET is retaining well-trained (25%) (5%) technical and vocational teachers, given the high demand for such experts in the industrial sector. The government has in- troduced a scarce skills allowance for such trainers that ap- pears to have helped educational institutions retain staff, but Primary and Secondary Education – 10 yrs better incentives are needed, in particular for subjects like en- gineering and ICT. Recommendation #6: Build responsiveness to employer Source: Adapated from Seng 2009. demands into the TVET system. A strong feedback mecha- nism is required in this regard. Employers complain of a lack The Institute of Technical Education (ITE) in Singapore pro- of skilled staff while TVET graduates remain unemployed. vides a good-practice example of how training providers can An important way to address this mismatch would be to have work with employers to respond to their demands (box 4). The representatives from the employer guide TVET curriculum institute operates under the Ministry of Education as a stat- development and training processes. Currently, industry rep- uary board (parastatal corporation); its internal and external resentatives work through advisory committees in DVET; accountability is ensured through a board of governance, ac- eventually, the plan is to have sectoral committees work with- ademic advisory committees, technical advisory and certifi- in the framework of the National Human Resource Devel- cation councils, and a CEO for the institute as a whole and opment Strategy. In either case, effective employer represen- principals for its individual colleges. The academic advisory tation will make a difference. A continual feedback loop on committees help respond to the demands of employers, as do whether training programs are working as planned, whether employer and student satisfaction surveys. The government of the skills being imparted are the right skills, and whether the Botswana is in the process of revamping its brigades system of graduates are working as expected is integral to a successful vocational education by taking over these institutes, creating TVET system. an opportunity to introduce a model such as ITE to improve Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth | 17 Box 3. Education Programs of National Development Plan 10 Four core programs were identified by National Development Plan (NDP) 10 for addressing the educational challenges of economic diversification. These programs are focused on general education, tertiary education, teacher development and management, and skills development. General Education Program. The General Education Program involves the provision of accessible, equitable, quality ed- ucation for all levels below the tertiary level, delivered through both in- and out-of-school modes. The program aims to provide a base for an educated, trained labor force by preparing learners to participate in tertiary education or providing them vocational and technical skills relevant to participation in a competitive labor market. Teacher development and management program. This program focuses on skills development through a broadened teacher education curriculum aligned with the needs of the economy. It will introduce degree programs in colleges of edu- cation; establish centers of excellence in specific areas; and build teacher capacity in various areas, including the education of gifted and talented children, orientation and mobility, sign language, inclusive education of children with severe multi- ple profound disabilities (i.e., special-needs education), early childhood education/pre-primary education; and vocational education and training. The program will also establish an efficient management information system, enabling it to conduct projections of hu- man resource growth, job analysis, and other related administrative functions. Finally, it seeks to improve teacher motiva- tion through training teachers in change initiatives and offering other incentives. Skills Development Program. This program aims to achieve three outcomes: improved student vocational and technical skills, employability, and an adequate supply of skills for the labor market. Tertiary Education Program. This program will provide a strategic support to public-private partnerships in the provi- sion of training facilities, the determination of relevant skills and their quality, as well as the development of industry-rel- evant research initiatives. Source: MoFDP 2009 the quality and responsiveness of skills training programs in Another way to efficiently utilize the training levy is to the country. use the funds to support pre-employment training through Recommendation #7: Make effective use of training levy specific sub funds. For instance, the Brazilian S-System is funds. As noted earlier, the training levy imposed on firms in the largest consolidated professional training system in Latin Botswana is not effectively utilized. Firms can use this levy America. It comprises a group of institutes offering advanced to train their workers to improve the relevance of their skills skills training and other services to workers. The system and, hence, their productivity. Looking at the enterprise sur- began as a single institution in the industrial sector in the vey carried out by the World Bank with support from MoESD 1940s—the SENAI (National Service for Industrial Appren- in 2010, firms in Botswana do offer on-the-job training more ticeship)—and was created by presidential decree. Its man- frequently than do firms in other countries in Sub-Saharan date was to train manpower for the basic industries that were Africa (SSA) or in upper-middle-income (UMI) countries about to be launched in Brazil (Rodriguez, Dahlman and Sal- (figure 11). mi, 2008). This trend is an improvement compared to the recent past, Today the S-System is a group of nine loosely related na- particularly for large firms. In 2006, for example, only 43 per- tional institutions organized by sector. It offers an estimated cent of large firms offered formal training, compared to 2,300 courses per year and has an annual enrollment of more 64 percent of firms in SSA and upper-middle-income coun- than 15 million students. A compulsory levy in the form of a tries (UMICs). By 2010, however, more than 75 percent of payroll tax finances 85 percent of these activities; remaining large firms in Botswana offered worker training. The levy is costs are covered by contracts with the public sector, compa- probably not used for these job-training programs because nies, communities, and out-of-pocket payments by partici- firms can be reimbursed only for BOTA-accredited courses pants. SENAI, which is still the largest of the nine institutions, (World Bank 2006, 2010a; World Bank 2010c). has a training infrastructure of over 500 vocational training The levy could also be used to fund industry-specific train- centers, more than 200 mobile training units, and several per- ing institutes and/or the development of courses tailor made sonnel development centers. for specific industries within existing training institutes ac- Given the small size of industry in Botswana, it may not be credited by BOTA. Botswana has experience with the former feasible to create industry-specific training institutes. But a in the form of the CITF (Construction Industry Trust Fund), mechanism such as SENAI could be used to develop indus- which has its own training institute. However, as discussed try-specific courses in existing VTCs and technical colleges earlier in this note, a large proportion of CITF trainees can- to meet the skills demands of the employers. Such collab- not find employment. This is a disadvantage that sectoral orations could be funded by training funds in partnership training funds face worldwide: they lock up funds in a sector with the private sector, with industries participating in cur- despite a potential need for reallocation of these funds across ricula development and providing experienced trainers and sectors based on demand (Johanson 2009). apprenticeships. 18 | Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth Box 4. Institute of Technical Education of Singapore The Institute of Technical Education (ITE) is a statutory board (i.e., parastatal agency under the Ministry of Education of Singapore, with well-defined functions that include the provision of: (i) full-time pre-employment technical training and education; (ii) continuing education and training for the purposes of upgrading the technical skills of the workforce; (iii) regulation and promotion of industry-based training and education; (iv) regulation of certifications and standards for tech- nical skills; (v) consultancy services and research in technical training and education. In terms of its relationship with the Ministry of Education, ITE receives annual operating and development budgets from the ministry, based on student headcount. In return it is accountable for meeting annual government targets and education- al outcomes that specifically aim to produce market-relevant, entrepreneurial, adaptable graduates for the global economy, together with lifelong learners (to improve employability). The governance structure for ITE is shown in figure B4.1. Figure B4.1 ITE Governance Structure A distinguishing factor of ITE as a post-secondary training institution is that it operates as a business entity following a • Appoints ITE Board of Governors (BoG) } Ministr y of • BoG must include representatives of Government, employers, trade unions (9–18 members) Accountability Education External • Organized into various Standing Committees ITE Board of • Contains various Academic Advisor y Committees (AACs’) Governors • Includes a Technical Advisor y and Certi cation Council (TACC) • Is member of BoG ITE Director • Supported by key internal decision-making committees & CEO • Advised by AACs • Advised by TACC Accountability ITE Head Internal Quarters • Deputy CEOs for functional areas (academic, development, industr y, corporate ser vices) • A Principal for each college Three ITE • Four schools in all three colleges Colleges • Niche areas in each college business model. The Director is also a CEO who makes strategic long-term plans with detailed implementation blue- prints. In addition, Singapore’s business excellence framework serves as a benchmark for organizational excellence for the Institute. The institute is responsive to stakeholders and relevant to the market. Students and employers are considered customers; the institute practices active listening by receiving feedback from multiple channels and on the basis of this feedback, develops new course offerings. ITE is both quality and brand conscious—it maintains skills standards, grants certifications, and adheres to a quality assurance framework. For example, it has undertaken continuous branding exercises to improve the public perception of an ITE education. The institution is efficiency-conscious. Organized according to the slogan, “One ITE, Three Colleges,” the Institute formulates policy, develops curricula, admits students, and conducts quality assurance, among other tasks, at the central level in order to enhance efficiency. However, it operates three colleges, each of which has sufficient autonomy to compete with the others and grow in niche areas. ITE also uses state-of-the-art technology for service delivery (this tech- nology facilitates e-students and e-tutors). ITE is results-conscious. It tracks the performance (e.g., employer and student satisfaction surveys) of its three colleges and reports this data through the Annual College Excellence Report. Through constant review and revision of its policies, Singapore’s TVET system has evolved over the last decade to become a nimble, practice-oriented system that is responsive to the needs of industry. Source: Fredriksen and Tan (2008); Seng (2008). Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth | 19 Comparison of Botswana, Other SSA, and UMIC Firms Offering Formal Training, by Firm Size, 2010 Figure 11.  Strata Breakdown - % of Firms O ering Formal Training 90 Botswana Sub-Saharan Africa Upper middle income 80 76.40 69.33 70 63.74 59.50 60 47.62 50 42.72 40 34.86 29.02 30 22.51 20 10 0 Small Medium Large FIRM SIZE Source: World Bank (2010a); World Bank (2010c). Note: UMIC – upper-middle-income country; SSA – Sub-Saharan Africa. Tertiary education Recommendation #8: Align tertiary education with the ty disciplines for student enrollment. Specifically, it is pro- needs of a knowledge economy. The education hub, one of posed that the government: the six priority economic development hubs created by NDP 9, aims to increase the quality and relevance of education in • Develop pre-entry STEM courses for universities in the the country at all levels, making Botswana more competitive immediate term in order to ensure high-quality input into by attracting leading tertiary institutions, scholars, research- the tertiary system. Such courses have been introduced in ers, and students to the country. However, this goal will only a number of countries (e.g., Namibia) to address the short- be possible if financial and academic incentives within Bo- comings of poor-quality secondary education. tswana are aligned with tertiary education programs that • Re-align the GLS program to promote the study of priority- teach skills crucial to the new economy, such as ICT and and higher-order skills at the tertiary level. In addition, GLS STEM programs. Additionally, higher-order skills (i.e., the should be re-evaluated to ensure that it sponsors qualified cognitive and behavioral skills associated with mid-level students for postgraduate studies. For example, the gov- management positions, including learning to learn, problem ernment’s Top Achievers Scholarship Program has placed a solving, creative thinking, communication, negotiation, and total of 49 candidates in the best tertiary institutions in the teamwork) are needed in the economy,12 making it urgent to country since 2010; these students are studying skills areas develop a cadre of well-trained postgraduates who can lead for which there is economic demand. technology adaptation and innovation in the country. • Establish the tertiary sector as a niche centre of excellence Recommendation #9: Take immediate steps to improve to make the sector economically viable and attract interna- the level of learning at the tertiary level and target priori- tional students. This work will advance Botswana’s econom- ic development plans. India, for instance, adopted a model of investment in science and technology education that sup- 12 See Sondegaard and Murthi (2012, chapter 1) for a more detailed dis- ported its policy of import substitution (box 5). cussion of these skills. 20 | Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth Box 5. India: Building Specialized Tertiary Education Institutions for Economic Growth Despite having a highly inequitable education system at the basic level and large numbers of primary school–age children out of school, India has managed to become an emerging force in the supply of engineering and ICT experts. The human capital development path followed by India sharply contrasts with those of such countries as Singapore and South Korea, but has nevertheless gained the country a spot in the emerging BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, China) category. Soon after its independence in the late 1940s, India started focusing on the development of a tertiary education system, particularly in science and technology, as an engine for economic growth. Its import substitution industrial policies, for example, required strong science and technology graduates to succeed. The first Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) was established in 1951 in West Bengal with the support of UNESCO, based on the model of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Seven years later, a second IIT was established in Mumbai with the help of the Soviet Union (via UNESCO). Establishment of three other IITs closely followed, with each institute supported by different international donor partners, including Germany, a consortium of U.S. universities, and the British government and U.K. industries. To date, seven IITs have been established; the parliament has dubbed them institutes of national importance. The Institutes of Technology are publicly funded and enjoy maximum managerial and academic freedom (Rodriguez, Dahlman and Salmi, 2008). All IITs offer undergraduate through postdoctoral degrees in engineering, technology, applied sciences, and management. Entry into the colleges is based strictly on merit. In 2005, the institutes were ranked as the third best engineering schools globally by the London Times Higher Education Supplement. Though initially a large number of graduates of these universities emigrated, sparking a brain drain, this trend eventually helped India via the return migration of highly experienced entrepreneurial individuals who linked the country to inter- national markets. Today IIT alumni are well represented at the highest levels of responsibility in the education, research, business, and innovation sectors around the world. Source: Rodriguez, Dahlman, and Salmi (2008). Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth | 21 References Abdul-Hamid, H., K. Abu-Lebdeh, and H. Patrinos. . TEC (2010a), About the Tertiary Education Council- 2011. “Assessment Testing Can Be Used to Inform Origins of the Council, http://www.tec.org.bw/about_us/ Policy Decisions: The Case of Jordan.” World Bank origins_of_the_council.htm; Downloaded: 09/16/2010. Policy Research Working Paper 5890. World Bank, TEC, Gaborone. Washington, DC. Chenery, H., and T. N. Srinavasan, eds. 1988. Handbook Aghion, P., and P. Howitt. 1992. “A Model of Growth through of Development Economics. Vol. 1, Edition 1. Amsterdam: Creative Destruction.” Econometrica 60 (2) (March): Elsevier Science Publishers. 323–51. CITF (Construction Industry Trust Fund). 2006. “Tracer BEST (Botswana Evaluation Services Team). 2009. “BEST Study on Former CITF Trainees: Final Report.” Prepared Final Report: Consultancy Services for the Review of the by Education Consultants (Pty) Ltd. for CITF, Gaborone. Grant-Loan Sponsorship Scheme of the Department of Student Placement and Welfare, Ministry of Education, Fasih, T. 2008. Linking Education Policy to Labor Market Republic of Botswana.” MoESD, Gaborone. Outcomes. Directions in Development Series. Washington, DC: World Bank. . BOTA (Botswana Training Authority). 2010a. Final Report: Consultancy to Forecast and Identify a List of Fredriksen, B., and J. P. Tan, eds. 2008. An African Priority Vocational Skills and Develop Strategies to Fast Exploration of the East Asian Education Experience. Track Priority Skills Development. BOTA PR48/10. Development Practice in Education Series. Washington, Botswana Training Authority. DC: World Bank. . CSO (Central Statistics Office) 2011 and 2012. Grossman, G., and E. Helpman. 1991. Innovation and Growth “Education Statistics Report.” CSO, MoFDP (Ministry in the Global Economy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. of Finance and Development Planning), Gaborone. Hanushek, Eric A., and Ludger W. Wößmann. 2007. . MoFDP (Ministry of Finance and Development “Education Quality and Economic Growth.” The World Planning). 1991. National Development Plan 7, Bank, Washington, DC. 1991–1997, Gaborone: Ministry of Finance and Development Planning. IEA (International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement). 2004. TIMSS 2003 . MoFDP (Ministry of Finance and Development International Mathematics Report Findings From Planning. 2009 “National Development Plan 10.” IEA’s Trends in International Mathematics and Science Volumes I and II. MoFDP, Gaborone, Botswana. Study at the Fourth and Eighth Grades, Lynch School of Education, Boston College. . MoLHA (Ministry of Labour and Home Affairs). 1997. National Policy on Vocational Education and . 2008. “TIMSS 2007 International Mathematics Training, Gaborone. Report: Findings from IEA’s Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study at the Fourth and Eighth . NCE (National Commission for Education). 1993. Grade.” IEA, Lynch School of Education, Boston College. Report of the National Commission on Education. NEC, Gaborone. Johanson, R. 2009. “A Review of National Training Funds,” a paper prepared for HDNSP, Washington, D.C., World . Office of the President. 2011. “Bostwana First.” Bank, 274 p. Office of the President, Gabarone. Keitheile, M., and M. Mokubung. 2005. “The SACMEQ . Presidential Task Group. 1997. “A Long-Term Vision II Project in Botswana: A Study of the Conditions of for Botswana: Towards Prosperity for All” (Vision 2016). Schooling and the Quality of Education.” SACMEQ Government Printers, Gaborone, Botswana. Educational Policy Research Series, Botswana Working Report, MoESD (Ministry of Education and Skills . TEC (Tertiary Education Council). 2006. Towards a Development), Botswana, and SACMEQ, Paris (IIEP). Knowledge Society: A Proposal for a Tertiary Education Policy for Botswana. Executive Report. Lederman, D., and W. F. Maloney. 2007. “Trade Structure and Growth.” In Natural Resources: Neither Curse nor Destiny, ed. D. Lederman and W. F. Maloney, Chapter 2. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press. 22 | Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth Lucas, Jr., R. E. 1988. “On the Mechanics of Economic Syrquin, M. 1989. “Patterns of Structural Change.” In Development.” Journal of Monetary Economics 22 (July): Handbook of Development Economics, Vol. 1, Edition 1, 3–42. ed. H. Chenery and T. N. Srinivisan, 1–7. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers. Rodriguez, A., C. Dahlman, and J. Salmi. 2008. Knowledge and Innovation for Competitiveness in Brazil. UNESCO/IBE (United Nations Educational, Scientific, Washington, DC: World Bank. and Cultural Organization/International Bureau of Education). 2011. “World Data on Education: Botswana.” Romer, P. M. 1986. “Increasing Returns and Long-Run VII Ed.. IBE, UNESCO, Geneva. http://www.ibe.unesco. Growth.” Journal of Political Economy 94 (5) (October): org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/WDE/2010/ 1002–37. pdf-versions/Botswana.pdf. SACMEQ. 2010. “SACMEQ III Project Results: Pupil WDI (World Development Indicators) and GDF (Global Achievement Levels in Reading and Mathematics.” Development Finance) (database).World Bank, Working Document 1. SACMEQ, Paris (IIEP). Washington, DC. http://databank.worldbank.org/ data/Views/VariableSelection/SelectVariables. . 2011. “Quality of Primary School Inputs in aspx?source=World%20Development%20Indicators%20 Botswana.” Policy Brief 2. SACMEQ, Paris (IIEP). and%20Global%20Development%20Finance#C_B. Seng, L. S. 2007. “Vocational Technical Education and World Bank. 2006. “Botswana—Enterprise Survey 2006.” Economic Development: The Singapore Experience.” World Bank, Washington, DC. In Towards a Better Future: Education and Training for Economic Development in Singapore since 1965, ed. S. . 2010a. “Botswana—Enterprise Survey 2006.” World K. Lee, C. B. Goh, B. Fredriksen, and J. P. Tan, 114–134. Bank, Washington, DC. Washington, DC: World Bank and National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, . 2010b. Innovation Policy: A Guide for Developing Singapore. Countries. Washington, DC: World Bank. Sondergaard, Lars, and Mamta Murthi. 2012. Skills, Not Just . 2010c. “Employer and Employee Survey in Diplomas: Managing Education for Results in Eastern Botswana.” World Bank, Washington, DC. Unpublished. Europe and Central Asia. With Dina Abu-Ghaida, Christian Bodewig, and Jan Rutkowski. Directions in Development/Human Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth | 23 24 | Raising Botswana’s Human Resource Profile to Facilitate Economic Diversification and Growth