48578 Printed in 2009. The volume is a product of the Ministry of National Education and World Bank staff and consultants. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement of acceptance of such boundaries. April 2009 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Authors Fasli Jalal | Muchlas Samani | Mae Chu Chang | Ritchie Stevenson | Andrew B Ragatz | Siwage D Negara Acknowledgements Acknowledgements This publication was prepared by a core Government team headed by Prof. Dr. Fasli Jalal (Director General for Higher Education), working in close cooperation with Dr. Muchlas Samani (Director for Higher Education Personnel). Dr Baedhowi (Director General of PMPTK) and his PMPTK team contributed significantly by providing current data on the implementation of teacher certification; by supplying documentation on the monitoring and evaluation of the initiative; by discussing the potential impact on the relevant agencies; and by providing the outputs from a workshop conducted to analyze earlier drafts of the material used in the publication. Prof. Dr. Conny Semiawan and Prof. Dr. T. Raka Joni also contributed significantly to the writing of the document. Contributing authors of the document are Fasli Jalal (Director General of Higher Education); Muchlas Samani (Director of Personnel in Higher Education); Ritchie Stevenson (Education Specialist); Mae Chu Chang (Lead Educator, EASHD), Siwage Dharma Negara (Research Analyst); and Andy Ragatz (Education Specialist, EASHD). Members of the workshop team provided valuable critical comments and input. The workshop team included: Prof. Dr. Conny Semiawan (UNJ); Prof. Dr. T. Raka Joni (UM); Prof. Dr. Utomo Dananjaya (Univ. Paramadina);Drs.AchmadDasukiMM(PMPTK);Prof.Dr.Zamroni(UNY);Dr.AosSantosaHamijaya(UNRAM); Ahmad Rizali; M.Sc. (CBE); Prof. Dr. Anita Lie (Univ. Widya Mandala); Prof. Dr. Mohamad Nur (UNESA); Dr. Siskandar (Ses. Balitbang Diknas); Prof. Dr. Paulina Panen (UT); Prof. Dr. Astim Riyanto; SH. (UPI); Prof. Dr. Aziz Wahab (UPI); Dr. Sumarna Suryapranata(PMPTK); Prof. Dr. Aljufri B. Syarif (UNP); Prof. Dr. Sukamto (UNY); Prof. Dr. Soedijarto (UNJ); Prof. Dr. Hamid Hasan (UPI); Prof. Dr. Sudjarwo (Univ. Lampung); Dr. Abas Gozali (UIN Jakarta); Prof. Dr. Mulyani Nurhadi (UNY); Ir. Giri Suryaatmana (PMPTK); Prof. Dr. Toho Cholik Mutohir; MA (UNESA); Prof. Dr. Sutjipto (UNJ); Dr. Unifah Rosyidi (Univ. PGRI); DianWahyuni (PMPTK); Dr. Hendarman (Dikti); Maria Widiani (PMPTK); Prof. Dr. Nizam (Dikti); Rahayu Retno Sunami (Dikti); Santi Ambarukmi (PMPTK); Adi Rahmat (UPI); Ahman (UPI); Prof. Dr. Anna Suhaenah S. (UNJ); Dr. Azmi (UNP); Badrun Karto Wagiran (UNY); Buchary (PGRI); Furqon Hidayatullah (Univ Sebelas Maret); Haris Anwar Syafrudie (UM); Suyud (UNY); Dandan Chen (World Bank); Ari SP (World Bank). TheWorld Bank provided technical and financial support to the Government of Indonesia team under the overall supervision of Mae Chu Chang (Coordinator of Human Development Unit and Lead Educator) and Susiana Iskandar (Senior Education Specialist). The preparation and publication of this report is funded by the Dutch Education Support Program from the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Neil Baumgart (Professor Emeritus, University ofWestern Sydney) contributed valuable input by providing a critical review of the document. ii Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Table of Contents Table of Contents Acknowledgements ii Abbreviations vii Executive Summary 1 Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia 5 1. Student achievement 5 2. The quality of teachers 6 3. Teacher salaries 9 4. Teacher workload 12 5. Teacher management after decentralization 13 Chapter 2 Historical Context of Teacher Improvement 17 1. A shift to quality 17 2. Teacher education before the reform era: Coping with the expansion of education 18 3. Emergence of the LPTK 19 4. Yogyakarta State University: An example of transition from IKIP to University 22 5. The origin of school cluster based in-service training 23 6. Changes brought by the Teacher Law 24 Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law 29 1. Selection of teachers and the place of certification 29 2. Scope of the Teacher Law 33 3. Teacher competencies mandated by the Law 34 4. Developing teacher competency standards 36 5. The value of competency standards 38 6. An international example of a teaching standards framework 41 7. Draft Indicators Developed by the Consortium of Rectors of LPTK 43 8. Continuous professional development to enhance teacher competency 45 9. Minimum service standards (MSS) for education 46 10. Progress in developing statements of standards 48 11. Moving from standards to teacher profiles 50 12. Re-design of teacher training courses using the teacher competency standards 51 13. The need for higher standards in teacher management 52 14. The need for higher standards in classroom teaching 54 15. The need for higher standards in in-service training and continuing professional education of teachers 56 16. Keeping the focus on quality in teaching 57 Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certi cation 59 1. Evidence of need to improve the quality of teachers 59 2. What the Law requires for certification 60 3. Certification for in-service (incumbent) teachers 61 4. History of development of the certification process 62 (a) Using a consensus-building process to finalize the model 62 (b) Comparison of proposed certification Models 63 (c) The Round Table Model of 15 March 2006 65 (d) Testing the Model through the five Pilot Study districts 68 (e) Developing the teacher certification instruments in 2006 71 (f) Developing and using a classroom performance assessment instrument 72 (g) Selecting and training teacher classroom performance assessors 73 (h) Operational arrangements for the 2006 teacher certification model (Model 1) 74 iii Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Table of Contents (i) The status of Model 1 and the transition to Model 2 76 (j) Modified approach of the draft Regulation of 30 March 2007 77 (k) Removal of the Equivalency Examination from the original model 81 5. Current status and operation of the certification process 82 (a) The Teacher Self-Appraisal and Portfolio instrument of Model 2 82 (b) Determining the annual quota of teachers for certification 87 (c) Use of the PLPG program for teachers who fail the certification process 88 (d) Evaluation and implementation of the current process 90 6. The certification process for pre-service teachers: PPG (Pendidikan Profesi Guru) 91 7. Quality Improvements anticipated from Teacher Certification 93 Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers 95 1. The scope of the upgrade issue 95 2. Upgrade training pathways 96 3. Provision of scholarships for upgrading 98 4. Preparation of teachers by the LPTK 100 5. Distance learning provision of the Open University 102 6. HYLITE Program ­ a distance-learning innovation by the LPTK 104 7. An example of a modular approach to teacher upgrade ­ DBE 2 106 8. District support in the upgrade of teachers 108 9. Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) 110 10. Elements of good teaching practice for inclusion in teacher upgrade programs 120 11. Activities included in the BERMUTU modular training packages for teacher upgrade 121 12. Incorporating best practice teaching and learning activities in the BERMUTU subject modules 124 13. Continuous professional development (CPD) adopted as a concept 126 14. Balancing quantity against quality 127 Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certi cation 129 1. The task 129 2. Implementation structures and the inter-relationships of the agencies involved 130 3. Strengthening the capacity of the LPTK (teacher training universities) 132 4. Strengthening the capacity of school-cluster teacher working groups (KKG and MGMP) 137 5. Strengthening the capacity of the national training agencies (P4TK) and the provincial quality assurance (LPMP) agencies 142 6. Strengthening the role of the school supervisor 147 7. Strengthening the role of the principal 153 8. Strengthening capacity at the district level 156 9. Support from BEC-TF and SISWA 159 10. How BERMUTU and SISWA will support teacher certification and quality improvement 164 11. Strengthening schools and teacher in-service training with the BOS program 164 Chapter 7 Financial Implications of Teacher Certi cation 167 1. Funding the process 167 2. Estimated Costs by Category 169 3. Key Variables Influencing Cost 174 4. Mechanisms to Control Certification Costs 176 5. Concluding Comment 180 Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions 181 1. Developing good policy 181 2. The policy agenda 182 A. Policies related to a teacher's career 183 iv Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Table of Contents B. Policies related to school organisation 193 C. Policies related to teacher management 196 3. The need for an integrated policy framework 203 References 205 List of Tables Table 1.1 Score Performance Of Indonesian Eighth-Grade Students'In Mathematics And Science According To TIMSS 6 Table 1.2 Score Performance of Indonesian 15-Year-Old Students in Science, Reading, and Mathematics According to PISA 2006 6 Table 1.3 Numbers Of Teachers By Academic Qualification And Status In Indonesia, 2006 7 Table 1.4 Teacher Candidates'Score Performance by Subject 9 Table 1.5 Comparison of Teacher Salaries across Countries by Level of Education (in US Dollars) 10 Table 1.6 Comparison of 2008 And 2009 State Budget in Trillion IDR 11 Table 1.7 Gross Salary of Teachers According to their Civil Service Status 11 Table 1.8 Primary Teacher Absence Rate in Public Schools 2002-2003 12 Table 1.9 Primary Schools: Average Hours and Percentage of Teachers Below Minimum Hours 13 Table 1.10 Junior Secondary Schools: Average Hours and Percentage of Teachers Below Minimum Hours 13 Table 1.11 Teacher Management Functions for Public Schools (except Madrasahs) before and after the Decentralization Era 15 Table 2.1 The Evolution of Pre Service Teacher Education Institutions since Independence 19 Table 2.2 Number of Teachers by Type of Educational Level and Age Distribution, 2005 21 Table 3.1 Teacher Education Progression Pipeline: Summary of Filters Used 30 Table 3.2 Competencies Required by Principals of Schools and Madrasahs 40 Table 3.3 International Example of a Teaching Standards Framework 42 Table 3.4 Sample of Rectors'Draft Requirements for Teacher Competency 44 Table 3.5 Minimum Service Standards for Elementary Education (Article 3) 46 Table 3.6 Minimum Service Standards for Junior Secondary Education 47 Table 3.7 Example of Competency Standards for Classroom Teacher Graduates of S1 PGSD 49 Table 4.1 Comparing Four Teacher Certification Models Proposed 63 Table 4.2 Summary of Certification Requirements for Teacher Groups 78 Table 4.3 Design of the Teacher Portfolio Instrument 83 Table 4.4 Grouping the Portfolio Elements 85 Table 4.5 Cumulative Targets for Teacher Certification Program to 2015 88 Table 4.6 Guidelines for Developing PLPG Courses for Elementary School Teachers 89 Table 4.7 Professional Training Course Requirements for Pre-Service Teachers 92 Table 5.1 Level of Teacher Training Needed 95 Table 5.2 Scholarship Targets for Teacher Training Program 99 Table 5.3 Five Stages of Training in DBE 2 107 Table 5.4 Cross-Cutting Themes in the DBE 2 Training Packages 107 Table 5.5 Structure of a DBE 2 Training Package 108 Table 5.6 Three Types of Credits in Teacher Upgrade to S1/D4 113 Table 5.7 Adapting the Portfolio Form to determine Advanced Standing for RPL 115 Table 5.8 Action Plan for Developing Advanced Standing Policy 118 Table 5.9 Progress to December 2008 in development of the RPL Process 119 Table 5.10 BERMUTU Training Program for Delivery through Teacher Working Groups (KKG/MGMP) 122 Table 5.11 Modules under Development for BERMUTU Districts 124 v Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Table of Contents Table 5.12 Sample Module on Subject Knowledge Problems in Primary Mathematics 125 Table 5.13 Structure to Accommodate Target Output Priorities 125 Table 7.1 Sharing the Costs Associated with Certification 168 Table 7.2 Estimated cost of the Teacher Certification Process by Year 170 Table 7.3 Quota of teachers undergoing Certification and Associated Professional Allowance Costs 171 Table 7.4 Estimated Upgrading costs 172 Table 7.5 Comparison of Costs Associated with Certification 173 Table 8.1 Teacher Induction Programs in APEC Member Countries 189 Table 8.2 Teacher Profiles and Continuous Professional Development 192 List of Figures Figure 1.1 Numbers of Primary School Teachers Appointed, 1974-1998 10 Figure 2.1 Strategy for Accelerating Teacher Professionalism 26 Figure 4.1 Diagram of the Round Table Consensus Model of 15 March and its Task Requirements "BERMUTU"(Better Education through Reformed Management and Universal Teacher Upgrading) 67 Figure 4.2 Management Structure for Pilot Study 70 Figure 4.3 Planned Steps for Certification using Model 1 in 2006 75 Figure 4.4 Using an Equivalency Examination for Determining RPL 82 Figure 4.5 Current Process of Teacher Certification for In-Service Teachers by Portfolio Assessment 90 Figure 4.6 Entry process for post-graduate teacher professional education 92 Figure 5.1 A Suggested Model for Negotiation of Advanced Standing and RPL 116 Figure 6.1 Agencies involved in the Teacher Certification process 130 Figure 6.2 Teachers by Qualification in Indonesia 2004-5 133 Figure 6.3 Mathematics teachers'qualifications: Indonesia and Singapore (TIMSS 2003) 133 Figure 6.4 Teacher Opinion of the three biggest benefits of KKG-MGMP activities 138 Figure 6.5 Skill Level Needed in LPMP by Position 144 Figure 6.6 Perception of the Competencies of School Supervisors 148 Figure 7.1 Increase in amount to be spent on teacher allowances (real terms in 2006 prices) 171 Figure 7.2 Comparison of upgrading and assessment costs to professional allowance costs 173 Figure 7.3 Distribution of Teachers by Education Attainment 174 Figure7.4 Percent of Teachers by Number of Teaching Periods 178 Figure 8.1 The Role of Policy Development 182 Figure 8.2 Using the probationary year for induction training 188 Figure 8.3 A Framework for the Continuous Professional Development (CPD) of Teachers, Principals and School Supervisors 193 Figure 8.4 Typical Performance Appraisal Cycle 200 List of Boxes Box 7.1 Estimated Number of Teachers Required Based on Student Projections 175 vi Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Abbreviations Abbreviations BALITBANG Research and Development Agency within Ministry of National Education BAN-PT National Board of Accreditation for Higher Education BAPPENAS National Planning Agency BEP Basic Education Program (AusAID) BERMUTU Better Education through Reformed Management and Universal Teacher Upgrading BINDIKLAT Directorate of Education Personnel Development (within PMPTK) BOS The grant to schools provided by the central government BSNP National Education Standards Agency CAR Classroom Action Research CLCC Creating Learning Communities for Children CPD Continuous Professional Development DAK Specific Allocation Fund distributed to districts DAU General Allocation Fund distributed to districts DBE2 Decentralized Basic Education ­ program of USAID for classroom teacher improvement D1, 2, 3, 4 Post-secondary diploma (1-year), (2-year), (3-year), (4-year) DIKTI Directorate General of Higher Education DIPA Integrated Budget (Recurrent and Investment) FKIP Faculty of Teacher Education within universities GOI Government of Indonesia GTT Non-permanent school-hired teachers (Guru Tidak Tetap) GTY Permanent school-hired teachers in private schools (Guru Tetap Yayasan) HEI Higher Education Institution (university, institute, school of higher learning, academy, or polytechnic) IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development IDA International Development Association IDR Indonesian Rupiah IKIP Teacher and Education Studies Institute KKG Teacher Working Group (Kelompok Kerja Guru) KKKS Primary Principal Working Group KKPS Primary School Supervisor Working Group LPMP Institute for Educational Quality Assurance ­ a provincial agency (Lembaga Penjamin Mutu Pendidikan) LPTK Teacher training institutions ­ a generic name for HEI's producing teachers MBE Managing Basic Education ­ a USAID school management modular course MGMP Secondary Subject Teacher Forum MKKS Secondary Principal Working Group MKPS Secondary School Supervisor Working Group MONE Ministry of National Education M&E Monitoring and Evaluation NUPTK Unique identification number for teachers and teaching personnel (Nomor Unik Pendidik and Tenaga Kependidikan) NISN National main number for each student (Nomor Induk Siswa Nasional) OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development PAKEM "Active, Creative, Joyful, and Effective Learning" PGSD LPTK course to upgrade elementary teachers to S1 (Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Dasar) vii Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Abbreviations PGSMTP Teacher training college for junior secondary school teachers (Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Menengah Tingkat Pertama) PGSLTA Teacher training college for senior secondary school teachers (Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Lanjutan Tingkat Atas) PISA Program for International Student Assessment PMPTK Directorate General for Quality Improvement of Teachers and Education Personnel (Peningkatan Mutu Pendidik dan Tenaga Kependidikan) PNS Civil servant (Pegawai Negeri Sipil) PLPG 90-hour course undertaken by teachers failing the portfolio certification test (Pendidikan dan Latihan Profesi Guru) PROFESI Directorate of Education Profession (within PMPTK) PPG Post-graduate professional course of one or two semesters to gain certification (Pendidikan Profesi Guru) PP Government Regulation (Peraturan Pemerintah) P4TK Center for Development and Empowerment of Teachers and Education Personnel (a national agency) (Pusat Pengembangan dan Pemberdayaan Pendidik dan Tenaga Kependidkan) QITEP Directorate General for Quality Improvement of Teachers and Education Personnel (also termed PMPTK) RENSTRA 5-year Strategic Plan RPL Recognition of Prior Learning S1 Degree equivalent to Bachelor's Degree S2 Degree equivalent to Master's Degree S3 Degree equivalent to PhD SBM School Based Management SD Primary school (Sekolah Dasar) SKS Credit points gained by university study or its equivalent SMA Senior secondary school (Sekolah Menengah Atas) SMP Junior Secondary school (Sekolah Menengah Pertama) SPG Teacher training secondary school (Sekolah Pendidikan Guru, now discontinued) STKIP School of Higher Learning of Teacher Education (Sekolah Tinggi Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan) STR Student-Teacher Ratio TENDIK Directorate of Non-Teaching Personnel (within PMPTK) TIMMS Third International Mathematics and Science Study TOR Terms of Reference UT Open University (Universitas Terbuka) UU National Law (Undang-Undang) viii Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Executive Summary This publication outlines the manner in which the teacher certification process mandated by the Law on Teachers and Lecturers, Number 14, 2005, (hereinafter termed the Teacher Law) was developed and is currently being implemented. It is an historical record of the events which took place over the three years from December 2005 to December 2008 and the impact of these events on education agencies and structures in Indonesia. The enactment of the Teacher Law took place against a backdrop of concern for the quality of education in Indonesia and in a context in which the roles of a number of teacher training agencies and structures were under review. Because of its comprehensive nature, the Law will have a significant impact on many of these agencies and many of the policies currently in place. The manner in which these future polices may develop is addressed. Certification has been adopted as a requirement for both in-service and pre-service teachers, and is designed to establish a quality benchmark for all teachers, including government and non-government teachers. It will provide a public guarantee of the standards of training and competency required from teachers. Such comprehensive and wide reaching changes in the administration of the education system of a nation such as Indonesia has implications for the development of education systems elsewhere in the world. Already the initiative has generated research activity related to the employment and deployment of teachers; a video-study of teacher classroom performance; an in-depth review of the local school cluster-based in-service training structures; and a comprehensive study of the impact of certification on teacher motivation and student learning. External and internal studies to monitor and evaluate the progress of the certification process have been commissioned by the National Education Ministry and a number of recommendations have been adopted. Further studies are planned. 1 Executive Summary This document examines the status of teachers at the time of the introduction of the Teacher Law: their quality, salary levels and other available incentives. To some extent, it describes a poorly paid and ineffectively managed teaching service, both at the district and school level. The TIMMS and PISA shows evidence of poor overall student performance, which has implications regarding the quality of teaching. Attempts in the past to deal with this situation through salary increases, professional development courses, improvement in training, promotion possibilities, and other strategies are examined but found to have largely failed to achieve their goals, partly because they have been conceived and implemented in a piecemeal fashion. Only the Teacher Law has attempted to address the issue comprehensively by linking a varied range of strategies to the powerful incentive of a significant salary increase. The Teacher Law has been designed to harness a number of strategies to improve the quality and welfare of teachers. Defining the competencies which are required of all teachers, the Law expands on the need to incorporate these into the standards for teachers and underlines the role of agencies such as the BSNP in defining these. The teacher certification process is outlined in the Law, with the specifics being left to the Regulations. The upgrading of qualifications as a prerequisite for eligibility is established clearly. Similarly, the specific conditions under which teachers are eligible to receive the professional allowance and the functional and special (locality) allowance are clearly defined. In short, the Teacher Law provides a comprehensive, clearly defined package of reforms that establishes an ambitious agenda for improving the national education system. The implementation of the process has been assigned to the administrators of the Ministry of National Education,whowerechargedwithachievingaconsensusfromamultitudeofideasandoptionspresented by a range of pressure groups with disparate interests. Nevertheless, this consensus was reached, and instruments to achieve the defined goals were designed and tested. Whilst the initial certification process was postponed at the end of 2006 while the instruments were re-designed, the first batch of 200,000 teachers undertook the process leading to certification in September 2007. Remedial activities for those who initially failed began in December of that year. The second batch of 200,000 teachers is undertaking the process in October 2008. With 65% of the total number of 2.7 million teachers not meeting the requirement to have at least four- years training, the process of upgrading training facilities and processes is a critical element of the scheme. In fact, it represents the area with the greatest potential for achieving an improvement in the quality of in-service teachers. This is an area where a range of training options and other useful initiatives are now becoming available.These include the expanded use of distance learning by the education faculties of the universities (LPTK); learning modules for use at the local level through the school cluster teacher working groups (KKG/MGMP); recognition of prior learning in the Indonesia context; and university accreditation of local cluster-based training. In this process, the strength and commitment of supporting agencies has played a significant role. The BERMUTU program, funded jointly by the World Bank, the Dutch Education Support Program Trust Fund and the Government of Indonesia, has been instrumental in providing the resources to support the implementing agencies in a number of critical areas. The role of the LPTK has been strengthened by funding to enable revision of university teacher training courses; their expansion to four-year training courses at the primary level; and adoption of newer, more effective training methodologies. A range of modular learning materials and funding to support courses conducted by the local school cluster working groups of teachers, principals and supervisors will be made available. Districts in the BERMUTU program are being encouraged to contribute funds in a partnership to activate local school and teacher networks and to conduct district forums to develop and implement best practice teaching techniques. Principals have a more active role in reporting on teachers'work for their certification portfolios. They will 2 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Executive Summary receive skills training to achieve greater accountability and more effective learning at the local level. When fully implemented, the professional allowance paid to certified teachers will result in the absorption of a significantly greater proportion of the national education budget on teacher remuneration that previously. Budgetary constraints have required phasing strategies and the use of a quota system over ten years to ensure the financial viability of the system. The projected size of the teacher workforce and uncertainties in the data gathering process make cost projections difficult. A number of options for managing the costs associated with the changed system are examined. The Teacher Law also raises significant issues regarding future government policies regarding the management of the teaching service. Many existing policies will be re-defined and modified to foster the development of a higher level of professionalism amongst the teaching corps. One such policy will revolve around the concept of continuous professional development (CPD), which will be linked to salary increments and promotional opportunities. Teacher profiling and a move towards a system of promotion based on merit is a further possibility. Use of a teacher performance appraisal scheme to link the teaching objectives of schools to individual teacher performance agreements will be designed under the BERMUTU program. Proposals to link this scheme with salary increments and performance pay will be considered. In the future, principals will be required to focus on instructional leadership. They will be expected to take a far more active role in the classroom to promote best practice and to ensure all teaching is directed towards facilitating the improvement of student achievement levels. Exciting future possibilities include principals providing induction training for probationary teachers and writing a performance report on them at the end of their first year as a contribution to their certification. In many ways the Teacher Law has been a ground-breaking achievement for the Indonesia government. The manner in which it is implemented and what it achieves over the next ten years will be watched with great interest. The Teacher Law has the potential to dramatically improve the quality of education received by future generations of Indonesian children. Jakarta April 2009 3 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia 1. Student achievement The quality of education plays a crucial role in determining a nation's competitiveness.Thus, most societies and governments have promoted strategies to improve the quality of education. Indonesia, in particular, has acknowledged the importance of improving the quality of its education system in order to supply the country with highly competitive human resources. Despite its awareness of the importance of the quality of the national education system and despite the strategies it has undertaken to improve it, the Indonesian government remains concerned about the standard of achievement of the nation's students. According to the results of the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), the performance of Indonesian eighth-grade students' in both fields is quite poor. Compared to the international average, Indonesian students'level of performance is below the international average in the fields of both mathematics and science. In terms of performance in mathematics, Indonesian students ranked 34 out of 45 countries surveyed in 2003. In 2007, this position dropped to 36 out of 49 countries surveyed. In science, Indonesian students were ranked 36 out of 45 countries surveyed in 2003, although the position improved slightly to 35 out of 49 countries in 2007 (see Table 1.1). 5 Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia Table 1.1 Score Performance Of Indonesian Eighth-Grade Students'In Mathematics And Science According To TIMSS Mathematics Science 1999 2003 2007 1999 2003 2007 Indonesia 403 411 (34/45) 397 (36/49) 435 420 (36/45) 427 (35/49) Top achiever 604 605 598 568 578 567 Lowest achiever 275 264 307 243 244 303 International average 466 451 473 466 Note: Number in brackets indicates the nation's rank worldwide The poor performance of Indonesian students was confirmed by the 2006 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA). PISA assesses the performance of 15-year old students in science, reading and mathematics. From 57 countries surveyed, Indonesia ranked 52 for science, 48 for reading and 51 for mathematics (see Table 1.2). Furthermore, the scores achieved by Indonesian students are low compared to the median scores of the international students'achievement in the three subjects, i.e. science, reading and mathematics. Table 1.2 Score Performance of Indonesian 15-Year-Old Students in Science, Reading, and Mathematics According to PISA 2006 Science Reading Mathematics Indonesia 393 (52/57) 393 (48/56) 391 (51/57) Top achiever 563 556 549 Lowest achiever 322 285 311 Median 443 421 430 Note: Number in brackets indicates the nation's rank worldwide Despite the generally poor performance of Indonesian students, a small number of Indonesian students' has achieved remarkable results in the international mathematics and science Olympiads1. In reality, however,themajorityofIndonesianstudentsperformpoorlycomparedtotheirinternationalcounterparts ­ an issue which has become the ultimate concern of the state. 2. The quality of teachers In view of students'low academic achievement, the government of Indonesia has introduced a number of reforms into the education sector. After the end of the New Order government, two significant pieces of legislation provided the legal foundation for much of this education reform; a) the 2003 Education Law (Law No. 20/2003 on the National Education System) and; b) the 2005 Teacher and Lecturer Law (Law No. 14/2005 on Teachers and Lecturers). Both these laws were intended to facilitate improved management of the national education system. Amongst many other components of the education system, they both acknowledges the crucial role of teachers in ensuring the success of the reform of the education system. In view of this, the focus of national education reform requires change to education policies and strategies, particularly regarding the areas of teacher management and development. 1 At the 2007 International Mathematics and Science Olympiad (IMSO) for elementary schools, which was held in Jakarta, November 12-17, Indonesia recorded a remarkable achievement by winning six out of 11 gold medals. Indonesia also won eight silver and 12 bronze medals and was awarded the Best Experiment and Best Overall in Mathematics and Best Theory in Science in the competition. This achievement is remarkable since Indonesia had only managed to get one gold medal during the 2006 IMSO. 6 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia If one accepts the premise that quality teachers produce quality students, then the poor achievements of students can be attributed to the poor quality of teachers in Indonesia2.Thus, students'poor performance in both TIMSS and PISA presumably reflects an inadequate standard of teaching throughout Indonesian schools. These results suggest that the Indonesian teaching system has failed to provide sufficient value added to students'learning processes and outcomes. In particular, teachers have failed to perform their principal role of nurturing and improving students' learning capacity. As a consequence, Indonesian students' learning outcomes have fallen behind those in other neighboring nations. Arguably, the achievement of Indonesian students may reflect the lower quality of teachers in Indonesia relative to other countries. Statistics from the Ministry of National Education (MONE, 2008) indicate that teachers in Indonesia have a relatively lower level of academic qualification than those in neighboring nations. More than 60 percent of the total 2.78 million teachers have not reach the level of academic qualification of a four-year bachelor's degree (S1/D4). In this group of teachers, the majority have either a D2 (two-year diploma) or a senior secondary certificate qualification. Most teachers from this group (about 70 percent) teach in the primary schools (see Table 1.3). Table 1.3 Numbers Of Teachers By Academic Quali cation And Status In Indonesia, 2006 Academic Quali cation Level of School- <= Senior Master Total ing D1 D2 D3 Bachelor PhD Sec Degree Kindergarden 110,742 9,440 32,382 3,097 18,652 115 1 174,429 Civil servant 19,977 770 5,955 336 5,134 63 - 32,235 Non civil servant 90,765 8,670 26,427 2,761 13,518 52 1 142,194 Primary School 417,389 11,529 589,034 23,841 207,074 1,161 4 1,250,032 Civil servant 266,331 7,213 505,119 15,328 152,090 1,077 2 947,160 Non civil servant 151,058 4,316 83,915 8,513 54,984 84 2 302,872 Junior Second. 39,133 36,202 37,446 72,822 299,319 3,277 7 488,206 Civil servant 16,060 29,327 25,785 51,441 164,388 2,870 4 289,875 Non civil servant 23,073 6,875 11,661 21,381 134,931 407 3 198,331 Special Need 1,666 238 2,883 803 4,514 50 - 10,154 Civil servant 577 68 1,839 505 2,644 42 - 5,675 Non civil servant 1,089 170 1,044 298 1,870 8 - 4,479 Senior Second 6,301 1,200 4,082 22,964 189,753 3,106 27 227,433 Civil servant 2,056 345 2,071 13,853 101,752 2,436 5 122,518 Non civil servant 4,245 855 2,011 9,111 88,001 670 22 104,915 Voc. School 5,172 1,341 2,842 23,942 120,764 1,691 9 155,761 Civil servant 900 230 834 9,429 40,282 1,054 3 52,732 Non civil servant 4,272 1,111 2,008 14,513 80,482 637 6 103,029 Primary Islamic 94,755 23,580 45,933 9,086 31,312 108 - 204,774 Islamic School Civil servant 4,478 4,480 18,267 2,358 6,997 45 - 36,625 Non civil servant 90,277 19,100 27,666 6,728 24,315 63 - 168,149 2 Baumgart, Neil, 2007, Teacher Quality and Professional Standards, paper presented at the East Asia and Pacific Regional Workshop, Developing and Managing Teachers for Better Education Outcomes, in Beijing, China, July 9-13, 2007. This paper cites a study by Leigh, A., 2007. Estimating Teacher Effectiveness from Two Year Changes in Students' Test Scores, paper presented at the Economics of Teacher Quality Conference, Australian National University, 5 February 2007. Also available online at http:// rsss.anu.edu.au/documents/TQPanel.pdf 7 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia Academic Quali cation Level of School- <= Senior Master Total ing D1 D2 D3 Bachelor PhD Sec Degree Junior Second. 37,045 10,722 13,554 22,559 95,326 599 4 179,809 Islamic School Civil servant 886 621 1,615 5,670 16,687 234 1 25,714 Non civil servant 36,159 10,101 11,939 16,889 78,639 365 3 154,095 Senior Second. 10,090 2,164 3,215 10,290 65,635 1,321 8 92,723 Islamic School Civil servant 244 63 137 1,291 13,605 596 2 15,938 Non civil servant 9,846 2,101 3,078 8,999 52,030 725 6 76,785 TOTAL 722,293 96,416 731,371 189,404 1,032,349 11,428 60 2,783,321 Civil servant 311,509 43,117 561,622 100,211 503,579 8,417 17 1,528,472 Non civil servant 410,784 53,299 169,749 89,193 528,770 3,011 43 1,254,849 Source: Directorate of Teacher Profession, Ministry of National Education (MONE). Contrary to other professions in Indonesia, the level of education of teachers does not have a positive correlation with the level of earnings. Analysis of the Labor Force Survey (Sakernas) in 2004 found that teachers with relatively low educational levels are comparatively overpaid3. In contrast, teachers with relatively higher educational levels are underpaid compared to other types of occupations. This suggests there is a lack of incentive for teachers to upgrade their academic qualification. Also, the teaching profession is relatively more attractive for people with a lower educational background. This fact is reflected by the statistics from MONE (2008), which show that about 1.7 million teachers of the total 2.78 million teachers nationally have a level of education below S1/D4 (a four year diploma) qualification. In addition, according to a World Bank (2008) study, compared to other occupations with an equivalent education level, teachers earn relatively low incomes. In other words, there is not a sufficient financial incentive to attract the best and the brightest candidates into the teaching profession. The relatively low quality of teacher candidates in Indonesia is further underlined by the results of the national civil service teacher's examination, which was conducted by the Directorate of Teaching Force before the decentralization of the education system took place4.Table 1.4 shows the results of national civil service teachers' examinations in 2004, when there were approximately 1 million applicants competing for 64,000 positions as civil service teachers. The results show that on average, teachers' examination scores were low in the subjects that were going to be required to teach. However, the range between the highest and lowest scores was very wide, indicating the existence of a wide quality differential amongst teacher candidates. 3 Arze del Granado, F. J., Fengler, W., Ragatz, A., Yavuz, E., 2007, Investing in Indonesia's Education: Allocation, Equity, and Efficiency of Public Expenditures, World Bank and the Royal Government of the Netherlands Joint Publication, p.23 4 It is important to note that before decentralization in education sector took place, the teacher examination was undertaken by the central government. However, after decentralization, districts took responsibility for the teacher examination. 8 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia Table 1.4 Teacher Candidates'Score Performance by Subject No. of Standard No Subject Examination Average Low High Questions Deviation 1. General test for kinder-garden/ 90 34.26 6.56 5 67 Primary teacher 2. General test for other teachers 90 40.15 7.29 6 67 3. Scholastic test 60 30.20 7.40 3 58 4. Kindergarten Teacher 80 41.95 8.62 8 66 5. Primary Teacher 100 37.82 8.01 5 77 6. Physical Education for PE 40 21.88 5.56 8 36 7. Civics 40 23.38 4.82 3 39 8. History 40 16.69 4.39 3 30 9. Indonesia Language 40 20.56 5.18 2 36 10 English Language 40 23.37 7.13 1 39 11 Physical Education for JSE 40 13.90 5.86 2 29 12 Mathematics 40 14.34 4.66 2 36 13 Physics 40 13.24 5.86 1 38 14 Biology 40 19.00 4.58 5 39 15 Chemistry 40 22.33 4.91 8 38 16 Economics 40 12.63 4.14 1 33 17 Sociology 40 19.09 4.93 1 30 18 Geography 40 19.43 4.88 3 34 19 Art 40 18.44 4.50 2 31 20 Special Need Education 40 18.38 4.43 2 29 Sources: This table is from the Center for Education Evaluation - Balitbang, 2004. Table 1.4 shows the results of the national civil service examinations that were taken in 2004. At that time, there were about 1 million applicants competing for 64,000 positions as civil service teachers. After the reforms of 1990, primary school teachers were required to have at least a 2-year post secondary diploma (D2); junior secondary school teachers to have at least a 3-year post secondary diploma (D3); and senior secondary school teachers to have at least a 4-year post secondary diploma (D4/S1). Prior to this, teacher training was conducted by institutions such as SPG (Sekolah Pendidikan Guru, a senior vocational secondary school specializing in teacher training) of through two year diploma programs. Most of the institutions offering this training did not meet the standard set by IKIP (later LPTK) and graduates usually did not meet minimum standards of competency. In a later section, the impact of decentralization on the process of teacher training programs and competency will be discussed. Thus, the low quality of teacher candidates can be attributed to the weaknesses of the national teacher training system. Teachers with lower ability often lack either the ability or the motivation to upgrade their skills and qualifications. As a consequence, such teachers face difficulty in keeping abreast of the rapid development of knowledge in science and technology and other subjects. Again, this failure to update skills and qualifications will have an adverse effect on teaching quality and ultimately on student learning outcomes. 3. Teacher salaries In the period between Independence in 1945 until the early 1970s, the teaching profession was regarded as highly prestigious. In this period, only high-performing students were selected for entry into teacher training programs. The top graduates of the primary schools received a government scholarship to continue to secondary school (Sekolah Guru B, abbreviated to SGB). At the same time the top graduates from the junior secondary schools would receive a government scholarship to continue to upper 9 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia secondary school (Sekolah Guru A, abbreviated to SGA). These graduates from the SGB and SGA programs were then directly appointed as primary school teachers. Similar B1 and B2 programs were structured to educate top graduates from the upper secondary schools to become high school teachers. However, the quality of the teachers began to decline with the expansion of the primary school (SD Inpres) program. In order to meet the surge in demand for teachers created by the rapid increase in the number of primary schools, quality was sacrificed for quantity. In general, recruitment into these programs became less selective and the average ability of teachers fell. Consequently, the prestige of teachers also fell. Teachers' salaries have declined in real terms when compared to national average salaries in inverse proportion to the number of teachers inducted into the profession and there has been less incentive for the brighter students to enter the teaching service (See Table 1.5). Figure 1.1 Numbers of Primary School Teachers Appointed, 1974-1998 160,000 141,324 140,000 121,100 120,000 103,350 100,000 91,050 80,000 75,000 60,000 60,000 58,840 60,000 50,000 50,000 50,000 40,000 21,000 18,000 16,800 14,000 20,000 10,000 10,000 10,1508,000 8,000 5,160 4,100 4,100 5,000 17,050 0 1974/1975 1975/1976 1976/1977 1977/1978 1978/1979 1979/1980 1980/1981 1981/1982 1982/1983 1983/1984 1984/1985 1985/1986 1986/1987 1987/1988 1988/1989 1989/1990 1990/1991 1991/1992 1992/1993 1993/1994 1994/1995 1995/1996 1996/1997 1997/1998 1998/1999 Source: MONE, 2005. Table 1.5 Comparison of Teacher Salaries across Countries by Level of Education (in US Dollars) Country Year Primary School Junior Secondary Senior Secondary School School Starting Top Starting Top Starting Top Salary Salary Salary Salary Salary Salary Argentina 2004 9499 13693 9734 14134 9734 14134 Chile 2005 10922 17500 10922 17500 10922 18321 India 2002/03 11507 17811 13975 22747 16977 26849 Indonesia 2004/05 2733 3941 2913 4281 3373 4756 Malaysia 2004 8389 18798 11680 31028 11680 31028 Paraguay 2004 7038 7038 11109 11109 11109 11109 Philippines 2004/05 9060 10770 9060 10770 9060 10770 Sri Lanka 2005 5006 7964 5006 7964 6826 10239 Thailand 2004/05 5902 27662 5902 27662 5902 27662 Uruguay 2003 4035 5057 4035 5057 4237 5309 WEI average 2005 7696 13957 8611 15808 9796 16649 OECD average 2005 27723 45666 29772 48983 31154 51879 Source: World Education Indicators 2007, Table 5.h.i., p. 144. 10 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia AccordingtoWorldEducationIndicators,2007,teachersinIndonesiaaresignificantlyunderpaidcompared to their international counterparts. The salary levels shown are based on purchasing power parity, which takes into account the cost of living in each respective country. Low teachers' salaries have been caused by a combination of the oversupply of teachers and limited government funding. According to MONE (2008) statistics, of the 2.78 million teachers in Indonesia, more than 50 percent of teachers (approximately 1.5 million) are civil servants. Expenditure on salaries has put heavy pressure on the government's annual budget. In 2008, of a total educational budget of 154.2 trillion IDR, almost 62 trillion IDR (40 percent) was spent on such expenditure (see Table 1.6). This expenditure is expected to increase to IDR 83 trillion in the 2009 State Budget, with the 2009 Education Budget set to reach 207 trillion IDR in order to reach the level of 20 percent of the total State Budget target mandated by the Constitution. Table 1.6 Comparison of 2008 And 2009 State Budget in Trillion IDR 2008 State Budget 2009 State Budget Education budget 154.2 207.4 - Salary 61.7 (40%) 83 (40%) - Non Salary 92.5(60%) 124.4 (60%) Total national Budget 989.5 1,037 Source: Ministry of Finance 2009 Note a: Number in brackets is percentage from total education budget Note b: 2009 State Budget assumes Indonesian Crude Price (ICP) equal to 100 USD Del Granado et al (2007) argue convincingly that the oversupply of teachers has resulted in chronic inefficiency in educational sector spending. In turn, they identify the national teacher recruitment system as being largely to blame for causing this oversupply. Under the national system, schools and districts have a strong incentive to claim a shortage of teachers in order to gain additional general allocation funds (DAU) from the central government. Given this, del Granado et al (2007, p. 19) report that approximately 40% of schools that claimed to have teacher shortages actually had an oversupply. The hiring policy that entitles teacher to be a civil servant has also contributed to the oversupply of teachers. Becoming a teacher, in this case, can be perceived as a stepping stone to obtaining civil servant status, with many individuals attracted by the prestige and security attached to such status.Table 7 shows teachers'salaries relationship to their civil service status. It should be noted that a substantial proportion of contract teachers received far lower salaries than their counterparts with civil servant status. Table 1.7 Gross Salary of Teachers According to their Civil Service Status Functional Incentive (related to the implementation Act 14/2005) Level of Average base Teacher salary 2006 Receive 2007 Receive 2008 Receive II 1,299,550 186,000 1,485,550 286,000 1,585,550 436,000 1,735,550 III 1,590,150 227,000 1,817,150 327,000 1,917,150 477,000 2,067,150 IV 1,876,800 289,000 2,165,800 389,000 2,265,800 489,000 2,365,800 Source: MONE 2008 Supriadi and Hoogenboom (2004) argue that low teachers'salaries have contributed significantly to the decline in status of the profession5. Given their low salaries, teachers are often forced to find part-time 5 Supriadi and Hoogenboom, Teachers in Indonesia: Their Education, Training, and Struggle since Colonial Era until the Reformation Era, 2004, Chapter 3, pp. 39-46. 11 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia jobs to supplement their incomes. These part-time jobs are often in low status occupations, such as motorcycle driver, tricycle (becak) driver, street vendor, etc6. Also, the need to seek extra income causes some teachers to neglect their teaching obligations. The high rate of teacher absenteeism demonstrates this phenomenon. Table 1.8 Primary Teacher Absence Rate in Public Schools 2002-2003 Country Absence rate Peru 11 Ecuador 14 Papua New Guinea 15 Bangladesh 16 Zambia 17 Indonesia 19 India 25 Uganda 27 Source: Chaudhury et al. (2004), cited in del Granado et al. (2007), p. 20. Based on a country-wide study conducted by Chaudhury, et. al. (2004), covering 147 public and private schools in 10 districts in Indonesia, the likelihood of Indonesian teachers being absent from the classroom is higher than for their counterparts in five countries out of eight surveyed. In Indonesia, the level of teacher absenteeism in primary schools is 19 percent (see Table 1.8). Only India and Uganda have higher teacher rates, at 25 and 27 percent respectively. Del Granado et al. (2007, p. 20) support these figures, claiming that one in every five teachers in Indonesia is absent at any given point in time. Thus, the Indonesian teaching profession is characterized by its low quality and levels of competence, the low level of prestige attached to it, and a high rate of absenteeism. Unfortunately, this remains unchanged even after a decade of reform in the education sector. There are several means for potentially improving the quality, competency and welfare of teachers, most of which involve increasing salaries. A study by the Central Independent Monitoring Unit (CIMU 2000) has listed low teachers'salaries as the main cause for the low quality of education.The question, however, is to ensure that any increase in teachers'salaries will really change teachers'professional behavior. 4. Teacher workload A study by the World Bank in 2005 found that teacher workloads vary across school levels and regions. The total percentage of teachers whose teaching workload is below the set minimum of 18 hours per week is 23 percent for primary schools and 44 percent for junior secondary schools (see Table 1.9 and Table 1.10). Average workloads are higher for primary school teachers than for junior secondary school teachers (24.7 hours compared to 17.3 hours). From Table 1.9, it can be seen that rural areas have the largest proportion of teachers whose teaching workload is below the minimum (28 percent). On the other hand, remote areas have the smallest proportion of teachers who teach below the minimum hours (13 percent). At the same time, remote areas have the highest average teaching workloads (29 hours). This may indicate an undersupply of teachers in remote areas and oversupply of teachers in both rural and urban areas. 6 See Academic paper of Teacher Law and Explanation of Draft of Teacher Law, p. 7. 12 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia Table 1.9 Primary Schools: Average Hours and Percentage of Teachers Below Minimum Hours Percentage Teachers Average Hours below 18 Hours Urban 24.9 18 Rural 23.9 28 Remote 29.0 13 Total 24.7 23 Source: World Bank, Teacher Employment and Deployment Survey, unpublished report, 2005. In contrast to primary schools, teachers in junior secondary schools in remote areas work fewer hours than those in urban and rural areas. This may indicate a lower number of junior secondary students in remote areas (see Table 1.10). Table 1.10 Junior Secondary Schools: Average Hours and Percentage of Teachers Below Minimum Hours Percentage Teachers Average Hours with teaching workload less than 18 Hours Urban 18.0 37 Rural 16.4 53 Remote 15.9 59 Total 17.3 44 Source: World Bank, Teacher Employment and Deployment Survey, unpublished report, 2005. 5. Teacher management after decentralization Indonesia's decision to decentralize its system of governance in 2000 has transformed the nature and quality of the delivery of all public services, including education. The arrangements governing the decentralization of the education system is outlined Education Law 20/2003. According to this law, the principle responsibilities, authority, and resources for the delivery of education have been transferred to lower levels of government, with significant decision-making power being transferred to schools themselves. At the time of decentralization, large numbers of civil servants who up until then had been employed by central line agencies, such as the former Department of Education and Culture, were reassigned to district and provincial education units, with corresponding transfers of budget allocations to cover their salaries (through the general allocation fund, or DAU). A freeze on civil service recruitment (including teachers) due to budgetary constraint has been in place ever since. At that time, the government began to review various teacher management systems, especially those relating to performance standards, recruitment and deployment. However, because of ambiguities in the decentralization law and regulations regarding the assignment of some key teacher management functions, there is still some overlap and duplication between the districts and those agencies which were previously responsible for carrying out these functions in the pre-decentralization era. Under the decentralization laws, the district government is responsible for employing all public school teachers except those in madrasah schools. This includes all the civil service teachers (PNS) in public and private schools who were previously employed by the central government. Salaries for public teachers are transferred to the districts'budgets (APBD) as part of their block grant (DAU) from the central government. 13 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia The salary levels and promotional and reward systems for civil servants are still set centrally, although many districts provide teachers within their jurisdiction with supplementary benefits and incentives. There is still some uncertainty as to whether or not district governments can reduce the size of the teaching force by dismissing civil service teachers under their control.There is no clear mechanism by which schools and districts can advertise teaching vacancies beyond district boundaries to recruit teachers who may be best suited to a particular school. Although district governments are responsible for hiring teachers and paying their salaries, some ambiguities remain in the system. For instance, religious school (madrasah) teachers who are civil servants are still managed by the Ministry of Religious Affairs (MORA) which, unlike the Ministry of National Education (MONE), has not been decentralized. Districts, through the Ministry of Home Affairs (MOHA), have always been responsible for deploying teachers, but with the establishment of school committees and education boards as advisory bodies, schools and districts may take on a bigger role in selecting and appointing teachers. Teacher pre-service training remains the function of universities and teacher training institutes that are accredited by the National Board of Accreditation for Higher Education (BAN-PT), an independent body of MONE's Directorate of Higher Education (Dikti). This also applies to programs for upgrading teachers' qualifications and to further education courses for teachers. There is, however, an ambiguity regarding the assignment of responsibility for the continuing professional development of teachers. Most school- based and cluster-based professional development activities carried out in Indonesia were supported in the past by projects funded by donors or by the MONE. Now, districts are responsible for providing in­ service training and professional support activities, but few have the resources or the motivation to do so. There is a need to clarify the responsibility of the district administrations beyond recruiting new teachers, paying salary and fulfilling other administrative tasks. District administrations need to assume a greater role in training and managing the quality of teachers. Provincial teacher training centers (Balai Pelatihan Guru and Pusat Peningkatan dan Pelatihan Guru) are de-concentrated branches of MONE and, as such, are expected to provide both quality assurance and in-service teacher education support to the districts. 14 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia Table 1.11 Teacher Management Functions for Public Schools (except Madrasahs) before and after the Decentralization Era Type of management Decision maker prior to decentralization Decision maker after function decentralization Teacher employment Public teachers: By central authority de-concentrated to Public teachers: By local and deployment, provincial government. The process is governed by civil government under national including: service regulations and uses credit point system civil service guidelines 1. Selection 2. Appointment Contract teachers: By centrally funded projects, not Contract teachers: 3. Deployment subject to civil service regulation Unchanged 4. Transfer 5. Promotion Permanent teachers: By private foundations, not subject Permanent teachers: 6. Salary Scales to civil service regulation Unchanged 7. Dismissal Temporary teachers: By schools, not subject to civil Temporary teachers: service regulation Unchanged Teacher performance, Primary public teachers: By MONE and monitored by Primary public teachers: By including: district circuit inspectors based in sub districts districts and schools 1. Standards setting Primary contract teachers: By centrally funded projects Primary contract teachers: 2. Performance Unchanged monitoring Primary permanent teachers: By district circuit inspectors 3. Sanctions and based in sub-districts, foundations and foundation Primary permanent remediation inspectors teachers: Unchanged Primary temporary teachers: By schools Primary temporary teachers: Unchanged Junior secondary public teachers: By MONE and monitored by national circuit inspectors working out of Junior secondary public the provincial MONE offices teachers: By districts Junior secondary contract teachers: By centrally funded Junior secondary contract projects monitored by projects and circuit inspectors teachers: Unchanged Junior secondary permanent teachers: By district circuit Junior secondary inspectors based in sub-districts and foundations permanent teachers: Unchanged Junior secondary temporary teachers: By schools Junior secondary temporary teachers: Unchanged Teacher professional Public teachers: By centrally accredited teacher training Public teachers: Unchanged development, including: institutions, through public examinations, by individual 1. Initial opportunity through credit system preparation Contract teachers: 2. Induction Contract teachers: By centrally accredited teacher Unchanged 3. Continued training institutions, through public examinations, by professional individual opportunity through project Permanent teachers: development Permanent teachers: By private foundations, not subject Unchanged to civil service regulation Temporary teachers: Temporary teachers: By schools, not subject to civil Unchanged service regulation Source: World Bank, 2004, Education in Indonesia: Managing the transition to decentralization, pp. 134-135. 15 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 1 Current Status of Teachers in Indonesia Since decentralization, the district planning office has played a greater role in both preparing budget proposals and defending the allocation of resources. Currently, education initiatives often originate within district governments, under the leadership of the Bupati through the Bappeda. District planning offices examine ways to use resources more efficiently. Some districts have been merging several small schools into one and re-deploying school principals and teachers to understaffed schools based on more efficient student-teacher ratios. Furthermore, districts are taking the initiative to focus directly on teachers'classroom behavior in order to improve the quality of the education system, rather than relying solely on physical inputs such as school buildings. Therefore, teachers are beginning to become the focus for development. Districts are putting a higher priority on ensuring teachers have adequate skill levels. Unfortunately, district administrations often lack an understanding of the management of teacher quality, often lacking experience in organizing and structuring programs for such quality improvement. In view of this development, as intended, decentralization has the potential to increase the efficiency of the system and its responsiveness to the needs of its constituencies. Decentralization has also given the districts the freedom to innovate. In a large country like Indonesia, local conditions vary widely enough to make it rewarding and even necessary to experiment, and locally generated innovations can stimulate continuing improvements in education if a region can learn from the experiments carried out in other regions. However, decentralization also raises difficult issues. Decentralized education service delivery in Indonesia can still be characterized as transitional and slow, punctuated by bursts of progress as well as some setbacks due to the many inherently difficult aspects of the reform process. Like other countries that have decentralized their education system, Indonesia faces many implementation challenges. However, most of these challenges really stem from two fundamental problems--unclear, incomplete, and inappropriate assignment of governance and management functions, and a pervasive lack of the management and technical skills needed to operate a decentralized education system. The capacity of districts to efficiently utilize resources to achieve effective service delivery remains a challenge. Specifically, deficiencies in capacity in planning, budgeting, procurement, financial management and accountability practices have been a key bottleneck for achieving better sector outcome with minimal leakages at district level. A system to facilitate the participation of parents and their communities in supporting education service delivery and monitoring public fund utilization has yet to be established. For decentralization's potential to materialize in Indonesia, government commitment to the reform is necessary. However, this commitment is not sufficient in itself. Four key conditions have to be met: (i) a clear division of responsibilities and power amongst the different levels of government; (ii) real decision- making power and autonomy to local governments; (iii) greater voice of teachers and parents on how schools operate; and, (iv) effective accountability mechanisms, and adequate financial and technical resources that are consistent with educational goals. As these requirements are fulfilled, the management of schools and teachers at district level will become more effective in raising the quality of education. 16 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 2 Historical Context of Teacher Improvement 1. A shift to quality Around the world, there has been an increasing shift away from concern with access to a concern with quality in the educational systems of developing countries. If Indonesia is to keep up with global trends in this regard, it must actively campaign to improve the quality of its teachers, with the poor performance of Indonesian students attributed to the general inadequacies of its teachers. To address this issue, the government enacted the Teacher and Lecturer Law (The Law No. 14 Year 2005, hereafter called Teacher Law) in order to provide a much-needed incentive for teachers to improve their qualifications and professional skills. The rationale of the Teacher Law is to establish a good quality national teaching force, proficient in the four key competency domains, namely pedagogical, professional, personal and social. Arguably, the new policy is the culmination of several previous attempts to improve the quality of teachers as a means to improving the overall quality of education, following a number of preceding policies and strategies initiated to improve the quality and competency of teachers. These policies and strategies were established in response to the situation and dynamics of the education sector at particular points in time. This chapter provides an historical snapshot of a number of key initiatives taken prior to the teacher certification program. As the history of education in Indonesia in the Dutch colonial era, it is necessary to limit the period of analysis. Therefore, this chapter only covers the period after the independence7. 7 A more detailed history of teachers in Indonesia can be found in the publication of the Directorate of Educational Staff, Directorate of Primary and Secondary Education, Ministry of National Education, 2004, Teachers in Indonesia: Their Education, Training, and Struggle since Colonial Era until the Reformation era. 17 Chapter 2 Historical Context of Teacher Improvement 2. Teacher education before the reform era: Coping with the expansion of education As with other sectors of the education system, the teacher certification program is a matter of national policy, from design and content to institutional base. The national certification system for teachers in Indonesia since independence in 1945 has been simplified over time, often reacting to external events rather than in a planned and systemic manner. During the period between1951-1960, the rate of illiteracy in Indonesia was extremely high, with about 65 million people unable to read. This necessitated a government program to eradicate illiteracy. There was a shortage of teachers (both in terms of quantity and quality) to support the formal education system at that time. Moreover, continued population growth contributed to the need for an increased supply of teachers. Existing teacher training schools could only produce about 4,000 teachers per year. During this period, primary teachers qualified through the SGB (or Sekolah Guru B) program, and, later the SGA (or Sekolah Guru A) program, both similar to the Sekolah Menengah Bawah (SMB) and Sekolah Menengah Atas (SMA) programs. Furthermore, secondary school teachers were given a B1 (for junior secondary teachers) or a B2 (for senior secondary teachers) training program. These programs were later to become the basis for teacher training colleges called IKIP. The government initiated these crash programs for teachers' education in order to solve the teacher shortage. In the 1960s, the SGA teacher training school was transformed into Sekolah Pendidikan Guru (abbreviated to SPG), teacher education school, with the main duty of such schools being to prepare primary school teachers. The huge number of junior secondary school graduates entering SPG led to the foundation of private SPGs. In turn, this resulted in a surplus of primary school teachers. In the 1970s, due to the explosion of school aged population resulting from the high population growth in the 1960s, the government initiated an expansion of the number of primary schools known as the SD Inpres program. The graduates of SPG were employed in thousands of new primary schools. So the surplus of primary school teachers in the late 1960s has transformed into shortage of teachers in the 1970s. Teachers were recruited from as early as they finished their secondary schooling. As teacher recruitment became less selective, the quality of teachers has tended to fall. At same time, there was an acute shortage of secondary school subject-area teachers. This was compounded by the lack of an effective system for teacher placement. Many teachers refused to be posted in isolated or remote areas, and there was no sanction for refusal. The problem of quality in teacher education was related to efforts to improve the overall quality of national education Intheearly1970s,therewasachangeinthemanagementofthejuniorsecondaryschoolteachereducation system. Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Lanjutan Pertama (PGSLP) were transformed to become Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Menengah Tingkat Pertama (PGSMTP) with funding for such schools being allocated through the National Budget. In the second half of the 1970s, the PGSLP was integrated with IKIP/FKIP (the Institute Of Teacher Education And Educational Sciences/The Faculty Of Teacher Education And Educational Sciences) with the establishment of the `diploma 1' (D1) program. The goal was to produce as many teachers as needed to fulfill the demand created by the expanded junior secondary education system. In this context, IKIP had little opportunity to focus on issues of quality, with all resources dedicated to solving the problem of the teacher shortage. The second half of the 1980s was a period of trial and error, during which an appropriate format for teacher education was sought, with a series of crash courses in specific fields where shortages were identified and 18 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 2 Historical Context of Teacher Improvement equivalency programs for primary school teachers. As the population grew and the economy developed, the demand for universal quality education increased. Beforethe1989EducationLawwasenacted,primaryschoolteachersweregraduatesofteachereducation schools SPG. SPG provided a three-year primary teacher training program following completion of junior secondary education. Teachers in junior secondary schools were mostly graduates of teacher education colleges, PGSMTP, with qualifications equivalent to the Diploma 1 (D1) teacher training provided by the institutes and faculties of teacher education (IKIP/FKIP). The teachers of senior secondary schools were graduates of PendidikanGuruSekolahLanjutanAtas (PGSLA), with qualifications equivalent to the Diploma 2 (D2) teacher training. The government enacted the 1989 Education Law in order to improve the quality of education in Indonesia. The Law mandated increased qualifications for teachers at all educational levels. The Law required mandated new standards for primary school teachers, with the educational level increased from secondary education level to higher education level, with a two-year diploma course (D2 program) following senior secondary education. Parallel with this policy, the government launched a national in- service training program for primary school teachers throughout the country, making use of the Open University system. Its objective was to train existing teachers to qualify for D2 equivalency. In addition, the 1989 education reforms required junior secondary school teachers to have at least D3 education and senior secondary school teachers to have at least D4/S1 education. The 1989 reform of primary teacher education levels raised the required qualification to the D2 level and wasintendedtoimprovethequalityofprimaryschooleducation. However,theteachertraininginstitutions at that time (IKIP) had little experience in primary teacher education. The sudden implementation of the reform without an overall plan for restructuring IKIP meant that the new D2 programs were not well integrated into the overall IKIP structure. The large scale attempt to integrate these programs did not initially assist the IKIP itself, nor did it reach the most remote areas of the country, where most teachers were graduates of SPGs. Initially, the government provided scholarships for the D2 program and these teachers graduates were appointed directly to schools. However, when the scholarship program was phased out, many non-scholarship graduates of the IKIP could no longer be guaranteed an appointment as a teacher. This resulted in thousands of unemployed D2 graduates, despite a shortage of nearly 600,000 teachers in 1989/90. Table 2.1 The Evolution of Pre Service Teacher Education Institutions since Independence Level of education 1945-1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s Primary school SGB, SGA SPG SPG D2 PGSD/IKIP STKIP Junior secondary school B1/B2 PGSLP PGSLP IKIP/FKIP D1/D2/D3 IKIP/STKIP D3/S1 IKIP/STKIP/FKIP Senior secondary school PTPG/IKIP/FKIP PGSLTA, IKIP/FKIP D3/S1 IKIP/FKIP S1 IKIP/FKIP Source: Reforming Teachers towards Educational Equality and Quality, 2007, MONE 3. Emergence of the LPTK The teacher training institutions (Lembaga Pendidikan Tenaga Kependidikan [LPTK]) are the current teacher training agencies in Indonesia. There are several organizational forms of LPTK, including Faculty of Teacher Education and Educational Sciences (FKIP) within a university, School of Higher Learning of Teacher Education and Educational Sciences (STKIP), and Institutes forTeacher Education and Educational 19 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 2 Historical Context of Teacher Improvement Sciences (IKIP). In Indonesia, the quality of education at the various school levels is closely related to the capacity of LPTK to produce quality teachers. Established in the 1950s, the IKIPs/FKIPs originated from the B1 and B2 teacher training programs. Whilst these programs had produced good teachers from the top graduates of high schools, in recent years these institutions have not always been able to provide the quality teachers required. With a decline over recent years in the status of education as a choice for its graduates, most IKIP/FKIPs have found difficulty in producing teachers who are capable and self-motivated. Inadequate preparation of teacher candidates hampers improvements in the quality of teacher education. As in other developing countries, teacher education is often a path for young rural men to begin the move up and out of lives of poverty. Young women also come from this background, but in addition, urban and middle class women are attracted to teaching as a socially acceptable career. LPTKs in urban centers often receive applicants with poorer academic qualifications than is the case in provincial LPTKs. The D2 program would be the last choice for students, with D3 and S1 programs attracting the more capable students. However, field other than education at universities attract the most academically able. With the change in training requirements, there was a shift in the responsibility of management of teacher education from the Directorate General for Primary and Secondary Education to the Directorate General for Higher Education and the transformation of 258 teacher training secondary schools into either general secondary schools (135 schools) or branches of tertiary-level teacher training institutes (123 schools). Currently, the government has assigned the LPTKs the institutional responsibility for preparing sufficient numbers of teachers to fulfill national education policy targets and of advancing professional knowledge and skills in the field of education through research and experimentation, curriculum improvement and professional development. Teacher training institutions are intended to be cost efficient and effective in producing graduates with appropriate knowledge and skills. However, the unemployment rate of LPTK graduates shows that despite hiring and placement in accordance with government policy, graduates continue to experience high rates of unemployment. In 1996, the Director General for Higher Education announced that the annual entrance test for the D2 program would not be held that year. In the early years of the D2 program (1991-93) 7,000 students were admitted per year nationwide. This number was reduced over the following two years because, despite calculations, not all could be hired. In many areas SPG graduates were still being hired, contrary to government policy. In 1996 nearly 23,000 D2 graduates remained unemployed. Recruitment had been based on the assumption that 10,000-14,000 teachers would be needed annually to replace retirees. Thus, the government initially trained 7,000 students per year. Nearly all of the first year's graduates were hired. However, regions began hiring SPG graduates, despite national policy. As a result, intake was reduced to 5,000 in 1995 and 2,500 in 1996. Of this number 1200 were recruited locally by the LPTK without testing and the remaining 1300 consisted of SPG graduates already teaching as contract teachers. The number of teachers produced by LPTK is relatively small compared to the national demand for teachers. The number of graduates is also small compared to the number of teachers retiring, dying or leaving every year. Based on statistics from the National Civil Servant Bureau, more than one million teachers will retire within 15 years time (see Table 2.2). 20 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 2 Historical Context of Teacher Improvement Table 2.2 Number of Teachers by Type of Educational Level and Age Distribution, 2005 Age group Type of school teacher Kinder Primary Junior SS Junior Voc Senior SS Senior Voc Special school Total 21 - 25 7 284 41 34 6 372 26 - 30 26 8,810 2,580 24 1,310 356 6 13,112 31 - 35 1,544 65,912 29,608 368 10,036 2,946 102 110,516 36 - 40 8,440 194,397 69,291 917 27,932 10,075 703 311,755 41 - 45 10,452 314,910 83,972 818 32,191 13,034 888 456,265 46 - 50 4,001 193,027 41,088 465 21,591 8,336 382 268,890 51 - 56 3,334 173,127 26,105 297 10,480 4,783 187 218,313 57 - 60 1,123 56,710 15,583 279 4,627 3,517 62 81,901 Total 28,927 1,007,177 268,268 3,168 108,201 43,053 2,330 1,461,124 Source: National Civil Servant Bureau (BKN) Table 2.2 shows than 1,025,369 teachers will retire in less than two decades. More than 70 percent of these teachers are primary school teachers. This projection demonstrates the need to train new teachers to replace the retiring teachers. However, assuming the capacity of LPTKs is to produce approximately 90,000 new teachers annually (without considering quality), there will be a surplus of teachers in the next twenty years. This projection will require LPTK to anticipate not only the number of graduates, but also the quality in the future. Another important challenge faced by LPTK is that there are approximately 1.7 million teachers who need to upgrade their academic qualifications to S1/D4. More than half this number are primary school teachers who work in remote areas with little access to higher education. At the same time, the number of accredited teacher training institutions (LPTK) is limited. This problem constrains the capacity to supply good quality teachers in the future. For LPTK, there are both challenges and opportunities arising from the need to fulfill the future demand for teachers at all educational levels. As far as the quality of teacher education is concerned, the LPTK must meet the challenge of becoming an institution responsive to the needs of society by producing a larger number of quality teachers. There is a constant pressure to restructure the LPTK program according to need. For example, primary teacher training must now be increased from two to four years of training in order to meet the requirements of the Teacher Law. The LPTK's program of studies thus needs to be more flexible and adapted to current needs.The other challenge is to have a regular assessment of the need for teachers and other teaching workers, based upon demands in the field. If this is achieved, the LPTK will become a well integrated element of the educational system. For the purposes of upgrading teachers'academic qualifications, LPTKs can conduct programs through a number of alternative means.The full-time face-to-face program is the normal mode of study for full-time pre-service teachers. Mature-aged students undertaking this mode will be required to leave their jobs temporarily. They will attend both the academic and professional education strands until they are eligible for the certification exam. Part-time face-to-face programs are intended for teachers who live close to the university and are unable to leave their teaching post. They will attend the program during vacations and in their spare time. Distance learning programs have traditionally been the province of the Open University (Universitas Terbuka). However, in recent years a consortium of LPTK has developed a distance learning course now available for primary teachers to upgrade qualifications to SI from D3. If successful, this mode of delivery will be expanded. 21 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 2 Historical Context of Teacher Improvement In parallel to the increasing demand for better quality graduates, some state IKIPs have been transformed into universities in order to produce teachers of higher quality. The change from IKIP to university was intended to support the improvement of the academic qualifications of teachers for all levels of formal schooling, from kindergarten to senior secondary schools and special schools, up to the S1/D4 certificate. One example of this development is the conversion of IKIP Yogyakarta to Yogyakarta State University (UNY). 4. Yogyakarta State University: An example of transition from IKIP to University Yogyakarta State University (YSU) is a state university under the Department of National Education, that emerged from the transformation of IKIP Yogyakarta, which was founded in May 1964. IKIPYogyakarta resulted from a merger regulated by a Presidential Decree of two educational institutions: the Faculty of Education of Gadjah Mada University and the Teacher Education Institute. Following this, a Decree of the Minister of Higher Education and Science was issued in May 1963, which provided the basis for the establishment of IKIP Jakarta, IKIP Bandung, IKIP Yogyakarta, and IKIP Malang. The conversion of IKIP Yogyakarta into a university was based on a number of considerations. Amongst others, the organizational structure of the IKIP was too limited to provide adequate academic courses and practical experience. In addition, the increasing number of graduates from IKIP Yogyakarta gaining entry to the non-teaching job market and the need for skilled human resources in other areas provided an impetus for the conversion of IKIP Yogyakarta into a university with a wider selection of courses. The first stage of the conversion of IKIP Yogyakarta into a university began when the Director-General of Higher Education issued a decree in June 1996 to formalize the establishment of IKIPYogyakarta, together with three other institutes, IKIP Medan, IKIP Padang, and IKIP Malang, as universities. The Decree of the Director General of Higher Education in August 1997 regulated the establishment of 12 non-educational study programs at S1 and D3 levels in the Faculty of Languages and Arts Education, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences Education, and Faculty of Engineering and Vocational Education at IKIP Yogyakarta. The transformation of IKIP Yogyakarta into YSU was implemented in two stages. The first stage was the mandatedextension,whichcommencedin1997withtherecruitmentofnewstudentsforstudyprograms in areas other than education in certain faculties. The second stage was implemented in 1999/2000 with the transformation of these newly established study programs in areas other than education being transformed into faculties. In August 1999, the Indonesian President officially promulgated the establishment of Yogyakarta State University. To strengthen the teaching system atYSU, the Minister of Culture and Education determined a system under which YSU had six faculties, as follows: 1) the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, (previously the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science Education); 2) the Faculty of Engineering, (previously the Faculty of Engineering and Vocational Education); 3) the Faculty of Educational Sciences; 4) the Faculty Languages and Arts, (previously the Faculty of Language and Art Education); 5) the Faculty of Social Sciences, (previously the Faculty of Social Science Education), which has of 2006 become the Faculty of Social Sciences and Economics); 6) Faculty of Sports Sciences, (previously the Faculty of Sport Science Education). 22 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 2 Historical Context of Teacher Improvement 5. The origin of school cluster based in-service training The formation of school clusters in Indonesia originated in 1979 with the Cianjur Project. This project was supported by the British Council and University of London, in conjunction with the Director General of Primary and Secondary Education. It used the concept of clustering schools and encouraging the formation of groups of teachers to work on in-service training and self-improvement activities. The intention was to change classroom methodologies and teacher classroom behavior by providing a forum for teachers to meet and exchange good practice. Teacher working groups can be found throughout Indonesia. There are approximately 20,0008 primary school teacher working groups known as KKG (Kelompok Kerja Guru). At the secondary level, the working groups are known as MGMP (MusyawarahGuruMataPelajaran) and are established on the basis of subject area. Mathematics, natural science, social science, Indonesian language and English language are the most common, but there are also small numbers in other subject areas such as Art, Spanish, and other minor subjects. Approximately 15,0009 groups are in existence. In 1993, the Ministry of National Education developed a policy10 on the formation of working groups at the primary level and produced a Manual for Cluster-Based Professional Development of Primary School Teachers. This specified the administrative structure of working groups and the method for grouping schools. Although variations have developed over time, the administrative structures and grouping of schools are typically still found in today's active working groups. The teacher working group (KKG and MGMP) concept recognizes that teachers can often help each other to improve their professional skills by sharing ideas and methodologies. By collaborating together and focusing on practical rather than theoretical knowledge, they can often gain the expertise they require. Grass-roots support and seeking to relate their work to the local context is critical for teachers and enables them to have on-going consultations and discussions during the progress of programs. This is a distinctive form of professional development that is often more effective than traditional forms of off- site in-service courses conducted at the district or provincial level. It is also more sustainable in situations where resources are limited. The effectiveness of the groups depends in large part on the expertise and knowledge of its members or, where expertise is lacking, in the ability to bring in experts from outside. Working group meetings tend to have a topic or theme, such as curriculum development, with the working group organizing committee having the task of identifying leaders for these meetings. Leaders might include expert teachers, school supervisors, head teachers, university professors, trainers from LPMP/P4TK and experts from foundations or the private sector. Training support can be given to coordinators of the working groups through the provincial teacher training agencies (LPMP/P4TK). Financial support varies significantly. Teacher working groups have received support through various projects over the years, including donor or government projects, direct support from the district and support from civil society. However, because of decentralization, support has been sporadic and unevenly distributed. For areas that did not receive direct support, the onus was on working group members to keep the activities alive. Whilst some succeeded, others have lapsed. Those that did survive often did so because of a strong leader, motivated teachers and ingenuity in meeting financial needs. In other areas, working groups have never taken root. 8 Estimate received from Balitbang. An estimate using assumption of average KKG being made up of 8 schools shows a total of 20,847 (167,000/8=20,847) 9 MGMP tend to be made up of approximately 10 schools. 10 Policy Number 079/C/Kep/I/93 23 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 2 Historical Context of Teacher Improvement Whilst the working group model has had a degree of success as a method of improving the quality of teachers through localized professional development activities, their limitations have reduced their effectiveness. Nevertheless, where these working groups exist they can provide a useful forum for teachers to meet regularly to discuss their difficulties and to share successful strategies. This is often the only form of in-service training available to them. It is the intention of the BERMUTU program to adopt strategies to strengthen and extend the working group structure in order to deliver modular instruction packages to improve the knowledge and skill of teachers at the local level. Once the value of these groups has been proved to local districts, principals and teachers, the model will become a self-sustained professional development mechanism. 6. Changes brought by the Teacher Law As shown above, the teacher certification program is a culmination of several attempts to improve teacher quality. Learning from past experiences, the government designed the new program to tackle various aspects for improvement, including competency, academic qualification, certification, welfare, and status and reward systems for teachers. Given the complexity of teachers'problems in Indonesia, the key challenge is how to implement suitable policy and strategy in line with the context of the environment. Prior to the enactment of theTeacher Law, attempts to improve the quality of the teaching service tended to be piecemeal and ineffective.TheTeacher Law has been the most comprehensive strategy yet adopted for overall teacher quality improvement. Its design has directed a significant number of interrelated strategies and activities towards teacher quality improvement. Its chance of success is therefore greater than in the past. The Teacher Law mandates a package of reforms to improve teacher quality and applies these equitably to the whole teaching service. This is the first time such a comprehensive and unified strategy has been adopted. Essentially, the teacher certification program attempts to improve on the previous teaching license program. According to the Teacher Law, teachers are required to meet two conditions. First, all teachers are required to have a minimum academic qualification of at least four years of post-secondary education (S1 or D4). Second, having achieved this academic qualification, in-service teachers have to pass a portfolio test. Pre-service teachers have to undertake one or two semesters of professional training in order to obtain training credits and pass a certification examination before they can enter the teaching profession. To provide sufficient incentive for teachers to comply with the Law, certified teachers will receive the professional allowance, which will essentially double their base salary as a civil servant. In addition to that, certified teachers, who are assigned to remote or disadvantaged areas, will receive a special allowance which is also equal to their base salary. Therefore, certified teachers who are deployed in a remote and disadvantage areas, can earn up to three times the salary of their non-certified counterparts. It is important, however, to ensure that the monetary incentive really improves teacher classroom performance. It is also important to complement this monetary incentive with other incentives in order to ensure that there will be sustained professional development among teachers. The strategy for improving teacher quality through teacher certification links competence gained through additional training to monetary reward. Other countries adopt different strategies. For example, in Chile, the strategy has been to encourage teachers to improve their quality and teaching effort by rewarding 24 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 2 Historical Context of Teacher Improvement them (both teachers and schools) on the basis of improved students'performance. In China, competition is encouraged in the new teacher management system. Through competition, the best teachers will be recruited and distributed to the most suitable positions. In this sense, the education sector follows the Chinese market economy by letting the competition distribute the scarce resources, in this case, qualified teachers. For China, it took nearly 30 years of development to establish a relatively complete teachers'qualification system11. In the process, the role of central government was crucial in mandating and implementing the Education Law. In China, since enactment of the Teachers Law in 1993, educational backgrounds are no longer the top priority. Instead teachers'educational techniques and general knowledge are considered to be more important. Teacher management system in China is supported by incentive systems. These incentive systems can be grouped into two types: honorary and reputational incentives, and financial incentives. In the 1980s, the Chinese government restored the badly damaged reputation of teachers' caused by the Cultural Revolution. In addition, since then, the Teachers'Festival has been established and outstanding teachers have been publicly acknowledged and fated. Besides the reputational incentives, financial incentives are provided to cover the housing and salary needs of teachers. However, the main financial incentive comes from salary reform, in which the level of salaries is determined according to a teacher's working experience, majors and positions. In this arrangement, teachers'salaries may reflect their personal ability and contributions. However, to sustain teachers'quality improvement, the Monetary reward has to be complemented with other related policy considerations including: (a) provision for progression over certain barriers to be linked to performance on agreed competencies; (b) provision for increased promotion opportunities to be linked to performance on agreed competencies; (c) ongoing post-certification professional development; (d) fostering the development of professional associations among teachers; and, (e) greater involvement of accredited institutions for both pre- and in-service training. These initiatives can be more productive if they are linked with a more equitable distribution of teachers and an increase in the supply of quality inputs to schools. A survey by the World Bank in 2005 found that the student teacher ratio (STR) at the national level is quite low compared to international standards. This limited survey showed the STR as 19 for primary schools and 15.6 for junior secondary schools. This compares to an average STR in Asia-Pacific countries of 31 for primary schools and 25 for junior secondary schools. More recent figures (2008) available from MONE's teacher and student data unit12 indicate an STR of 16.82 for primary schools and 13.40 for junior secondary schools. At the same time, the workload of teachers is low. The World Bank study on district level data reveals that almost 50% of primary teachers have a workload of less than the minimum 18 hours per week. Among junior secondary teachers, about 45% have a teaching workload of less than 18 hours. Given the low STR and low workload of teachers, one may conclude that there is an excess staffing of teachers in both primary and junior secondary schools in Indonesia. 11 World Bank in cooperation with Institution of Education, Tsinghua University, The Current Situation and Management System of Teaching Force in China, 2008. 12 This calculation draws on data available through the NUPTK system (Nomor Unik Pendidik and Tenaga Kependidikan) or unique number for teachers and teaching personnel, and the NISN system (Nomor Induk Siswa Nasional) or national main number for each student. 25 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 2 Historical Context of Teacher Improvement Reducing the excessive teaching staff may be necessary in order to reduce the cost burden of the educational budget. Teacher salaries and related costs currently account for some 75 percent of the budget. Therefore, more efficient management of teacher numbers could free-up significant levels of funding which could be directed to support quality inputs. However, such downsizing of the teaching force will take time. Another important issue regarding the teacher certification program is ensuring the effectiveness (in time of target and timing) and the sustainability of the program. Given the substantial financial resources spent on the teachers' certification program, it is crucial to ensure that these resources are used in the most efficient and effective ways. Most importantly, the program has to ensure sustainable professional development of teachers Figure 2.1 Strategy for Accelerating Teacher Professionalism Government provides support facilities for teacher professionalism through upgrading teacher qualification, improving teacher competencies, certification, and increasing teacher welfare (i.e. salary, professional Incentive, functional incentive, and other fringe benefits) Other stakeholders supervise and control the process Teachers will regard life-long learning as their goal, the development of their own competencies as a challenge and good experience, and most of all they enjoy doing their duty well. Figure 2.1 shows the intended strategy for accelerating teacher professionalism. There are three key components for ensuring the rapid success of the process, these being government, teachers, and society (including parents). The government provides support for the improvement of teacher professionalism. This support involves upgrading teacher qualifications, improving teacher competencies, providing certification, and improving teacher welfare (salary, professional incentives, functional incentives, and other fringe benefits). Teachers grow to adopt life-long learning as their need, the self-development of their competencies as a challenge and good experience, and do their duty well. Finally, all stakeholders, including school principals, school supervisors, school committees, society and parents, need to play a supervisory and controlling role for the effectiveness of the project. The important role of the school principal and the school supervisor are discussed in detail in a later chapter. Other complementary programs are needed to support the teachers' certification mechanism. One such program is the development of a teachers' promotion system through career development. This will provide further incentives for teachers to improve their professional knowledge and skills. With this improvement in the quality of teacher management and skills, student achievement will also be improved. In addition to the monetary rewards, teachers will also gain a sense of achievement from the social recognition their profession will receive. 26 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 2 Historical Context of Teacher Improvement The sustainability of these training strategies and the incentives of the Teacher Law require secure long- term funding. It is important, therefore, for the government to provide a sustainable financing method for the program considering the current increasing budget deficit. Furthermore, sustainability also requires the program to have permanent institutions responsible for its implementation and operation. It is critical to ensure that the program remains on the national agenda, even under different political conditions. 27 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law 1. Selection of teachers and the place of certification The Teacher Law is an ambitious effort to upgrade the quality of Indonesian teachers. Its provisions are intended to improve the effectiveness of teachers and raise the learning outcomes of students. These quality enhancements are based on the teacher competencies defined by the Teacher Law and the standards defined by the National Education Standards Agency. The development and application of these competencies and standards will be discussed in this chapter. For certification to be achieved, teachers must meet the necessary academic requirements and be able to demonstrate the competencies defined in the Law. This process provides a type of quality control or sets a benchmark for students about to become practicing teachers as well as a target for the upgrade training of under-qualified teachers. Thus, a person who passes the teacher certification test marked by their university teacher training institute (LPTK) is considered to have the necessary capacity to educate, teach, train, guide, and assess students'learning. This assures the public that the teacher has the required knowledge and skills to meet the competency standards demanded by the education system and therefore necessary for the instruction of their children. Some argue that, conceptually, quality assurance procedures should be separated from the training agency. This means that the quality assurance procedure is carried out by the employing agency 29 Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law (school or district) rather than the training agency (university). This ensures that the employing agency is also satisfied with the practicing element of the teacher's work and that it meets the standards of the profession. In the longer term, the employing agency must also ensure that the originally well-qualified teacher maintains the knowledge and skills required to perform at the necessary standard. Education systems usually establish a rigorous process for the selection, training and employment of teachers. Some have described this as a pipeline13 and, in the diagram below, eight procedural steps can be identified along which teacher trainees in their respective education systems must progress to finally gain employment. Each step can be used by authorities to screen teachers as they move from the initial decision to train as a teacher to becoming a fully qualified professional.These steps provide the necessary filters used by the particular education system to assess the quality of trainee teachers and to monitor their progress as their competencies develop. At any stage, failure to pass the test will mean rejection from the teacher selection process. Different education systems use these filters in different ways. Some education systems place greater emphasis on certain of the elements rather than others. The following table provides a comparison of the differing emphases placed on each of these as filters in different countries: Table 3.1 Teacher Education Progression Pipeline: Summary of Filters Used14 THE TEACHER HIGH EMPHASIS MEDIUM LOW OR NO EMPHASIS PROGRESSION EMPHASIS "PIPELINE" Step 1. Entry to Teacher Japan, Korea, Netherlands, Australia, Hong Kong, England Education Program Singapore, INDONESIA United States (undergraduate or graduate) Step 2. Evaluation of England, Japan, Australia, Hong Kong, United States Practical Experiences Netherlands, INDONESIA Korea, Singapore Requirement Step 3. Exit from Teacher Australia, Korea, Singapore Netherlands, United England, Hong Kong, Japan Education Program States, INDONESIA Step 4. Certi cation England, United States, Australia Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, INDONESIA Netherlands, Singapore Step 5. Hiring Korea Japan, Singapore, Australia, England, Hong INDONESIA Kong, Netherlands, United States Step 6. Evaluation of Japan, Singapore, Australia, England, Hong Induction Period INDONESIA Kong, Korea, Netherlands, United States Step 7. Evaluation of Japan, Korea, Hong Kong Australia, England, Professional Development INDONESIA Netherlands, Singapore, United States Step 8. Evaluation of Hong Kong, Japan Australia, England, Korea, Singapore, United Probation Period (before Netherlands, States tenure) INDONESIA 13 Wang, A.H., Coleman, A.B., Coley, R.J., Phelps, R.P. and the Educational Testing Service, Preparing Teachers Around the World, A Policy Information Report, Princeton. New Jersey 2003. 14 The place of Indonesia on this table has kindly been inserted by Dr Conny Semiawan, Professor Emeritus, Graduate School of Education, State University of Jakarta. 30 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law As a teacher trainee progresses along the eight steps of the training path, the process of teacher certification is only one of the elements which could be used to filter-out trainees who do not meet the quality standards required. However, the emphasis placed upon this element varies between countries. As the table above shows, a country such as Singapore places high emphasis on the academic results the teacher has on exiting the training system, but places the lowest level of emphasis on teacher certification. Indonesia was not included in the original table. However, the high emphasis placed on certification as a process is understandable, given current policies. In examining the certification process alone, these authors comment:"In most states in the United States, teachers are awarded an initial teaching certificate after they have completed the course requirements of their teacher education program and have successfully passed the state's teacher-licensing exam. England is the only country other than the United States that requires a licensure examination in addition to the examinations given by the teacher education institution."15 No other countries have further testing requirements after the completion of pre-service training for teachers to gain certification.These countries, including those listed in the table above (Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, the Netherlands and Singapore), simply accept that graduation from the training institute is an adequate basis for certification. In fact, this document serves as the teaching certificate. This certification is then valid for life. The Australian situation is somewhat different. Here teachers are initially employed on the basis of their teaching qualification, with provisional approval from the teacher registration authority in that state. This pre-service training will usually consist either of a four-year integrated subject-content and pedagogy/ practicum degree or a three-year subject content degree plus a one-year diploma of teaching pedagogy and practicum course. However, all new teachers are placed on at least one year's probation by their employer (with a school-level induction program), at the end of which an assessment report is written by the principal which, if satisfactory, results in the award of a teachers'certificate and full registration status with the teacher registration authority. This becomes an important qualification for re-employment or for transferring to other states or overseas. This system applies to all teachers, both in the private as well as the public sector. This process is considered to be an appropriate balance between the pre-service education of a training institution and the practical on-site judgment of the professional school educator (and employer). The research literature suggests a great range of qualities required by good teachers. It also attempts to link improvements in these qualities with improvements in student performance. However, in general, high quality teachers have been shown16 to have the following characteristics: · Knowing their subject content and how to teach that content to their students; · Understanding their students and how they learn; · Planning, assessing and reporting for effective learning; · Communicating effectively with their students; · Creating and maintaining safe and challenging learning environments through the use of classroom management skills; · Improving continually their professional knowledge and practice; · Being actively engaged members of their profession and the wider community; 15 Wang, et al, ibid, page 5 16 NSW Institute of Teachers, 2003. 31 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law Some research also links quality teaching to improvements in student scores (Hanushek, Kain, O'Brien and Rivkin, 200517). A dataset from the Texas School Micro-data Panel was shown to measure teacher quality by the annual growth in each student's scores on the mathematics section of the Texas Assessment of Academic Skills. The dataset links detailed student, teacher, and school characteristics in grades 4 to 8 for the school years 1995/6 to 2000/1 in a major Texas urban district. Their results are used to confirm that good teachers can improve student achievement. The average student who has a teacher at the 85th quality percentile can expect annual achievement gains that are 0.22 standard deviations greater than the average student with a median teacher. Furthermore, student outcomes as a result of measures introduced by schools after the passing of the No Child Left Behind Act, 2001, in the United States indicate an unquestioned link between quality teaching and improved student scores. Similarly, research into the effectiveness of schools (Holland, 1999) identifies the following prime characteristics of quality teachers: · Theyarticulateaclearschoolmissionofcommitmenttoinstructionalgoals,priorities,assessment procedures and accountability. · They share a climate of expectation that all students can attain mastery of the essential content and school skills, and know that they have the capability to help all students achieve that mastery. · The principal acts as an instructional leader and effectively communicates that mission to the staff, parents, and students who actively respond. · They measure student academic progress frequently. A variety of assessment procedures are used. The results of the assessments are used to improve individual student performance and to improve the instructional program. · They allocate a significant amount of classroom time to instruction in essential content and skills. For a high percentage of this time students are engaged in whole class or large group, teacher-directed, planned learning activities. · They maintain an orderly, purposeful, businesslike atmosphere which is free from the threat of physical harm. The school climate is not oppressive and is conducive to teaching and learning. · They involve parents who understand and support the school's basic mission and are given the opportunity to play an important role in helping the school to achieve that mission. Education systems throughout the world work actively to identify factors shown through research to impact on student scores and the achievement of learning. Pre-service and in-service training, teacher assessment systems, promotion and other structures are geared to focus on these factors. Whilst teacher certification is an operational mechanism, the process of assessing the preparedness of teachers for the award can be predicted to have an impact on the quality of the teaching force. Furthermore, the growth in knowledge and skills of teachers who are under-qualified for the award will lift the quality of the teaching and the outcomes for students. 17 Hanushek, E.,J.Kain, D.O'Brien, and S.Rivkin (2005), The market for teacher quality. NBER WP11154. 32 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law 2. Scope of the Teacher Law TheTeacherLawadoptsabroadapproachtoimprovingthewelfareofteachersandthequalityofeducation inIndonesianschools.Itsmeasuresaredesignedtoempowerandimprovethequalityofteachers.Teachers have a crucial role in the development of a fair and just society and this law identifies strategies to which will develop teaching as a prestigious profession. Teachers meeting the new competency standards will be eligible for certification and the payment of a professional allowance which will double their current remuneration. The rewards promised are significant. However, the standards required are high. The Law mandates a number of education changes to".... empower and improve the quality of teachers and lecturers in a planned, guided and sustainable way"18. First and foremost, the Law defines teaching as a profession and sets out the basic principles on which it is established: a. Teachers have"... talent, interest, zeal and idealism"; b. Teachers have "... commitment to improving the quality of education, faith, devoutness and good morale"; c. Teachers have"... educational qualifications and backgrounds in their fields"; d. Teachers"... have the necessary competencies in their fields"; e. Teachers are"... responsible for the performance in their professional tasks"; f. Teachers"... earn income according to their performance"; g. Teachers"... have opportunities to develop the profession in a sustainable way through lifelong learning"; h. Teachers"... have a legal protection guarantee in performing their professional tasks"; i. Teachers "... have a professional organization having the authority to regulate professional matters for Teachers and have a scientific professional organization for lecturers". In order to meet this standard, "... teachers must have academic qualifications, competencies and educator certificates, and be physically and spiritually healthy to realize the national education goals"19.To satisfy the academic requirement, the Law states that as a minimum qualification, all teachers must have at least a bachelor's degree (S1) or a four-year diploma program (D4). The competencies teachers must have include pedagogical, personal, social and professional competencies acquired through professional education. Once certified, teachers will be awarded an Educator Certificate by universities which have an accredited teacher education program. The government (both national and local) will provide the necessary funding for teachers to improve their academic qualifications. In carrying out their professional tasks, teachers have the right to: a) Receive incomes above the minimum subsistence level and social security benefits; b) Gain promotions and receive rewards in accordance with their tasks and performance; c) receive legal protection in carrying out their tasks and exercising their intellectual property rights; d) Have opportunities to improve their competencies; e) Receive and use learning facilities and infrastructure to support their professional tasks; 18 Republic of Indonesia, Law on Teachers and Lecturers, December, 2005 19 Ibid. Section 8. 33 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law f) Have the freedom to give scores and take part in deciding graduation, rewards, and/or sanctions on students in accordance with educational rules, the teaching code of ethics and legislation; g) Derive a feeling of safety and security in carrying out their tasks; h) Have freedom of union in their professional organizations; i) Have opportunities to take part in deciding educational policies; j) Have opportunities to develop and improve quality and skills; and k) Receive training and professional development in their fields. As stated, in return for their professional service, teachers are entitled to receive an income above the minimum subsistence level. This will consist of: a) Basic salary and inherent allowances: base salary as determined by the employer; b) Professional allowances; c) Functional allowances; d) Special allowances, and e) Fringe benefits related to their teaching tasks and determined under the principles of performance-based rewards. The competencies required by the Teacher Law provide a framework within which judgments about teacher certification can be made. Internationally, numbers of other education systems have also developed quality frameworks to use in identifying the characteristics of good teachers. Therefore, useful parallels can be drawn. Furthermore, the design of a certification model appropriate for the Indonesian education system can benefit from comparisons with certification processes elsewhere in the world. 3. Teacher competencies mandated by the Law TheTeacherLawmandatesanumberofessentialcompetenciesrequiredbyteachers.Thesecompetencies are now being used to re-define pre-service and in-service training for teachers. Judgments concerning suitability for employment as a teacher will be made against this benchmark and teacher applicants will need to demonstrate their ability to reach satisfactory standards in each area. Mechanisms to enhance the competencies required of teachers are a critical element of pre-service education as well as for continuous professional development programs, and also for the assessment of teachers for the award of certification. Incumbent teachers seeking to upgrade their qualifications to achieve certification will be required to improve their competencies according to this framework. Improvement in teacher quality has emerged as a high priority in government policy. Previously, greater attention has been devoted to the provision of more and better inputs such as textbooks, teaching aids, other learning materials and improved facilities to schools. More recently, teacher competency has been identified as one of the key contributors to lower performance of students. The Teacher Law attempts to deal with this issue by defining the competencies required by teachers and linking these to performance and salary through certification. 34 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law Increasingly, competency-based training has become the focus because it is: a. Explicit and can be clearly aligned with expectations; b. Criteria-driven, focusing on accountability in reaching benchmarks and, therefore, competency standards; c. Grounded in "real-life" experiences and experiences "embedded" in the workplace where the service is delivered; d. Focused on fostering the learners'ability to self-assess and become truly professional; e. Individualized, providing more opportunities for independent study and growth. With the decentralization of the education system, attempts to improve quality have required the use of management tools such as national standards and competency-based training to enhance performance and ensure accountability at the local level. The adoption of school-based management, competency- based curriculum design and district management structures is changing the nature of accountability for schools and teachers and their incentive to perform well. Decisions about a school's resources and goals are best made at the local level and there is now greater pressure on teachers, principals and parents to work together to improve student performance. The Teacher Law has placed such an emphasis on improving teacher competency. It defines this as:" .... a set of knowledge, skills and behaviors a teacher or lecturer must have, fully comprehend and master to perform his/her professional tasks"20 The explanatory note to the Teacher Law describes in some detail four key competencies required of teachers: a. Pedagogical competency: This is a teaching competency that involves: · Understanding students; · Designing and implementing learning methods; · Evaluating study results; · Developing professionally. b. Personalcompetency:Thisisstrengthofthepersonalityoftheteacherasamatureandoutstanding person who sets an example to be followed by students. Personal competency involves the following aspects: · Having an adult personality and character worthy of imitation; · Having leadership qualities and an ability to nurture each individual student c. Professionalcompetency:This is the wide and comprehensive mastery of the subjects to be taught to students using appropriate instructional methodologies and learning strategies. Professional competence involves: · Theoretically and practically mastering study materials/subjects including science, technology and arts; · Having knowledge about teaching methods and the ability to implement them effectively; 20 Republic of Indonesia, Law on Teachers and Lecturers. Chapter 1, Section 1, Clause 12. 35 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law · Having knowledge about learning methods and processes and the ability to guide students towards quality learning activities; · Having professional knowledge and understanding of individual and group learning behavior and the ability to use this in the learning and guidance process for the benefit of students; · Having sound social knowledge and general knowledge; · Having the ability to evaluate students'study results/achievements objectively. d. Social competency: This is the ability of the teacher as part of a social group to communicate effectively and efficiently with students, fellow teachers, students' parents/guardians, and the nearby community. The competency involves the following aspects: · Displaying good behavior with an enlightened attitude and interesting personality in social intercourse at school and in the community; · Having the ability to respect and appreciate the feelings of other people, particularly students, with their respective strengths and weaknesses; · Having good moral values in accordance with his/her religion. 4. Developing teacher competency standards In developing lists of teacher competencies and standards, education systems undertake field research and extensive consultation to assist them in identifying the characteristics of quality teachers. Some of these will be specific to their own needs and will take account of their own cultural context. These standards are then tested against the practice of teachers and shared with key stakeholders such as parents, teacher training personnel and the community generally. In practice, most frameworks have many elements in common. However, consultation with stakeholders such as teachers, parents and community members is critical. The National Education Standards Board (BSNP21) was established in May 2005 by Regulation 19/2005 to setnationaleducationstandards.Todateithasdevelopedeightnationalstandardsforbasicandsecondary education to provide the criteria and foundation for planning, resourcing, management, implementation, supervision and evaluation of education in Indonesia.The achievement of these eight National Education Standards will improve the quality of education and educational outcomes for all students in Indonesia. All teachers, principals, supervisors and other educational personnel are required to (a) implement activities and programs to achieve the eight National Education Standards; (b) monitor and evaluate their progress in achieving the National Education Standards; and, (c) report on their progress in achieving the National Education Standards. The eight clusters of national education standards (SNP)22 are: i. Graduatecompetencystandards:Thisconcernsthequalificationandcompetenciesofgraduates in relation to their attitude, knowledge and skills; ii. Learning content standards: This includes the materials and competencies required, i.e. the competency criteria of graduates, specific subject competency, basic frame and structure of the curriculum, load of learning, curriculum within the units of education, academic calendar 21 Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan 22 National Education Standards. 36 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law and learning syllabi that the learners need to complete in every level and type of education; iii. Learning process standards: This includes the conduct of learning in a unit of education to achieve the standard of competencies for graduates; iv. Teachers and education personnel standards: This includes the pre-service criteria and physical and mental eligibility of teachers and education personnel and in-service education; v. Equipmentandinfrastructurestandards:This covers the minimum criteria for a classroom, library, sport center/hall, praying room/venue, playing space and working laboratories, workshop and other learning resources which are needed to support learning, including the use of information and communication technology; vi. Educationmanagementstandards:This relates to the planning, implementation and monitoring of education activities in every unit of education, district, province or national level to achieve efficiency and effectiveness in the conduct of learning; vii. Cost and finance standards (not yet complete): This concerns the component and amount of operational costs of education units in one year; viii. Educational assessment and evaluation standards: This is the national education assessment standard on the mechanism, procedure and instruments of assessing learners'outcomes. At the time of writing, the BSNP had developed standards in all areas except the cost and finance standards (vii), which were still in draft. Each of these standards had been legalized by inclusion in a Regulation and so had been mandated by law. This gives a very powerful message concerning the need to incorporate these in all appropriate performance areas. In developing these standards, the BSNP has adopted a consultative process involving the following steps: Step 1:TheTeacher Law and its Regulation provided a definition of the core competencies or competency strands (together with some elaboration of these strands) now mandated for all teachers; Step 2: The BSNP, as required by its charter, used these competencies as the basis for development of the eight group standards. An expert team in BSNP then examined existing documentation of rules and regulations governing these areas to ensure the draft standards developed would incorporate these competency requirements; Step 3: The team reviewed the standards and assessment mechanisms in other countries. During this period there was considerable discussion by universities, particularly the Rectors from the LPTK; Step 4: Based on the above information a first draft of the groups of standards was written; Step 5: Consultations were then held with key stakeholders in the educational field to validate these standards. Keys groups consulted were: · Teachers in public and private schools; · University lecturers and teacher training personnel; · Non-government groups such as professional associations Step 6: Modifications were then introduced on the basis of this input; 37 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law Step 7: Later each draft became available for public comment. Further revisions from public hearings were also incorporated; Step 8: The final drafts were then prepared and ratified by incorporation into a government Regulation. This is a thorough process. Regulation 1923 provides the framework to guide the development of each set of standards. The BSNP has currently completed all the standards documents except the one on financial standards. There will be an ongoing review of these standards. Regulation 19 also spells out a clear governance role for the BSNP for the future.The relevant directorates and departments of MONE and MORAarenowresponsible(andaccountable)forensuringtheiroperationsworktothestandardsrequired. The BSNP will monitor and report on this and make recommendations to government concerning the quality of education nationally. This procedure follows current international best practice. The BSNP is currently developing an Indicator Framework for Assessing the Achievement of the National Education Standards. These will set out the BSNP requirements for measuring and reporting on the eight National Education Standards (SNP) for basic and secondary education. A separate Indicator Framework has been developed for each of the eight SNP. BSNP is required to report annually to the Minister of National Education on the extent to which the SNP have been achieved by education personnel and education units. The development of Indicator Frameworks for each SNP will ensure that data collected by different education units and education personnel regarding the achievement of the eight SNP are valid, and can be compared and aggregated. Indicator Frameworks are key national policy documents, to be used by education personnel and education units in MONE and MORA to guide their processes for the collection of data about the extent of achievement of the eight SNP for BSNP national reporting purposes. 5. The value of competency standards These groups of national education standards are a useful tool. The standards for teachers are critical in establishing and tracking improvements in the knowledge, skills and attitudes teachers must have, as well as providing direction and structure to support the preparation and development of teachers. Use of a teaching standards framework will stimulate teachers in their professional practice and support quality learning opportunities for all students. These standards articulate the link between the quality of teachers' practice and student learning. They are developed to improve student learning by either directly focusing on quality teaching practices or indirectly by focusing on the knowledge and skills of teachers. They also provide a language that can be used by teachers to communicate with the community about their profession and in so doing advance the status and standing of the profession. The competencies defined in the Teacher Law provide the foundation for making judgments about teachers and their quality. These competencies form the basis of a teaching standards framework which can be used in a variety of ways for the quality improvement of teachers. These standards were used by the joint task force set up by the Directorate-General of Higher Education to prepare the instruments for the first round of teacher certification. During this process the BSNP members 23 Government Regulation No.19/2005 on National Standards of Education in Indonesia. 38 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law worked parallel to this group. When the decree endorsing the standards was signed, the instruments became ratified for use in the teacher certification process. This is the first phase of an on-going process in the development and use of teaching standards by the BSNP. MONE's task will be to monitor the application and effectiveness of current standards through the teacher certification process and to ensure that certification involves activities which incorporate these competencies and provides a measure of the competencies required. Use of the standards in the development of pre-service teacher training courses and for design of in-service courses for the upgrade of incumbent teachers is also intended. Following review of the manner in which the standards work in practice, further revisions will take place. Standards for teachers, principals and school supervisors have now been developed following widespread consultation with stakeholders in each province. For example, the competencies mandated for principals in Regulation 13/200724 are shown in the following table: 24 Regulation 13/2007 on StandardsforSchool/MadrasahPrincipals includes a list of the qualifications required for the principals of each category of school together with the competencies required in the personality, managerial, entrepreneurship, supervision and social dimensions. 39 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law Table 3.2 Competencies Required by Principals of Schools and Madrasahs DIMENSION COMPETENCIES Personality 1.1 Has a good character, is able to develop a culture and tradition based on good character, and is able to become a role model for the school community 1.2 Has the personal integrity of a leader 1.3 Has a strong willingness to develop one's self as a school principal 1.4 Is open in carrying out the task and function of principal 1.5 Is able to exert self control when facing difficulties and problems at work as a principal 1.6 Has a talent and interest to hold leadership in education Managerial 2.1 Develops school planning at every level 2.2 Develop the school organization as required 2.3 Leads the school in utilizing its resources optimally 2.4 Manage change and development in school towards an effective organization of learning 2.5 Creates a culture and climate at school that is conducive and innovative to student's learning 2.6 Manages teachers and staff to ensure an optimum use of human resources 2.7 Manages school facilities and infrastructure to ensure their optimum use 2.8 Manages the relation between school and community in the effort to gain supports in terms of ideas, resources, and financing 2.9 Manages students, i.e. accepting new students, allocating students, and developing students'capacity 2.10 Manages the development of curriculum and learning activities in accordance with the goals and objectives of national education 2.11. Manages the school finance in accordance with the principles of accountability, transparency, and efficiency 2.12 Manages the school administration to support the school's objectives 2.13 Manages the school's special service units to support learning and student activities 2.14 Manages the school's information system to support the development of school programs and decision making 2.15 Utilizes the advancement of information technology to improve learning and school management 2.16 Conducts monitoring, evaluation, and reporting of school activities in accordance with proper procedure and plans follow-ups 3.1 Creates new innovations that can be used to develop the school 3.2 Works hard to ensure that the school is successful in becoming an effective organization of learning 3.3 Has a strong motivation to become successful in carrying the tasks and functions of a leader of a school 3.4 Is resourceful and always try to find the best solution to overcome problems faced by the school 3.5 Has an entrepreneurial instinct in managing the school's production activities as a learning resources for the students Supervision 4.1 Plans an academic supervision program to improve teachers'professionalism 4.2 Carries out an academic supervision on teachers by using proper supervision techniques and approaches 4.3 Follows up the result of academic supervision in order to improve teachers'professionalism Social 5.1 Co-operates with other parties to serve the school's interest 5.2 Participates in social and community activities 5.3 Has a social awareness towards other people or groups 40 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law Such standards can be used as criteria in the selection of principals and for the design of courses for their induction training. They should be used to underpin job descriptions and advertisements, as well as for forming the basis for the modules used for training principals. The concept of competency is a pivotal one in a number of areas of personnel management. Close alignment between competencies and the duty statements of key categories of personnel means these statements will be able to be used to assess each level of teacher, principal and school supervisor. They can also be used to develop a complementary system for the recognition of prior learning (RPL) for experienced teachers already in the system. The agreed competencies and standards must be used in this process to ensure the mechanisms can guarantee equivalence against the alternative pathway of undertaking university courses. The standards should also be used as the core element in any performance appraisal system designed to measure improvement in teacher performance. In turn, this can be linked to career progression and advancement.These are critical elements in the overall improvement in quality of the teaching workforce and underline the significance of ensuring that the standards developed are a really accurate reflection of what knowledge, skill and attitudes are required in the teacher. Competency standards can be used by the quality assurance teams which operate from the LPMP located in each province when they undertake school reviews. These standards have also been used in the preparation and development of the new S1 courses for primary teachers to ensure that new graduates and incumbent teachers seeking upgrade will be trained in the competencies mandated by the Teacher Law. The education institutions (LPTK) will be re-developing existing courses to ensure they meet the standards which will be adopted by the BAN-PT accrediting agency when approving the courses during the cyclical review and re-accreditation of these institutions. The Teacher Law requires improvement in teacher competency through re-designed pre-service teacher training and higher qualifications, and the verification of this through certification and therefore the linking of competency to salary increases. The Law proposes a number of professional principles on which a teacher's job is based and identifies the level of qualifications and competencies that a teacher must possess in order to be employed as a teacher and receive the professional allowance. 6. An international example of a teaching standards framework Competency standards frameworks can be found in a number of countries. International best practice in developing these standards usually involves the identification of the characteristics common to good teachers and compiling these into categories of knowledge, skills and attitudes. Such a framework then becomes a valuable instrument for education systems to use in benchmarking the quality of their teaching service and introducing strategies for the training of teachers and their on-going professional development in order to ensure improvement in learning. Introduction of such a quality framework becomes the focus for improving the quality of teachers. In developing these frameworks, education systems need to engage in a process of inductive research to identify the characteristics of quality teachers that are specific to their own needs and which takes into account their own specific cultural context. In practice, however, most frameworks have a large number of elements in common. 41 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law The following summary table is compiled from the standards framework researched and developed by the Institute of Teachers in New South Wales (Australia) which has recently become the registration authority for all practicing teachers in that state. Seven elements are used to describe the nature of good teachers in this table. In order to become registered, a teacher applicant must be able to provide evidence to support each standard. Much of this evidence is documentary and will consist of the elements such as the university graduation award and the statement of attainment listing all courses taken and marks or grade achieved. Other evidence will relate to samples of student work produced and lesson planning or programs of work. A report written by the school principal or supervisor stating the classroom performance of the teacher will also usually be required. Table 3.3 International Example of a Teaching Standards Framework25 ELEMENT STANDARD REQUIRED 1. Teachers know their (a) Knowledge of subject content subject content and how to (b) Knowledge of pedagogy teach that content to their (c) Knowledge of curriculum requirements students (d) Knowledge of information and communication technologies (ICT) 2. Teachers know their (a) Knowledge of and respect for the diverse social, cultural, ethnic and religious students and how they backgrounds of students, and the effects of these factors learn (b) Knowledge of the physical, social and intellectual developmental characteristics of the age group(s) of students (c) Knowledge of students'varied approaches to learning (d) Knowledge of how students'skills, interests and prior achievements affect learning (e) Knowledge of strategies for addressing student needs 3. Teachers plan, assess (a) Planning: teaching and learning goals; teaching and learning programs; and report for e ective selection and organization of content; selection, development and use of learning materials and resources (b) Assessment: linking assessment to learning; providing feedback to students; monitoring of students'progress and record keeping (c) Reporting to students and parents (d) Program evaluation 4. Teachers communicate (a) Effective communication and classroom discussion e ectively with their (b) Student grouping students (c) Teaching strategies 5. Teachers create and (a) Create an environment of respect and rapport maintain safe and (b) Establish a climate where learning is valued and students ideas are respected challenging learning (c) Manage classroom activities smoothly and efficiently environments through (d) Manage student behavior and promote student responsibility and learning the use of classroom (e) Assure the safety of students management skills 6. Teachers continually (a) Capacity to analyze and reflect on practice improve their professional (b) Engagement in personal and collegial professional development knowledge and practice (c) Capacity to contribute to a professional community 7. Teachers are actively (a) Communicating with parents and caregivers engaged members of their (b )Engaging parents and caregivers in the educative process profession and the wider (c) Contributing to the school and wider community community (d) Professional ethics and conduct 25 Compiled from Professional Teaching Standards, Publication of the NSW Institute of Teachers. Australia. 2003 42 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law In this scheme, the degree to which teachers possess each of these characteristics and can demonstrate their achievements should increase as the teacher gains experience within the school context. This particular education system identifies four stages of development of the teacher and the registration authoritycanendorseateacher'sregistrationcardwiththeparticularstageofeachteacher'sdevelopment. This is useful ­ and, indeed, in some cases, a pre-requisite for advancement. The four stages here are: · Graduateteacher:Teachers beginning their teaching career; · ProfessionalCompetence:Teachers that have demonstrated successful teaching experience; · ProfessionalAccomplishment:Highly accomplished and successful practitioners; · ProfessionalLeadership:Teachers that have a record of outstanding teaching and are committed to enhancing the quality of teaching and learning. As a teacher progresses in the profession, the levelofexpertise the teacher achieves in each of the elements listed above will increase through experience, but also through professional development. This can be assessed by the registration authority for a variety of purposes, including employment, promotion to leadership positions, further training and so on. Teachers themselves can, with practice, self-assess the status of their work in each element and make decisions about their readiness for further advancement or training. Such self-assessment is the hallmark of a truly professional individual. The competencies defined in the Teacher Law provide a similar framework for making judgments about teachers and their quality. These defined competencies are intended to form the basis of a teaching standards framework that determines the mechanisms used for the quality improvement of teachers. 7. Draft Indicators Developed by the Consortium of Rectors of LPTK During development of procedures for the certification of teachers, the Consortium of Rectors of LPTK presented a consensus of their views on a standards framework for teachers based upon the clusters of competencies mandated in theTeacher Law.This document was very comprehensive and covered all four mandated competencies. An example from the draft is set out in Table 3.4 is set out below. This illustrates only one of the four competencies: Pedagogic Competency. The Teacher Law also mandates three other competencies: Professional (subject knowledge), Personal (character) and Social (interaction). 43 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law Table 3.4 Sample of Rectors'Draft Requirements for Teacher Competency26 Competencies Sub-Competencies Teacher ability/training required PEDAGOGIC a. Ability to understand 1. Examine the student's readiness to learn in the physical, the student's learning style social, moral, cultural, emotional and intellectual domains characteristics: physical, social, and use appropriate resources. cultural, emotional, moral and 2. Practice collection and analysis of data about the intellectual. learner's characteristics in order to use relevant teaching techniques. 3. Practice using methods appropriate to the learner's attitude and development. 4. Practice using motivation appropriate to the cognitive progress of the learner. 5. Identify the characteristics of children with disabilities: physical and intellectual disability, and social-emotional disability using data reports. 6. Identify characteristics of talented children's attitudes. 7. Identify various factors which motivate students with psychological problems. 8. Training to help learners with a psychological problem. 9. Training to develop enrichment activities for talented learners. 10. Training to design activities for learners with disabilities. b. Ability to understand the learner's background in the context of family, social groups, and cultural plurality. c. Ability to understand learners and their difficulties. d. Ability to facilitate the development of a learner's potential. e. Ability to master theories and principles of learning and develop relevant learning processes. f. Ability to develop curricula that encourage high involvement of learners in learning processes. g. Ability to develop high quality learning processes. h. Ability to carry out high quality learning processes. i. Ability to evaluate learning processes and outcomes. The sample in Table 3.4 developed by the Consortium of Rectors illustrates one of the four competencies involved in a teacher's work. Pedagogic competence is divided into nine sub-competencies. In turn, each sub-competency had as many as ten requirements or indicators for competency. For example, in this table, the sub-competency relates to the learning styles of students. One of the requirements for a teacher is to be able to know and understand and be able to put into practice a number of teaching 26 From an overhead projector transparency shown at a meeting of the Consortium of Rectors of LPTK, Jakarta, March, 2006. 44 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law methodologies and to be able to choose appropriate activities to teach a range of students. It explains little about how this is to be achieved, but at least it provides a target for trainers and would require that teachers were trained in this way and could practice a range of these techniques. Teachers would need to be able to demonstrate the necessary competency when graduating. It is intended that these requirements will be embedded in training courses ­ whether pre-service or in-service. The table itself stops short of indicating the type of evidence that teachers or their principals or supervisors could use to justify a claim for achievement of the standard. By implication, the evidence used (or indicators) could be quite different for different teachers but could still be an objective marker of performance. For example, working with the community might take very different forms for different teachers (some might attend meetings with parents, others might be active in local organizations) but would still be valid evidence of required achievement. 8. Continuous professional development to enhance teacher competency Part Five of theTeacher Law concerns the guidance and development of teachers throughout their careers and mandates that a functional position be established in schools responsible for the management of this activity. Funding for this career-long professional development will be made available from district and central sources. Under the Regulation, teachers will be eligible after 15 years service for sabbatical leave in order to facilitate their professional development. Furthermore, teachers will be required to undertake six hours of professional training per year to maintain eligibility for the professional allowance, and this will also be linked to their eligibility for promotion. These measures will ensure that teachers undergo additional professional development and improve their levels of competence beyond the certification level. These are bold requirements that will require considerable funding but they do indicate a serious attempt to foster a commitment to lifelong learning amongst teachers. Thus, the Teacher Law sets in place ground rules for a culture of continuous professional development (CPD) for all teachers. Such strategies will foster the concept that every school is a learning community with students, teachers and the wider community enhancing their knowledge and skills through the activities conducted at and facilitated by the school. Furthermore, the draft Regulation to accompany the Teacher Law recognize that teachers must have opportunities to develop and enhance their academic qualifications and competencies, and receive professional training and development in their field on an on-going basis. Section 45 prescribes that teaching competencies be enhanced through a "system for sustainable guidance and development of the teaching profession that recognizes the achievement of functional-position credits". These credits can be obtained through a variety of activities: (a) teachers' collective activities to enhance their competencies and professionalism; (b) education and training; (c) apprenticeship; (d) scientific publication on research results or innovative ideas; (e) innovative works; (f) presentations at scientific forums; (g) publication of textbooks verified by the National Education Standard Agency; (h) publication of enrichment books; (i) publication of teaching handbooks; (j) publication of practical experiences in special education and/or special-service education; and/or; (k) rewards for achievement or dedication as teachers awarded by the government or regional government. To improve their levels of professional competency, teachers will be required to continue to develop and enhance their academic qualifications, competencies and professionalism while carrying out their normal duties. This is intended to"keep their professional competencies up-to-date with scientific, technological and/ arts developments". (Regulation, Section 44) 45 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law The teacher certification process now required by the Teacher Law will require the widespread activation of local school cluster structures and wider training networks to ensure an on-going mechanism to"keep teachers' professional competencies up-to-date". The on-going nature of this mechanism, driven by the demand by teachers for fresh knowledge and skill, is the hallmark of a true profession. Furthermore, the Regulation encourages teachers to participate in policy-making and decision-making at school level, district level, provincial level and national level. Such opportunities to participate in policy making at the school level include: (a) preparing a educational unit-level curriculum and a syllabus; (b) fixing an educational calendar at the educational unit level; (c) preparing a strategic plan; (d) preparing an educational unit annual budget; (e) formulating criteria for enrollment; (f) formulating criteria for students' graduation from educational units in accordance with legislation, and; (g) determining textbooks in accordance with legislation. Encouragement to seek training on a continuous basis and a requirement to participate in decision- makingwithintheschoolarethebasisofschool-basedmanagementandwillenhancetheprofessionalism of teachers. However, time spent on professional development is a necessary but not sufficient condition for enhancement of professional performance, and courses undertaken must have built-in measures of outcomes to determine effectiveness in improving staff knowledge and skills. Simple time-serving in course completion to meet a mandatory quota of training is an inadequate measure. It is the impact of the training on the teacher and in the classroom that is critical. 9. Minimum service standards (MSS) for education Whilst the Teacher Law mandates key competencies for effective quality teachers, a list of minimum service standards (MSS) for education was developed by the Ministry of Home Affairs (MOHA) as early as 2004. At that time, it was determined that these should be developed in order to "...guarantee the realization of education quality which the region administers .....".The minimum standards for elementary education and junior secondary education are included in Tables 3.5 and 3.6 below. Standards (MSS) were also developed for senior secondary and vocational education. The expectation was that all districts would aspire to these standards at the minimum. The standards are quantitative in nature and somewhat ambitious in expectation. They probably better represent targets for the future. The national education system has adopted these as the ideal focus for its operations. These standards could be developed into a useful instrument to assist in monitoring achievements by including a range of progress targets over time. Table 3.5 Minimum Service Standards for Elementary Education (Article 3) No Standards Indicator a. 95% of children in age group 7-12 attend SD/MI b. The drop-out rate (APS) does not exceed 1% of the number of students going to school c. 90% of schools have the minimum facilities and infrastructure to meet the nationally set technical standard d. 90% of schools have the required number of SD teachers e. 90% of SD/MI teachers have the qualifications which meet the nationally set competence standards f. 95% of students have a complete set of textbooks for every school subject g. The number of SD/MI students per class is 30-40 students per class h. 90% of students who have participated in quality sampling tests of national standard education, having achieved"satisfactory"scores in reading, writing and algebra for class III and in Indonesian, mathematics, natural sciences and social sciences for class V. i. 95% of SD graduates who continue their study to Junior High School (SMP)/Islamic Junior High School (MT's) 46 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law Table 3.6 Minimum Service Standards for Junior Secondary Education No Indicator a. 90% of children in the age group 13-15 attend SMP/MT's b. The drop-out rate (APS) doesn't exceed 1% of the number of students who attend school c. 90% of schools have the minimum facilities and infrastructure to meet the nationally set technical standard d. 80% of schools have non-teaching staff to run administrative tasks and other non-teaching activities e. 90% of SMP'have the required number of teachers f. 90% of SMP/MT teachers have qualifications which meet the nationally set competency standards g. 100% of students have complete sets of textbooks for every school subject h. The number of students per class in SMP/MT's comprise 30-40 students per class i. 90% of students who have participated in quality sampling tests of national standard education, having achieved"satisfactory"scores in Indonesian, English and Mathematics. Natural Sciences and Social Sciences in class I and II j. 70% of SMP/MT graduates continue their study to Senior High School (SMA)/Islamic Senior High School (MA)/Vocational High School (SMK) The minimum service standards developed and presented here are demanding and no timeline for their achievementhasbeenset.Forexample,thedrop-outratestandardseemstohavebeensetataparticularly high level and it would be difficult to achieve such a rate in many well-resourced countries. On the other hand, the instrument omits some very significant and measurable items such as the attendance rate of students and the attendance rate of teachers. Nevertheless, in attempting to adopt some standards and identify measurable indicators, the document makes a fair attempt to create a process which could be used to monitor the progress of the education system. The MSS is a work in progress and it is currently being updated. Hopefully there will be an attempt to include a greater number of indicators which are qualitative in nature. Issues such as provision of annual school plans and curriculum documents, formation of school committees, number of visits to schools by school supervisors and number of classroom visits made by principals or supervisors can be featured. Some benchmarks such as the"nationally set technical standards"for minimum facilities and infrastructure have not been included. The BSNP is charged with the task of defining infrastructure standards and currently has produced an extensive list of detailed requirements for schools buildings and facilities. However, the minimum standards for infrastructure have not yet been identified. The MSS are silent on distribution issues such as class size throughout the nation. The minimum standard is set that no class need exceed 30-40 students. Whilst this is a sound standard, some classes and some student-teacher ratios are unacceptably low and indicate inefficient resource use. If resources are to be used efficiently, it would be preferable to set minimum standards related to the student-teacher ratios in schools. Furthermore, whilst the minimum service standards shown in the Ministry guideline can be a valuable set of targets for the education system, they say little about quality of teachers and how this can be improved. Mostly they are about resources. Although resources are critical to an effective education system, many very good lessons can take place in poorly resourced classrooms. In this regard, the Teacher Law, for example, does adopt one of the minimum service standards as its goal when it mandates four-year training for all teachers, particularly the in-service teachers, and sets in process a mechanism to achieve this target. This can contribute to quality teaching. 47 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law There appears to be a degree of duplication between the MSS and the standards developed by the BSNP. However, work is continuing on the refinement of the MSS and the development of a more useful list of standards 10. Progress in developing statements of standards Based on the competencies defined in the Teacher Law, professional teacher standards have been developed by the BSNP for pre-school teachers (TK/RA), elementary school teachers (SD/MI) and each of the subjects in junior (SMP/MTs) and senior secondary school (SMA/MA). Each document provides a list of some thirty core competencies which are based on the four competency strands stated in the Teacher Law. The core competencies are then further expanded into about 100 classroom teacher competencies that are the nation's requirements for effective operation as a classroom teacher in that field. Whilst they are fairly similar for all categories of teachers because they address fairly common characteristics of teachers, the classroom competencies do emphasize the skills, knowledge and attitudes teachers must possess, in particular in the subject areas they teach. Table 3.7 provides an example using the Professional Competency group of standards required of elementary teachers undertaking the new four-year S1 degree. The Professional Group has nine competency standards. The one shown in the example is requires the teacher's to show mastery in the content and methodologies to teach social science to primary children.There are then eight requirements regarding the type of learning experiences the teacher must be able to impart to primary children if the teacher is to be considered"competent". Four other competency groups (not shown in this table) are also involved in a primary teacher's work: Professional, Personal and Social. The subject content and methodology for social science shown in the example requires the elementary teacher to be able to teach students such knowledge, skills and attitudes as: to be able to analyze values and concepts relating to the production and consumption of goods, or to make critical judgments in the fields of history, geography and politics. These are fairly sophisticated areas of study for primary students. Therefore, it is critical that teachers be trained to adapt material to the age group and ability of the students being taught. 48 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law Table 3.7 Example of Competency Standards for Classroom Teacher Graduates of S1 PGSD Competence Group Competence Experience of Learning PROFESSIONAL: 1. Mastering basic substance and Bahasa Ability to master Indonesia methodology which supports learning material the learning of Bahasa Indonesia for primary thoroughly and school students. extensively to 2. Mastering basic substance and Mathematics be able to guide methodology which supports the learning of students in meeting Mathematics for primary school students. the competence 3. Mastering basic substance and science standards set in methodology which supports the learning of National Standard of science for primary school students. Education. 4. Mastering basic substance and social a. Analyze the objectives, values, concepts and science methodology which supports the principles of culture, time and space, continuity learning of social science for primary school and change, interaction between human and the students. environment, social institutions and interactions, scarcity, production, distribution, consumption of goods and services, in the context of diversity of Indonesian communities and the dynamics of global life. b. Analyze the phenomenon of interaction and development of science, technology, art, religious life, communities, and global interdependency. c. Practice using map, atlas, the globe, data and information, and mass media in solving problem and making socio-cultural decision critically, creatively, and productively in daily life. d. Habituate being sensitive, responsive, and adaptive to the environment, to protect and utilize natural resources and to develop peace and harmony in diversity. e. Practice playing role as critical and creative individual member of the society through various simulation and social involvement. f. Analyze critically and creatively the concepts of history, politics, economics, social, culture, geography, science, art, religion and other relevant concepts which will influence the life today and in the future. g. Practice applying concepts, values, and principles of politics, economics, social, culture, geography, science, art, religion and other relevant concepts in local, national, and global context, to solve daily problems. h. Habituate questioning and discussing issues relevant to the people and the environment. 5. Mastering basic substance and civic (PKn) methodology which support the learning of civics (PKn) for primary school students. 6. Mastering teaching materials of five subjects in primary school curriculum. 7. Able to develop curriculum and teaching materials of five subjects creatively and innovatively. 8. Master basic materials of extracurricular activities which support the accomplishment of overall objective of education. 9. Able to assess and improve learning through class research (PTK). 49 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law Some of these statements are quite general in nature and few of the thirty or so core competencies deal with subject content.To gain an understanding of the content to be taught, one must turn to the recently approved national curriculum, the KTSP (Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan, or Learning Unit Level Curriculum). This consists almost entirely of booklets of subject-based competencies that are written in content-based terms for each grade. Each booklet contains lists of subject content written in outcome terms. Students are expected to attain these targets with the assistance of their teacher. The teaching standards documents, therefore, should be read in conjunction with these curriculum booklets for each specific subject or phase of schooling. The standards were developed by the BSNP in consultation with universities, teachers and other stakeholders, and have been the subject of open public forums. They have also been subjected to a validation process, mainly an iterative approach involving on-going discussion with the profession and others, prior to publication. The documents are a first step in the standards-development process and have already been used in the development of the assessment instruments for the teacher certification process. However, the standards documents are a work in progress and will continue to be reviewed. 11. Moving from standards to teacher profiles Three levels of teacher profiles currently exist within the national education system: · The certification level competency standard, which is the standard required of all teachers in order to become certified. In reality this is a basic beginning teacher standard; · Thestandardsrequiredofprincipals-developedin2007inconsultationwiththeprofessionand wider community by an expert team at the BSNP; · The standards required of supervisors (pengawas) ­ also developed in 2007 in consultation with the profession and wider community by an expert team at the BSNP. However, further profiles are currently being finalized and discussions are underway to incorporate them into the salary structure. These are: (a) Guru Utama ("Master Teacher"); (b) Guru Madya ("Senior Teacher"); (c) Guru Muda ("Junior Teacher"); and, (d) Guru Pertama ("Novice Teacher"). These are very similar to the categories identified by the NSW Institute of Teachers, which ranks teachers as follows: graduate teacher for those at the beginning of their career; professional competence for those that have demonstrated successful teaching experience; professional accomplishment for highly accomplished and successful practitioners; and, professional leadership for those that have a record of outstanding teaching and are committed to enhancing the quality of teaching and learning. To both these groupings could also be added the category of Probationary Teacher (Beginning Teacher). These teacher profiles are based on the identification of indicators or discriminators that distinguish between the activities undertaken by each of category of teacher as they progress in their professional growth. When finalized, these profiles could be included in a Regulation mandating the teaching standards for each. This profile development is critical because of the role teacher profiles will play in the future progression/ salary ladder. Furthermore, once these the profiles are agreed upon, the process for assessing whether or not individual teachers have attained the relevant levels will have to be determined. These profiles will 50 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law also be linked with increments within the new Functional Allowance for which teachers are eligible under the Teacher Law. The readiness of a teacher to progress across each of these salary barriers could be assessed by an assessment team in the following way: (a) The Probationary (or Beginning)Teacher would be required to complete an induction program within the school and have an assessment of their classroom performance by the school principal or district supervisor to determine whether their work performance is of sufficient merit to warrant permanent employment. The report could be forwarded to the certifying university to finalize the award of the Educator's Certificate and determine the teacher's eligibility for receipt of the professional allowance; (b) Guru Pertama (or Novice Teacher) could be assessed "on-the-job" by an assessment panel formed from amongst the school principals in the local school cluster using the profiles currently under development. These teams would assess teachers to determine whether their performance met the requirements of the Junior Teacher level. If so, they would be able to jump the barrier to that level; (c) Guru Muda (Junior Teacher) could be assessed in a similar manner but using an assessment team drawn from amongst the school supervisors in the local school cluster. If it was determined that a teacher met the requirements of the Senior Teacher profile they would be able to jump the barrier to that level; (d) Guru Madya (Senior Teacher) could be assessed by teams from the district office who could award the Master Teacher level to those teachers who met the required standards; (e) Guru Utama (Master Teacher) could also be assessed by teams from the district office to determine readiness for other positions such as School Supervisor by using the standards for that category of position. These profiles are still being compiled and the means for assessing the individual teacher have also not yet been decided. Nevertheless, the issue of defining teacher profiles and establishing a process for locating individual teachers on these profiles is clearly on the agenda.The next step will be to reach agreement on the characteristics of each of the profiles and the assessment process, and then to link the profiles to the salary scale and to a scheme for professional development in the workplace. The standards already determined by the BSNP will be critical in developing these profiles, formulating and assessment process and planning a series of training courses to assist teachers to gain the skills for progression. 12. Re-design of teacher training courses using the teacher competency standards If the BSNP standards for teachers are used as a basis for an analysis of the content and methodologies used in teacher training courses in existing public, private and distance education training facilities, significant weaknesses will be identified. Preferred content and methodologies based on these standards and international best practice can be explored. Elements such as the quantity and quality of practicum experiences, expanded links to model schools, and regular return of university faculty members to classroom teaching can then be explored. 51 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law New criteria for funding pre-service training to create incentives for the introduction of changes in the way under-graduate teachers are trained can be adopted. New strategies can be examined and tested, involving the development of new courses and modules; micro-teaching laboratories; study tours and placements; research based on student outcomes; action research in the classroom; teaching resources and materials centers; and new delivery mechanisms. New accreditation standards for universities which train teachers can be applied by the accreditation agency. Universities unable or unwilling to reach the standards required may be closed (or made ineligible for funding) by the accreditation agency. It is important to also include examination of new program-delivery systems designed for a variety of groups of future teachers, with these systems including elements such as part-time courses, weekend and vacation courses, school-based modular instruction and other variations. Distance learning will be critical in the delivery of upgrading courses to incumbent teachers, particularly those in rural and remote areas, and a variety of options can be examined as a basis for study and recommendations. The courses and delivery mechanisms of the Open University also need to be considered. Examination of a number of case studies of best practice within the Indonesian system can be shared across the system. This will assist teacher training universities to recognize examples of good practice within the system and to adopt strategies to lift their capacity to train highly skilled teachers. If candidates entering a teaching career are to meet the new competency standards now defined by the BSNP, the training institutions (LPTK) will need to re-write and lengthen their courses to meet the new and more demanding standards. The new S1 PGSD course has been lengthened to four years, and the competency standards for this course will underpin it. Funding will be required to undertake this revision and to upgrade the accreditation process. These criteria are based on both international and Indonesian evidence of the essential characteristics accredited teacher training institutions must have in order to provide quality services. They will need to be able to demonstrate that they will improve the quality of pre-service education through initiatives such as: (a) assuring that their curriculum includes best practice strategies tying teaching to improved student learning; (b) preparing teachers for working with their communities; (c) adapting the curriculum to accord with school needs and with the competencies required under the Teacher Law and Regulation; (d) providing an appropriate balance between theory and practice, including a strong link with professional development schools (demonstration schools and model schools); (e) involving practicing teachers in the design and implementation of the pre- service curriculum; (f) inclusion of effective schools literature; (g) for primary teacher training programs, connectionswithprojectschoolsinprogramssuchasPAKEM,CLCC,MBE,andUNICEF; (h)rigorous policies and procedures on future teacher subject matter knowledge, basic skills, pedagogical knowledge and skills for student selection, assessment and graduation; (i) staff upgrading and performance; (j) relating graduate intake and output to teacher demand; (k) providing access for teachers in Special Areas; and, (l) promoting effective and efficient institutional governance. To assist universities to update their courses and access the most up-to-date international best practice, additional funding will be necessary. Component 1 of the BERMUTU program will provide funding to support many of these initiatives. The outcomes of this component will an increased number of revised pre-service programs accredited, and an increased number of new graduates from accredited programs who will meet the mandated competency standards. 13. The need for higher standards in teacher management Teachers must be accountable for the quality of their performance, and management structures must ensure this occurs. Accountability in Indonesia is through the principal to the district office which is 52 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law responsible for payment of teacher remuneration. Because teaching is an openly public activity, teachers are also directly accountable to the parents and community for the quality of education provided to their children. With the decentralization of the education system, greater responsibility for teacher management has been placed on the school principal and the local district officers, particularly the school supervisor. In general, they have not been well-equipped to accept this responsibility or to hold teachers accountable for the quality of their work. The Ministry of National Education (MONE) is undertaking a number of initiatives to rectify this position. Teachers themselves are poorly paid. There is a high rate of absenteeism as they often take second jobs to make ends meet.This reduces motivation and effectiveness.This is compounded by poor competency skills which reduce their ability to provide the quality teaching now being required by the government. The competencies now mandated are designed to increase teacher and education system accountability. The National Standards Board (BSNP) has developed sets of standards for teachers, principals and school supervisors based upon these competencies. They have also been used as the basis for the development of the instruments for certification of teachers. Universities will be required by the national accreditation agency (BAN-PT) to be able to demonstrate that they have used these standards in the revision of teacher training courses and the development of new teacher training courses (such as the new four-year S1 degree for primary teachers). Questions can also be raised concerning the ability and willingness of principals to adequately supervise teacher's work. Many principals do not have the necessary knowledge or skills in teaching and personnel management to enter classrooms and assess teacher's performance or work with teachers to improve their skills. They often lack the confidence and interpersonal skill to effectively supervise teachers. Principals also have low salaries, only marginally above that of a teacher. They have little status above the classroom teacher and the management climate in schools suggests the principal is not seen as one with any real authority over the teacher. There is often a general lack of instructional leadership by principals, who rarely work within the classroom to support teacher improvement and to encourage adoption of newer student-centered learning techniques. Whilst teachers are initially appointed on probation, confirmation of their permanent appointment is virtually automatic. Not often do principals take advantage of the probationary period to induct new teachers properly and ensure they have the necessary teaching skills within the workplace to become effective teachers. Furthermore, in the case of inefficiency or ineffectiveness, dismissal of a teacher is rarely attempted by a principal. Progression through the civil service salary scale is, again, automatic, except for the major salary bands. This requires a civil servant teacher to provide written evidence of success in three areas: professional training or a publication, workplace duties and community involvement. These elements may often have little connection to the task being undertaken. Selection on merit or by interview for a particular position is not the norm. As teachers are appointed by the district office, principals may not always accept responsibility for the management or supervision of members of their staff.Where problems arise, this may be seen as a district concern and referred to the district office or school supervisor. As the most senior district field officer, the school supervisor is responsible for gathering data about schools during school visits. Most of their duties are administrative and, therefore, subsidiary to the education task of quality improvement. Collection of forms and statistics, attendance at formal ceremonies, and communicating administrative memoranda are the priority rather than leading teaching seminars, conducting curriculum workshops, promoting new methodologies, analyzing student outcomes or mentoring principals on strategies for instructional 53 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law leadership in their schools.Thus, both officers to whom teachers report are rarely engaged in what should be the prime management task of assisting teachers to improve their classroom performance. Absence of sanctions for poor teacher performance means that, where inefficiency is identified there is no effective way for dealing with it. This has been pointed out by a national consultant: 27 "... when it comes to the domain of the civil service, it is not a common event to see a superior fire a staff member, despite the fact that a regulation on that does exist. In fact, even the probationary status in the civil service system that covers the first year of employment ... ... a civil servant candidate or "calon pegawai negeri", abbreviated CPNS, is already virtually ensured of permanent employment. It is only a court decision for criminal offense that could result in the termination of employment for civil servants. Upon reflection, as has been customarily voiced by individuals from other countries, perhaps it is this phenomenon that constitutes one of the two inherent weaknesses of the civil service system, the other being remuneration that is not tied to the quality of performance. With this kind of legal framework, civil servants are by and large not motivated to perform well ...." 33 Teacher morale can be severely undermined by ineffective teachers whose work is unacceptable to their colleagues and to the parents of students. It is, therefore, important to establish an effective mechanism for the discharge of persons unable to perform to at least a minimum standard. Good performance, too, should be linked to receipt of allowances and promotion opportunities. It is also essential to establish (perhaps mandate) that principals are responsible for the learning output of the school and are, therefore, responsible for the effectiveness of the teachers who provide instruction in the school. One method of clearly establishing this principle in the minds of principals is to require an annual return from each school on which the principal certifies the efficiency of each teacher. At the same time, school supervisors (pengawas) complete a similar assessment review schedule for all principals under their jurisdiction. Where a teacher's or principal's efficiency is in any doubt a program of support must be developed and implemented until performance levels are restored. Such a development program and the report written on its conclusion must be provided to the district office for action ­ either confirmation of efficiency or dismissal action 14. The need for higher standards in classroom teaching Teaching skill involves the ability of classroom teachers to engage students in the learning process. Skilled teachers are able to motivate students by stimulating their interest in the subject matter and increasing their willingness to participate fully in the learning activities organized.This may be through the particular methodology adopted, the relevancy of the content selected to the lives of the students, the interest the teacher can generate for students in the topic and many other factors of personality and training.The skill a teacher has in thoughtful preparation and imaginative delivery of lessons can have a remarkable impact on the concentration span and learning rate of students, and therefore on the scores they can achieve. Whilst there is often an inherent difference in a student's natural interest in certain subjects, a skilled teacher can usually stimulate interest in even the most difficult material by their mode of instruction, commitment to the students, management of the class and hard work. 27 T Raka Joni and Udik Budi Wibowo, Primary and Secondary School Teacher Management: A Review of Regulations, Policies and Practices. Unpublished Paper, 2005 54 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law In the main, Indonesian teachers face difficulty in developing and using these skills. Limited teaching skill is one of the main constraints faced in improving the learning of their students in the classroom. Poor initial preparation for teaching, lack of on-going professional development, inadequate mentoring by an experienced teacher and other factors have had a negative impact on the motivation and skill of the classroom teacher. Lessons are usually teacher-centered with large group instruction being common. Methods are often chalk-and-talk, with copying from the black-board and an authoritarian approach by the teacher. Focus is on memorization of material and not problem-solving. Instruction is more theoretical and didactic than practical and experiential. Students can remain disengaged from the task of learning, and their results, particularly on international measures, indicate underachievement. Limited university training capacity and inadequate financial resources in the past have restricted the supply and quality of trained teachers entering the system. Large numbers of incumbent teachers are currently untrained and lack the skills of new four-year trained graduates. Although Indonesia currently has an adequate supply of teachers, there is a wide variation in the quality of the courses they have undertaken. In addition, many of the current pre-service courses lack the flexible structure and innovative methodologies required for modern teacher-training. Recent development of standards for teacher education by BSNP and the adoption of these for accreditation purposes by BAN-PT may be beneficial in raising the quality of instruction, provided these standards are enforced. This report will explore the relationship between the newly developed teaching standards and the structures in place to train teachers and measure their success in the classroom. In-service training is not widely available to teachers once they have entered the teaching system. The lack of funding for such purposes and the isolation of many schools acts as a severe constraint. Where such in-school training takes place it is organized through the local cluster of schools (KKG/MGMP) by a local committee. Here schools release teachers to attend local cluster meetings and may provide support for transport or meals from their BOS grant. However, even when activities are held, they tend to focus on limited topics such as lesson preparation, and examination-item writing. There is little emphasis on classroom strategies and innovative methodologies designed to improve face-to-face teaching skill. The activities are usually led by a master teacher who may have received training at one of the national P4TK or may have attended a course at a provincial LPMP. Overall, cluster trainers are few in numbers and the number of active KKG/MGMP is relatively small. A recent study of the role and capacity of LPMP/ P4TK undertaken by AusAID provided a number of clear and important recommendations for future strengthening. Their role in delivery of training and evaluation of its outcomes received affirmation and some key recommendations to enhance their role were emphasized. This review provides a useful road- map for the quality improvement of teaching skills in Indonesia. In spite of its limited use, the current structure does offer some potential for fostering training at the grassroots level. It has already been used successfully by donor agencies, such as USAID DBE II, AusAID and the UNESCO CLCC program, and its adoption and funding by BERMUTU will add significant impetus to in-service training activities for improvement of teaching skill. The BERMUTU program will identify the successful strategies used by these donor programs, the lessons learned, and encourage replication of effective teaching practices Literacy and numeracy, and the ability to reason and to solve problems are essential pre-requisites for participation in a modern, democratic society. Improvement in the skill of teachers is a critical element in the way students learn about these core requirements. The quality of the classroom performance of teachers can be analyzed for improvement by means of video study. This will provide data for improvement of teaching skills in a number of ways. By collecting 55 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law and analyzing videos of classroom teaching at the beginning and the end of training interventions, an indication can be gained of their impact in improving instructional practices of teachers. Measures of differences in students will more easily provide an indicator of the improvement in student scores brought about by the interventions. This will provide evidence in the teacher certification exercise. Teachers could provide a videotape of a lesson and be rated according to the criteria contained in the present portfolio instrument used for teacher certification. A sample of teachers could be ranked according to the quality of their portfolios and this compared to a ranking according to their performance on the videotape. The rankings could be analyzed to determine the most significant teacher classroom behaviors in influencing student learning. There is also scope for using video-taping of lessons as a self-assessment technique. Self-assessment against a well-defined standards framework, supported and cross-validated by a principal or supervisor performance assessment, would be a very positive policy initiative. Such an assessment tool would also be useful if linked to career enhancement and salary increments. The validation of the teacher certification portfolio as an instrument to measure teacher competence can also involve the use of video-study. Analysis of the teacher skills identified in the lessons taped and comparison with student scores will enable identification of those characteristics and strategies in lessons which have the most beneficial impact. Such data will provide priorities for development of training activities which have utility in improving teacher skill 15. The need for higher standards in in-service training and continuing professional education of teachers The train-the-trainer structure linking the P4TK with KKG/MGMP has been identified as the principal professional development mechanism at the local level in the Indonesian education system. Effective use of local school clusters for in-service training is critical for teacher quality improvement and a number of strategies for activating more of these grassroots training delivery forums can be identified. A number of donor-funded initiatives are currently conducting very successful school-based programs to improve teacher skills based on the KKG/MGMP as the unit of training delivery. The successful principles underlying their programs will be incorporated in the BERMUTU program, particularly in the areas of classroom action research, curriculum and lesson plan development, subject materials, test development and analysis, teacher mentoring and study visits, and teacher classroom performance evaluation. A number of case studies of successful programs conducted by donor programs have been undertaken and provide exemplars of the potential of this structure for improving teacher skills and will be included in this report. Upgrading of under-qualified incumbent teachers seeking certification will increase teacher skill in the workplace. Enhancement of qualifications will depend on the willingness of universities to recognize prior learning (RPL) of teachers and grant credit for their experience in the workplace as a starting point and an incentive for further training. This will also require the willingness of universities to grant credits (SKS) to teachers who undertake locally organized in-service activities and school-based training. In-service training of new teachers entering the workforce is fundamental to the development of good teaching habits and in establishing confidence in new methods. Strategies currently used to induct beginning teachers into the school setting and the effect of this on the quality of their teaching need 56 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 3 The Quality Requirements of the Teacher Law to be researched and shared with all schools across the nation. Comparison between the responses of new teachers in schools with induction programs and those without induction programs can be used to determine the influence this has on teacher skills. An analysis of the current role of principals in the evaluation of teacher classroom performance and its impact on improvement of teaching skill would also assist in the institutionalization of this strategy. Video-study of lessons can also be used to improve teacher skills. To teach well, professional teachers must be reflective in their practice and be able to identify and solve classroom teaching problems and constantly upgrade their teaching technique (e.g. through trying new approaches). By video-taping their lessons and subjecting the results to critical analysis, groups of teachers can work together to improve the quality of their teaching skills. It is also important to introduce the concept of lesson study (and the way to conduct such study) as part of the teacher's pre-service education program. A study of this strategy would show how this is best used to equip teachers with classroom skills and how they might best use this methodology to continuously update themselves. However, one of the key international lessons on best practice in in-service education is that it must be established and recognized that teaching involves continuous professional development and lifelong learning. This is not established by one-time certification upon successful completion of a university program, examination or performance assessment. Rather, it involves induction and probation for a period of twelve months after the attainment of academic qualifications and before certification, and for a requirement to demonstrate a commitment to continual professional development for progression and promotion. These training programs must be realistic in the context of the economic and technological levels of the communities and schools to be served. Much can be achieved by sharing the experiences of teachers at the local level. Whilst incentives can influence teacher behavior, they should not be narrowly defined merely as financial incentives facilitated through adjustment of the compensation scheme. A broader mix of career development pathways, professional recognition and opportunities for promotion must complement monetary rewards. 16. Keeping the focus on quality in teaching This chapter has dealt with the competencies mandated by the Teacher Law, the development of standards and how these may be used for a variety of purposes: development of new teacher education training courses; defining the roles of teachers, principals and school supervisors; profiling the teacher workforce to provide reward for excellence and future leaders of the system; selecting the teachers and executive staff that best meet the requirements for excellent teaching; planning for the future provisions in the school classroom; and so on. It is critical to have such standards. They must be well-developed and validated in order to truly reflect the needs of the society and the desire to have the very highest quality of teachers to educate children. However, in spite of the many sets of standards now emerging, the reform of the educational system will not be fully successful if the classroom performance of teachers remains poor and does not result in improved learning by students.The latter part of this publication discusses the importance of instructional leadership in schools and the need for good teachers to work in classrooms alongside new teachers or failing teachers to demonstrate good teaching methods. Classroom assessment of teacher performance and the use of effective feedback and mentoring remain critical for improvement to the quality of teaching and the achievements of students. 57 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification 1. Evidence of need to improve the quality of teachers As discussed in Chapter 1, international test evidence has identified deficiencies in the academic achievement of Indonesian students and suggests the need to improve the quality of teachers. In recent years, further research evidence has underlined some of the major reasons for weakness in teacher quality. These provide an agenda for action and foreshadow some of the initiatives in the Teacher Law. (i) A study of the impact of the decentralization28 of 2001 on educational management shows some of the difficulties arising from ambiguity in the division of responsibilities between districts and the central agencies, and the inadequacy of skill in carrying out many of the functions at the local level. Deficiencies in the ability of local district offices to plan, budget, and finance their education system continues to cause problems. Furthermore, lack of the necessary technical and management skills has resulted in difficulties in providing planning data, recruiting teachers, providing in-service training, and monitoring the quality of teaching and the achievements of students. These factors have hindered the delivery of an effective and quality service. 28 World Bank, Education in Indonesia: Managing the Transition to Decentralisation, Jakarta, 2004. 59 Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification (ii) A recent employment and deployment study29 identified six major issues which impact on teacher management and the quality of teaching outcomes: (a) uneven distribution of teachers; (b) inequities for remote schools; (c) workloads are too low and have too much variation; (d) there is an overall excess of staff; (e) remuneration is relatively low with wide variations in allowances; and (f) there is concern about the quality of teacher competencies. (iii)A video-study30 of classroom management inYear 8 mathematics has shown that teachers spend less lesson time on new content and put less emphasis on reasoning and problem solving. Compared to international best practice, Indonesian teachers should: (a) apply better time management and use time more effectively to teach relevant content; (b) put more emphasis on higher order thinking in instructional delivery; (c) apply content overlap to what is taught and what is tested; (d) apply the proper level of content coverage to ensure the level and amount of content covered is equal to the level and amount understood by the student; and (e) create an environment of enjoyable learning to maintain student engagement, involvement and attention. (iv) A study of teacher working groups in Indonesia (KKG/MGMP)31 identified them as a critical support mechanism for teachers at the local school-cluster level. Whilst providing a potentially effective continuous professional development network; the study found there is need to strengthen this mechanism through greater activation by district offices; access to more adequate funding; training for working group management committees; greater access to workshop leaders and professional trainers; greater guidance in conducting training programs; closer regulation of cluster meetings; access to innovative trainers; and leadership training for key members of the group. Recognition of the deficiencies identified in such studies ensured that the Teacher Law included a range of provisions to address the issue of teacher quality and teacher welfare. The main motivation for the formulation of the new law was to improve teacher quality. However, in return for greater teacher welfare, all teachers were required to be certified as an indication that they had achieved the benchmark level of training and practical skill to be effective in the classroom. 2. What the Law requires for certification The Law outlined differing requirements for incumbent (in-service) teachers already on the payroll, and for those teachers undertaking pre-service training in the LPTK to become certified. (a)Incumbent (in-service) teachers were to complete a competency examination, as well as undertaking a classroom performance assessment if they held an S1 (four-year degree) qualification. Those who were under-qualified were to complete sufficient courses by distance learning, or other means, to reach S1 before they undertook the certification test. Such teachers were also eligible to apply for up to 65% credit in recognition of prior learning (RPL); (b)Pre-service teachers would in future be required to hold the S1 degree and, in addition, would need to undertake one or two semesters of post-graduate professional training in teaching.This would require all LPTK and teacher training universities to re-write courses to upgrade all D1, D2 and D3 diploma courses into four-year degree courses, and, in addition, develop the post-graduate professional training courses. In future, no teacher without certification was to be employed. 29 World Bank, Teacher Employment and Deployment in Indonesia: Opportunities for Equity, Efficiency and Quality Improvement, Jakarta, 2007. 30 Overhead presentation of study findings, Video-study in Mathematics: Indonesia 2007, Jakarta 2008, final report not yet available. 31 Overhead presentation of study findings, Teacher Working Groups in Indonesia: A Study to Understand the Current Situation and Identify Opportunities for Increased Effectiveness, World Bank, 2008. 60 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification A ten-year period for gaining certification was prescribed in the Law. With 2.7 million teachers already in the service, it became critical to commence the process as soon as possible for the incumbent teachers, as all pre-service teachers would be already certified by the time of their employment. The Law did not prescribe the operational mechanism to be used but the Ministry had a process already in train to develop a model which was both acceptable to all stakeholders (LPTK, districts, schools and others), as well as being simple to implement. But it was critical that the procedures be rigorous and that standards be maintained at the highest level in order to protect the integrity of the certification process. It was also important that the procedures subsequently developed for inclusion in the Regulation could adequately fulfill the requirements of the Law. 3. Certification for in-service (incumbent) teachers According to the provisions of the Teacher Law, existing S1 and D4 teachers were eligible for immediate certification. However, the balance of in-service teachers required an upgrading procedure to bring them to a level where they would be eligible for certification. Whilst the Teacher Law and its associated Regulations identified a number of requirements for the certification of both in-service and pre-service teachers, the nature of these was later to change on a number of occasions during the writing of the numerous drafts of the Regulation that accompanied the Law. The issue of teacher certification for incumbent teachers fell into two areas: a. A Certification Test If fully qualified, an in-service teacher required two steps to become certified: (i) Completion of a Competency Examination set by a nationally accredited certifying education university (LPTK) with the authority to issue an Educator Certificate. This was to be based on the subject knowledge and the pedagogical knowledge of the teacher; (ii) Undertaking a Performance Assessment completed during a classroom visit to the teacher's school and classroom. This would involve: observation of the teacher's classroom work, inspection of the teacher's lessons, examination of the students' work, discussions with the teacher's peers and principal, and discussion with parents. This would be implemented by a senior teacher, principal or school supervisor (pengawas) trained for this purpose by the university and acting on its behalf. b. Upgrading for under-qualified incumbent teachers If an in-service teacher was not fully qualified, there were to be two options available: (i) Academic study: Here teachers could undertake formal study through a university by distance mode, on-the-job training, or other method. Universities would award credit for prior learning and skills ­ up to 60% of the qualifications "gap" could be filled by credit points given for prior experience. Universities were to require a Teacher Portfolio to enable teachers using this option to provide details of their professional experiences to determine the amount of advanced standing or credit each teacher could obtain towards completion of the training course. These reduced length courses were 61 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification termed partial courses; (ii) A governmentequivalencyexamination:This was to be a"by-pass"examination set by and administered by the central government. Selected under-qualified teachers could be invited to attempt this government-set examination irrespective of how many years of study they were below the S1 or D4 level. This was a "high stakes" test, but success in this examination would make under-qualified teachers eligible to immediately undertake the certification process. Whilst success here might make a teacher eligible to undertake the certification process, it was not to be seen to qualify them at the S1 or D4 level. This test was to be designed as an academic one based on the four competencies defined in the Teacher Law. 4. History of development of the certification process (a) Using a consensus-building process to finalize the model The teacher certification program would eventually impact directly on 2.7 million Indonesian teachers, as well as affecting many of the conditions under which they were employed. The final nature of the process had been under discussion since a draft of the Teacher Law became available for comment and discussion in 1999. Numerous discussions and seminars had been held over the years to discuss the program and a large number of education experts and practitioners had been consulted. During this time, a number of national educational organizations, including the Indonesian Teacher Association (Persatuan Guru Republik Indonesia or PGRI) and the Indonesian Education Association (Ikatan Sarjana Pendidikan Indonesia or ISPI) had provided comments on the proposals to be incorporated into the law. A number of other stakeholders included the Rectors of the LPTK, the Ministry of National Education (MONE), and the Ministry of Religious Affairs (MORA) had also been involved. In finalizing the model to be adopted, further input was actively sought to ensure all groups had ownership in the process and that it represented the most effective way in which to implement the requirements of the Law. During the consensus-building period, a number of representative working groups and others had conducted workshops and prepared papers proposing models for consideration. Major papers included: a. Program Pendidikan Profesi Dan Sertifikasi Pendidik: the Teacher Certification Working Group; b. Penyelenggaraan Program Sertifikasi Guru: Committee of Rectors of LPTK; c. The Implementation of Teachers' Certification in Indonesia: Issues, Risks and Alternative Solutions: National Consultant; d. A Model for Teacher Certification under the new Teacher Law: International Consultant. In addition, a number of other papers and materials outlining modified models and processes were received and worked into the developing summative model using an iterative process. Altogether, models studied could be grouped as follows: (a) MONE Working Group model; (b) an amalgamated national consultants'model; (c) model from the consortium of Rectors of LPTK; (d) model of Special Commission for Higher Education; (e) Open University model; (f) model of international consultant; and, (g) provincial models from East Java and Gorontalo 62 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification In developing a consensus model from these sources the following procedure was used: a. a comparative analysis was made of the four key models and the strengths and weaknesses of each was considered and summarized; b. A summative model was prepared. This involved identifying the components appearing to have the greatest support and re-constituting these into the most workable and feasible process; c. presentation of the summative model to a higher education conference at which additional ideas were discussed, particularly those from higher education institutions and agencies. Additional ideas were included; d. participation in a workshop chaired by the DG, PMPTK with input from the Director, Higher Education, members of the MONE Certification Working Group (Professor Zamroni), the Open University, members of the PMPTK and the World Bank. Following further adjustments a revised summative model was then developed; e. a Roundtable Conference, chaired by the Director-General of PMPTK, was held involving experts from universities, teachers, local NGO representatives, education practitioners, directorates of the PMPTK, the study team from PMPTK, consultants from the World Bank and representatives from districts and the provinces to review and finalize the revised summative model. (b) Comparison of proposed certification Models The Roundtable Conference provided an opportunity for major stakeholders to present their final thinking about the manner in which the certification process should be undertaken. Different aspects of the models are included in Table 4.1 below. Table 4.1 Comparing Four Teacher Certi cation Models Proposed Rectors'Model MONE Working Group Model National Consultants'Model International Consultant's Model 1. All teachers required 1. Schools take part in an 1. Teacher certification process to 1. Teacher prepares a Work to undertake a 40 credit Internal Skills Audit conducted be by an independent consortium Portfolio to provide evidence course from an LPTK by KKG/MGMP or schools. (to avoid conflict of interest) of achievement in all four on which they will be Materials and guidelines for composed of: competencies. This to be tested. Internal Skills Audit developed a. LPTK and training body forwarded to the district by LPMP/P4TK. b. Schools and education office. authority c. Teacher's Association 2. Some advanced 2. Those who pass the skills 2. An Equivalency Program to be 2. Performance Assessment standing given to audit sit for the certification test. developed by LPTK to upgrade Report prepared by a trained graduates from LPTK The certification test includes existing teachers to the S1/ Assessor (pengawas, principal, and to other teachers on written tests, references D4 level. To be undertaken by master teacher, retired the basis of experience, and a portfolio. Schools and distance learning strategies. principals). previous courses, and teachers will be briefed on the Teachers to attend a residential Extent of prior learning certificates awarded. methodology of the written component. recognized (up to 2 years' test and the performance equivalence) assessment. 63 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification Rectors'Model MONE Working Group Model National Consultants'Model International Consultant's Model 3. Course delivery to be 3. Participants prepare their 3. A Certification Program to be 3. Both documents taken to face-to-face or mixed Professional Portfolio of conducted by a Consortium: District Assessment Panel for mode. competence and experience for 1. Written test designed as a approval (to include university consideration. case-study problem to measure professor as chair, a district teacher competence in detecting officer and a prominent local problems in schools and in finding citizen) alternative solutions 2. Performance test for those passing the written test. The consortium can train lecturers, inspectors, instructors and master teachers to become observers for the performance test. 3. Self-appraisal combined with a Professional Portfolio handed-in at the time of the performance test. 4. Teachers not holding 4. Certification to be given 4. An Internal Skills Audit Program 4. Those approved by the S1/D4 to undertake by a Consortium consisting to be conducted by schools. District Assessment Panel additional training in of LPTK, D-G PMPTK and In collaboration with specialist are placed on a register and accelerated programs teacher associations. National subject teachers associations a list of their names sent to under government Consortium is chaired by (MGMP) to identify teachers who the university which issues sponsorships and the D-G PMPTK. A Provincial are ready to join the Teacher the Educator's Certificate. The scholarships Consortium which includes Certification Program. Names District Office then pays the the certifying agency (LPTK) of teachers qualified to attend professional allowance to is chaired by the LPTK. A the program could be sent to which the teacher is now Provincial Consortium without the Consortium, whilst the list entitled. a certifying agency (LPTK) is of teachers still in need of in- chaired by the Head of the service training could be sent to Provincial Office or the Head of the Provincial Education Quality the LPMP Assurance Agency (LPMP) 5. Future curriculum of 5. Those passing the 5. An In-service Training Program to 5. Those not approved by LPTK to include courses certification test are awarded an be held for: the District Assessment to enable automatic Educator's Certificate signed by - those failing the MONE Panel are referred to the award of certification the LPTK and the Chair of the competency test (even though provincial LPMP to undertake Consortium. they already hold an S1/D4 a basic skills test (or broader Those who fail the certification qualification) competency test) to test must take a professional - those failing the teacher determine their knowledge education and training program certification program conducted and skills. Those who fail by the consortium this test will be required to - those failing the written test or undertake a remedial course performance test needing to re- at the provincial LPMP present themselves 6. Those who have participated 6. Determination of how in the professional education much prior learning will be and training program may recognized (RPL) or advanced re-take the certification test. standing given for those who Those who pass the re-take of are under-qualified with fewer the certification are given an than four years'of study Educator's Certificate signed by the LPTK and the Chairperson of the Consortium. Those who do not pass the re-take must study independently and may re-take the certification test when ready. Those who fail the certification test three times are not permitted to take the test again 64 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification Rectors'Model MONE Working Group Model National Consultants'Model International Consultant's Model 7. Teachers without the S1/D4 7. Teachers with less than qualification join the Diploma an S1/D4 qualification will 4 Qualification program be required to undertake conducted by the LPTK an External Course (distance education) of semester length for each semester the teacher is below the four-year trained level 8. The number of credits taken 8. Alternatively, the teacher will depend upon: (1) the may undertake a Unit of Study duration of the course required; on an approved topic under (2) competences gained in past LPTK/ LPMP supervision for training each semester the teacher is below the four-year trained level 9. Training previously 9. On completion of the undertaken through an LPMP/ necessary study the teacher P4TK or other institutions can will be given a further be given as credits where Performance Assessment by a relevant certified Assessor (pengawas, principal, master teacher) and awarded the Educator's Certificate by the LPTK 10. The courses for teachers will include education professional materials 11. New S1/D4 graduates with education or non-education background are required to gain an Educator's Certificate through following the teacher professional program (c) The Round Table Model of 15 March 2006 Details of the model presented at the Round Table Conference of 15 March involved the following steps are set out below: a. An Internal Skills Audit It was proposed that this process be undertaken by the principal of the school, or the primary cluster (KKG), or the secondary subject cluster (MGMP) with the guidance of trained Assessors. The Assessors will be drawn from the ranks of principals, school supervisors (pengawas) and master teachers. They will be required to undertake a training course prior to commencing the audit process. The Audit is undertaken to determine the eligibility of teachers to take the competency test for certification. Data collected during the audit will include: a. Names of all teachers and their current level of training (S1, D2, and so on); b. Number of hours taught each week; c. Number of years they have been teaching; d. Current level of experience reflected in the levels of the classes taught over the past ten years; 65 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification e. Additional training taken in the form of in-service courses, conferences attended, meetings attended; f. Additional professional standing attained by writing articles, leadership of training courses, coordination of learning within the school, and other evidence of professional status; and g. A self-assessment of their knowledge and need for additional training. Data collected will enable the Ministry to determine those to move directly to the competency test and those requiring additional training and the extent of the training required before they can take the competency test. The design of instruments and supporting documentation and a training program would be undertaken by a National Internal Skills Audit Task Force. b. A Competency Test This test is to consist of two parts: a. A written test on basic skills in writing, reading and mathematics. It will contain some subject matter. This test will be set by the nearest certifying university. Eligible teachers will undertake this part of the test at the provincial LPMP or a national P4TK. Those who pass will move to the second component of the competency test. Those who fail will be directed to undertake the relevant subjects in a Professional Education and Training Program yet to be determined. This will be a remedial course with a mix of subjects provided by the provincial LPMP or a national P4TK.Teachers should only undertake those subjects deemed necessary after consideration of the parts of the written test which they failed; b. A Classroom Performance Assessment (including a Professional Portfolio) undertaken by a trained Assessor during a visit to the teacher's classroom. This will involve observation of the teacher's lessons and use of an instrument to assess the teacher's skills in the competency areas defined in the Teacher Law. In addition the teacher will submit a portfolio of work and experience addressing the four competency areas for review by the Assessor and discussion with the teacher. The principal will be required to endorse the Assessor's judgment. Teachers who pass are awarded certification by the certifying university. Teachers who fail will be directed to undertake the relevant subjects in a Professional Education and Training Program. This will be a remedial course with a mix of subjects written by the certifying university and provided by the LPTK through the provincial LPMP or national P4TK. Teachers will only undertake those subjects deemed necessary after consideration of the parts of the written test which they failed. This type of procedure is central to the certification process in a number of countries. One example is the Praxis system of certification which is used by a large number of state education authorities in the United States. However, the design of instruments and supporting documentation, as well as a training program for district officers, would be undertaken by a Competency Testing Task Force established at the national level. c. A training upgrade (equivalency) program Following the Internal Skills Audit up to 65% of teachers will be identified as requiring additional training to achieve the four-year trained level. 66 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification Two strategies can be used: i. An Equivalency Program to be offered by distance education or mixed mode by the teacher training universities (LPTK) to fill the training gap identified by the skills audit. A range of courses can be designed from which teachers can select with guidance from the training provider. The course may be tailor-made to suit the requirements of the teacher and will consist of subject courses, teaching method courses and practical experiences to match the deficiencies of the teacher; ii. A system of Units of Study which will consist of a series of assignments and written reports to be completed by teachers in their own time and submitted to the LPTK for assessment. They can focus only on approved topics and will have a usually involve action research by the teacher in the classroom. This will reduce the demand on the universities for on-campus courses. The design of a curriculum structure for this purpose, its negotiation with LPTK and universities, and the identification of training sites and course delivery modes is to be undertaken by a Teacher Training Upgrade Task Force. d. A remedial Professional Education and Training Program This program could be selected from a range of courses already available through the national P4TK, and the school cluster working groups (KKG and MGMP). Teachers who fail the certification process will only be required to undertake courses relevant to the areas in which they did not meet the required standard. Some teachers would have a heavier focus on practical teaching skills, others may have to focus on basic skill or subject courses. The design of a curriculum structure for this purpose, its negotiation with LPTK's and universities, and the identification of training sites and course delivery modes would be undertaken by the Teacher Training Upgrade Task Force. Figure 4.1 illustrates the processes and the flow of the proposed model: Figure 4.1 Diagram of the Round Table Consensus Model of 15 March and its Task Requirements "BERMUTU"(Better Education through Reformed Management and Universal Teacher Upgrading) S1/D4 (PGSD, FKIP Bidang Studi KeSD -an, Non-Edn + Akta IV for SMP -SMA) COMPETENCY TEACHER TEST CERTIFICATE - Written INTERNAL S1/D4 COURSE - Performance TEACHER SKILLS AUDIT NON -EDN WORK Assessment INCL RPL - Subject BELOW - Method S1/D4 - Practice REMEDIAL COURSE/ ASSIGNMENT/ PROGRAM TASKS TO BE SKILLS AUDIT "EQUIVALENCY" COMPETENCY TEST: REMEDIATION: CERTIFICATION UNDER-TAKEN: (MAPPING): COURSE WORK: Instruments (Written - Coursework and/ COMPLETED Instruments -Upgrade subject Test, Performance or methodology and training knowledge Assessment, Professional - Upgrade Portfolio) and training methodology MONE STEERING Task Force to Task Force to be Task Force to be Task Force to be Evaluation COMMITTEE be established established established established teams to be engaged 67 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification (d) Testing the Model through the five Pilot Study districts With funding from the World Bank, the Ministry selected a sample of five districts32 in which to undertake two investigations: (a) to study the implementation of strategies for teacher upgrading and certification (TUC);and,(b)tostudytheissueofteacheremploymentanddeploymentasabasisforpolicydevelopment on school staffing (TED). The pilot study districts were selected to create a focus for these activities, to gather data and to guide developments. With the cooperation of the five districts it was intended that some of the strategies being considered could be evaluated before more widespread adoption. Field visits were arranged and began to provide some useful data in the context of the policies and procedures to be implemented. Thesedistrictswerechosenbecauseoftheirwillingnesstobeinvolvedininnovativeprogramsthroughthe commitment of their personnel and resources. They were also supported through advice and resources from the central directorates of the Ministry and the World Bank. Early and effective involvement in these programs was expected to benefit the pilot districts and establish them as exemplars to other districts. In the teacher certification and upgrading component, the pilot study encompassed teachers in primary, junior secondary and senior secondary schools, both public and private. This component was intended to extend until the end of 2007, and then, based on the lessons, would later merge into the BERMUTU program which was under design at the time. This component would enable the trial of some aspects of the teacher certification model as agreed at the March Roundtable Conference of stakeholders. Pilot study activities could be managed by a Steering Committee established by the Ministry of National Education and chaired by the Director General of the PMPTK or his representative. The Committee would be supported by a Secretariat of full-time officers responsible for the development of instruments of measurement, manuals of instruction and training courses to guide those implementing the process. A suggested organizational structure to manage the pilot study included both the Teacher Certification and Training Upgrade component as well as the Teacher Employment and Deployment component. It reflected the fact that the pilot study had been designed to integrate both components. There are significant advantages to this integration, including the use of a Secretariat common to both components, the linking of operational activities such as the collection and analysis of teacher data, and opportunities to share resources and minimize costs. The integration of the two components within the single study had other policy advantages. It would be possible for the pilot study to link current structural difficulties identified by the previous studies such as school staff surpluses or similar teacher workforce inequities to the certification process. For example, by restricting certification (and therefore higher salaries) to only those teachers who have full teaching loads or are part of the approved staff establishment, incentives could be created for teachers which will enable administrators to more adequately enforce more cost effective staffing policies. Certification would then become a real tool to support re-deployment, hence result in greater efficiency in the usage of teachers. Theorganizationalchartbelowproposedstructuresatbothnationalanddistrictlevelforthemanagement of the study: 32 The five selected districts were: Sukabumi (West Java), Gorontalo (Gorontalo), Merauke, (Papua), Tanar Datar (West Sumatra), and Lombok Barat (NTB). 68 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification (i) At national level the key element was to be the establishment of four task forces to work within MONE. These task forces were to create the operational tools to enable the certification and training upgrade and remedial process to take place. The four task forces fell into two groups: a. The Internal Skills Audit Task Force and the Competency Testing Task Force were both to be concerned with the preparation of the instruments to undertake these processes. Members would need not only to be experts in these fields but to be able to translate the theory into operational tools. They needed to be able to identify best practice instruments, field test them and declare their readiness for use. They would also be required to draft the explanatory instructions and memoranda, and develop the training courses necessary for officers responsible for implementation of the study. They would also need to be available to support the pilot study districts in the implementation of the process; b. The Teacher Training Upgrade Task Force and the Teacher Remedial Training Task Force were both concerned with the training and re-training process. Both are vital links in the teacher quality improvement program. The design of a curriculum structure for the two purposes of upgrade and remediation, its negotiation with LPTK and universities, and the identification of training sites and course delivery modes would be undertaken by these two task forces. Many of the course elements would be co-joint and the two task forces need to maintain close liaison with each other. Each task force was to draw its members from those education officers most highly qualified in the fields of the task force. In the initial setting up phase, it would be sufficient to have one in each of the two areas grouped above to commence work and to establish work-plans and timelines whilst selection of the other task force members proceeded. However, as the work builds it would be necessary to establish each of the task forces properly to undertake the large volume of work that will be required. The four task forces were each to have a Technical Officer for support who would report to the Director of the Secretariat. In the initial setting up phase, the one Technical Officer could service all four of the task forces. Later, as the workload increases, it would be necessary to add to the number of these officers. (ii) At district level the management structure would work through a Certification and Training Task Force whose responsibility would be to oversee the implementation process at the local level. The implementation process proposed would be executed through a Panel of Assessors who would apply the various instruments within schools and undertake the performance assessment of teachers. It was intended that a planning workshop be conducted by the PMPTK with the district officers from the sample districts. A program for this activity will need preparation. AdetailedmanagementdiagramisincludedinFigure4.2below.Thisdiagramshowstheinter-relationships between the Secretariat and the support to be provided for the task forces when the Steering Committee and the structures required to undertake its charter were fully operational. 69 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification Figure 4.2 Management Structure for Pilot Study MONE STEERING COMMITTEE (PMPTK) SECRETARIAT FOUR TASK FORCES: - INTERNAL SKILLS AUDIT - COMPETENCY TESTING DISTRICT - TRAINING UPGRADE EDUCATION OFFICE - REMEDIAL PROGRAM TEACHER DEPLOYMENT CERTIFICATION/UPGRADE TASK FORCE TASK FORCE SCHOOL SUPERVISOR PANEL OF ASSESSORS (PENGAWAS) SCHOOLS/TEACHERS SCHOOLS/TEACHERS Initially, the pilot study was seen to provide an avenue through which to evaluate both the process of certification and the degree to which it provided quality improvement of teachers and thus the improvement in student achievement. Areas for attention were: 1. Theneedtodeterminethevalidityoftheinstrumentsdesignedtomeasurethecompetenciesrequiring assessment. For example, it was necessary to determine the validity of the instrument designed to undertake the skills audit (including the self-assessment tool); the validity of the instrument used to assess the performance of teachers in the classroom; and the validity of the written component of the competency test in evaluating the basic skills of teachers. Clearly, the development of these instruments requires research into best practice and the field testing of draft forms and documents to ensure that they measured accurately what is required. 2. The need to evaluate the processes for certification. For example, the evaluation addressed the following questions: Is the process so complex and time-consuming that it warrants major revision? Does the process enable the system to achieve the certification targets required by RENSTRA? Do the processes of re-training and upgrading training supply the quality improvements to classroom teaching required? Does the training developed provide operatives with the necessary skills to fulfill their tasks? Are the manuals of advice and memoranda supplied to communicate the processes clear and unambiguous? It became critical to monitor the operation of the processes throughout the implementation phase and be prepared to make adjustments to improve systems on a continuous basis. 3. The need to evaluate student learning to determine whether the processes have resulted in student improvement as measured by student scores. For example, has the certification process itself resulted in improved instructional techniques by teachers which flow through to improved student scores? Have the upgrade courses provided the necessary knowledge and skill to under-qualified teacher that result in improved student scores?This form of evaluation can be quite complex and the 70 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification employment of an evaluation specialist to design instruments for this purpose and to identify a valid sample with pre-test and post-test scores is essential. Use of international instruments such as the TIMSS (The International Mathematics and Science Scheme) test is particularly important as it will not only provide data to evaluate any improved student outcomes from the certification mechanism but it will also enable international comparisons to be made. In fact, little of this could be undertaken through the pilot districts. However, they did provide a useful opportunity to test the instruments and the mechanisms proposed to manage the process at the local district level. Later, the BERMUTU program was planned to provide funding for a number of impact studies to evaluate the results of strategies adopted to improve the quality of learning using student scores. Agencies within the government tested the instruments during development and are committed to a number of other evaluation activities related to certification. The output from these studies will be considered with interest. (e) Developing the teacher certification instruments in 2006 The initial instrument-development process took place during 2006. A team within the Directorate of Higher Education (DIKTI) was responsible for developing and trialing the instruments to be used in the certification process. These consisted of: a. Written tests in Kindergarten, Primary, Maths, Physics, Biology, Chemistry, Bahasa Indonesia, English, Economics, Geography, History, and Civics (other subjects were to be developed later); b. A classroom observation test to assess teacher performance; and c. A self appraisal/teacher portfolio and peer assessment instrument. When completed, these instruments were to be submitted to the BSNP for approval. This step was involved to ensure they satisfactorily addressed the competencies mandated by the Teacher Law and the standards developed by the BSNP. At that time, the instrument development task force anticipated it would complete these by the time the Regulation was ratified, in late September or early October, 2006. Trials of these test instruments were conducted in five districts (Kota Padang, Kota Surabaya, Kabupaten Malang, Kota Malang and Kabupaten Singaraja) and results were used to modify the instruments wherever necessary. In August, 2006, the work was quite well advanced and likely to meet its October target-date. Through representation on the task force, universities were fully involved in the development phase. Their expertise in teacher education, particularly the internship phase of teacher training, was used by the working party. Their knowledge of subject and pedagogical testing, and course design also made an important contribution. The teacher portfolio instrument was designed as a self-assessment/peer assessment tool to be used to support the classroom teacher assessment process. It was also to be used to assist universities to calculate the extent of any prior learning to be recognized in establishing the entry point of academically under-qualified teachers to the upgrade training procedure. Universities already have limited procedures in place to award academic credits to mature age students seeking advanced standing when enrolling from other universities. The concept of the teacher portfolio is well known in the Indonesian education system and has been used previously. However, a set of clear guidelines and simplified practices had to be developed to ensure consistency and equity in this process. 71 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification (f) Developing and using a classroom performance assessment instrument Classroom assessment of teacher performance was to be a critical element in the certification process. It was seen as the fulcrum on which effective teacher quality improvement was to be hinged. This concept is not new in Indonesia and there is considerable evidence of district and university experience in the development of instruments for evaluation of schools, particularly through the work of the provincial LPMP as centers for the quality assurance of schools. In recent years teams have been selected and trained by these agencies to undertake quality assurance visits to schools, and a cyclical schedule of visits has commenced from many of these institutions. Some districts have also been active in the classroom performance assessment of teachers. Instruments devised for this purpose vary widely in character. Some focus on the assessor making broad, fairly subjective statements about the quality of the teacher's performance. Some are highly precise, using a Likert-type scale against a number of statements about the quality of the teaching. Some even use a fairly complex mathematical score to rate candidates. Some are only for use with a trainee teacher undertaking an internship period. Others are for use with the experienced teacher. All have something to teach about the qualities of good teachers and how this might be assessed. All involve observation in the classroom. One instrument developed required classroom assessors to identify the ability of the teacher in a number of dimensions, such as the following five domains: (a) planning and preparation; (b) classroom presentation; (c) communication skills; (d) ethics of teaching, and (e) professional growth. Each domain was then defined in terms of the sorts of behaviors (competencies) teachers should demonstrate in their classrooms and in their work. During observations, teacher behavior can then be ranked according to ability and practice as follows: HD (Highly Developed / Very Satisfactory), C (Competent / Satisfactory), D (Developing / Almost satisfactory), E (Experiencing Difficulties), U (Unsatisfactory). On this form the assessor was asked to write a general comment for each of the domains about the teacher's performance, allowing a degree of variation in interpretation of the differences between individual teachers. If the ticks in each box were to be added over the entire form a mathematical total would enable the recorder to give a score to each teacher. Unfortunately, this gives a degree of precision to the decision that is perhaps not warranted, since many of these judgments are quite subjective. It is possible to go further with such an instrument by providing a Manual of Advice containing definitions of the characteristics that typify the particular behavior required for each degree of expertise observed. This could be written in each box across the page. In a training course developed to support the process, assessors could be asked to observe a variety of teachers conducting their classes (either in real time or on video). Assessors would be asked to sit in groups to observe the lesson whilst marking the instrument. Afterwards, by discussion, the assessors could arrive at a consensus about whether the teacher's observed characteristics conformed to one level of behavior or another. With practice, a remarkable degree of consensus can be reached. Of course, it is important to have regular debriefing sessions and reviews to re-establish that consistency and widen the perspective of assessors in the identification of good teaching practice. A decision has to be made in the certification process about the cut-off point for success, i.e. whether or not a teacher performs well enough to"pass"the process. Is it defined as the teacher who is"Developing / Almost Satisfactory" or the lower level "Experiencing Difficulties"? Clearly, however, "Unsatisfactory" is below the cut-off. Further, is it sufficient for a teacher who is"Unsatisfactory"in one behavior but"Highly Developed / Very Satisfactory"in another to pass the test overall? Do some behaviors, for example, count more than others? These issues can be the subject of considerable discussion before some agreement is reached. Much depends on the cultural context and the system's image of a model teacher. Whilst 72 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification some behaviors can be related easily to improved performance in terms of student scores, others are a little more difficult to link. This is largely because an education system wants children to succeed in more dimensions than simply scores. (g) Selecting and training teacher classroom performance assessors The design of the type of classroom performance assessment instrument was the responsibility of the Higher Education Taskforce. Its effective use requires considerable expertise and educational judgment. Careful selection of assessors and an intensive training course to develop the necessary skill are therefore essential elements. Nominally, school supervisors (or pengawas) have an evaluation role requiring classroom visitation and observation. However, there is some concern about the nature and effectiveness of their current role and it was considered preferable to expand the pool of personnel for the role of assessor by drawing from the following groups: appropriate school supervisors (pengawas), principals, expert teachers, senior teachers, core teachers and university lecturers. Criteria used for selection were: a. Extensive recent experience (the last five years) in the classroom, either as a teacher or assessor; b. Qualifications of at least S1 level; c. Familiaritywithrecentcurriculumchangesandthelatestactivelearningteachingmethodologies in the appropriate area; d. Commitment to the assessment process and the need to improve the quality of teaching in schools; e. Excellent skills in observation, writing and speaking; f. Knowledge and skills in the four competency areas of the Teacher Law. Following selection, those chosen should be provided with at least one week's training in the process conducted jointly by the district and the university. If possible a core team should be trained at the national level. This training course was to cover the following topics: a. Details of the Teacher Law and the accompanying Regulation; b. Characteristics of quality teachers identified by the literature, particularly the proven links between active teaching practice and student scores; c. The key competencies mandated in the Teacher Law (and the expanded list in the Regulation) required by teachers and the standards to be applied; d. Examination of a teacher portfolio; e. The components of the teacher performance assessment instrument; f. Practice at the use of the instrument in the observation of teacher performance, including visits to classrooms to observe teachers and videotaping of lessons. These should all be discussed in workshops until assessors arrive at a consensus of what constitutes the best teaching practice and its links with student scores; g. Mock interviews with teachers to discuss lessons, and review portfolios; h. Expectations of teacher preparation and links with curriculum, standards of student bookwork and homework, and standards for student testing and test results; 73 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification i. Structures for ensuring consistency of judgment, including use of panels, regular assessor meetings to discuss cases, exchange of tips and professional advice. Training must be experiential in nature. Much of the course should focus on observing teachers in the classroom or observing videotaped examples of good teachers and poorer teachers operating in their classrooms. Assessors should be working in groups when observing these case studies and completing the assessment form. Following completion of their observation, they should compare their reports to arrive at a consensus in their judgment of the teacher's performance. This socialization experience will be a valuable form of training to ensure consistency of standards and confidence in assessment. Such a training exercise should continue to be repeated at meetings of assessors to be held regularly within each district using their experiences in the field to maintain the ongoing consistency and integrity of the process. This teacher certification model proposed the selection and training of assessors to form judgments about teacher performance in order to determine their suitability for certification. The tasks to be performed were to include: a. Observation of the teacher's classroom lessons to assess the teacher's knowledge, skills and attitude in the classroom; b. Gathering additional data about classroom work such as the standard of student bookwork, and oral response to questioning. This might also involve giving the students a spelling test or mathematics test, then asking students to give oral answers; c. Examination of teacher records such as lessons plans, exam papers set, test scores recorded and the standard of blackboard work; d. Interview the teacher about the lesson and its relationship to the wider curriculum; e. Examination of the teacher's portfolio of work and discussion of this with the teacher; f. Meeting persons at the teacher's request such as parents, students, and other; g. Writing a one-page report on the teacher's work with a recommendation regarding the teacher's performance and gaining the endorsement of the principal. Such a performance assessment was to be designed to take about one day in a school. This technique is a very useful strategy for teacher quality improvement and will require considerable investment of time and energy in training, practice and de-briefing guidance to operate effectively. However, the process is the core of real teacher improvement. Assessors who visit classrooms to make judgments about performance must provide accurate and constructive reports to guide teacher growth. Later adoption of such practices by school principals and experienced teachers will establish a climate of instructional improvement in schools. In the longer term the process can be used by districts to establish an annual performance appraisal cycle in schools linked to school goals by principals for school development and quality improvement of instruction. (h) Operational arrangements for the 2006 teacher certification model (Model 1) The operational arrangements for the 2006 batch of teachers to be certified were provided to all districts in a manual of instruction and associated documents. The activity was conducted jointly by the Directorate-General of Quality Improvement of Teachers and Educational Personnel (QITEP), education districts (Dinas), and the Directorate of Higher Education and universities. Dinas Pendidikan and LPMP 74 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification (the provincial agency for Educational Quality Assurance) were to be responsible for preparing teachers until they are ready for certification, including determining the order of priority if the number of teachers eligible for certification exceeded the allotted quota. Prioritization was to be based upon the applicant's: a) mastery of competence, b) achievements, c) rank order, d) length of service and d) age. A consortium consisting of teacher training institutions (LPTK), the D-G Higher Education (DIKTI), and QITEP conducted the process. The steps for teacher certification are shown as follows. Figure 4.3 Planned Steps for Certi cation using Model 1 in 200633 Teachers Written Test Portfolio & Peer Teachers with Processing Assessment S1/D4 Applicants Competence Test Teacher Development The district quota of teachers to be certified was determined by the national government. Districts then applied a number of criteria to the selection of teachers to fill this quota. Eligible teachers proposed by the district had then to undertake the written test, the performance assessment, and a self-appraisal/ portfolio and peer appraisal document. The results of these were combined to determine whether a teacher passed or failed. Those who passed were to be awarded an Educator Certificate. Those who failed are to be recommended to undergo development through MGMP/KKG, P4TK, LPMP or by attending other institutions so that they will be better prepared for the next certification round. The documents made available by the PMPTK to the provinces and the districts to conduct the process were: 1. Forms for the teacher portfolio, self assessment, and supervisor/peer appraisal; 2. Written test guidelines; 3. Instruments for teacher performance assessment; 4. Biodata details for each teacher; 5. Booklet of guidelines for teacher certification; 6. A Certification Application Form At the provincial level a committee was established to manage the Certification Exam. At the district level the role was to: (a) socialize candidates in the procedures for certification; (b) administer internal selection of candidates to fill their quota; and, (c) arrange the performance assessment of teachers. The LPTK was responsible for: (a) establishing a Teacher Certification Test Committee; (b) verifying data from the Provincial Education Dinas; (c) administering the certification test (written and performance, 33 Ministry of National Education, Guidelines for Teacher Certi cation, Published 2006, page 6 75 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification and determining the scores for portfolios, self assessment and peer assessment); (d) selecting, training and managing the work of assessors; (e) coordinating with districts to determine time and venue for the performance test. All results of performance appraisal, self appraisal, portfolio and peer assessment were sent to the PMPTK (MONE) to be combined with the results of the written test. The timing for sending these documents was determined by LPTK by taking into consideration academic principles, confidentiality, distance to the venue for performance appraisal and availability of assessors. However, the process was to take no more than seven working days from the testing day in each venue and no more than 30 days for all performance testing venues. The process was complex and involved a large number of central agencies, 31 provincial authorities and 441 district administrations. Precautions were arranged to prevent illegal behavior, including issuing of identity/registration cards, certification of all documentation, monitoring by districts, verification of documentation to provincial offices, and measures to prevent substitution of names in the final certification steps. (i) The status of Model 1 and the transition to Model 2 (a) Status of the teacher certi cation process in November-December 2006: The DIKTI Task Force had developed and trialed three instruments for teacher certification: a teacher portfolio/skills audit document, a classroom observation and assessment reporting instrument, and a certification examination. The process had then been organized according to the schedule outlined above. National, provincial and district authorities had been briefed and prepared for the implementation stage. A course in the classroom assessment of teachers had been written and 1,000 assessors selected and trained. Briefings of officials (including Kapala Dinas) from all 441 districts took place in November- December 2006 at Yogyakarta. This included the provision of a manual of instruction to use in socializing the selected teachers and providing each district with their centrally determined quota. A total quota of 20,000 teachers had been allotted between the districts and district authorities had been requested to select qualified teachers to fill their quotas for inclusion in the first group to undertake the process. Subsequently, the model did not go ahead as planned because the Regulation was not signed in sufficient time to let the process proceed in late December 2006, and budget funding was therefore not made available. The process as developed to this stage was postponed and development resumed in mid-2007. (b) Modi cation of the teacher certi cation process in May to July 2007: The Joint Task Force (Dikti and PMPTK) was reactivated in 2007 to review and modify the teacher certification procedures developed in 2006. The concept of a certification examination on subject matter was discontinued and the use of a trained assessor to undertake an external teacher classroom performance assessment was also abandoned. However, the design of the Teacher Portfolio was strengthened by requiring greater detail, and, in particular, changed to include classroom observation and lesson preparation elements. This latter inclusion was to be undertaken by the principal of the teacher's school and also the school supervisor responsible for the school. Overall, the procedure now became simpler and less costly to administer. Trials were conducted in three districts (Palembang, Kupang, and Banjarmasin) to refine the process before it was adopted across the nation. The outcome of the trial of 76 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification the instrument in these three districts was very positive and the revised instrument was adopted for certification of the first batch of teachers later in 2007. (c) First implementation of the teacher certi cation process in October-December 2007 A group of 180,000 teachers was selected for certification in 2007 and, with the addition of the 20,000 selected but not certified in 2006, the total number in the first batch was 200,000 teachers. The test consisted of the teacher portfolio only. Approximately fifty percent failed their first portfolio attempt. A nine-day (90-hours) re-training course (the Pendidikan dan Latihan Profesi Guru or PLPG) was written and assessed by the certifying LPTK and conducted through P4TK. The courses and their assessment were to be completed with results advised by the end of the financial year in June so that allowances could be paid to successful teachers from the commencement of the following financial year. (j) Modified approach of the draft Regulation of 30 March 2007 The first version of the Regulation to accompany the Teacher Law was drafted during 2006. However, these underwent a number of revisions after the postponement of the certification of the first batch and during the following year. Subsequent revisions, particularly after December 2006, redefined the classroom performance assessment and the competency examination, and placed greater emphasis on the Self-Appraisal and Portfolio instrument (including Peer Appraisal). (a) Rede nition of the Classroom Performance Assessment and removal of the Subject Competency Examination: At this stage, a decision was taken to alter the nature of the external visit to undertake a classroom performance assessment of each teacher and to remove the subject competency test. Both strategies were complex, requiring special arrangements, and the large size of the task made some modification a necessity. The classroom performance assessment was to be undertaken by the school principal, with some input from the school supervisor. The form to be used was reduced to a series of ticks against a number of dimensions on a Likert scale with a similar form for the use of the school supervisor. The competency examination had issues such as the confidentiality of the items, the need to continually produce a large number of papers using a central item bank, and the requirement to supervise and manage the examination process itself with up to 200,000 teachers each year undertaking the test. However,considerablethoughtwentintothedevelopmentofthesubsequentSelf-AppraisalandPortfolio instrument to ensure it achieved a similar purpose. This is discussed later in this chapter. (b) Revision to the Draft Regulation to accommodate special groups: Section 11 contained the provision that incumbent teachers with the S1 or D4 qualification could undertake the competency test immediately to receive the educator certification. This competency test was in the form of a portfolio assessment which was to be an acknowledgement of a teacher's professional experience set out as a collection of documents that describe their: (a) academic qualifications; (b) education and training; (c) teaching experience; (d) learning session plans and implementation; (e) assessment by principals and supervisors; (f) academic achievement; (g) works that reflect professional development; (h) participation in scientific forums; (i) organizational experience in education and social area; and, (j) reward for educational achievement. 77 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification Teachers without the S1 or D4 qualification were required to upgrade their training. However, the revised Regulation established special rules for application to certain other categories of under-qualified teachers: (i) Those at age 60 were to be automatically eligible for certification and will be paid the professional allowance until 65 (Group A in the table below); (ii) Those aged 50+ years were to be assessed on the basis of their portfolio assessment alone. There was to be no need for upgrade training. However, if unsuccessful at the portfolio some additional training would be required at a two-week workshop to be held at the certifying university (Group B in the table below); (iii) Thosewith25+yearsofexperience;ora4acivilservicerankingareeligibleforimmediatesubmission of a portfolio whether S1/D4 or below S1/D4 (Group C in the table below); (iv) The balance of teachers in the service (Group D in the table below). Table 4.2 Summary of Certi cation Requirements for Teacher Groups Group Characteristics of Self- Appraisal Peer Appraisal Academic Classroom Teacher Group and Portfolio Report Upgrade Performance Group A 60 years of age and over. Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Normal retirement age but receipt of professional allowance automatic until age 65. (Reg. 15:2) Group B 50 years of age and over Pass or fail Pass or fail on basis Not required Not required on basis of of standards standards Group C Twenty-five years of Pass or fail Pass or fail on basis May pass after May pass after experience or a Grade 4a on basis of of standards two-week two-week civil service ranking or standards empowerment above course or remediation Group Remaining teachers with Pass or fail Pass or fail on basis Not required Pass or fail on D(i) S1 on basis of of standards basis of standards standards Group Remaining teachers Determination Determination of SKS SKS equivalence D(ii) below S1 of RPL and RPL and additional equivalence between additional study study may be between university may be required required university coursework and coursework KKG/MGMP and KKG/ training activities MGMP training activities Group E New teachers all S1 N/A BERMUTU will N/A Principal's will be required to fund induction assessment at end undertake a post- programs and the of probationary graduate professional development of year. Pass or fail on course of one semester Principals'skills basis of standards (elementary) or two in classroom semester (secondary) assessment. 78 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification QITEPestimatedthatsome50%ofteacherswillbecomeeligibleforimmediateassessmentforcertification under the special rules.The decision on certification for these teachers rests upon a detailed review of the teacher Self-Appraisal and Portfolio (including the Peer Appraisal) which will involve a number of steps. (c) The "Portfolio-Plus" process for those with 25+ years of experience (or PNS Grade 4a:) The"Portfolio Plus"(portfolio plus empowerment) process consisted of two elements: i. A comprehensive Self-Appraisal and Portfolio supported by a Peer Appraisal completed by the Principal and Supervisor:ThepreviousSelf-AppraisalandPortfoliodocument(andthePeerAppraisalformtobeattached) was modified to meet the new draft Regulation requirements by the re-activated joint PMPTK, DIKTI and LPTK taskforce. Whilst these instruments were a little different to the previous ones, they continued to be underpinned by the standards developed for teachers by the BSNP. Teachers falling below the standard required by this process will be required to attend a two-week review and professional development process at the certifying university; ii.Attendanceatatwo-weekuniversityreviewandprofessionaldevelopmentexperiencedesignedtoempower teachers by improving their readiness for certification. This could include a simulated practical classroom experience and observation, additional subject content and an examination. The two-week review and training experience is intended to empower teachers in their work so that they can reach the certification standard. These are to be conducted by lecturers from the certifying universities. The sessions will be designed to validate the content of a teacher's portfolio by assessment in a practical classroom situation (and an examination, if necessary). This will determine whether they pass or fail and will identify any weaknesses in their work. The process will involve micro-teaching, use of laboratory teaching, workshops and lectures. These assessment and training activities are expected to improve teacher skills and prepare them for certification by the end of the two weeks.Those who fail the process a second time will be given remedial advice and provided with remedial courses to assist in their development and re-presentation of their portfolio to the university in a second batch in the same year. Those unable to pass at the second opportunity will be deferred to the end of the queue. (d) The modi ed process for Group D These teachers are S1/D4 qualified teachers and as such are eligible to proceed directly to the certification process: a. Teachers selected to be part of the quota eligible for certification in that particular year will be required to submit a detailed and comprehensive Self-Appraisal and Portfolio including a Peer Appraisal (by their Principal or Supervisor); b. These will be collected by the district education office and forwarded to the appropriate certifying university for review and decision; c. Those teachers with portfolios which meet requirements will be approved by the accrediting university as certified and will be issued with an Educator's Certificate. They become eligible for receipt of the professional allowance to double their remuneration; d. Teachers who fall below the required standard when their portfolio is reviewed will be invited to a two-week review of their Self-Appraisal and Portfolio (including the Peer Appraisal) by a conveniently located certifying university specified in the Ministerial decree; e. They will be given instruction in their areas of weakness and a further assessment. If unable 79 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification to improve during this two-week period they will be directed to other avenues for assistance. This should be available through the KKG/MGMP or may require a university course. SKS will be negotiated for remedial activities at the cluster level. A second review will be scheduled for later in the same year. Those unable to reach the required standard at this second review could lose their place in the queue. Pre-service teachers (Group E), once attaining their S1, will be required to complete the PPG post-graduate professional course. (e) The work of the Instrument Development Taskforce The taskforce was fully occupied with the revision and finalization of theTeacher Portfolio instrument.This document was designed to follow the teacher standards prescribed by the BSNP. The use of an"evidence guide"gave teachers information about the documentation to be supplied to justify their achievements at the various levels required. Whilst there was now more clarity on the structure of the instrument being developed, at this stage there was still flux in the Draft Regulation. This required members of the task force to meet regularly with the Regulation drafting team to ensure that the taskforce was completely up-to-date with the substance of any further changes that might affect their work. The team developed a marking scale (rubric) for the certifying universities to use in assessing portfolios. The aim was to provide a score for each component of the portfolio in order to standardize the manner in which each certifying university would consider whether or not a teacher had sufficient experience to be considered certified. The scale systematically covered all areas mandated in the Draft Regulation. (f) Progress to April 2007 i. At this stage the Draft Regulation were still under development. Even the 30 March version had had a number of further changes by 19 April; ii. The Self-Appraisal and Portfolio instrument already had a number of differences compared to earlier versions in order to address the new requirements in the Regulation (Section 11). This required the instruments to address a number of additional characteristics of teachers which meant greater reliance on documentary material as evidence of teacher behavior; iii. The Peer Appraisal instrument now became a more important part of the new process. The addition of further items now required principals to visit the classrooms of their teachers to determine their performance and include their observations in their report on the teacher. This was to be attached as a mandatory part of the portfolio; iv. Teachers submitting portfolios not meeting the standard required by the certifying university are to be invited to attend a two-week university training and review activity. At this stage, the nature of this review process had not yet been determined. However, it was to be designed to address the weaknesses teachers showed in their portfolio; v. The certifying universities are to have a centrally developed marking instrument to use in assessing each teacher's portfolio and teachers will have a clear template to follow in compiling their document. This will ensure some consistency of standards of assessment; vi. Mechanisms linking the instrument being developed to the core competencies in the Teacher Law (as expanded in the Regulation) have been used by the instrument developing workshop 80 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification to ensure it complied with the mandate of the Teacher Law; vii. In time, procedures are to be developed to more effectively recognize the prior learning (RPL) of teachers on-the-job. The portfolio assessment instrument being developed at the workshop drew heavily on the documentation teachers have available to substantiate the teaching experiences they had gained after their formal academic training. The development of practices acceptable to both the LPTK and the PMPTK in the area of RPL and its use in determining credit (SKS) equivalency of past work and experience is a critical factor in determining just where under-qualified teachers will start in the upgrade process. (k) Removal of the Equivalency Examination from the original model In order to assist long-standing under-qualified teachers accelerate to the certification stage, the original Section (5) of the draft Regulation contained the following provision: (4) The teacher academic qualifications as referred to in Sub-section (2) for in-service teachers who have not had the qualifications may be gained through: a. formal education as set out in sub-section (2); or b. recognition of the teachers' previous studies, assessed by an equivalency examination, through a comprehensive test conducted by universities that have educator programs that are accredited by the Minister. This concept of an equivalency examination was initially included as a government-managed mechanism toenableselectedunder-qualifiedteacherstoacceleratedirectlytoapointwheretheycouldundertakethe certification process without further study. The provision has since been removed from the Regulation. Nevertheless, the concept of an"equivalency examination"can be a potentially important element of the recognition of prior learning process. For example, an examination designed by a university (rather than the central government agency) could be used to test the current knowledge of incumbent teachers, particularly if the examination includes methodologies and practical classroom teaching.This equivalency examination can be used as a valid method of assessing the prior learning of teachers and ensuring experienced teachers are given credit for areas in which they are already highly skilled. Figure 4.4 indicates how the equivalency examination was originally proposed but has now been altered for use by universities to assess the status of an incumbent teacher's knowledge and skills, and if successful, to by-pass some of the additional study required. 81 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification Figure 4.4 Using an Equivalency Examination for Determining RPL (a) Original model proposed by the Regulation: Accelerated progression to S1: D2 S1 Option for Teacher 1: Portfolio to determine how + Additional Study (academic or on-the-job) much Recognition of Prior Learning can be given Option for Teacher 2: Equivalency Examination to progress directly to S1 or equivalent (b) Modi ed option to measure prior knowledge and skills: Supplementary strategy to determine RPL: D2 S1 Option for Teacher 1: + Equivalency Examination + Additional Study including Portfolio to determine how to determine how much KKG/MGMP in-school action much Recognition of Prior Recognition of Prior research Learning (RPL) can be given Learning (RPL) can be given Option (b) illustrates a more credible use of the equivalency examination. Universities will be able to use it to determine the credits they will concede in assessing the additional courses an under-qualified teacher must complete to upgrade to S1/D4. This is a more appropriate use than the original proposal, in that selected teachers may be able to bridge the gap between very little formal training and the equivalent of S1. On the other hand, LPTK should not be too unreasonable in the study demands they place on teachers who are already quite able. 5. Current status and operation of the certification process (a) The Teacher Self-Appraisal and Portfolio instrument of Model 2 The teacher certification instrument developed by the JointTaskforce34 in 2007 took the form of aTeacher Self-Appraisal and Portfolio (including Peer Appraisal) requiring evidence on ten characteristics of the teacher. The portfolio prepared by each teacher was the centre-piece of the new model and had to be submitted through the district office to the designated certifying university (LPTK). The following table lists the ten elements; some examples of evidence to be supplied; and the marking score for each element: 34 Members of Instrument Development Task Force: Prof. Dr. Muchlas Samani (then at Universitas Negeri Surabaya), Prof. Dr. A. Mukhadis (Universitas Negeri Malang), Prof. Dr. IGAK. Wardhani (Universitas Terbuka), Prof. Kumaidi, Ph.D (Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta), Prof. Dr. Djoko Kustono (Universitas Negeri Malang), Dra. Endang Ariadi Suwarno, M.Pd. (Universitas Negeri Surabaya), Dr. Ismet Basuki (Universitas Negeri Surabaya), Dr. Yatim Riyanto (Universitas Negeri Surabaya) 82 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification Table 4.3 Design of the Teacher Portfolio Instrument ELEMENT ONLY CERTIFIED COPIES TO BE ATTACHED AS MAXIMUM SCORE EVIDENCE 1. Academic qualifications Diplomas and degrees 525 2. Education courses and training Certificates or letters 200 3. Teaching experience Appointment notices 160 4. Lesson planning and presentation: 160 a. Lesson planning Five best lesson plans (40 max points) b. Lesson presentation A principal/supervisor's assessment on the form provided (in a sealed envelope) (max 120pts) 5. Appraisal by superior and supervisor A principal/supervisor's assessment on the form provided 50 (in a sealed envelope) 6. Academic achievements: 160 a. Competitions Certificates awarded b. Peer training Letters of appointment as instructor/coach/ tutor c. Coaching students Certificates received by students and letters of appointment 7. Professional development works: 85 a. Writing Photocopy of front page of articles, books, modules, etc produced by teacher b. Research Physical proof of class action research c. Book reviewer/national exam Letter of appointment, thanks, commendation developer d. Learning media and resources Physical proof ­ copies, letter from principal e. Scientific or art works relevant to Copies or letters from the principal teaching 8. Participation in scientific forums Certificates or papers 62 9. Experience in education and social 48 organizations: a. Organizational experience Letters of appointment or proof from officials b. Supplemental tasks Letters of appointment or proof from officials 10. Relevant recognition and awards in 50 education a. Awards Certificates, letters of commendation b. Assignment in special areas Letters of assignment PASS = 850 marks 1500 Source: Compiled from the Manual for Portfolio preparation for in-service Teacher Certification, Directorate General of Higher Education, 2007 The evidence the teacher provides for each of the ten elements is intended to verify that they have the necessary competencies mandated in the Teacher Law (UU14/2005) in pedagogy (teaching ability), personal (character and example), professional (training and education), and social (community participation). Each of the dimensions must be addressed by the applicant. This is achieved by completion of the portfolio form and provision of the necessary certified (legalized) attachments. The certifying university will then assess each portfolio using a scoring system or rubric. Teachers meeting the bench-mark score of 850 points will be awarded certification and receive the Educator Certificate entitling them to double their current base salary. Basically, the instrument is designed to identify the minimal competencies allowable in each of ten areas of a teacher's training and work-performance. 83 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification (a) Analysis of the Elements and the Marking Rubric to be used: 1. Element 1: Academic Quali cations: The maximum score in the portfolio for academic qualifications is 525. This high score is only available for a teacher who has studied beyond the S1 level and achieved higher degrees - an S2 (Masters) and S3 (Doctorate). An S1 degree (or an equivalent four years'of training), which is the minimum requirement for certification, will yield a maximum of 150 points. As the threshold score is 850 points, possession of post-graduate degrees gives a considerable advantage (375 points out of 850) in reaching the threshold score. It also gives a large weight to academic qualifications. 2. Element 2: Education courses and Training: The scoring rubric gives almost double the weighting to courses attended at the international level compared with courses held at the sub-district level. As most classroom teachers have little access to international training courses, such a weighting may disadvantage many teachers. 3. Element 3: Teaching Experience: Teachers with long periods of service (15 or 25 years or more) may have difficulty obtaining evidence of their service in other localities. Many are unlikely to have retained appointment notices or other evidence which could be used in their portfolio to prove their service and experience. Teachers who have served in the past in remote localities, in particular, may find it difficult to obtain documentary proof of that experience. 4. Element 4: Lesson Planning and Presentation: This is an excellent element which attempts to measure the performance of the teacher with students in the classroom.The fact that the report from the principal/supervisor must be given to the teacher for attachment in a sealed envelope is an attempt to ensure judgments are as objective as possible. As a forced choice instrument, with a scale of one to five for each item, it is attempting to keep judgments simple and objective. With a maximum of only160 points available for this element, however, it understates the importance of the classroom performance of the teacher. 5. Element 5: Appraisal by the Principal and Supervisor: This element attempts to cover two of the more difficult to measure competencies mandated by theTeacher Law (social and personal). It is also assessed using a forced choice scale and the report must be given to the teacher in a sealed envelope before it is attached to the portfolio. Judgments appear to be very global on the basis of the evidence attached and the assessor's personal knowledge of the teacher. This is always a very subjective and difficult area to assess. The list of aspects to be assessed and the scoring system appears appropriate. 6. Elements 6, 7, 8 and 10: Academic Achievements, Professional Development Works, Participation in Scienti c Forums and Relevant Recognitions and Awards in Education: These are all familiar areas for gaining credit for advancement within the Indonesian context and teachers will be able to obtain their personal records fairly easily. 7. Element 9: Experience in education and social organizations: This will reflect the ability of the teacher as a participant or leader in organizational structures quite well. Some teachers could be critical of this element because they may note that no-one has ever selected them for this type of task. However, this may simply reflect that they lack the ability or commitment to become involved and this thus becomes a way of weeding out those who perform less well. (b) Comments on the Groupings of Portfolio Elements The portfolio elements are placed in groups for marking, and the parameters are set for each as follows: 84 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification Table 4.4 Grouping the Portfolio Elements A QUALIFICATIONS AND MAIN TASKS (minimum total score of 300 and no element in this group can be zero) 1 Academic qualifications 525 3 Teaching experience 160 4 Lesson planning and presentation 160 TOTAL 845 B PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (minimum score of 200; 150 for teachers assigned to special areas) 2 Education courses and training 200 5 Appraisal by superior and supervisor 50 6 Academic achievements 160 7 Professional development works 85 TOTAL 495 C PROFESSIONAL SUPPORT (cannot be zero) 8 Participation in scientific forums 62 9 Experience in education and social organizations 48 10 Relevant recognition and awards in education 50 TOTAL 160 a) GROUP A (minimum score 300 out of 845): Consideration has been given to the fact that the Teacher Law mandates the S1/D4 qualification and significant weight (150) is attached to this. Lesson planning and presentation is also located in this cluster of elements as it is seen as the main function of teaching. Group A includes some of the main elements for marking, and the minimum (300 marks) is the highest for the groupings. b) GROUP B (minimum score 200 out of 495): This is lower because of the focus on professional development. Professional development has been less accessible for most teachers. The fact that the minimum mark is reduced to 150 for teachers in special (remote) areas acknowledges the disadvantage they face. c) GROUP C (lowest minimum which is close to zero): In this group many teachers would not have received awards and over the years may have lost documentation to support claims here. (c) The Portfolio Trial The Joint Taskforce responsible for instrument development conducted a trial of the teacher portfolio in three districts (Palembang, Kupang and Banjarmasin). Approximately 20 teachers from each district were given a five-hour briefing on the instruments by a central team. Each teacher was given a week or so to gather supporting evidence and prepare their portfolio. Two copies were prepared by each teacher and forwarded through the district to the PMPTK. The university-based members of the Joint Taskforce then marked the portfolios submitted. Each teacher was marked twice as a reliability check. Approximately 75% of the trial applicants were reported as passing the portfolio. An examination of two portfolios showed one was very comprehensive with over 200 pages of documentation.The other was barely 30 pages and contained two envelopes with reports: one on lesson presentation; the other on appraisal of social and personal characteristics. 85 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification (d) Basis for a future study: Does the portfolio instrument measure teacher quality? As the teacher portfolio is the core instrument to be used in the certification process, it is important to know if it provides an objective measure of the quality of teachers. For example, if teachers pass the test, can it be said that they are quality teachers in terms of student outcomes (test scores and personal characteristics)?Likewise,iftheyfailthetest,aresuchteachersinadequateintermsoftheoutcomesoftheir students? It is, therefore, critical to test the validity and reliability of the instrument in measuring teacher quality. Lessons learned from such a study can be used to inform government policy on certification. (a) Validity: A study could use a small sample of districts to test the validity of the instrument. The sample of teachers could be drawn from a number of schools in each of, say, five districts. Each school would need to have two or more teachers who have undertaken the certification process and for which portfolio scores are available. Principals in these schools could then be interviewed and asked to rank all their teachers (including uncertified teachers) using a series of forced scoring items (Likert-type scale) defining teacher performance. The scores would then be used to rank all teachers on overall performance. This ranking could then be compared with the ranking of those teachers who have completed the portfolio. Such a study would evaluate the extent to which overall judgments of principals on teacher performance are reflected by portfolio scores. In particular, part of the study could rank the scores the certified teachers received for Element 4 of the portfolio (Lesson Planning and Presentation). This ranking could then be compared with the overall ranking of these teachers as determined by the scores of the other nine elements of the portfolio score. This could be used to weight the usefulness of current elements of the portfolio. (b) Reliability: The study could also analyze the reliability of the portfolio instrument in measuring teacherquality.Thiswouldinvolvetheselectionofasampleofportfoliosfromthesamefivedistricts to be marked by a second assessor at another university.The scores and rankings of teachers using these two sets of portfolio marks could then be used to evaluate the reliability of the marking of the portfolio. This would provide a useful cross check of the accuracy and consistency of the markers. It would also highlight any unusual variances between markers and so act as a potential anti-corruption strategy. A permanent modification to the organization of marking could also be tested and implemented. This strategy would be used to ensure that the certifying universities do not mark portfolios from their own local districts. This type of "swap strategy"could also act as an anti-corruption measure. (c) Consistency of reporting: A study might also evaluate how consistent principals and school supervisors are in reporting teacher performance as required by Element 4 of the portfolio. A sample of teachers who had undertaken the portfolio requirement would be identified in five districts and a principal and/or school supervisor (pengawas) from another district could be asked to write teacher classroom performance reports (using the Element 4 reporting form). The scores from Element 4 for these teachers could then be ranked and compared with the ranking originally given by their own principal or pengawas. This analysis could be used to evaluate the consistency with which judgments are made by assessors and will reflect on the reliability of the instrument. In schools that have a regular classroom visitation program to identify teacher weakness and provide improvement advice, it will be possible to rank teachers using previous evaluation reports. These reports on teachers, if maintained, will usually be available in the principal's office. (d) Effectiveness of remedial training: A further useful evaluation study could be foreshadowed for sometime in the future. This will focus on an analysis of the effectiveness of the remedial training program provided to teachers who fail certification. A study could be designed to track the outcomes for teachers who undertake remedial training. A sample of such teachers can be selected from five districts and their portfolio scores analyzed to determine their areas of relative weakness. 86 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification The remedial courses and activities provided to them can be analyzed to determine how valid the activities are in terms of discerned weaknesses. The end-of-activity scores obtained by them (from an examination or post-course portfolio scores) could then be ranked and compared (b) Determining the annual quota of teachers for certification Because of budget constraints, it has been necessary for the government to establish a quota for eligible teachers to attempt certification each year. According to the wording of the draft Regulation at that time, selection of applicants will be determined"... in order of priority according to rank, highest diploma, age and service period"35. Once given their quota, each district was to identify the names of qualified teachers wishing to undertake the certification process each year The first round of teacher certification was to have taken place in November-December 2006, with the PMPTK having determined a national quota of 20,000 qualified teachers (S1/D4).This relatively small quota was applied to keep disbursement of funding for the professional allowances within budget constraints and also to limit the organizational impact on districts. The first quota was limited to primary schools and junior secondary schools and distributed by formula related to numbers of teachers between the 441 districts. Districts were advised regarding these quotas at a national conference to brief district officers on the details of the process. At this conference, guidelines for the process were distributed and discussed. All the quotas for each district are now placed on the special website established for the teacher certification process.36 Each district was then able to apply the following criteria in identifying teachers to be certified: (a) the"best teachers"(expert, model) with an S1 qualification; (b) the most experienced/long-serving teachers with S1; (c) with a minimum civil service rank of 3(c); and (d) age. In some districts where the allocated quota did not exhaust the eligible pool of teachers identified by these criteria, a test instrument was also used. However, this was decided at the district level and meant that the content varied between districts, in such cases where this process was used. Even though 35% of Indonesian teachers have a four-year qualification (S1/D4) and are therefore eligible to undertake certification, it was intended to apply an overall quota of approximately 5% to the number of teachers certified in the first year of the process. Changed circumstances meant that the first quota of 20,000 was not activated. However, in 2007 the 2006 quota was included as well and a total of over 200,000 undertook the process. The table below indicates the projected numbers of teachers to be certified each year until 2015: 35 Republic of Indonesia, Draft Regulation to accompany Teacher Law 14/2005 36 http://www.sertifikasiguru.org/index.php 87 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification Table 4.5 Cumulative Targets for Teacher Certi cation Program to 2015 Year % Primary Secondary Number of Number of Unit cost for Unit cost for Education Education Teachers cumulative certi cation professional teachers process incentives 2015 100 191.267 39.335 230.602 2.306.015 461.203 41.508.270 2014 90 191.267 39.335 230.602 2.075.414 461.203 37.357.443 2013 80 191.267 39.335 230.602 1.844.812 461.203 33.206.616 2012 70 191.267 39.335 230.602 1.614.211 461.203 29.055.789 2011 60 191.267 39.335 230.602 1.383.609 461.203 24.904.962 2010 50 191.267 39.335 230.602 1.153.008 461.203 20.754.135 2009 40 382.531 78.672 461.203 922.406 922.406 16.603.308 2008 20 219.957 50.796 270.753 461.203 541.506 8.301.654 2007 8,5 162.577 27.873 190.450 190.450 380.900 TOTAL 1.912.667 393.348 2.306.015 Source: Overhead projection transparency provided by the Directorate of Teacher Profession The application of a quota within the Indonesian context is fairly common because of the large size of the workforce. This is particularly the case in the education sector with its workforce of 2.7 million teachers, which, with the increased salary levels resulting from certification, will result in considerable additional expenditure. If teachers are clear on the criteria used for queuing, progressive application of a quota provides a predictable and acceptable strategy for managing the large numbers involved. (c) Use of the PLPG program for teachers who fail the certification process During October and November 2007, the first round of the certification process took place. Nationwide, 52% passed the initial portfolio test. Those who failed were required to attend a remediation course conducted by their certifying university. Ninety-six percent of those attending this course were successful. By 2008, this course had been established as the PLPG (Pendidikan dan Latihan Profesi Guru)37 course. This is a 90-hour course (usually conducted over a nine-day period) written by the certifying university and delivered at the provincial level for teachers who fail the portfolio test. Its purpose is to improve the competency and professionalism of teachers who did not gain a sufficiently high score in the portfolio test. This is a face-to-face course with 30 hours of theory and 60 hours of practicum. It provides a peer-teaching experience as well as observation and feed-back on teaching skills demonstrated by participants. The curriculum follows the competency requirements of the Teacher Law and is based on the active learning model (PAKEM)38. Teachers who pass gain their certification directly without being required to re-submit their portfolios. A teacher who fails the test at the end of the course may undertake the examination twice more. A teacher failing a third time will be referred to their district office for further training. Instructors are university trained with a minimum qualification of S2 (Masters level) and must have at least 10 years of teaching experience. There is a separate curriculum for each category of teacher. The curriculum issued to LPTK for the development of the course for elementary teachers includes the following: 37 Teacher Certification Guidelines for 2008, Buku 5: Pendidikan dan Latihan Profesi Guru (PLPG), Directorate General of Higher Education, Department of National Education, 2008 38 PAIKEM (pembelajaran aktif, inovatif, kreatif, efektif, and menyenangkan) or the active, innovative, creative, effective, and enjoyable learning model 88 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification Table 4.6 Guidelines for Developing PLPG Courses for Elementary School Teachers Content Theory Practice Comments A GENERAL 1 Teacher professional development 4 1. Teacher professional development includes: - discourse on teacher professional development - modeling of the teaching performance of a professional teacher 2. Time allocation 2 for discourse and 2 for modeling B MAIN CONTENT 1 Review of the subject(s) that most teachers 8 12 Balance between theory and practice have not mastered (Math, Social Studies, Natural will depend on the subject Science, Bahasa, Civic Studies) 2 Learning models i.e. active, innovative, creative, 10 12 Balance between theory and practice effective and fun learning (PAIKEM), assessment, will depend on the subject and use of media. Consider the development characteristics of students and devise learning plans to improve students'knowledge, technological aptitude, sense of art, as well as faith, piousness, good character 3 Class Action Research and writing articles/ 4 6 Practice will include the development papers of a class action research design to improve learning process based on learning reflection 4 Teaching (using peer teaching methods) 30 One class (of approx. 30 participants) is to be divided into 3 groups. The practice is to be done simultaneously. Each participant is to practice in front of the group 3 times, 1 school hour each time. The third performance is to be made a test C TEST 1 Written 4 2 Practice * Integrated into B4 TOTAL 30 60 Source: Teacher Certification Guideline for 2008 The development of teacher personality and social competencies is integrated in the teacher education and professional training activities and will be assessed continuously throughout the period of the course.The assessment of teachers at the end of the course is based on four components: (a) 35% written examination; (b) 40% practicum (teaching); (c) 10% participation; and, (d) 15% peer teaching. The scores from the four areas taught at the course form 75% of the final determination towards certification. The remaining 25% is the score originally obtained in the portfolio assessment.This is the reason for successful teachers being awarded certification without recourse to a further portfolio test. The final test ensures that the participating teacher has met the standards of competencies as referred to in the Teacher Law No. 14/2005 and MONE's Ministerial Regulation No. 16/2007 on the Standards for Teacher Academic Qualifications and Competencies 89 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification (d) Evaluation and implementation of the current process Following the refinement and re-definition of aspects of the certification process, its current structure operates according to the diagram below. Districts are responsible for selecting eligible teachers to meet their quota and socializing the process of portfolio preparation. These are distributed to the relevant LPTK for assessment. Some incomplete portfolios can be returned to teachers for completion. In 2007 some 52% passed and were awarded their Educator's Certificate. However, teachers who fail must undertake the PLPG course and take the examination. This procedure is shown in the shaded area on the diagram. Those who continue to fail after repeat the examination twice are referred to the District office for re- training. Figure 4.5 Current Process of Teacher Certi cation for In-Service Teachers by Portfolio Assessment PASS EDUCATOR CERTIFICATE IN-SERVICE PORTFOLIO TEACHERS WITH ASSESSSMENT S1/D4 COMPLETE PORTFOLIO FAIL AND RE-SUBMIT PLPG PASS TEACHER TRAINING EXAM (PLPK) FAIL SECOND EXAM (2X) TRAINING BY DISTRICTS Two evaluation teams have been appointed by the Ministerial certification management body, the KSG (Konsorsium Sertifikasi Guru), to give feedback on the certification process: (a) an external (independent) evaluation team composed of members drawn from education faculties (ISPI), universities, the teachers association (PGRI), and quality education bodies; and, (b) and an internal evaluation team whose members were from the Ministry. These teams gathered considerable data to support their recommendations. For example, the external team visited nine provinces, and selected two districts in each, including remote localities, and used interviews, questionnaires, and focus group discussion to gather data. (a) Independent Team (Tim Monev Independen39): Their findings and recommendations were reported in February 2008 and some of these have been incorporated into changes for the 2008 batch of teachers for certification. Overall the team reported that, in general, the implementation in 2007 had run quite well. However, some areas needed attention: a. Time available for implementation of the process was too short in the 2007 round; b. Coordination between agencies involved was weak and lead to mismatch and delay; c. Quality control of the process, including consistency of marking of portfolios was also weak; d. Insufficient funding was made available at provincial and district level, and the budget was too 39 Report of Tim Monev Independen, Monitoring and Evaluation Certi cation of In-service Teachers 2006-7, Konsorsium Sertifikasi Guru (KSG), December, 2007. 90 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification centralized; e. Officers involved in implementing the process were not well-prepared so that socialization was weak; f. Available infrastructure was limited. For example, LPTK reported insufficient storage for portfolios. g. There is need for an improved information system to maintain an accurate database of results. (b) Internal Team40: This team was also appointed by the KSG and gathered their data in August 2008. The work undertaken followed up on many of the recommendations made by the external team. Its advice was provided in September and included the following suggestions: a. The districts are slow in forwarding the portfolios to the central agency for distribution to the LPTK for marking. Provinces and districts need to allocate additional funding to expedite the process; b. Socialization is not effective and strategies must be identified to improve the communication of information to teachers and other agencies; c. Some LPTK have insufficient assessors with the correct subject background and there is need for them to recruit suitable assessors from other relevant faculties; d. Some of the LPTK have insufficient secure storage space for portfolios and need to correct this as a matter of urgency; e. Late receipt of data forms (A1) from LPTK slows the process. Data on form B1 did not correspond with that on A1. Process management may be preferable at the LPMP or even LPTK level; f. Problems have arisen with the portfolio. For example there is no limitation on its size. Some data fields are ambiguous and do not yield the information required. There should be some review of this document; g. Some difficulties have arisen with marking because of different interpretations of the portfolio document. This has caused problems with marking. Overall, the verdict on the process for 2007 has been positive.This is no mean feat as the process is complex and involves large numbers of teachers. The evaluation outcomes have resulted in some modifications and refinements to the guidelines issued to districts and teachers for the second batch being certified in 2008. It is critical that such reviews be undertaken on a continuing basis to ensure the process receives a high priority and the necessary commitment from all levels within the system. 6. The certification process for pre-service teachers: PPG (Pendidikan Profesi Guru) The Teacher Law required that all new teachers entering the service would gain their certification through a professional teaching course to be taken following their completion of the four-year S1 degree. This training was to be of one or two semesters in length and would be concerned with pedagogy and teaching methodology in the appropriate subject areas. It was also to involve supervised practice teaching. This process will require graduate teachers with the S1 four-year degree to undertake an entry test prior to commencing the professional component of their education. This mechanism is shown in the figure below: 40 Executive Summary, Monitoring and Evaluation of the Implementation of the Certification of In-service Teachers, 2008, Konsorsium Sertifikasi Guru (KSG), Department of National Education, 2008 91 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification Figure 4.6 Entry process for post-graduate teacher professional education41 Administrative Selection CERTIFICATION S1/D4 Graduates, TEACHERS' ASSESSMENT Education and Non - PROFESSIONAL Education EDUCATION FAIL PASS Entry Test TEACHER'S CERTIFICATE Whilst the administrative selection is based on completion and notarization of documents such as transcript of studies and personal details, the entry test covers an academic potential test, an interest assessment test and a personality assessment. The professional education course will incorporate a field experience program (PPL) which will require a "... performance test related to "real teaching" and its components, including teaching preparation and learning performance in the classroom ........ PPL in professional education needs to present the track record of the learners, a portfolio and self appraisal from the trainee"(page20) The LPTK have begun to gear up for this change. Guidelines (and a draft Regulation) have been developed and provided to LPTK for the PendidikanProfesiGuru (PPG)42 program.This program will commence in 2009 and new teachers will be required to undertake it to receive the Educator Certificate award. It is intended to develop the mastery of teachers in the competencies required. Teachers successful in passing the examination on completion of the course will not to be required to undertake the portfolio process used for incumbent teachers. By January 2009 it is proposed that this course will be offered at 15 locations. AsTable 4.7 from these guidelines shows, the PPG will consist of: (a) one semester (18-20 credit points) for kindergarten and elementary trained teachers, although this will be two semesters (36-40 credit points) if their academic background is not in this teaching field; and, (b) in the case of secondary teachers (whether junior or senior) it will consist of two semesters (36-40 credit points): Table 4.7 Professional Training Course Requirements for Pre-Service Teachers TEACHER CANDIDATES BACKGROUND OF ACADEMIC DEGREE LOAD OF TRAINING Kindergarten Kindergarten 18-20 credits From outside kindergarten 36-40 credits Psychology 36-40 credits Primary Primary education 18-20 credits From outside primary education 36-40 credits Psychology 36-40 credits Junior Secondary Education background courses 36-40 credits Senior secondary Education background courses 36-40 credits The courses currently being trialed include some academic courses and subject matter knowledge, general pedagogy and foundations of education courses, subject and age specific pedagogy and 41 National Education Department, General Division of Higher Education, Human Resource Division, The Implementation of Teachers' Profession Education, Academic Writing, 2007 42 Directorate General of Higher Education, Panduan Pendidikan Professi Guru Prajabatan, Draft, 28 July 2008. 92 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification methods courses, practical experiences including observation, action research, course related practicum experiences and student teaching. The courses will also include use of demonstration (laboratory) schools, and visitation to neighboring and other schools. There is opportunity during this planning phase to examine and adopt practices which follow international best practice standards. Some funding from the BERMUTU program will be available to assist in the development of quality courses. In future, no teacher, experienced or newly graduated, will be employed unless they have been awarded thiscertificate.Inthissensethecertificateisaqualityassurancebenchmarktoguaranteetothecommunity that all teachers have skills in the four competencies mandated in the Teacher Law. 7. Quality Improvements anticipated from Teacher Certification The teacher certification and training upgrade was seen to be able to deliver improved teacher quality in a number of ways: (a) Teachers who were already four-year trained with professional teacher training (approximately 35% of teachers) were eligible for immediate access to the certification competency test. Those successful would be awarded their certification. This avenue may not necessarily improve the quality of the teacher but it does confirm their standard as being at the level now required for the education system generally. Even for this category of teacher, the process was seen to provide a type of rejuvenation in their career status by subjecting them to what was seen as a career-audit. The teacher would have to locate and supply copies of their formal qualifications, review their professional in-service training (if any) and supply evidence to the panel, and subject their classroom performance to an assessment; (b) Teachers gaining certification would be entitled to the professional allowance which would double their remuneration. These teachers become representatives of the new professional standard. The higher benchmark salary then received would attract new and higher quality teacher trainees into the training institutions and schools in the future. Thus the overall quality of the teaching service would be improved; (c) Eligible teachers failing the competency test would have the opportunity to undertake a short program of remedial re-training (subject content, teaching methodology and teaching practice) provided by the certifying university.This could be tailored to meet their particular deficiencies. Such a training experience could impact on the quality of teachers because their knowledge and skills will be enhanced ­ even if the training experience was relatively short (90 hours). In a system where teachers have rarely had training opportunities this could be considered a significant in-service learning experience; (d) Teachers who are under-qualified (about 65% of the workforce) will be motivated to access additional training tailored to their particular needs before attempting the certification test.This could be undertaken by distance learning mode, or course material supplied through the local school cluster teacher working groups and supervised by an accredited training provider. Such training (subject content, teaching methodology and teaching practice) would be designed to raise the quality of those teachers and better equip them for the task. This is a source of quality improvement and its impact on student scores can be measured. Furthermore, the new structures and synergies developed between training agencies would establish networks for professional development in perpetuity; 93 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 4 Design and Implementation of Teacher Certification (e) Those qualified teachers who sit the competency test and fail a number of times face sanctions and possible re-deployment to another career. More importantly, they do not receive the professional allowance and their remuneration will not increase. Some may leave the profession voluntarily. Here the overall quality of the teaching service will be improved by the exit or removal of those unable to cope with the teaching task; (f) All new pre-service teachers would enter at the S1 four-year trained level and have also completed a PPG post-graduate course in professional studies of one or two semesters with a period of intensive supervised practice in the classroom. This was seen as a significant addition to the training of new teachers; Whilst each of these strategies to improve the teaching service were identified and suggested a very positive result, the eventual real impact will be on students within the schools. It will take a major research effort over a number of years to establish the levels of improvement experienced by students in the newly structured system. A number of research activities have been undertaken and others are planned. It will take time before the eventual verdict is arrived at. 94 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers 1. The scope of the upgrade issue The initial quotas of in-service teachers undertaking certification already hold the required academic qualification of S1/D4. However, the two thirds of teachers without this training background are required to upgrade their knowledge and skill as part of the process of achieving certification. The attraction of the professional allowance, which will double teachers' remuneration provides a powerful incentive to upgrade. This motivation drives a great opportunity to improve the quality of teachers in Indonesia. The following table shows the extent of the task involved in increasing teacher educational qualifications to the standard now required under the Teacher Law: Table 5.1 Level of Teacher Training Needed Category of Old Training Percent of New Training Percent below Teacher Level Required Teachers below Level Required this level Post- Pre-Teacher Law this level Post-Teacher Law Teacher Law SD/MI: D2 (incl Certificate) 45.0% S1 95.4% Primary SMP/MTS: D3 (incl Certificate) 21.5% S1 45.2% Junior Secondary SMA/SMK/MA: S1 (incl Certificate) 29.2% S1 29.2% Senior Secondary 95 Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers Overall, out of 2.7 million teachers, only one million meet current qualification requirements, and 1.7 million will need some form of upgrading. New mechanisms will need to be established to undertake such a big task. Furthermore, theTeacher Law provides that teachers have"opportunities to improve their competencies". These will enhance and improve their"quality and capacity", and they will receive additional training and professional development in their fields (a minimum of six hours each year). This is to be facilitated by central and regional governments. In this process, onus is placed on teachers by theTeacher Law to"continuously enhance and develop their professional skills in line with scientific, technological and artistic advances"and to"renew their teaching certificates periodically through a competency examination". The new law means that: a. All teachers (including existing S1/D4 qualified teachers) will have to prove their competence in their teaching field; b. Under-qualified teachers will need to undertake further work to upgrade their qualifications; and Pre-service teachers need to undertake up to two semesters of professional education beyond S1 to gain certification. Sanctions will apply to teachers who fail in the certification process.These teachers will have to undertake remediation or repeat the process. However, within ten years it is anticipated that all teachers will have met the new education and certification standards. The reformed system represents a significant commitment to improving the quality of teachers and reinforces the need for the development and maintenance of an in-service training mechanism on a continuing and self-sustained basis 2. Upgrade training pathways Under-qualified incumbent teachers now employed in the teaching service have a number of possible pathways to upgrade their qualifications. Some traditional pathways are: a. Full university attendance to complete additional academic study. With this pathway, teachers must leave the classroom to complete their study full-time through the local university. This is a costly decision for both teacher and the education system. It can be undertaken by a relatively small proportion of teachers. Most teachers will be unable to forego their salary whilst studying to gain additional academic qualifications. However, the Ministry is currently trialing a system to enable a group of outstanding in-service teachers to receive a full scholarship to undertake a one-year professional course at a university at the end of which they will receive certification. The first batch of 2000 will complete their training at the end of the current academic year; b. Distance learning pathway through the Open University (Universitas Terbuka). This is the traditional distance learning mode in Indonesia. Teachers enrolling in distance learning courses can undertake formal study through the packaged resources made available by the Open University and will be able to attend local workshops the university organizes. There has been a significant increase in the number of teachers enrolling in these courses since the ratification of the Teacher Law. A large number of scholarships (170,000) have been provided by the central government to assist teachers 96 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers upgrade by this mode. Many districts have also provided scholarships to selected teachers to assist in payment of course fees. c. Attendance at courses conducted by the national P4TK and conducted through the provincial LPMP which, traditionally, have had a significant role in teacher training. Although the LPMPs have now adopted a quality assurance role, they will continue to offer some courses and provide some lecturers to assist local teacher working group training. The national P4TK, as specialist subject- training agencies will continue to train teachers. However, increasingly, their capacity will be focused on train-the-trainer activities. In addition to these three avenues, a variety of newer pathways are beginning to emerge: a. Distance learning programs have become available at some teacher training universities (LPTK). Whilst distance learning has traditionally been the role of the Open University (UT), a consortium of LPTK is currently trialing an innovative program to support teachers upgrading their elementary school teaching qualifications from D2 to S1.This is known as the HYLITE program, which is described in detail below. b. Local in-service activities provided through the school teacher working groups (KKG and MGMP) have been expanded. Additional funding has been disbursed through the PMPTK block grant system to the teacher working groups (gugus) on the basis of submissions approved by the districts and the provincial LPMP. This funding has encouraged cluster teacher working groups to plan courses and provide training for teachers on the basis of need. Whilst this cluster structure has existed for more than thirty years, recent steps to strengthen the structure have resulted in funding grants to up to 20% of gugus. As the drive to upgrade teacher qualifications continues through on-the-job training, further funding will be provided. c. Districts will be encouraged to conduct forums at which exemplar learning initiatives can be presented and discussed. At these regular events, principals, school supervisors, guru inti and expert teachers will be able to lead workshops and activities to expand teacher knowledge. Negotiations with LPTK are to be undertaken to ensure academic recognition (through the award of SKS credit points) is given towards future qualification upgrades. d. Professional teachers'associations organized around teaching subjects will also be fostered to create an on-going interest in and support for teachers wishing to undertake personal improvement in their teaching knowledge and skills. This will generate widespread interest in teaching and encourage teachers to seek avenues for self-improvement. Many of the training activities managed through this source will be able to receive academic standing and certification towards upgrading of qualifications and inclusion on a teachers portfolio for certification. e. Universities will be developing mechanisms to recognize the prior learning (RPL) of incumbent teachers. Under the Regulation, up to 65% of the qualifications"gap"can be filled by credit points given for prior learning and experience. Universities can use a portfolio or examination process to enable teachers to provide details of their professional and work experiences to enable a determination of the advanced standing or credit able to be given towards completion of a training course. Whilst the government can provide a limited number of scholarships and grants to enable some teachers to study full-time or part-time, the majority of teachers will be able to receive credit through taking courses on-the-job on a part-time basis. 97 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers 3. Provision of scholarships for upgrading To assist teachers in the upgrading of their qualifications to S1, the government has provided scholarships to cover the cost of their study. A limited number of teachers are eligible for full-time scholarships. However, many scholarships merely cover the fees for distance education through the Open University or for trial distance education courses through other universities. Currently 1,455,242 teachers require upgrade training and the following number of scholarships have been funded by the government: a. In 2006: 18,754 teachers were funded; b. In 2007: 173,016 teachers were funded ­ 170,000 from decentralized budgets (districts) for primary, junior and senior secondary teachers, and vocational teachers; 516 for vocational teachers; and, 2,500 from the central government budget for primary teachers through distance learning using ICT; c. In 2008: 270,000 teachers were funded from decentralized budgets (districts) for primary, junior and senior secondary teachers, and vocational teachers. Funding projections for the provision of assistance to teachers over the years to 2014 is shown in Table 5.2 below: 98 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers 33,122 18,669 4,777 51,791 2014 247,428 20,338 33,122 33,124 18,669 18,668 4,343 2013 123,921 538,204 20,338 20,338 20,336 33,122 33,124 33,124 18,669 18,668 18,668 3,221 2012 216,387 696,987 16,887 20,336 20,336 20,336 32,400 33,124 33,124 33,124 24,206 18,668 18,668 18,668 2,928 2011 289,877 848,818 16,887 16,886 20,336 20,336 20,336 32,400 32,400 33,124 33,124 33,124 24,206 24,206 18,668 18,668 18,668 2,662 2010 363,369 967,288 7,134 6,548 5,604 16,886 16,886 20,336 20,336 32,400 32,400 33,124 33,124 11,619 24,206 24,206 18,668 18,668 10,082 2,420 2009 332,227 803,989 5,819 7,134 6,548 2,323 5,604 6,283 16,886 19,560 20,336 16,109 32,400 37,528 33,124 11,619 15,436 24,206 28,038 18,668 10,082 2,200 2008 317,703 698,947 am ogrrP 6,523 7,134 6,548 1,318 6,283 19,560 18,061 37,528 11,619 17,306 28,038 10,082 2,000 2007 170,000 340,000 ainingrT 2008,il Apr 3,641 12,342 70,219 34,170 32,742 99,889 11,887 10,082 ession, eacherT eachersT 108,816 134,728 177,237 100,656 796,409 5,141,661 ofrP orf otalT eacherT getsraT of e tion ca oratt ec uali Dir Q D1 D1 D1 D1 D3 D2 D3 D2 D3 D2 D3 D2 by cholarshipS ostC eg 40 (000) pR ­ 50- 55- 5.2 A 30 31 41 51 otalT Unit earY esentationrP Budget ableT pR otalT ce: erP (000,000) Sour 99 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers This table indicates the priorities that have been established for the provision of funding for the teacher qualifications improvement program. Teachers aged over 55 years and with work experience of 20 years or more will receive the highest priority and should be completed first. Teachers aged between 51 and 55 years will have the opportunity to complete their upgrade in two stages as a reward for long-standing service, with this process being finalized by the end of 2009. Teachers under 50 years of age form the great bulk of the upgrade target. Those with a D3 qualification will finish in two stages; those with D2 will finish in four stages; and those with a D1 or less may take up to six stages. Clearly, these targets will stretch the capacity of the LPTK and the Open University and care must be taken that this does not in any way detract from the quality of the learning experience for the teacher. This study experience is a critical opportunity to provide a quality input to lift levels of teaching knowledge and skills, with the nature of this experience shaping the value added to the learning of this generation of students. The fact that many of these teachers are located in remote areas emphasizes the need for effective distance education courses and for effective cluster-based courses at the school level where teachers can participate in workshops conducted by lecturers and expert teachers. 4. Preparation of teachers by the LPTK a) Training requirements at the time of the Teacher Law At the time of the implementation of theTeacher Law, pre-service training programs for teachers included the following requirements: a. Primary teacher training consisted of two years'coursework at an LPTK. Students usually entered the LPTK after completion of secondary school to undertake a program of teacher training courses and teaching experience in schools. Currently, only 55% of incumbent primary teachers have completed a D2 diploma, even though this was mandated sixteen years ago in the reforms of the 1990s; b. Junior secondary teachers were required to complete a D3 diploma program through an LPTK or a university. This is a three-year program and consists of pedagogical courses, academic discipline course work, and practice teaching in the schools. At present, 79% of incumbent junior secondary teachers have completed the D3 diploma; c. Senior secondary teachers generally complete a four year academic program in a subject discipline,followedbyoneyearofpedagogicalcourseworkandstudentteaching. Approximately 70% of senior secondary teachers have completed the D4/S1 diploma or degree program. Overall, approximately 65% of all teachers do not meet the new D4/S1 requirement mandated by law. However, teacher training universities have not previously had S1 courses in primary education. Reform in course content and length was required if the requirements of the Teacher Law were to be met and incumbent teachers, in particular, were to be able to upgrade their qualifications. This was a matter of substance as well as access. b) The content of training courses It is critical that in the upgrading of courses to meet the S1/D4 requirement, new teaching standards be adopted and integrated in course design. The BERMUTU project document sets out a number of 100 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers suggested accreditation criteria to be incorporated in the process adopted by the university accreditation agency (BAN-PT). These reflect international best practice for teacher training43: a. Recruitment, screening and quality of students admitted to pre-service training programs, including skills, knowledge and dispositions; b. Academic major and minor subjects with a significant inclusion of academic course work for primary, junior and senior secondary teachers; c. Evidence of mastery of subject matter, in addition to age-appropriate and subject-appropriate pedagogy prior to the professional year; d. Field experiences and clinical practice (observation, tutoring, student teaching and induction year); e. Coursesonspecialneeds,ruralandurbaneducation,multi-gradeclassrooms,bilingualeducation, and others as needed; f. Academic quality, school experience, research and service of university faculty members; g. Supervision during pre-service and internship year; h. Teaching technology (textbooks, computers, overheads, internet etc.); i. Student assessment methodologies; j. Quality of facilities, resources and governance of the teacher education program; and k. Follow-up on the success of graduates in passing certification examinations, and success in the professional year and throughout their career. The BERMUTU program is providing funding to finance this accreditation process and also to support the pre-service institutions in meeting the criteria. In seeking to lengthen their courses to meet the new requirements, eligible institutions will also need to demonstrate a commitment to improving the quality of pre-service education through initiatives such as: (i) ensuring that the curriculum includes best practice strategies linking teaching to improved student learning; (ii) preparing teachers for working with their communities; (iii) adapting the curriculum to accord with school needs and with the competencies required under the Teacher Law and regulations; (iv) providing balance between theory and practice, including a strong link with professional development (laboratory or demonstration) schools; (v) involving practicing teachers in the design and implementation of the pre-service curriculum; (vi) inclusion of effective school literature and for primary teacher training programs, connections with schools participating in programs such as PAKEM, CLCC, MBE, UNICEF; (vii) rigorous policies and procedures on future teacher subject matter knowledge, basic skills, pedagogical knowledge and skills for student selection, assessment and graduation; (viii) staff upgrading and performance; (ix) relating graduate intake and output to teacher demand; (x) providing access for teachers in Special Areas; and (xii) promoting effective and efficient institutional governance. c) Future directions It is important to capitalize on this opportunity to reform the nature and content of teacher training in Indonesia. New high quality and longer programs will need to be designed for primary and junior secondary teaching degrees and significantly improved for students seeking senior secondary teaching degrees. This opportunity has already been taken with the design and trial of a new S1 course for primary teacher 43 Annex 4 of the BERMUTU Project Appraisal Document May 2006 101 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers training. The first 3,000 graduates will be available at the end of 2008 for appointment to schools. Their effectiveness as teachers should now be monitored over the next five to ten years to evaluate improvements in the quality of instruction to students, measured in terms of student scores and other qualitative dimensions. 5. Distance learning provision of the Open University The Open University (Universitas Terbuka, or UT) exists to train and upgrade students through distance learning programs to meet the more diversified need for professional development and certification, especially in remote areas. The majority of its students are mature-age teachers already in the workforce. The new Teacher Law underscores the need to upgrade the qualifications of teachers and the distance education programs and units of study offered by this agency provide an important pathway for such teachers. a) Operation and provision UT offers a diploma program in teaching, in addition to providing in-service training for primary and secondary school teachers, particularly in remote areas. Approximately 80% of UT's student body consists of teachers pursuing additional training. In August 2006, it had 37 regional offices in 26 provinces with 225,000 active students enrolled, of whom half are funded by districts or regional governments, while the other half financed their own studies. With its extensive network, depends heavily on working harmoniously with provincial universities. UT offers several programs: (i) Degree program (S1), which covers subjects including Bahasa Indonesia, English, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Economics, Civics and primary school teacher education; (ii) Diploma (D2) program, which includes Physical Education and Health programs, as well as kindergarten and primary school teacher education training; and (iii) a teaching certificate program. Primary teacher up-grading currently consists of a 5 semester (2½ years) program for teachers already holding a diploma degree (D2). Once completed, these teachers will be able to receive an award at S1 level. At the time of the ratification of theTeacher Law, this was the only university offering an S1 to primary teachers. The program consists of 80-82 credits (240 modules) and 5 semesters of 5-6 courses each at a total cost of Rp2 million per year (US$220) or about $600 for a completed program (Rp5 million). The program is well established and uses paper-based materials in combination with face-to-face tutorials and multimedia. It has well established collaboration with provincial universities for both the examinations and assessments and for face-to-face workshop instruction. Students can enter for an examination (paper-based assessment) four times a year in any of the 360 district locations. From 2007, UT will also offer up-grading for teachers with high school diplomas through a 10 semester (or 5 year program). With the addition of the program offered for high school degree holders, UT will expand their curriculum to two strands. The UT has a simple management and administrative structure due to the uniformity in its course delivery system. Registration is easy (local post office) and the cost is low. Concurrently, UT is piloting Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) based on years of teaching (+10 years) to give credits to teachers and exempt them from having to repeat some study work (8-10%). Finally, the university is in the process of developing an on-line system for testing and examinations. 102 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers Distribution and production of materials is straightforward and consists of one package covering the complete course. Even with the exemption of some course work, the distribution of the entire package is very cost-efficient and provides the teacher with materials even in study-areas in which they will not be tested. b) The challenge faced UT is in a unique position to provide training for teacher upgrading. However, the current course packages for teachers with D2 or high school diplomas are equivalent to 80 credits and 145 credits respectively. This is significantly above the stated requirement of 36 credits needed. In addition, the current programs are largely academic and paper-based, and the assessment of students does not involve any observation of pedagogical, personal or social skills (three of the main competencies). Furthermore, the duration and scope of existing programs is not in line with the timeline or the qualification sought under the teacher law. UT has begun to review its curriculum and course duration to accommodate the need for training within the defined 10 year period.This poses a major challenge because revisions to the curriculum and packages have implications for its costs and the training of its tutors and staff.The revision of its curriculum may also take up to two years. One solution could consist of a combination of Recognition of Prior Learning (with standardized variables), units of study, with the academic part of the program being delivered through UT. This could consist of a repackaging of the existing curriculum, thus maintaining the content and methods of delivery, and allowing the student to pursue the entire program at a later stage. c) Assistance from the BERMUTU program Funding will be made available to UT for some of the following activities: a. Expansion: It may be possible to expand the enrolment from the current level of 225,000 to 350,000 if the simplified and streamlined delivery mechanism is maintained. For example, over a period of 10 years the UT might be able to upgrade and train 1.4 to1.6 million teachers. If the program is further extended in collaboration with other universities, this number could reach 2 million teachers. With the current level of attrition (5%) this may allow the government to reach its target of upgrading the entire teaching force of 2.7 million by 2016. The project will fund construction and establishment of new regional centers and district units, especially in remote areas; training of new instructors; materials and books; and design studies. b. Curriculum revision and update: This will provide support for teachers who do not pass the certification tests, and may wish to take extra courses and seek measures such as mentoring or top-up training. The project will fund studies and workshops; training and capacity building; consultants; and materials. c. On-line testing system: This will enable UT to design, test and implement a national in-service teacher training on-line testing system. The project will fund studies and workshops; training and capacity building; consultants; and materials and equipment. d. Mechanisms for RPL:This will assist in the refinement of the RPL mechanism used by UT and assist in developing viable implementation systems. The project will fund studies and workshops; training and capacity building; consultants; and materials. 103 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers d) The issue of quality Usingthedistancelearningstrategy,futureteachershaveoftentakenmorethantwoyearstocompletetheir D2 diploma and concerns have been raised about the quality of the course work and the effectiveness of teachers who have completed their work through this mode. This should be evaluated and any problems identified for remediation. UT uses provincial universities extensively to provide interactive workshops for teachers undertaking its courses. Overseas experience tends to show that external student teachers often produce better academic results that internal students because of their age and maturity. Furthermore, as most are already practicing teachers, they can apply their learning on a day-to-day basis in the classroom and, consequently, the results of their practicum assessments are also often of a higher order. UT has the potential to provide excellent support to teachers wishing to upgrade their qualifications to S1 level. As UT expands to meet the challenges of the Teacher Law requirements, it is important that the standards of teachersupgradingtheirqualificationsbydistancemodearenotcompromised.Inparticular,arequirement that all teachers using distance learning have significant training in classroom methodology and practice, including lesson observation through the local workshops held by the agents of UT should be included. 6. HYLITE Program ­ a distance-learning innovation by the LPTK44 The HYLITE Program is an in-service teacher training program designed for elementary school teachers to improve their qualification from D2 to S1 level. It is conducted via open and distance learning mode. This is a new strategy being used by the government to upgrade in-service teacher qualifications to Strata 1 (S1) as required by theTeacher Law. Funding assistance has been provided through the BERMUTU program to support the development of the content and approaches adopted as well as for preparation of audio-visual materials, printed materials, additional test items and tutorial plans. a) Consortium of LPTK: Only 35% of Indonesia's 2.7 million teachers have an S1 qualification. Because of the current pressure by teachers to upgrade as soon as possible, the capacity of the 278 teachers' colleges (LPTK) (including 32 State LPTK) is not able to meet the need for training within a short period. For this reason, an expansion in open and distance learning has been considered a useful supplement to the training capacity available, particularly for teachers in remote areas. Therefore, in 2007, the Directorate-General of Higher Education (DIKTI) and the Directorate-General of Quality Improvement forTeachers and Education Personnel (QITEP), assigned 10 LPTKs to work collaboratively as a consortium to develop and offer such an in-service teacher training program by open and distance learning mode. Twenty-three universities are involved in delivering the program: Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Universitas Sriwijaya, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Universitas Negeri Makassar, Universitas Negeri Malang, Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang, Universitas Cenderawasih, Universitas Nusa Cendana, Universitas Atmajaya Jakarta, Universitas Tanjung Pura, Universitas Lambung Mangkurat, Universitas Haluoleo, Universitas Jember, Universitas Pattimura, Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha, Universitas Prof. Dr. Hamka, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Universitas Gorontalo, Universitas Mataram, Universitas Satya Wacana, Universitas Negeri Lampung, Universitas Muhammadiyah Makassar, and Universitas Sebelas Maret 44 Based on the information on the website http://pjjpgsd.seamolec.org/node/47 104 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers b) Enrolments in the program: The first cohort of 1,000 students wishing to take advantage of the opportunity to upgrade from D2 to S1 was selected in 2006 as a trial, using district ITC Centers to provide the website link. A further 1,500 were invited to join the program through their local KKG. By 2007, there were 2,500 students undertaking the course. These were joined by a further 2,300 students in that year, with another a further 2,300 joining the program in 2008. At present, 7,600 students are undertaking the course. c) Operational issues: The program was developed by a consortium of 10 LPTK and is currently offered by 23 LPTK. The curriculum has a load of 82 credit points over four semesters, including professional education courses for teachers, and a physical education course. The hybrid learning model used includes use of printed materials, audiovisual materials, web-based course materials, and face-to-face meetings with residential and visiting tutors Whilst development of course materials was completed by the original consortium of 10 LPTK, the credits earned from the program are now transferable across the wider group of 23 LPTK. The program is supported by an information system and operational guidelines developed by the consortium. A residential period is provided for one month at the beginning of every semester. During the residential period, students are engaged in various tutorial activities, and also sit for an examination on material from the previous semester. After each residential period, students return home, and study independently using the available learning resources, i.e., the printed materials, the audiovisual materials, and web- based courses which are accessible through the ICT Centers or any internet-connected computer. The student learning process is facilitated through face-to-face tutorial sessions during the tutors'visit to the student's study centre, on-line interaction using the five on-line interactions available, and/or synchronous interaction in the form of a teleconference. d) Elements of the initiative: The program has a number of features: a. An academic action plan which elaborates the design of the HYLITE Program in each LPTK; b. Introductory courses to study in an open and distance learning mode for students including: and introduction to open and distance learning; how to study independently; study skills; and, ICT literacy; c. Self-learning materials development guidelines including: developing printed materials; developing audio-visual materials; and, developing web-based courses; d. Operational guidelines including: management of the HYLITE resources; students guideline; tutorial guidelines; practices and practicum; and, teaching practices; e. 32 packages of hybrid courses. 105 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers e) The Learning Program: There are 12 packets of study materials in Program A (for the first semester), with the cost of their development being met by the BERMUTU45 project: (a) Multicultural Education (2 SKS); Human Rights Education (2 SKS); (b) Science Education (2 SKS); (c) Education of Children with Special Needs (2 SKS); (d) Bahasa English (3 SKS); (e) General Lectures (in residence) (2 SKS); (f) Computer and Media (2 SKS); (g) Citizenship Education (2 SKS); (h) School-based Management (2 SKS); (i) Development of Student Learning (2 SKS); (j) Learning Methodologies (2 SKS); and, (k) Education in the Arts (4 SKS) f) Comparative Cost: This program is an highly innovatory response to the need to expand the availability of training for in- service teachers in Indonesia. It increases the modes of delivery of training and is the first distance learning program provided other than through the Open University. Its development has required cooperative program design and preparation between a number of key LPTK and the acceptance of their program by 23 more LPTK who have agreed on the content, the delivery system and the level of credits (SKS) awarded to students. The program itself is comparatively expensive. Each enrolment costs approximately Rp 11 million per annum (compared to the UT cost of Rp 2 million). However, this fee covers the cost of a wide range of facilities: books, marking by the LPTK, transport to residential venues, and residential accommodation for one month. Despite the cost, it is a program with significant potential to facilitate the challenging task of teacher upgrade. 7. An example of a modular approach to teacher upgrade ­ DBE 246 In meeting the training upgrade requirements of the Teacher Law, an increased focus is being placed on the delivery of training through the school cluster-based teacher working groups (KKG/MGMP). Through their local committees, these groups will be expanded and encouraged (and funded) to take greater control of their own training activities. Because of the size of the training requirement in Indonesia and because of the inherently preferable strategy of a local approach to meeting teacher training needs, providing additional resources to these groups will be critical in the upgrading process. The design and delivery of the teacher learning materials in the Decentralised Basic Education 2 (DBE 2) program of USAID provides a good example of the type of modular approach which could be effectively used through this local network: a) The Integrated Five-Phase Approach of the DBE 2 training model: In planning and developing the approach of this model, the trainers follow five stages: 45 BERMUTU: Better Education through Reformed Management and Universal Teacher Upgrading. World Bank funded project commencing in 2008 46 From information provided by the Primary School Education Advisor, Decentralised Basic Education 2, USAID, Jakarta Stock Exchange Building, Jakarta 2007. 106 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers Table 5.3 Five Stages of Training in DBE 2 Stage Activity 1. Training of Modular Development Team (MDT) Training will be provided to MDT members and field staff on and Field Staff effective training, and training package development 2. Training Package Development A Module Development Team (MDT) of university teacher educators, practitioners, and ICT specialists will develop training packages 3. School Development Training One training package consists of: - One 3-day School Development Workshop at the district level equivalent to 2 modules - 2 KKKS (primary principals'working group) modules with 4. Cluster Working Group Training school-based follow-up support - 2 KKG (primary teachers working group) modules with classroom-based follow-up support - School-driven projects or applications of content based on 5. School Level Support and Applications training package topics (Module = 1 SKS or 15 hours applicable for degree requirements, civil service or, possibly, teacher certification) A key element is the involvement of university staff in the development and delivery of modular material. This has ensured that the completion of each module will result in the granting of university credits (SKS) that count towards the achievement of the S1 qualification. b) Cross-cutting themes and training topics in the modular design: Table 5.4 Cross-Cutting Themes in the DBE 2 Training Packages Cross-cutting Themes Training Package (Module)Topics PAKEM What to Teach: Numeracy Literacy Gender/Equity Civic Education Natural Sciences Social sciences Competency-based teaching and learning How to Teach: Teaching-Learning Strategy Teaching Profession Low-cost Learning Aids Multi-grade teaching Curriculum and Instruction Instructional Media These modules are not specific to school management or classroom teaching. Rather, these themes are integrated throughout all of the training packages. Each training package involves a range of workshops, school support visits and assignments.They each have: (a) a school team workshop for principals, teachers, school supervisors and school committee members; (b) two KKKS (primary principals' working group) workshops; (c) two KKG (primary teachers'working group) workshops; (d) two follow-up school visits; and assignments. Participants meeting all requirements receive a certificate from the partnering university, which is redeemable for a fixed number of SKS when they enroll in the PGSD program. 107 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers Thefollowingtrainingpackageshavebeendeveloped:(a)BahasaIndonesiaEducation,(b)MathEducation, (c) Science Education, (d) Classroom and Personnel Management, (e) Planning and Assessment, (f) Learning Communities, and (g) Guidance and Counseling. Civics Education and Introduction to Effective Teaching and Learning in Core Subjects are currently in progress of development and Social Studies Education is planned for later in 2008. A sample training package is shown below: Table 5.5 Structure of a DBE 2 Training Package School Development Training Sub- Cluster Working Group Training Sub- Training Package Topic topics topics Introduction to Literacy · How children learn languages KKG (primary teachers'working · Native language vs. second group) language · Building literacy skills in K-3 classes · Different Approaches to Literacy: · Building literacy skills in 4-6 classes - Whole Language KKKS (primary principals'working - Phonetics group) · A framework for defining a school's · Developing a School Literacy Policy literacy policy · Resourcing classrooms and libraries · Teaching literacy skills through for improved literacy Active Learning · Supporting teacher development · Creating syllabi for literacy based in literacy activities on competencies c) Accreditation goals: DBE 2 seeks to enable teachers, heads of schools, and Master Teacher/Trainers who complete training modules to gain credit towards course requirements at partner universities; civil service progression requirements; and Teacher Certification. To this end, the modules are being designed to meet these requirements. For example, one module equals one SKS (15 hours: 5 hours direct instruction, 10 hours school-based activities), with the topics corresponding to subjects in the LPTK teacher education curriculum. Each training package will offer up to 60 credit hours for principals and up to 30 credit hours for teachers (one teacher per package will also earn 30 hours through the School Development Workshop). All participants can earn up to an additional 30 credit hours by completing school-based projects. The DBE 2 project team also wishes to explore the possibility of providing credit for field staff who are not yet certified or at S1 level. d) Comment: The DBE2 modular approach has proved very successful in the districts in which it has been introduced. Core trainers have been made available to selected groups of teacher working groups and schools within the district to lead the delivery of the packaged materials and to participate in in-school activities to ensure that new teaching and learning styles are adopted as the resources are implemented. It is intended to expand the number of trainers. Hopefully, some will be invited to participate in the local training program to be established under the BERMUTU program. 8. District support in the upgrade of teachers Currently only 35% of in-service teachers (or a total of 880,000) have the S1/D4 qualification which enables them to undertake certification. In 2007, more than 200,000 teachers undertook the certification process. 108 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers All were from this category of teachers. At this rate, by 2010 the education system will have enabled all currently S1/D4 qualified teachers to undertake the process. After this point, the certification process will involve teachers who are at present upgrading their qualifications to achieve eligibility. It is important, therefore, to assess the rate at which under-qualified teachers are upgrading themselves to ensure that there are an adequate number of teachers with the qualifications necessary to undertake the certification process. Teachers can utilize a number of strategies to upgrade their qualifications, so it is important to assess the readiness of district administrations to support their teachers in this process. a) Some key issues: · How many teachers within each district are under-qualified? By how much does their training fall short of the certification requirement? What strategies are teachers using to upgrade themselves? · How is the district operating to facilitate this upgrading? How many scholarships are on offer? Are these for full-time attendance at the university? Are they for Open University fees? · Whatsystemisinoperation(orbeingconsidered)atthelocaluniversitytogiveteacherscreditfor prior learning? Do they require a portfolio or do they use an eligibility examination to determine the credits to be awarded? · Do the local universities give any form of accreditation for off-campus work undertaken by incumbent teachers? Do they offer credits for in-service work undertaken? Have local universities considered any strategy to assist teachers unable to leave the classroom to acquire further training? · What steps has the district taken to increase the number of active KKG/MGMP? How have these been strengthened to assist teachers undertake training activities for certification? · DoesthedistricthaveaccesstoInformationCommunicationTechnology(ICT)?Howextensiveis this network? How is this being used to assist teachers? Do teachers have access to ICT through local agencies? Are they able to access learning materials through this medium to upgrade their qualifications? What plan has the district developed for expansion of this medium? b) Focus for the districts 1) Districts need to survey the current pattern of scholarships they provide: They need to identify the number of teachers receiving scholarship support for each level of training ­ SLTK, D1, D2, D3, S1, S2. What determines the pattern of awards? 2) Districts need to establish a database on their KKG/MGMP to identify: · Thenumberofactiveclusters.Thosewithactivecommitteesandabankaccountreceivingfunds from LPMP grants (and other sources); · The number of inactive clusters ("asleep"); · The number of clusters yet to be established; · A plan to involve these in course delivery? 109 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers · The structure and composition of each KKG/MGMP ­ e.g. to what extent are madrassah and other private schools included? 3) Districts need to review their relationships with local universities in order to formulate strategies for providing advanced standing for incumbent teachers. This will involve assembling data regarding the provision of training and regarding policies for recognition of prior learning or use of an eligibility examination. Issues that need to be addressed include: What are the current policies on this issue (if any) and the attitudes of universities to this issue? Are they aware of the 60% rule in the Teacher Law Regulation? How do they determine advanced standing for mature-aged students? 4) Districts need to establish a database at the district level to map the extent of the teacher upgrading task,; to identify the strategies to be put in place; and to continue the socialization of the process at school level. 5) Districts need to investigate the availability of ICT at the local level and how its use can assist the teacher upgrade task. Issues might include: the extent of availability and the extent of donors'interest; the extent of its use by teachers for study purposes; providers' interest in supplying material on-line; and links to local universities and course availability. c) The changing role of the district in teacher management Whilst pre-service teacher training and further education remain the function of universities and teacher traininginstitutes,thereisanambiguityregardingwheretheresponsibilityrestsforcontinuingprofessional development of teachers. Most school-based and cluster-based professional development activities carried out in Indonesia were supported in the past by projects funded by donors or by the MONE. With decentralization, districts are now responsible for providing in­service training and professional support activities. However, few have the resources or the motivation to do so. There is a need to clarify the responsibility of the districts beyond the administrative functions of recruiting new teachers, paying salary and fulfilling other operational tasks. District administrations need to assume a greater role in training and managing the quality of teachers. 9. Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) Under-qualified teachers have up to ten years to achieve four-year trained status and undertake the certification process. As 65% of teachers are currently below this standard, properly accredited in-service training will be required to achieve this target. In determining the quantum of in-service training required, teachers will be able to apply for advanced standing for previous training and work experience. Some universities will determine these additional credits by requesting teachers to undertake a university-set eligibility examination. The Regulation state that incumbent teachers may be awarded up to 60% of their upgrade qualification by way of recognition of prior learning. In many countries it is common practice for universities to offer some form of advanced standing for prior learning to mature-aged students. This is an acknowledgement by the university that students have gained the knowledge, understanding and skills equivalent to the stated learning outcomes of programs and units of study offered by the university. In such cases the university accepts that learning takes place in a broad range of contexts, including formal study, workplace learning and from life experience. The granting of advanced standing for prior learning ensures that students commence study at a level that appropriately recognizes their previous learning experiences, and ensures they are not required to repeat equivalent successfully learnt activities undertaken in another context. 110 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers This process ensures that students gain an award in the least time possible while adhering to the requirements for the conferring of that award. This saves valuable time and reduces costs for the students and avoids the disincentive involved with the unnecessary repetition of the teaching of knowledge and skills already well understood. a) Current policy on advanced standing for prior learning in Indonesia The concept of recognition of prior learning is well understood in Indonesian universities. However, commitmenttotheprocessvarieswidely.Someuniversitieshaveamechanismtomeasuretheknowledge and skills of mature-age students in the education field. Others do not have such mechanisms and see the process as a challenge to their academic standards. Those universities with policies on advanced standing have established practices for determining SKS awarded which vary from use of a portfolio to use of an entry examination to determine the entry point for its students. The principle of recognition of prior learning is well established and practiced by the Open University (UT). A concept paper47 prepared by this institution, for example, indicates the strength of their commitment to the use of this strategy: "In-service teachers have significant experience in relation to their roles as educators. This experience, other than teaching experience, may include participation in training, short courses, workshops, and seminars; experience in writing academic papers; as well as involvement in civil or professional organizations that are related to education. All of these experiences must contribute to the improvement of teachers' competency. Therefore, they should be recognized and valued accordingly in the process of teacher qualification improvement." In that light, the S1 PGSD Program needs to recognize teachers'prior learning while still adhering to the principles of academic qualification improvement. Thus, incumbent elementary school teachers with various educational qualifications (SGA, SPG, SGO, senior high school, or Diploma II PGSD) will receive acknowledgement for their competencies based on each person's experience. The benefits of giving advanced standing for prior learning and the challenges faced in extending this practice more widely are well known. In many countries, the practice has gained the acceptance of regulatory bodies and is justified on the basis that it is expected that the benefits experienced in academic settings can be transferred to the context of occupational entry and continuing competence. In this respect, its chief benefits are: (i) its ability to increase access to additional academic training and upgrading of qualifications; (ii) its capacity to provide a more complete picture of skills and knowledge than by academic credential assessment alone; (iii) its capacity to assure authorities that relevant, legitimate learning takes place outside of academic settings; and, (iv) its impact on participants in terms of self concept and motivation to continue learning. Because of these benefits, particularly in the context of the need to upgrade almost 2 million teachers, it is important to work with universities responsible for teacher training to encourage universal support for the concept. It is important to develop central guidelines on advanced standing to assist all universities to create an appropriate policy for the award of advanced standing towards four-year trained status for teachers and to devise an appropriate mechanism for its implementation. Socialization of this process and widespread discussion of alternative mechanisms for its measurement will be critical for teacher in- service training. 47 Concept Paper, Appreciating Experience in the Professional Training of Teachers, Unpublished paper by the Open University 111 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers b) Requirements for developing a process for determining advanced standing for prior learning Technical assistance should be available to assist in the promotion of this concept, the development of a set of central guidelines, and the establishment in universities of policies and procedures to implement a mechanism for determining and approving advanced standing for under-qualified teachers. The diagram below indicates how advanced standing can be given in two areas. These can be used to determine the actual commencement point for the entry of under-qualified teachers to additional study: 1) Credit awarded for current academic award held (if any): This is shown on the diagram as Type 1 Advanced Standing. In the example in the Table the case of a teacher with a D2 qualification (SKS 84) is shown.The assumption is made that, in general, all universities will recognize this qualification in a similar manner and treat it as equivalent to their own D2 course.This is measured by submission of a certified transcript of the studies completed. This principle may not be acceptable in some universities and a process of determining equivalence will be needed. 2) Credit awarded for work-based learning and life experience: This is shown in the Table as Type 2 Advanced Standing. In the example shown, in line with the current draft Regulation, the teacher is awardedupto60%oftheirfour-yeartrainingonthisbasis.Activitiestakenintoaccountincludework- based learning and skills learned on-the-job. There may be some credentialed learning if awards have been given for additional training and some un-credentialed learning if training courses have been attended without an award being given. Other relevant work experience or learning on the job could be verified through published research, lesson plans, curriculum documents, and action research. Other relevant life experiences could include holding an office in a local organization or showing community leadership. A detailed portfolio of qualifications, work experience and career activities (similar to the current portfolio for Teacher Certification) could be used to determine the SKS to be awarded. In special circumstances, a university-set eligibility examination may be used to determine the entry point for a teacher upgrade wishing to gain upgrade training for Type 3 Credits. 3) Credit points (SKS) necessary to complete a four-year trained award: Once Type A and Type B Advanced Standing have been determined the teacher has a clear idea of the additional SKS required to reach four-year trained status. Once completed and four-year trained status achieved, the teacher can apply for certification. These additional SKS can be achieved in a number of university-approved study pathways: (a) Distance Learning (through enrolment with UT or use of the new Distance Learning courses PJJ/S1 available under Activity 1.2.2 of BERMUTU); (b) Scholarships for full-time attendance at university; (c) Completion of university-accredited training activities/modules undertaken at school cluster level using university-accredited trainers 112 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers or tion ca cation " eachert tifi a cer Quali alent orf y gains SKS ome:c S1/D4 "Equiv ibilit 140 Out An its S1/D4 elig = el and an y tivities/ lev ed ch ed Study (a): new ac ed of by full-time kro SKS omfr eachert esearr ancvd ther the tivitcA school w y submitt complet fur ed or orf trainer study training at include the tion A ersit y kro orf (UT under ed ed en w trainers ac, assistance (or equirr ov ompletionC ma of omfr tivities tak univ w ning ning edit y ed ac (c) (SKS): orf with G/MGMP SKS edits no hisT( appr y earL earL Scholarships accr edit oliotf ersit KK ipt modules ning of Cr y under ed (b) por ed 3 univ school ersit ); accr ersit a lear edit ypeT tivitiesc endance; transcr the the Standing) A Univ Distance Distance 1.2.2 att univ modules using A complet omfr Balance ot detailing other in accr + - ot ot on orf y- , ning nmentre gap the ersit orf (similar cation) the lear training cations gov univ mine (RPL)(up or a a er tifireC (SKS): edentialed of idge of rade br det qualifi' tivities cr ac ience ot use ot upg eer S1/D4 earningL un- iences use, or, orf eacherT (max) ot exper tly eacherst car orf Standing and riorP kro SKS exper ec e point of and ed ade w lif dir oliotf 84 of = Examination Examination Upgr ancvd cumstances oliotf cir y y ience por 140 A edentialed . cation edits) por alent 2 cr elevantr elevantr ibilit ibilit Cr entr OF gnitiono tifi 3 exper ning job special Elig cur ther ther ther cer Elig eacherT Equiv ypeT Rec 60%) O lear O the O n(I 60% set ot set commencement ypeT etailed kro D w the + in its or tions , (if edits ca D3. orf rantg of SKS Cr of ainingrT ed D2, each ipt 84 that, eacherst will cation = of ancvd Quali D1,, orf cations ." (SKS): oft y D2 ed transcr qualifi ypesT ears A ent ersities 1 eerhT urrC qualifis' ed assumed cohor omatically our-yF ypeT Standing orf Unqualifi istI univ this all equivalenc other aut" tifireC y) eachingt an Example: ed e ne 5.6 of ypesT ancvd ess Giv ableT A Standing ocrP videncE Needed SKS 113 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers c) Barriers to full implementation of RPL Some universities may be reluctant to grant advanced standing for the prior learning of under-qualified teachers. Universities properly act to protect themselves from what may be perceived as an erosion of their academic standards. They may be concerned that the application of this principle to teachers will encourage a spread of this policy to other academic fields. They may also be concerned that recognition of un-credentialed work-based learning and life experience learning may undermine current students' expectations and motivation. However, it may be possible to limit this process only to the cohort of teachers who were under-qualified at the time of the enactment of the Teacher Law. This cohort could be "quarantined" as a special group to whom this process would apply for the next ten years until the period of grace provided in the Law expires. These teachers could then be treated differently without fear of undermining the academic standards of the universities accepting this principle. This would require two steps: (a) Enactment of a specific Regulation designed to define the cohort of teachers to which this process will apply and to limit the term of its application to ten years. The Regulation could also provide details of the mechanisms that may be used and any other factors which would need consideration in the process; (b) Definition of the award for those who follow this pathway as a D4 (rather than an S1) to indicate that the award was not of the same level as S1 but was simply equivalent to four-year training. This will still require all under-qualified teachers to have undertaken sufficient upgrade training to complete the equivalent of four years of training. It would also enable these teachers to attempt certification and, if successful, gain access to the professional allowance. This is an issue for consideration by the Consortium of Rectors of LPTK. This body could develop a set of agreed guidelines which will enable each university to prepare a suitable policy and set of procedures to facilitate the acceptance of prior learning as a fundamental element to be used in the upgrading of under-qualified teachers. d) Measurement of advanced standing using a teacher portfolio to gain SKS A number of universities already use a portfolio approach to determine whether or not a mature-age studentwithextensivework-experienceandsomepriortrainingcanbeawardedsomeadvancedstanding towards a course offered by the university. Prospective teachers are required to attach evidence of their academic training, work experience, any teaching experience, and wider community contributions. The completed portfolios are forwarded for assessment by the faculty. Each university has designed its own portfolio requirements and conducts its own evaluation of the material supplied. Some universities require an examination in addition to a portfolio. The portfolio designed for the certification process covers a number of elements which could be adopted by universities in the process of determining advanced standing. The following diagram shows how the elements can be grouped for assessment: 114 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers Table 5.7 Adapting the Portfolio Form to determine Advanced Standing for RPL ELEMENT SCORE COMMENTS SKS AWARDED A TYPE 1 ADVANCED STANDING: QUALIFICATIONS 1 Academic qualifications 525 TOTAL 525 B TYPE 2 ADVANCED STANDING: (a) Professional Development 2 Education courses and training 200 6 Academic achievements: 160 7 Professional development works: 85 SUB-TOTAL 445 C (b) Teaching Experience and Standard 3 Teaching experience 160 4 Lesson planning and presentation 160 5 Appraisal by superior and supervisor 50 SUB-TOTAL 370 (c) Relevant Work and Life Experience 8 Participation in scientific forums 62 9 Experience in education and social 48 organizations: 10 Relevant recognition and awards in 50 education SUB-TOTAL 160 MAXIMUM SCORE 1500 Table 5.7 shows how the portfolio elements can be clustered to match the evidence required to assess the three categories of advanced standing featured in Table 5.6. The rubric used by the certifying universities to assess teachers for certification could then be used to assess the amount of advanced standing a prospective teacher might gain. A comment could be made against each of the ten elements to justify the credits the assessor awards in determining the overall SKS a teacher may gain. e) Accreditation of modular learning at the local level to upgrade under- qualified teachers Modular training activities undertaken to upgrade under-qualified teachers place critical accreditation requirements on universities in two areas listed below. These are also shown in the accompanying diagram. 1) Awardingadvancedstandingforthepriorlearningofunder-qualifiedteachers(recognitionofpriorlearning): In order to award advanced standing SKS credits for prior learning, universities will need to develop and implement a policy related to this issue and provide a sound basis for its implementation. 2) Awarding accreditation to modular courses used in local clusters and accreditation of trainers: Two sets of modules will be available to school cluster groups of teachers (KKG/MGMP) for the training of teachers at the local level.These are: (a) AcquiredandDevelopedModules which are subject-based modules and management-based modules used in the DBE2, MBE and CLCC donor programs; and, (b) Teacher Activity Modules which include: Classroom Action Research (CAR); curriculum and lesson planning; 115 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers subject material and critical review; test development, analysis, and item banking; teacher mapping and evaluation; study visits, internships, and teacher exchange; teacher performance evaluation; and, inclusive education. Both accreditation issues will be addressed by the universities as mechanisms for upgrade training are established. The Consortium of Rectors will develop guidelines for these issues and encourage each university to determine a policy and procedure for dealing with the issue. As the university accreditation body, BAN-PT will require the existence and operation of such a policy as a pre-requisite for university accreditation. Figure 5.1 A Suggested Model for Negotiation of Advanced Standing and RPL48 DIKTI ­ UNIVERSITIES AS TRAINERS ACCREDITATION OF ADVANCED STANDING MODULES FOR DISTRICT ISSUE AND CLUSTER-BASED LEARNING (1) Pre-service training by university or other agency i. MODIFIED DONOR (D1, D2, D3, other) = SKS MODULES (a) Subject-based Modules (b) Management-based Modules (2) Learning on-the-job JOINT LPTK/ (DBE2, MBE, CLCC) · workplace learning PROFESSI/DIKTI/ = SKS · learning from life BSNP/BAN-PT experience WORKING PARTY ii. TEACHER ACTIVITY · teaching experience MODULES: (Portfolio) = SKS - To develop agreed RPL (a) Classroom Action Research guidelines (CAR) - To accredit modular (b) Curriculum and Lesson (3) Upgrading courses and activities Planning activities by: - To accredit trainers (c) Subject material and - scholarships critical review - Universitas Terbuka (d) Test development, analysis, - Distance Learning and item banking provided by some faculties (e) Teacher mapping and (PJJ) evaluation - Modules used by (f) Study visits, internships, and KKG/MGMP teacher exchange (g) Teacher performance = SKS evaluation (h) Inclusive education = SKS MONE AND MORA AS EMPLOYERS 48 A similar model has been adopted within the Ministry and an RPL Joint Working Party has been established. It has created a forum for discussions between the major stakeholders and facilitates the development process. 116 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers f) Resources provided under the BERMUTU program: 1) Recognition of prior learning for granting advanced standing to incumbent teachers: International consultancy of four months and national consultancy of twelve months as well as funding to conduct joint meetings, training workshops, printing and other materials will be provided under this program to assist development of this strategy. Funding is also available for the development of an audit process, socializing the process and the publication of an annual report following annual auditing. 2) Development of subject-based and management-based modules and teacher activity modules: International consultancy of sixteen months and national consultancy of forty-eight months will be provided under the program to acquire and develop a series of subject-based and management- based accredited instructional modules, as well as a series of teacher activity modules. These can be largely drawn from successful modules used by a number of donor agencies. Some of these modules have been written with university teams and already have university accreditation. Others will require negotiation to be undertaken with universities to establish the credits that will be awarded for completion of each module. Training courses will be provided for the central training teams in four P4TK who will then train district teams at the provincial LPMP level. University accreditation will be sought for all of these courses for trainers to establish the acceptability of the courses by universities for the award of SKS to count towards the four-year trained status of teachers undertaking the program. g) Use of an eligibility examination by universities to determine advanced standing Some universities use an eligibility examination to assess the prior learning of teachers when determining their readiness to undertake further study and in determining the amount of credit they can be given towards their upgrade to S1/D4. For example, many experienced teachers will have considerable pedagogical knowledge and practical experience in the classroom. Such an examination can be used by universities to assess the status of a teacher's skills and can use this assessment to calculate the number of credits (SKS) that can be awarded to a teacher in advanced standing for prior learning in the workplace. The eligibility examination thus offers an alternative method of calculating SKS and recognizing prior learning. Such a method could also be used to supplement or complement the other methods of calculating advanced standing described above. 117 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers h) Suggested action planning for the development of appropriate policies for advanced standing Table 5.8 Action Plan for Developing Advanced Standing Policy Action Plan Action Plan No Advanced Standing for Prior Learning Accreditation of Cluster Learning Modules 1 Appointment of joint planning committee Review of mechanism used by donor programs to members. Discussions with BAN-PT on gain accreditation for certain learning modules accreditation standards. 2 Conduct joint planning meetings Conduct joint planning meetings 3 Selection of international consultant and national Selection of international consultant and national consultant consultant 4 Survey of current practice and preparation of Conference with universities on the mechanism and report process 5 Major conference on prior learning with Establish a Joint Committee to oversight the process international speakers 6 Meetings of Joint Committee commence Establish a joint working party to commence review of units and writing of any additional modules 7 Preparation of papers and options by consultants Review and trial in schools with university representation and involvement 8 Meetings with wider LPTK members to approve On-going meetings with LPTK to brief them on status guidelines for awarding advanced standing for of work and writing of training materials to seek input prior learning 9 Preparation of exemplar policy documents, Preparation of training courses and selection of alternative instruments which could be used, trainers from P4TK. Training of trainers commences manual of operation, and training materials with university input 10 Socialization of process with universities Joint working party to review training materials and training of district representatives, core teachers and principals at LPMPs 11 Local universities to socialize process to districts Districts to socialize process to KKG/MGMP Use of and invitation to under-qualified teachers to apply grant mechanism to provide funds to KKG/MGMP. 12 Applications for advanced standing sent by School cluster groups to commence using the grants teachers to nearest participating university mechanism to obtain funding. 13 Visits by consultant to universities to audit the Districts to oversight training process Universities to process and identify inconsistencies monitor quality 14 Preparation of an annual report on the process Preparation of an annual report on the process for feedback to universities and for widespread for feedback to universities and for widespread distribution distribution By the end of 2008, an international consultant and a national consultant had achieved the following progress: 118 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers Table 5.9 Progress to December 2008 in development of the RPL Process No Task Progress made 1 Review existing Indonesian structures and Completed procedures for the provision of advanced standing credited to teachers enrolling in tertiary courses, including any credit for teaching experience with particular regard to availability, methodology, acceptability and usefulness in the training situation. 2 Prepare optional models for the recognition Completed of prior learning (RPL) (academic and work experience) for upgrade teacher qualification, taking into account training provider requirements, and financial and human resources implication. 3 Prepare a draft mechanism, procedure, guidelines, Completed a draft mechanism, procedure, guidelines, and manual for a national workshop and manual, and a series of workshops conducted with LPTK representatives 4 Facilitate conduct of the workshop in order to A draft of the proposed RPL mechanism was presented develop an agreed policy and procedure. at a public forum in November 2008, and shared with representatives from the LPTK in December. However, the RPL mechanism, guidelines, and manual for the national workshop are still in draft form. It is recommended that samples of official documents and case studies be included in the final version of the manual and training resources. 5 Develop evaluation matrix of indicators and Completed and is included in the draft RPL Manual instruments for evaluating the RPL application to incumbent teachers. 6 Develop materials for the socialization of the RPL A draft version of the RPL materials has been written, process for use with teachers and the LPTK. and shared at meetings. However, a final version of the materials is not yet available. The schedule for full socialization of the RPL process for teachers has not yet been developed. 7 Prepare 2-year plan and audit mechanism for A draft two-year plan was provided to the RPL group in ensure some consistency between RPL awarded November 2008. by different training providers. 8 Develop material to assist in development of The documents and reports developed will form the draft of a Ministry Regulation mandating RPL basis for the drafting of a Ministry Regulation on RPL procedures. procedures Source: International consultant's Final Report, December 2008 It seems clear from the workshops conducted with LPTK that the universities are concerned with the possibility that up to 65% of the qualifications shortfall of teachers can be made up with RPL. They see much of the outside work and training experiences of these teachers as not of sufficiently high quality to warrant equivalency to university work. The widespread adoption of RPL will take time. However, promulgation of details in a Ministry Regulation may well change attitudes towards this procedure. 119 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers 10. Elements of good teaching practice for inclusion in teacher upgrade programs The modular approach adopted by donor programs such as the USAID DBE2 program discussed above focus on three guiding principles. These are: (a) improving the quality of teaching and learning; (b) improving school-based management; and (c) improving community participation.49 a) Improving the quality of teaching and learning Good teaching practice supports student-centered active learning. This requires skill in teaching and improvement in the school environment. Active learning has student responsibility and student activity at its heart, in contrast to an emphasis on passivity, teacher-control and on coverage of content found in much of the conventional, didactic teaching in Indonesia. Donor projects and programs tend to focus on building models of effective learning and teaching by supporting target primary and junior secondary schools and their local communities. These models of learning and teaching are often described in primary schools as either AJEL (Active, Joyful and Effective Learning) or as PAKEM (Pembelajaran Aktif, Kreatif, Efektif dan Menyenangkan - Active, Creative, Effective and Joyful Learning). In junior secondary schools, the term CTL (Contextual Teaching and Learning) is applied. The good practices supporting the implementation of active learning in both primary and junior secondary classes are: · Well trained and committed teachers; · Instructional planning; · Effective learning-teaching practices; · Use of appropriate instructional materials and media; · Continuous assessment and evaluation; · Positive and attractive classroom climate; · Student satisfaction and enjoyment. b) Improving school-based management Good practice in school-based management places the school principal at the centre of school management. Principals are supported in their educational and administrative leadership by their teaching staff and an active school committee. It is expected that school committees will have greater discretion in their planning and budgeting to better reflect local conditions and needs. Good practice processes supporting the implementation of school-based management in both primary and in junior secondary schools are: 49 UNICEF, Basic Education Sector Capacity Support Program in Indonesia: Mapping Good Practices for Mainstreaming in Basic Education, June, 2007. 120 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers · School planning systems; · School budgeting systems; · School leadership; · Information systems; · School climate; · Accountability. c) Improving community participation Good practice in schools in this area requires the establishment, implementation and development of the active participation of the local community in the educational and administrative work of the school. Such community participation seeks to encourage local ownership, responsibility and continuity for the management, development and educational work of the school. Good programs always address community participation in some way and such community participation is always integrated in each element of the good practices introduced in each program. This integration is a reminder that it is not always possible, or even desirable, to be able to break down practices into neat, separate categories. Instead, it indicates the importance of always considering the bigger picture involved in`whole-school development'rather than focusing on one area of good practice alone, such as learning and teaching or school based management. Detailed implementation of good practice in community participation usually requires: · Establishment and operation of a school committee; · Establishment of a school implementation team; · Community participation in developing a school plan and school budget, implementing school activities and monitoring school performance. Specific information and strategies supporting these principles are usually contained within the manuals and materials prepared and distributed by donor projects and programs. 11. Activities included in the BERMUTU modular training packages for teacher upgrade The learning modules to be provided through local school clusters for teachers are a critical element in the quality improvement of teaching. They are focused on lesson study or classroom action research to train teachers to analyze their lessons, identify new methodologies and ways of teaching, and then, following trialing of new approaches, to assess improved results. Modules will be delivered through the local school cluster by expert teachers trained for this purpose. A legacy of this model will be the increased knowledge and skill which will continue at the local level after all teachers are certified. Currently, negotiations with the LPTK are commencing to ensure rules are developed to enable teachers using this pathway to gain advanced standing towards their upgrade training. The BERMUTU program focuses on six types of activities for the development of teachers: (a) school curriculum and lesson plan development; (b) test development, analysis and test item banking; (c) 121 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers classroom action research (CAR); (d) subject materials and clinical review; (e) teacher mapping and performance evaluation; and, (f) study visits, internships, and teacher exchange program. Each of these activities must be undertaken within a subject context. The focus will be on improvements in the effectiveness of classroom teaching and the results of students. It will also be a structured program. The KKG/MGMP (regular and remote) involved in will be required to hold a specified number of meetings each year. Funding will be provided to ensure all these activities will be covered in their planning ­ a typical plan for the year will be provided to them. This will be monitored by pengawas or through the periodic FORUM held at district or sub-district level. Furthermore, success in these activities can be used for movement up the civil service grading scale (from, say, 4a to 4c) and for gaining SKS (when negotiation with the universities has been concluded). Details of these activities are set out in the table below: Table 5.10 BERMUTU Training Program for Delivery through Teacher Working Groups (KKG/ MGMP) No Training Activity Description of Activity Optimising the e ectiveness of the activity 1 School curriculum 1. Developing school-based curriculum · Teachers already spend a large and lesson plan from the KTSP amount of time in their working development 2. Teaching plan for a topic groups on this subject · Training is needed in how to do this more effectively so teachers can spend more time on other subjects and complete school-based curriculum development at home or in school in their own time 2 Test development, 1. Information of how to write effective · There is need to reduce the amount analysis and test tests of time spent on this task. Currently item banking 2. Practice on how to analyze test teachers use working group meetings results (especially from the National to analyze test items (multiple choice). Examination) Teachers need to manage their time 3. How to save time by contributing to more effectively to improve their a local test item bank to be shared by all teaching practice teachers 3 Classroom action Steps: Work in groups to: · This process is not well understood. research (CAR) 1. Identify a teaching/learning problem · This process needs to be (This practice 2. Develop a new strategy disseminated widely and mainstream began in 2000) 3. Implement in the classroom into the schools 4. Peers observe 5. Report results, modify, implement three times Written report to KKG/MGMP 4 Subject materials 1. Increase teacher knowledge of subject · Focus should be on the teaching and clinical review content. This needs a good resource methodologies appropriate to the person (University?) subject matter learned 2. Undertake a critical review of articles on practical teaching and try to apply in classroom. 3. Keep a learning journal of lessons learnt. 122 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers No Training Activity Description of Activity Optimising the e ectiveness of the activity 5 Teacher mapping 1. On-service (mentor visits the teacher's · Critical area for strengthening skills of and performance classroom) is a formative technique. principal and supervisors. A key focus evaluation 2. Evaluation of a teacher is summative area of BERMUTU program. ­ at the end of the year a team of · Proper measurement by observation two (Principal + one"expert") ­ use of will require a culture change in attendance review, product check, paper schools. and pencil test, observation. 3. Facilitator visit to identify strengths and weaknesses and to follow up. 4. Teams of supervisors, principals and university experts will evaluate teacher performance through tests, outputs and classroom observation. 5. Classify into"advanced","proficient", and"basic"for the district to determine future cluster activities, prioritize teachers for certification and additional SKS 6 Study visits, 1. Inter-district visits organized at district · Requires identification of local internships, and level using district funds; KKG/MGMP use exemplar teachers in all subject areas. teacher exchange local grants within the sub-district · Emphasis should be on practical program 2. Teachers need to identify reasons for lessons learnt about teaching and visits, identify areas of focus, write a final reporting these to and sharing these report after the visit and demonstrate with other teachers lessons learnt in a sample lesson for others It is important to get the methodologies used in the classroom right for active learning under the BERMUTU program. This will involve a number of steps: a. Use of a national core team to develop a bank of key subject modules and financial and management modules for elementary and junior secondary teachers, principals, and supervisors; b. Incorporation of classroom teaching strategies into these subject modules; c. Use of the P4TK trainers to provide workshop training at district level to representative expert teachers (tutors and core teachers) from the KKG/MGMP on a"train-the-trainer"basis; d. The adoption and dissemination of successful strategies and materials from other donor programs which have already gained university accreditation for some modules; e. Negotiation with universities to ensure outputs from many of these modules will give credit points to teachers that they can apply to their career development and will contribute to their upgrading to S1. 123 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers 12. Incorporating best practice teaching and learning activities in the BERMUTU subject modules50 "Component 2 of the BERMUTU program is to strengthen continuous teacher quality improvement..."51 This intent is directly related to the upgrade training for teachers through cluster teacher working groups. These subject modules will mirror effective teaching practice and will be delivered through an existing but much-expanded on-going training network. As schools are granted increased budget funding through the BOS and schools begin to understand the benefits of this local training system, this mechanism will become self-funding and, therefore, self-sustaining. These modules for teacher upgrade training are designed to strengthen continuous improvement and will involve: a. Systematic exploration by teachers of their teaching through the school cluster (KKG/MGMP) system to understand their practice and to try ways of improving their teaching so that students master the core ideas of the subjects they are studying; b. The use of strategies from successful programs that have used the school cluster training model (KKG/MGMP). For example by using lesson study, class action research and case studies; c. The use of modules that have been developed in basic education reform programs and using them as resources/teaching aids to be accessed by all working groups; d. The provision of access to resources that will enable teachers to improve their subject understanding and how to teach it; e. Ensuring recognition to teachers for further professional development by linking their achievements to University credit as a motivation for improvement a) The range of modules being planned The number and type of modules currently being planned are set out in the following table: Table 5.11 Modules under Development for BERMUTU Districts Module Learning Focus Number Foundation module on Toolkit for observing, understanding and One "classroom study" teaching, and for redeveloping a unit based on the lessons learnt from the observation Lower Primary Thematic learning in Literacy and Mathematics Four Upper Primary Basic concepts in Mathematics, Bahasa Indonesia, Twenty (5 per subject) Science and Social Science Junior Secondary Basic concepts in Mathematics, Bahasa Indonesia, Twenty (5 per subject) Science and Social Science TOTAL 45 50 Compiled from a presentation on progress and planning delivered by the Module Development Team, January 2008 51 BERMUTU (Better Education through Reformed Management and Universal Teacher Upgrading), Project Appraisal Document, May 2006 124 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers Following the module introducing the concept of classroom study, there will be four separate sets of modules in classroom study: (a) curriculum development issues; (b) subject knowledge problems; (c) teaching practice problems; and, (d) student assessment. Each module will consist of three components: · Instructional material on how to observe and examine a lesson, and how to collaboratively plan and teach a new unit and develop an evidence-based report on its effectiveness; · Instructional material to develop teacher competencies in the five areas of learning; · Readings on issues in subject-teaching for critical discussion in the cluster. A sample module on Subject Knowledge Problems in primary Mathematics is set out as follows: Table 5.12 Sample Module on Subject Knowledge Problems in Primary Mathematics Module Steps Learning Focus Resources 1. Select your goal and your (e.g.) Maths: How do you teach the Unit:"Ignore a quarter fraction" question for inquiry concept of a fraction? (AusAID); Mathematical Learning Approach (USAID) 2. Observing and critiquing How was/should the key concept be Observation instruments; case study teaching handled? reflections; evaluation writing 3. Planning and implementing Developing learning experiences Lesson study modules on-line; classroom study that help students formulate their SISTTEMS hard copy (JICA); on-line understanding of fractions material 4. Reporting a classroom study Evidence-based reporting and SISTTEMS hard copy models assessment Each module set accommodates all the target output priorities for effective teaching as follows: Table 5.13 Structure to Accommodate Target Output Priorities Module Learning focus Resources Module 1: Classroom Action Research (CAR) CAR, journal, portfolio, learning model Module 2: Curriculum development KTSP, syllabus, unit lesson plans, test items and assessment Module 3: Subject strengthening Kajian Kritis Module 4: Teaching practice Construction of teacher-student interactions, LKS and media Module 5: ICT Innovative use of ICT in teaching and learning b) The process of module development The underlying principle requires the involvement of all agencies, units and stakeholders in every strategic decision throughout the development process. This will require: · Formation of a TimTeknisKoordinasi within MONE; · Development of a working partnership with a local KKG and MGMP (Sumedang/Sukabumi) for feedback and reality checks; 125 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers · The formation of a ReviewTeam by the LPTK Consortium to participate in the process; · Consultation with provincial LPMP and national P4TK during development. c) How Work Teams will develop and implement the instructional modules · At nationallevel: It is proposed that the national development team consist of 45 people drawn from: (a) stakeholders, including P4TK (5), LPMP (5), LPTK (5), expert teachers (16); (b) active learning experts (4); and (c) ICT (1). Its role will be to develop the modules, develop the training plan, train the Provincial Team and the District Team, and monitor the training undertaken by the Provincial Team and the work at the gugus/MGMP level. · At provinciallevel: It is proposed that the Provincial CoreTeam (PCT) will consist of: a teacher and an LPMP member of the national team; advanced skills teachers, and pengawas and principals from 10 KKG and 20 MGMP; and widyaiswara (MeNPAN lecturers) and provincial LPTK. Its role will be to socialize the concept and the modules to the principals and pengawas in the KKG/MGMP to which they are associated; and to monitor the District Core Team training and the work of the clusters. · At the district level: It is proposed that the District Core Team (DCT) will consist of pengawas, principals, teachers,Widyaiswara, Dinas and Bappenda. Its role will be to train tutor/guru inti (two per gugus/MGMP), and monitor gugus and MGMP activity. · At the clusterlevel:The gugus/MGMP work will be coordinated by guruinti who will provide on- the-job training at the school level. · At the school level: School Teams will participate in the modules and undertake classroom study in collaboration with other schools in the cluster. Individual portfolios based on work undertaken on the modules will be submitted to LPTK for consideration for negotiated amounts of Recognition of Prior Learning. d) Progress so far The template for the development of the module sets was drafted in 2008. Expert teachers on lesson study and classroom action research assisted lecturers from the P4TK to develop the modular concept. There will be consultation with selected KKG/MGMP in West Java to test the draft template. The concept will be developed further with a larger team from the P4TK and socialized with the LPMP, which will discuss the template with stakeholders, including LPTK and end users in all provinces. It will be finalized at a summative workshop. 13. Continuous professional development (CPD) adopted as a concept With the strengthening of local teacher working groups (KKG/MGMP) and the availability of active learning resources and materials, teachers will have increasing opportunity to participate in upgrade training which is accredited by LPTK. In time, as all teachers meet certification requirements, this network and training structure will become a permanent fixture of the Indonesian education system. This system of continuous professional development (CPD) can be linked with a number of other personnel activities to provide incentives for all teachers to undertake self-improvement. 126 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 5 Providing Upgrade Training to Teachers This will promote the continuing professional growth of teachers, principals and supervisors, post- certification, through access to both system and self-generated initiatives, including professional associations and action research. This will provide an integrated framework for sustaining and enhancing teacher quality, post certification: The centre-piece of such a framework will be a career-oriented profile applicable to teachers, principals and supervisors, consistent with the Teacher Law and Regulation, and civil service requirements. The framework will be based on policies, procedures and instruments and take into account international best practice. Further, it will include recommended strategies for implementation,indicativecosting,andaproposedtimeframeforstagedimplementationbyGovernment. The beneficiaries will be teachers, principals and supervisors. CPD must be based on the widespread availability of courses. Such courses must be relevant to teachers. Theseinitiativesmustberelatedto:(a)revisedteacherprogressionandpromotionpoliciesandprocedures; (b) a system of performance-based appraisal; (c) policies to address continuing underperformance. These should form part of the continuous professional development framework established across the in- service activities of the nation and be linked to teacher profiles, the promotion and career structure, and the salary scale. 14. Balancing quantity against quality The provision of upgrade training for 65% of Indonesia's 2.7 million teachers is a significant task. This chapter outlines a number of pathways and a range of strategies for the provision of quality learning experiences for in-service teachers. However, this immediate policy goal of upgrading these teachers should be balanced against the building of a long-term and durable structure for in-service training through a variety of learning modes. The scope and size of the in-service training program beyond the immediate target of upgrading teachers for certification needs to be continuously reviewed. The temptation to compromise course duration and quality to reach numerical targets is high but should be avoided to ensure the policy goal of improving quality and competency of teachers can be effectively achieved. 127 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification 1. The task Teacher certification is an ambitious attempt to improve the quality of the 2.7 million teachers in Indonesian schools. Currently, more than 200,000 teachers have participated in the process. In 2008, a further 200,000 will undertake the portfolio test. Whilst the first 35% of incumbent teachers already hold the necessary S1/D4 qualification to take the test, the remaining 65% of teachers must upgrade their qualifications to gain eligibility. This requirement is placing unprecedented pressure on the existing professional development mechanisms for in-service teachers. Policies need to be developed and strategies identified to strengthen the agencies involved and ensure they are well equipped for this task. Prioritizing teachers to undertake the process and providing quotas for districts and LPTK to deal with on an annual basis will assist in managing the load. Taking action to strengthen these agencies is a critical and on-going step in the implementation process. 129 Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification 2. Implementation structures and the inter-relationships of the agencies involved The following diagram highlights some of the institutional arrangements and inter-relationships between agencies for the implementation of the teacher upgrade and certification process. The role of each agency in teacher certification is described below. This gives a basic understanding of the areas to be strengthened and will assist policy-makers in establishing priorities and identifying pressure points which may need urgent attention to facilitate on-going implementation of the mechanism. Figure 6.1 Agencies involved in the Teacher Certi cation process BAN - PT BSNP MO NE: HIGHER MO NE : QITEP Quality of certifying Development of EDUCATION Implementation and universities and new teaching and training Development of teacher evaluation of teacher portfolio instrument, courses (including standards design of new courses distance learning) DG QITEP MONE Management Committees DISTRICT EDUCATION OFFICES : CERTIFYING UNIVERSITIES PROVINCIAL Select eligible teachers to meet quota. Mark portfolios, courses for MONITORING Socialise and administer process. those who fail, award of the MECHANISMS Activate KKG/MGMP. UPGRADE TRAINING Support the upgrade study of For teachers with less than those below S1: scholarships, local courses, district forums PASS P4TK LPMP National Provincial FAIL training quality assurance agency KKG/MGMP agencies Private s tudy, workshops, courses, study groups, rol e of Private foundations principals and school and consultants to supervisor provide resources and course input CERTIFIED TEACHERS 130 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification a) Ministry of National Education: The Ministry, in particular QITEP (Directorate-General for the Quality Improvement of Teachers and Educational Personnel, also called PMPTK) and Dikti (Directorate- General of Higher Education), has overall responsibility for the development and governance of the implementation process. This includes initial development of the teacher certification process; provision of the annual teacher quota to each district; evaluation and improvement of the process; issueoftheteachers'certificationnumber;andpaymentoftheprofessionalallowance.Itisresponsible for policy direction and the coordination of planning, implementation, and reporting. In this regard, the Ministry has provided the necessary policies and the implementation framework, including timelines for districts and LPTK, training support, and the monitoring mechanism. b) The LPTK (teacher universities): The certifying universities were selected and appointed to the certification task according to criteria developed by the Directorate of Higher Education (DIKTI). Initially only a limited number of LPTK (33) were commissioned for this task. At present, only public LPTK have been selected to certify teachers. A much larger number of private LPTK have so far been unable to act as certifying universities. However, there is growing pressure to include at least some of these. In time, it is anticipated that the number of certifying universities will be increased. It is critical that such universities be of high standing in the academic community to ensure the quality of the process can be demonstrated. These universities will also offer academic upgrade courses. Their delivery needs to be in a mode appropriate to the needs of practicing teachers ­ with recognition of prior learning, distance methods, local workshops, on-the-job training and other strategies to minimize disruption to their face-to-face teaching tasks. New four-year elementary teacher courses and junior secondary teacher courses will also be necessary. c) DistrictEducationOffice(Dinas):Thedistrictofficeisresponsibleforadministrationandimplementation of the certification process. Technical teams have been organized at the local level to plan, monitor and report the progress of implementation to Directorate of Teacher Profession (Profesi). The districts have been involved with the socialization of the process to principals and teachers, liaison with local universities, distribution of the portfolio application forms and guidelines, gathering the portfolios and sending them to the certifying university for marking. d) LPMP (regional quality assurance agency) and P4TK (national training agency): These institutions will provide courses and a training network to support teachers seeking to upgrade in the workplace through the professional development activities to be arranged through the school cluster teacher working groups. They will be largely responsible for the quality of courses provided at this level. In the longer term this network will determine the on-going development of in-service training in Indonesia. The ultimate success of training courses of all types delivered here will be determined by the success teachers have in gaining certification. e) KKG (the gugus or working groups of elementary teachers) and MGMP (the subject based working groups of secondary teachers): The extent of these local school cluster structures will need to be expanded as they will be responsible for the delivery of relevant courses at the local school level to support teacher upgrade training, re-training and continuing education. The local management process and the resources available here will ensure courses are needs-based and relevant to teacher learning. f) School Principals and School Supervisors: Principals and school supervisors (pengawas) have leadership roles in the teacher certification process. Currently they have a critical role in the verification of the teacher portfolio instrument. Part of this verification process involves examination of the teacher's work and recording classroom performance assessment judgments on the teacher using the instruments contained in the portfolio. To discharge their responsibilities in the certification process with competence, the supporting agencies must have the necessary knowledge and skills. Steps are being taken by government to identify these skills and to strengthen the agencies and support them in these roles wherever necessary: 131 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification 3. Strengthening the capacity of the LPTK (teacher training universities) The LPTK (public and private) are the key teacher training agencies.The Ministry has in the past tried to lift the quality of teaching and learning by raising the minimum qualification for teachers. All are now required to provide the new four-year courses for pre-service teachers to equip them with the S1 qualification. The post-graduate PPG course for certification will also need to be adopted. There will be significant pressure placed on these agencies to adopt the new courses and ensure that the quality learning experiences now required are incorporated in their programs. a) Role of the LPTK: Currently a small number of approved LPTK have a significant role in the certification process. Teams of their lecturers undertake marking of the portfolio supplied by the teacher to determine whether it meets the required standard. Teams of lecturers, trained at the certifying university, use the portfolio marking rubric to determine whether or not the teacher receives a pass. Teachers who initially fail the process are required to undertake a 90-hour training course (PLPG). This is designed by the certifying university on the basis of the guidelines issued by DIKTI. Teachers taking the course are given a second chance at certification by sitting for an examination at the end of the course. The names of successful teachers are advised to the PMPTK by the university. They will then be paid the professional allowance through the district office. The list of certifying universities has been determined by the Ministry of National Education. The Regulation specifies that such professional education universities are required to have: · Accredited and relevant study programs; · Educators and teaching staff possessing the National Education Standards; and · Teaching facilities and infrastructure in accordance with the National Education Standards. At this stage, only 33 key public LPTK have been classified as certifying universities. In time, the Minister may extend the list of universities based on such factors as the distribution of professional education services, and geographic location and conditions of some communities. Each of these LPTK has been allocated a specific cluster of districts (or rayon) close to their location for the teacher certification process. A much larger number of LPTK will be involved in the teacher training upgrade of the teacher workforce. b) Comparative training and status of teachers Figure 6.2 below provides a description of the qualifications held by the Indonesian teaching workforce. A substantial proportion has no teacher training beyond a high school diploma. The requirement to upgrade their qualification prior to undertaking certification will significantly improve their teaching knowledge and skills, whilst providing a major challenge for the teacher training structures. 132 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification Figure 6.2 Teachers by Quali cation in Indonesia 2004-5 1,400,000 Magister/Post Graduate 1,200,000 Sarjana/Graduate Program 1,000,000 Sarmud/Bachelor Diploma 3 800,000 PGSLA, Diploma-2 600,000 PGSLP, Diploma-1 SLTA 400,000 <=SLTP Keg. 200,000 0 primary JSS SSS Source: Compiled by QITEP, MONE 2005. Overall, teacher qualifications in Indonesian are lower than some neighboring countries, particularly those where students perform better in the international learning achievement assessment tests. For example, using the national representative samples of grade 8 students, TIMSS 2003 data shows that only 54 percent of the Indonesian students were taught by teachers with degree level education or above, compared with 85 percent of the Singaporean students. In addition, only 59% percent of the same sample of students was taught by teachers who majored in maths, compared with 86% of the Singaporean students Figure 6.3 Mathematics teachers'quali cations: Indonesia and Singapore (TIMSS 2003) 100 85 86 90 80 70 59 60 54 Indonesia 50 40 Singapore 30 20 10 0 % of students taught by % of students taught by teachers teachers whose major area with university degree and is mathematics beyond Source: Compiled by QITEP, MONE 2005. Whilst such a pattern is partly a reflection of the historical legacy of a developing nation with resource constraints, it is also one which the Teacher Law is attempting to address. It is hoped that the new professional allowance will attract superior candidates and that the extension of all teacher training to four years (particularly for elementary teachers) will impact significantly on the quality of future cohorts of graduates. (c) The new obligations of LPTK: Enactment of the Teacher Law has also given LPTK additional obligations. This includes delivery of the four-year training (PGSD) program for all new elementary teachers, as well as the need to revise and 133 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification upgrade existing training courses to incorporate new methodologies. It also includes the requirement that the LPTK change some of their practices. BAN-PT, the tertiary education accrediting agency, will be placing demands on universities to incorporate these new approaches if they wish to gain approval for these courses. For accreditation by BAN-PT, universities will need to be able to provide evidence of:52 · Abilityandwillingnesstoincorporatenewapproachesintotheirstudyprograms.Theseprograms need to place greater emphasis on student-centered learning in the schools and on the ability of teachers to manage their classrooms using interactive methodologies; · Ability to demonstrate international best practice in teacher internship and practicum training. This includes ensuring that lecturers are experienced practicing teachers and can demonstrate and model best practice to teachers in the classroom. All lecturers should teach in schools for part of each year as part of their employment contract. This requirement will ensure close links with model or demonstration schools and create excellent practitioners; · Ability and willingness to develop and deliver packaged learning materials for both subject content and teaching methodology with workshop, experiential, and on-the-job training components at the school cluster level to fully engage teachers who must continue to work in schools whilst upgrading and improving their skills; · Ability and willingness to recognize and measure the prior learning (RPL) of teachers in the classroom to ensure teachers receive value-added training as they upgrade their qualifications to S1 level and receive due acknowledgement that many have learned much about their profession whilst on the job; · Ability and willingness to provide highly skilled lecturing staff to work with teachers, schools, supervisors (pengawas) and other district office staff and the community in facilitating assessment of teachers. The classroom assessment of trainee teachers, for example, should not simply be left up to the school-based mentor teacher with whom the trainee has been placed; · Abilityandwillingnesstofranchisecoursestoprivateuniversitiesandotherproviderstofacilitate geographic availability of courses and to monitor the quality of teaching of these courses. This provision would assist in lifting standards of teaching in these universities The teacher certification requirements will change many of the policies and procedures for the training of teachers, as well as many of the course requirements. Considerable debate has been involved in the composition of the new PGSD course ­ particularly the balance between academic subject content and the practical classroom performance component. However, three thousand teachers will graduate from this additional two-year upgrade course at the end of 2008 and this will provide an excellent opportunity to gauge the effectiveness of the new program. d) Other challenges: The wide difference in standards between the universities may cause difficulty for some teacher graduates from institutions with less acceptable credentials. These teachers may be unable to pass the portfolio test when marked by the certifying universities. The standards set may be beyond their experience and capacity. Some special cases and special rules may need to be considered. Special programs will need to be established to improve the teaching standards of second-class LPTK which are unable to keep pace 52 Kraft, Richard J., Preparing Pre- and In-Service Teachers for Indonesian Schools, Background Paper, August 2006 134 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification with these changes. One strategy may be to "twin" these institutions with the certifying universities for exchanges of curricula and staff to support them in the improvement process until BAN-PT is able to accredit their revised courses. TheTeacher Law and Regulation also mandates that universities provide training and support for teachers in a range of new and innovative ways. This will build on good work already done by some universities. Distance education training packages supported by residential schools and outreach workshops and seminars will take the learning out of the institutions and into the school cluster working groups where the teachers are located. The HYLITE distance learning package will prove valuable to many teachers in remote rural areas as well as many urban areas where teachers are unable to leave their classrooms to study. Furthermore, the on-the-job training provision in the Law will build on the current internship program of universities by supporting in-service teachers in the classroom. e) Attracting a new type of teacher candidate: The higher remuneration now available to certified teachers may attract a new type of candidate to the profession with different characteristics. Attracting superior candidates into the teaching profession is critical to the achievement of high teacher performance. It is reported53 that top performing education systems recruit teachers from the top third of each cohort graduating from the education system: the top 5% in South Korea, the top 10% in Finland, and the top 30% in Singapore and Hong Kong. Such candidates usually excel in academic achievement, communication skill and motivation. It is important, too, to use an appropriate selection process ­ for example, most top-performing countries select candidates before they commence training and limit the number of training places. These candidates are also likely to be attracted to and retained in the teaching service if their remuneration level is high relative to other professions. f) Reform of course content and structure: In re-designing courses, training institutions will need to focus particularly on the classroom performance of candidates for teaching. Under the Teacher Law, all new teachers entering the teaching profession must meet the mandated competency standards. This objective will only be achieved by establishing new and more demanding criteria for teacher training institutions. Funding will be required to strengthen the accreditation process and to support the pre-service institutions in meeting the new criteria. To be eligible, institutions will need to demonstrate that they seek to improve the quality of pre-service education through initiatives such as: assuring that their curriculum includes best practice strategies tying teaching to improved student learning; preparing teachers for working with their communities; adapting the curriculum to accord with school needs and with the competencies required under the Teacher Law and Regulation; providing an appropriate balance between theory and practice, including a strong link with professional development schools (demonstration schools and model schools); involving practicing teachers in the design and implementation of the pre-service curriculum; inclusion of effective school literature and, for primary teacher training programs, connections with project schools in programs such as PAKEM, CLCC, MBE, and UNICEF; rigorous policies and procedures on future teacher subject matter knowledge, basic skills, pedagogical knowledge and skills for student selection, assessment and graduation; staff upgrading and performance; relating graduate intake and output to teacher demand; providing access for teachers in Special Areas; and promoting effective and efficient institutional governance. 53 National Council on Teacher Quality, Increasing the odds: How good policies can yield better teachers, Washington, DC, 20036, 2005 135 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification Prior to the enactment of the Teacher Law with its requirement for four-year training, many of the LPTK training courses lacked the practical classroom teaching experiences now required if teachers are to possess the competencies defined in the law. The LPTK now face the challenge, not only of developing new tertiary courses of the required standard for all new teachers, but also of delivering these courses to in-service teachers in the local schools, particularly the remote rural schools. Reform to university teacher education is a critical component to the success of the government's strategy and will need quite different criteria to be adopted for the accreditation of higher education teacher training courses. In order to assist this transition, the BERMUTU project has been designed to provide funding for the strengthening of the capacity of universities to meet the changing requirements. g) BERMUTU funding for BAN-PT: The accrediting agency is currently confronted by several major challenges including the need to rapidly develop teacher education accreditation instruments to use in assessing the new pre-service courses and the capacity of training institutions to deliver these courses to teachers. The BERMUTU program will providefundingfortheoperatingcostsinvolvedinaccreditingtherevisedS1coursesthroughblockgrants to BAN-PT. Those costs may include: (a) developing accreditation standards; (b) design of instruments to assess the identified standards; and, (c) design and implementation of training programs to familiarize reviewers with the identified standards and the instruments to measure them. This assistance will ensure BAN-PT will have in place and be able to administer new accreditation standards and have a specially trained cadre of assessors to visit institutions conducting new courses for pre-service teacher education candidates. The new accreditation standards will be in line with best international practice and in line with the new teacher standards. h) BERMUTU funding for distance learning support: The BERMUTU program will also fund a number of distance learning development grants. These will be provided to ten of the nation's top teacher training institutions (LPTK) to support provision of in- service distance education to teachers. These institutions will compete for grants to develop distance learning classes or modules. Already a consortium of ten LPTK has accessed some of this funding to assist in development and implementation of the HYLITE distance learning model. The largest provider of distance learning in Indonesia, the Open University (UT), will also have special funding made available to assist in upgrading its programs. i) Scholarships for LPTK: To assist the teacher training universities to update their courses and access international best practice, BERMUTU will provide international PhD scholarships for up to 30 LPTK staff under a competitive process A further 90 LPTK staff will benefit from three-month international non-degree training opportunities.The intended outcomes of this program are an increased number of accredited pre-service programs (initially secondary programs), and an increased number of new teacher trainees graduating from accredited programs with the knowledge and skill to meet the mandated competency standards. High quality pre-service education is one of the most critical elements in providing a quality teaching workforce. In the long-term this is the determinant which has the potential to most significantly reform the Indonesian education system and most dramatically influence the educational outcomes of students in the schools. Strengthening the ability of the LPTK to provide first class training experiences is an essential part of the reforms commenced by the Teacher Law. 136 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification 4. Strengthening the capacity of school-cluster teacher working groups (KKG and MGMP) a) The role of teacher working groups: The KKG (Kelompok Kerja Guru), or elementary teacher working groups, and the MGMP (Musyawarah Guru Mata Pelajaran), or secondary subject teacher working groups, are widespread in Indonesia and have a history of over 30 years.54 Teachers work together in these clusters to prepare and deliver training and self-improvement activities at the school level. It is estimated that there are approximately 20,000 primary school teacher working groups and 15,000 secondary working groups organized on a subject basis (mathematics, natural science, social science, Indonesia and English are the most common). With a workforce of 2.7 million teachers, the working groups make up one of the biggest teacher networks in the world. The teacher working group (KKG and MGMP) concept is based on the assumption that one of the best formsofsupportfortheprofessionaldevelopmentofteachersatthelocallevelisself-help.Itskeyprinciples include: collaboration; a focus on practical rather than theoretical knowledge; grass-roots support; a focus on topics that relate to the local context; and the capacity for on-going consultation and discussion during the progress of programs. This gives the professional development a distinctive character that distinguishes it from the traditional form of off-site in-service courses conducted at district or provincial level. b) Effectiveness: The effectiveness of the groups depends heavily on the expertise and knowledge of its members or, where expertise is lacking, in the ability to bring in experts from outside. Working group meetings tend to have a topic or theme, such as curriculum development, and the working group organizing committee has the task of identifying leaders for these meetings. Leaders might include expert teachers (guru inti) in the cluster or district, school supervisors, school principals, university professors, trainers from LPMP or P4TK and consultants from foundations or the private sector. Survey results indicate that teachers in Indonesia find the working groups to be very beneficial. In an open-ended survey question, by far the most common response listed was improved knowledge, skills, competencies and professionalism. Teachers also found working groups to be an ideal place in which to discuss difficult problems and seek solutions (e.g. discussing with other teachers how to teach a difficult topic or deal with specific issues faced in class). These responses are shown in the graph below: 54 World Bank, Teacher Working Groups in Indonesia: A Study to Understand the Current Situation and Identify Opportunities for Increased Effectiveness, draft discussion paper, 2007 137 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification Figure 6.4 Teacher Opinion of the three biggest bene ts of KKG-MGMP activities 42% Improved knowledge, skills, competencies, & professionalism 45% 25% 18% Produce innovative T&L model, teaching aids, media 8% 10% 7% Syllabus and lesson plan 9% KKG 6% MGMP 6% 6% Communication, decree, getting funds, rewards 5% Improve in Learning Assessment, Student Evaluation 4% 3% 3% 4% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% Source: KKG-MGMP Survey by World Bank, 2007. Teachers also use the working group sessions as an opportunity to work together to develop innovative teaching and learning models, and to create and share teaching aids and other media for use in classes. Training support can be given to coordinators of the working groups through the national and provincial teacher training agencies (P4TK and LPMP). Financial support varies significantly. Teacher working groups have received support through various projects over the years, including donor or government projects, direct support from the district and support through civil society. Recently, with the funding available to schools through the BOS program, school principals may pay for their teachers to attend activities. However, support has been sporadic and unevenly distributed. A great deal depends on the initiative of the district officers and local school principals. For areas that do not receive direct support, the onus is on working group members to keep the activities alive. Whilst some KKG and MGMP have succeeded, others have become inactive. Those that survive often do so because of a strong leader, motivated teachers and ingenuity in meeting financial needs. In other areas working groups have never taken root. c) Operational characteristics: The teacher working groups are managed by a committee of teachers led by a coordinator who is usually a principal. Committee members are responsible for identifying workshop leaders either from within the schools of the cluster or from outside schools. Some cluster working groups receive a funding grant from the provincial LPMP on the basis of a submission presented through the district office. The treasurer of the group is responsible for management of this funding. Costs may be recovered from this grant or from fees paid by individual teachers or from BOS funding contributed by the schools. These structures have the advantage of being relatively low cost and located at the grassroots level. Teachers are empowered through this mechanism to manage their training for themselves. Some KKG and MGMP operate more effectively than others. In good working groups, a program of activities will be planned. This program might include: preparation curriculum documents by a team of teachers for use across their cluster of schools; production of resources for sharing (in one case observed, a CD on teaching techniques in Physics had been prepared for dissemination to other teachers); group sessions for lesson preparation; and, organization of inter-school classroom observations. However, this level of activity is fairly rare. Many schools, particularly in remote areas, do not have the benefit of cluster groups at all. Many receive little funding and some receive none. Some organize regular monthly activities for teachers; others 138 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification meet spasmodically. Some are able to involve both public school teachers and private school teachers; others have few teachers participating. Some have trained teacher-coordinators, others have none. Inconsistency and variability is a common complaint. Some work effectively with the use of skilled teaching practitioners; others are only used as an administrative link to deliver memoranda from the district office. To work effectively in the delivery of teacher courses and activities, the KKG and MGMP need greater support from all levels of the system. This support is critical if they are to be able to perform the task now required of them and to ensure sustainability as a mechanism during the 10 year period for certification and beyond. This useful and existing structure has the potential for transformation into a dynamic and responsive network driven by teachers to improve their teaching practice and to create a truly professional support network. It is intended to use these cluster groups in the BERMUTU districts as the prime delivery mechanism for a range of learning modules for teachers based on the best practice teaching strategies of programs such as CLCC (UNICEF) and DBE 2 (USAID). Later it is hoped that these modules will be taken up more widely by other districts. Negotiations at a national level are being undertaken to ensure that these modules are accredited by the LPTK and procedures are developed to ensure teachers can gain advanced standing towards a university upgrade qualification by completing these modules. This will probably mean only university-accredited instructors will be able to teach these and all written and observational material submitted by teachers will need to be of good university standing. Only strong and well-resourced KKG and MGMP will be in a position to deliver such courses. Good communication within the cluster is also essential to assist in the identification and prioritization of teacher needs to ensure only relevant and high-quality courses and materials are provided. The use of already-certified teachers will be a useful adjunct resource to assist in running courses to develop teachers yet to be certified and those initially unsuccessful. d) The funding mechanism: At present, eligible teacher working groups presenting a quality proposal through the district to their provincial LPMP can receive a fixed grant (Rp 10 million or USD 1000 in the case of KKG and Rp 15 million of USD 1,500 in the case of MGMP) in two installments in the year if the proposal is successful. The grant is repeated the following year on the basis of a satisfactory evaluation. In 2007, the PMPTK provided 5,500 grants ­ a grant to one KKG in each sub-district throughout the nation. To be eligible to apply for funding through the district office to the provincial LPMP, a teacher working group must meet the following pre-conditions: · It must have an organizational structure that is recognized by the district or sub-district education office; · It must have been running actively for at least two years and have the endorsement of the district or sub-district; · It must have a bank account at a government bank established in the name of the cluster by the district office. These requirements ensure the involvement of the district office in the establishment of the cluster and provide a financial vehicle for the transfer of funds. Proposals are forwarded from the local teacher cluster through the sub-district office (in the case of the elementary teacher working groups) or through the district office (in the case of the secondary subject- 139 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification based teacher working groups) to the LPMP for consideration. If approved for funding by the provincial panel, the LPMP (who is the DIPA or budget holder) will send an order of transfer to the State Office of Treasury Services. The State Office then forwards an order to release funds to the government bank holding the bank account established by the local teacher working group, and the bank will transfer the grant to this bank account. Each expenditure from this account must have the authorization of the chairperson of the local teacher group and be supported by an original receipt. This is a well-established procedure, with clear and acceptable regulations. It provides a readiness filter to ensure only suitably prepared KKG and MGMP can apply for and compete for a grant. It requires the cluster committee to be well established and capable of applying the funds with some accountability. It is a sound disbursement mechanism. Such a financial accountability mechanism requires careful record- keeping and management skills. Furthermore, the requirement for district endorsement of each proposal underlines the important relationship with the district office. The local school cluster working group is part of the district organizational structure for schools. District and sub-district officers have the best knowledge of their strengths and weaknesses. The Guidelines55 that provide advice to teacher working groups identify a list of best practice activities which are eligible for funding. These are: a. Use of accredited subject modules (which are teacher-written and incorporate theory and practice) available through an LPMP/P4TK and supervised by a local teacher trainer accredited by the LPMP/P4TK; b. Visits by teachers to observe exemplar teachers in neighboring schools; c. Visits by an expert teacher to critically observe a teacher's lesson and provide constructive feedback through an individual improvement plan; d. Development of teacher quality circles or study groups to encourage teachers to undertake self- study, self-improvement and guided reading for their own professional development; e. Encouragement of innovative teaching practice such as team teaching, shared classes, individual and large group and small group instruction (these practices will be incorporated in the centrally developed modules); f. Clinical supervision programs focused on teacher improvement; g. Teacher mentoring programs for new teachers and for teachers in need of help; h. Continuous assessment practices and diagnostic testing (these skills will be included in the centrally developed modules; i. Programs to encourage parents to volunteer to assist teachers in classrooms; j. Lesson improvement involving video-taping of teaching, lesson study and experiential lesson methodologies; and k. Funding of an ICT facility for all teachers to benefit from distant resources. Clearly, the concept of KKG and MGMP has been conceived with the best of planning and potentially provides an excellent structure for the delivery of teacher in-service training to every teacher in the nation. However, it is severely limited by lack of funding and the lack of motivation of some districts and some schools to activate the model. 55 Ministry of National Education, Guidelines for Direct Fund Assistance (Block Grant) for Implementation of the Revitalisation of KKG and MGMP, March, 2006. 140 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification e) Summary of limitations: Whilst the working group model has had a degree of success as a method of improving the quality of teachers through localized professional development activities, a number of limitations have reduced its effectiveness. These include: · Formation is ad hoc and, therefore, these networks are not available to many teachers; · Where formed, they have limited capacity to conduct training activities; · There is little access to funding and other resources to conduct activities; · They often lack focus and the training output is uncertain; · There may be little expertise available within the cluster working group to improve the knowledge and skill of teachers. Nevertheless, where these working groups exist they can provide a useful forum for teachers to meet regularly to discuss their difficulties and to share successful strategies, and is often a very effective source of professional development. f) Assistance from BERMUTU: The BERMUTU program focuses on building the capacity of the local teacher working group structure as a mechanism for effective delivery of training at the school level. It acknowledges that QITEP (PMPTK) currently provides a grants scheme to foster teacher training activities at the local school cluster level and that active working groups of teachers who follow the existing guidelines are eligible to receive grants. Because this structure has strong financial accountability requirements and prescribes an evaluation system, little modification of the mechanism will be necessary. At present, however, few groups are active and few have the knowledge and skills to design and implement an effective training program of the type required. BERMUTU will build on the strengths of the existing grants process and will increase the knowledge and skills of the local working groups in providing training experiences of direct benefit to teachers in the classroom. BERMUTU will build upon successful strategies already used by other donor programs such as CLCC, MBE and DBE1, DBE2 and DBE3, and will extend the model of local teacher training to many more districts across the nation. It will fund a range of strategies for the improvement of teaching practice and attempt to change teacher behavior in the classroom. These activities will also support teachers in their progression and promotion as well as assisting in their upgrading for certification. This will be a sustainable mechanism as teachers begin to take a positive interest in continuous improvement and adopt a more professional approach to their work. In addition, some distance learning course modules developed and accredited by universities (such as the HYLITE program) will be designed to include lessons that can be delivered and discussed in the teacher cluster. It is the intention of the BERMUTU program, for example, to adopt strategies to strengthen and extend the working group structure in order to deliver the modular instruction needed to improve the knowledge and skill of teachers at the local level. Once the value of these groups has been proved to local districts, principals and teachers, the model will become a self-sustained professional development mechanism. Furthermore, working groups will be strengthened by the training of their management committees. Cluster coordinators, treasurers and other cluster committee members will gain additional knowledge 141 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification and skills in organizing and evaluating their local courses. Management of the financial and administrative requirements of the process will result in more effective training programs. Project funding will provides for outreach by LPMP and P4TK instructors and consultants to visit local clusters in cooperation with provincial and district authorities to develop inactive clusters or to encourage their formation in new areas. This mechanism will also foster cooperation between provincial and district offices. 5. Strengthening the capacity of the national training agencies (P4TK) and the provincial quality assurance (LPMP) agencies Both these decentralized, but centrally managed, agencies support the improvement of school and teacher quality. Both were initially established for teacher education. However, recently the role of the LPMP has been redefined as an agency for the quality assurance of schools and programs. The 30 LPMP (one per province with a further three to be added shortly for the three new provinces) and the 12 P4TK report to the Directorate-General for Quality Improvement ofTeachers and Educational Personnel (QITEP). These facilities are purpose-built and often have an extensive complex of lecture rooms, a library, ITC resources, a prayer room, sports facilities and offices as well as living accommodation (including provision of meals) for two or three hundred or more trainees. a) The LPMP (Lembaga Penjamin Mutu Pendidikan): LPMP now have a quality assurance focus. Trained personnel are becoming available to lead teams of school supervisors, principals and senior teachers on visits to schools to undertake quality assurance reviews. These reviews take a number of days and are linked to the school plan. The visit teams trained in the assessment and review process by LPMP staff prior to their visits. Schools to be visited are listed on an annual schedule. In addition to the quality assurance reviewing task, the LPMP are also responsible for administering the funding process for KKG and MGMP teacher training activities. Panels of senior educational personnel (LPTK lecturers, district level officials, school supervisors) are established to review the submissions received and to allocate funding.They also monitor and evaluate the programs for which funding is distributed. At times, the LPMP may be asked to supply officers to assist in conducting training activities in the KKG and MGMP. However, this training function no longer falls within their jurisdiction. In many ways the LPMP are in a transitional period ­ many personnel are not yet clear on their new quality assurance functions and the quality assurance model adopted is not fully operational. b) The P4TK (Pusat Pengembangan dan Permberdayaan Pendidik dan Tenaga Kependidkan): P4TK is a personnel training agency. They have a vocational or subject specialist focus. They adopt a lead role in training elementary teachers in specialist subject areas and secondary school subject teachers. They have a particular role in training the guru inti or expert teachers who form the core of local district and cluster trainers. Members of cluster committees have also been trained for their roles in organizing programs of courses for teachers and in the management of cluster grant monies. Although there are only twelve of these institutions at the national level, they often send teams of trainers to provincial and district level for the training of teachers. 142 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification c) Problems with changing roles: The decentralized location of the LPMP and P4TK places them in an ideal position to support the teacher certification process and to provide services for quality improvement of schools and teachers. Both can work cooperatively with the LPTK ­ the P4TK by providing training courses for upgrading teachers; and the LPMP by providing expertise in monitoring and evaluation of local programs. However, it is important that the organizational climate in some of these institutions be transformed to ensure active support to districts, and the KKG and MGMP clusters. The"....issue being faced by all of the stakeholders in the wake of the implementation of the policy of teacher certification would be: how could the support capacity (of LPMP and P4TK) be developed into real institutionalized professional support, and not just another bureaucratic entity manned by retirees and others that merely work behind desks according to project schedule ...."56 It must be recognized, too, that there is a critical need for thorough training in classroom performance assessment for principals to ensure that their involvement constitutes more than"hit and run assessments".57 It is doubtful that many current staff members in these institutions have the required capacity to undertake the new tasks. It is also critical that staff members in these institutions receive training in their new roles ­ in particular, that staff in LPMPs become more skilled in their quality assurance role, and in monitoring and evaluation in general. At present, these facilities are considerably understaffed for the task they are now required to perform. The teacher certification process, in particular, raised a number of issues concerning the capacity of these agencies. For example, do the LPMP have the skill and capacity for appraising increased numbers of KKG and MGMP grant proposals? Can they provide management and financial training to cluster management teams in needs analysis, financial accountability, evaluation of programs, program planning and other elements of their role? Do the P4TK have the skill and capacity to coordinate the adaptation and adoption of training materials in the required areas of improvement? Do they currently have a network of trainers at the national and local level and established links with provinces and districts to create teams of trainers to instruct the cluster representatives and monitor the quality of their work? Can the P4TK work with a consortium of education universities (LPTK) and other universities to accredit their materials and instructional delivery system to ensure completed work has an SKS equivalence? d) Review of organization and capacity of LPMP and P4TK: A recent review58 undertaken by the Ministry of National Education in collaboration with the AusAID Australia-Indonesia Basic Education Program (BEP) examined the overall organizational structure and capacity of these agencies. This review was undertaken shortly after the legalization of two new Ministry Regulation: the first dealing with the role of the LPMP59 and the second with the role of the MGMP60. This Regulation clarified the roles of these two institutions and was used by the review as a basis for assessing whether they can undertake their new tasks and roles according to the Ministry Regulation, and their readiness to implement some of the BERMUTU programs (Better Education Reformed Management for Universal Teacher Upgrading). 56 Raka Joni, T. and Udik Budi Wibowo, Primary and Secondary School Teacher Management: A Review of Regulations, Policies and Practices. Unpublished Paper, 2005 57 Raka Joni, ibid 58 AusAID, Review of the Organisation and Capacity of LPMP and P4TK, June 2007 59 Regulation 7/2007, Organization and Management of Educational Quality Assurance Institutions, Republic of Indonesia 60 Regulation 8/2007, Organization and Methods of Work of the Centers for Development and Capacity Building for Teachers and Education Personnel, Republic of Indonesia. 143 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification The review61 examined the overall organizational structure and capacity of these agencies. In the skill domain, 467 functional staff members in the 30 LPMP were asked to rate their level of skill in eight areas critical to their new role. In the graph below, lecturers, for example, considered their skills in five areas as only limited to medium. The limited rating was defined as "some skills but need training in this area". In general, Section Heads rated their skills only slightly higher. As frontline staff required to deliver a quality assurance and teaching function, this is a significant shortfall and indicates the need for a concerted training effort. Figure 6.5 Skill Level Needed in LPMP by Position 3.29 Teaching and Learning 3.09 Management 3.19 Leadership 3.34 3.63 2.65 Computer 2.81 Lecturers 2.73 Section Head 2.68 3.17 Collaboration Chair 3.44 2.93 Quality Assurance 2.83 3.15 2.85 Research 3.09 2.58 Monitoring and E valuation 2.9 3.13 The review states also that, whilst "capacity development initiatives for P4TK staff should focus on new approaches to competency improvement and capacity development ... the situation for LPMP was more challenging and complex as the change from in-service training provider to quality assurance provider will necessitate extensive retraining of staff, development of new organizational structures and the implementation of significantly different programs." It is therefore critical that staff members in these institutions receive training in their new roles ­ in particular, that LPMP be provided with additional staff skilled in quality assurance processes, and in monitoring and evaluation in general. Furthermore, it is necessary to ensure that P4TK used to train teachers are skilled in the new student-focused teaching techniques. P4TK staff had a satisfactory level of understanding of the new role, partly because there is not as great a change in the role defined in the Regulation for P4TK as for LPMP. However, whilst the level of role understanding was found to be higher for chairpersons and section heads than for functional and administrative staff, these latter personnel require more information about the new role and its implications for their work. Furthermore, staff was generally more confident that they could implement the new role but would need greater support in some areas. There was also a positive work culture in P4TK which was generally supportive of the change process. However, P4TK have not yet developed new approaches to program delivery for quality improvement and this is a priority area for action. It was 61 AusAID, Review of the Organisation and Capacity of LPMP and P4TK, June 2007 144 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification found that the ICT and library facilities need urgent upgrading to enable P4TK to undertake their new roles effectively. It is clear, too, that the financial requirements for the new role will need to be analyzed more closely when P4Tk have developed more appropriate models of program delivery. The block grant programs conducted by cluster groups will also need to be evaluated more rigorously to determine their impact on the quality of teaching and learning. Capacity development initiatives for P4TK staff should focus on: a. new approaches to competency improvement and capacity development; b. understanding the eight national standards; c. understanding the teacher certification process; d. auditing of teacher competency; e. managing and analyzing competency data; f. evaluating program effectiveness and impact; and, g. developing collaborative programs with stakeholders. With the upgrade training requirement of the Teacher Law, the P4TK will need an increased presence at the provincial level and should explore the option of locating some staff in each LPMP. The situation for LPMP was found to be more challenging and complex as the change from in-service training provider to quality assurance provider will necessitate extensive retraining of staff, development of new organizational structures and the implementation of significantly different programs. The review found that the LPMP had not undertaken any extensive planning for their new role and were waiting for more advice from MONE about the quality assurance model (It should be noted that a new quality assurance model has now been adopted). The level of understanding about the new role in many LPMP was quite low and more extensive awareness raising and staff preparation needs to be conducted in many LPMP. Furthermore, there were many significant differences between the readiness of various LPMP for their new role. ICT and library facilities as well as administrative support in most LPMP will require extensive upgrading to enable them to undertake the new role. Collaboration with districts was generally satisfactory, particularly due to the relationships built up with the block grant system for KKG and MGMP. However, staff will require extensive capacity development in the areas of: (a) quality assurance concepts and methodology; (b) monitoring and evaluation; (c) program development and management; and, (d) the development of collaborative programs. e) Implications for teacher certification: To support the delivery of modular course training to the KKG and MGMP, the P4TK will be providing teams of instructors to be trained by the national core team (Tim Pengembang). This train-the-trainer model will be used to generate professional development activities at the local level. The review has recommended to the Directorate of Professional Education Training (BINDIKLAT) that a high priority be given to the use of new approaches to program design and delivery for the quality improvement of education personnel and teachers. This new direction is critical to the support required by BERMUTU. The model used will also have implications for the long-term sustained in-service training of teachers at the local level. 145 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification Furthermore, the review recommends that the P4TK locate additional professional staff members in each LPMP. This will give the P4TK an improved presence and greater capacity to train teachers. Some core of trainers may need to be recruited from existing master teachers and trainers, some of whom may come from the donor programs such as DBE 2. The redefinition of the role of LPMP to focus on evaluation and quality assurance will place a greater training responsibility with P4TK. The quality of the training these master teachers receive will depend heavily on the quality of the P4TK trainers. The BERMUTU model proposes that universities accredit some of this local training. Poor standards of training will not be acceptable. In fact, the universities (LPTK) may well seek to accredit this training and the trainers themselves if teacher course-work is to earn SKS. The training must also be more easily accessible to local districts and clusters. It is critical, too, that teacher trainers selected for location at the LPMP have school teaching experience and can demonstrate the best teaching skills to the teacher trainers. Redeployment of personnel without direct classroom experience will have a negative impact on the program by transmitting poor skills and jeopardising any attempt to negotiate accreditation of courses and trainers with the local university. Improvement to the block grant system managed by the LPMP has also been recommended by the review. It is suggests that LPMP work with P4TK and districts to develop and implement new monitoring andevaluationprocedurestoevaluatetheimpactandeffectivenessofblockgrantprograms.Accurateand regular evaluation of the outcomes of the programs conducted by KKG and MGMP and continuous feed- back of the results to cluster master teachers and cluster committees is critical for program improvement. This requires development of new evaluation techniques and the training of staff teams to use in visiting, observing and assessing programs in order that a cycle of sustained and effective improvement in teacher skills becomes effective. For accreditation of these training activities to be successfully negotiated with LPTK, a sustained effort to evaluate and improve the quality of courses funded by block grants must be undertaken. AusAID has agreed to provide funding through their Basic Education Program (BEP) to assist with this capacity building process. Provision of resources to conduct the review and the employment of a long-term consultant to work within BINDIKLAT to assist in the capacity building of LPMP and P4TK, are important contributions to improve the effectiveness of the delivery model being used to provide resources and skills to the KKG and MGMP. f) Assistance from BERMUTU: BERMUTU will provide funding for course development and course delivery to teachers through the KKG and MGMP teacher working groups in the 75 BERMUTU districts. The lessons learned here will impact on all 441 districts throughout the nation. In this undertaking there will be close collaboration with the AusAID-funded Basic Education Project (BEP), which will support key training and capacity-building activities in the national training institutions (P4TK) and provincial quality assurance institutions (LPMP). The activities will include: a. improvement in the management and training capacity of P4TK and LPMP; b. training of P4TK and LPMP staff in strategies and activities to support district officers in the establishment, and activation of new school cluster networks; c. training of P4TK staff in use of modules to upgrade teacher classroom performance by a variety of methodologies, including video-study of lessons, and; 146 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification d. training of P4TK staff in use of remedial training modules to support teachers unsuccessful at certification or seeking assistance prior to attempting certification. The program will also support the writing of training modules for use by teacher working groups in the clusters for the effective training of teachers, principals and school supervisors. A national core team will receive technical assistance for the development of a bank of key subject modules and financial and management modules for elementary and junior secondary teachers, principals and school supervisors. The subject modules will incorporate classroom teaching strategies.These will be developed centrally and be made available to the P4TK lecturers to provide workshop training at district level for representative expert teachers (master teachers, tutors, core teachers) from the KKG and MGMP on a train-the-trainer basis. These will be based on the successful strategies and materials from other donor programs (such as the DBE 2 and DBE3 programs developed by USAID which have already gained university accreditation for some modules). It will also include modules developed by PUSTEKOM (the Government agency for training resource development) as well as other providers. Outputs from many of these modules will give credit points to teachers that will apply to career development and contribute to their upgrading to S1. The number of credits to be awarded to teachers for this work will be negotiated with LPTK. To strengthen the P4TK in this task, they will be provided with additional school-experienced trainers who will provide training to provincial core teams and district core teams. In this train-the-trainer model, P4TK will deliver training to the province core team (made up of subject matter experts from LPMP, senior instructors, university professors), and the district core team (made up of principals, supervisors and instructors). Furthermore, LPMP, acting in their quality assurance role, will be provided with technical assistance and additional staff to build the management capacity of master teachers, principals and school supervisors to support School Based Improvement in Quality Management (SBIQM). 6. Strengthening the role of the school supervisor The school supervisor (pengawas) is employed by the district office to visit schools and provide an accountability link between the school principal and the district office. The pengawas is the main (often only) field officer visiting schools, collecting and analyzing reports and providing information about curriculum implementation and school effectiveness to the district office. The nature of the role varies widely from district to district and usually focuses more on administrative issues rather than on the improvement of the classroom performance of teachers. (a) Deficiencies in required skills Unfortunately, the general perception of the ability of the school supervisors is not very positive. This is confirmed by a recent Ministry review undertaken in collaboration with the AusAID Basic Education Program62. It identified a large number of deficiencies in the knowledge and skill of school supervisors in a range of newly defined tasks. This is shown in the table below: 62 Australia-Indonesia Basic Education Project: Review of the Capacity of School Supervisors. September 2007 147 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification Figure 6.6 Perception of the Competencies of School Supervisors63 90,0 83,7 76,6 76,6 80,0 70,0 65,9 60,0 55,3 60,0 50,0 44,7 40,0 40,0 34,1 30,0 23,4 23,4 16,3 20,0 10,0 0,0 Personality Managerial Academic Education Research and Social Supervision Supervision Evaluation Development Strongly Disagree + Disagree Strongly Agree + Agree This summary of qualitative data shows the extent to which principals and teachers agreed or disagreed with the proposition that school supervisors possess competency in each of the six dimensions of current educational management. The small percentage of those in agreement indicates the generally low perception of school supervisor competencies reported in interviews and focus group discussions. Clearly, this creates a considerable agenda for the professional development of school supervisors. Advice from the Ministry of National Education is that planning is well underway to address this training gap.64 Data from the Directorate of Educational Personnel indicate an increasingly aging school supervisor workforce with 35% of the 21,627 school supervisors in the government system reaching retirement age within the next five years. Within the Ministry of Religious Affairs 67% of the 7,060 school supervisors will retire in the next five years. This presents an important opportunity to replace over 40% of all school supervisors over the next five years and create a new elite workforce of these key personnel to drive educational improvement in schools and districts. There is considerable potential in this position. A well-trained school supervisor can be a significant change agent operating across a number of schools. Freed of many administrative tasks and equipped with the knowledge and skills of a modern instructional leader, a school supervisor can effectively mentor and coach principals and arrange workshops and seminars for teachers in the new methodologies. This role is a significant one and needs continual strengthening through training and the selection of capable officers with good qualifications and extensive experience. Ministerial Decree 1265 of 28 March 2007 recognizes the potential in this position for re-orienting the face of education. It defines the competencies required of school supervisors in six dimensions: personal competence, managerial supervision competence, academic supervision competence, education evaluation competence, research and development competence, and social competence. Altogether a total of thirty-six indicators of personal characteristics, knowledge and skills are described within the six dimensions. 63 Ibid, page 21 64 Advice from the Directorate of Non-Teaching Personnel (TENDIK), at a presentation on 4 February 2009 65 Ministerial Decree 12 enacted on 28 March 2007 148 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification The Ministry review examined the capacity of school supervisors66and concludes: a. The majority of stakeholders interviewed during this review believe that the competencies of current school supervisors fall well short of the expectations of Decree 12; b. Whilst school supervisors in MONE are better qualified than those in MORA, substantial proportions do not have a degree (44% and 33% respectively), which is now the minimum requirement for teachers working in schools; c. Current recruitment practices were heavily criticized by stakeholders consulted during the review. The common perception is that school supervisors are appointed primarily on the basis of friendships, networks, and under-performance in other positions, and are often appointed from the ranks of retiring school principals; d. The position of school supervisor is often regarded by stakeholders such as principals, teachers and school committees as one of low status rather than one offering an attractive career pathway. School supervisors report that they have limited access to training and are often ill- informed about system changes and developments. Principals and teachers usually have prior knowledge of new information and prior access to development activities; e. School supervisor remuneration equates with principals and teachers and does not attract the best candidates; f. Manyteacherscommentedonthelackofsubjectexpertiseofschoolsupervisors.Allstakeholders indicated that school supervisor competencies in research and development, academic supervision and managerial supervision required development. Evaluation skills and personal qualities were also areas in which supervisors needed greater skill; g. Teacher respondents expressed frustration at the inability of most school supervisors to provide pedagogical advice and support due to lack of competence in their subject area. Some reported that supervisors focus mainly on faults and give little positive feedback. Many principals considered that supervisors had too many administrative tasks which tended to diminish their effectiveness; h. Fortunately, thirty five percent of school supervisors in MONE and sixty seven percent in MORA will retire in the next five years, and this will give a window of opportunity to select a new cadre of supervisors and provide well-organized induction courses for this new cadre. At present, plans have been developed within MONE for the development of such courses with the assistance of international consultancy. The retirement of such a large number of school supervisors will provide an opportunity to change the function and culture of the school supervisor to ensure they have, amongst other qualities: · A greater role in the direct classroom assessment of teachers at the end of their probationary year; · A greater role in dismissal procedures for poorly performing teachers; · An instructional leadership role in direct teaching methodologies and pedagogy, including student-centered teaching, classroom management, and student achievement measurement; · A leadership role in curriculum development and management; 66 AusAID: Review of the Capacity of School Supervisors. September 2007 149 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification · Asignificantroleinthetrainingofprincipalsineducationalmanagement,includingmentoring and coaching their decision-making, and supporting their school leadership; · Thorough grounding in school-based management (SBM); · CommitmenttofacilitatingKKGandMGMPmanagementcommitteesinprovidingcontinuous professional development (CPD) programs for schools; · A key role in the training of new teachers through induction programs; · A community role as"the public face of education". Ideally, school supervisors should be experts in school management.They may not necessarily have been outstanding teachers themselves. However, they must understand good teaching ­ be able to recognize it, foster and facilitate it, and select teachers for leadership roles who have the required skills. The most effective teachers are usually the guru inti (the expert or master teachers). They could be paid a functional allowance for this work. School supervisors must hold principals and teachers accountable for their work, but also be responsible for the provision of additional support to those who are weak or failing. Opinion seems to indicate that the task of the pengawas is not seen as a popular one and the position is not as prestigious as that of a principal. This may affect the attraction of individuals to the task. However, the fact that the majority of the generalist pengawas are older ex-principals should mean they come to the position with considerable knowledge of the operation of the school system and extensive experience with teachers and schools. Provided they have had appropriate experience and retain their enthusiasm for good teaching, such a person, properly selected, can be an ideal candidate for the assessment of younger teachers, particularly following a period of training to ensure consistency. As the key link between schools and district administration, these officers should be seen as merit appointments into positions to which only the better performing principals might aspire. b) Description of a classroom assessment process that can improve teacher quality: Classroom assessment and report writing on teachers by school supervisors (and principals) is a critical teacher management skill if quality teaching is to occur and be ongoing. Classroom assessment will involve examination of the interaction between the teacher and the students, and require an analysis of the nature of the learning process actually taking place. The assessment will require inspection of student books and test results held by the teacher as well as lesson preparation and resource materials available for use with the class.The school supervisor will interview the teacher and the principal before finalizing a report which, if satisfactory, can be used for a variety of purposes, including developing a plan for improvement, concluding a performance appraisal, determining a teacher's readiness for promotion, or, perhaps, renewal of a teacher's certification. A report form could be used which is designed to require comments on how the teacher's skills address the four competencies now mandatory under the Teacher Law. Usually a report written by a school supervisor would be endorsed by the principal when completed. Classroom assessment of the teacher has important advantages. The principal and/or the school supervisor can observe the teacher in interaction with the students. The teacher is seen "on the job"and the supervisor can swiftly and globally gauge the teacher's level of skill, not only in subject matter and pedagogy, but also in the personal and social domains. Interaction with students in the learning situation can be assessed. A classroom visit will include observing the teacher conducting everyday teaching and 150 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification learning activities such as blackboard work, group assignments, debates, reading to the class, speeches, experiments and physical activities such as athletics or basketball. Furthermore, the school supervisor can discuss the work with the teacher and, through dialogue, will be able to more accurately identify strengths and weaknesses. These can then be discussed face-to-face. School supervisors may wish to test the children in the class, either verbally or in written form, to assess the level of skill the teacher has been able to impart to them. In the original teacher certification model, teachers were to be formally assessed by a school supervisor or principal. The teacher was asked to compile a work portfolio of outstanding lessons, student work and test results. This is a useful document to assist in the interview of a teacher as the data collected can be used as the basis for discussion. Within the classroom the products of the teacher's work can be assessed readily - students may conduct a debate about a topic they have been taught, samples of bookwork can be displayed, collections of data from excursions can be shown. The teacher may also hold a meeting of parents and other colleagues to discuss the class-work with the school supervisor. In such a context, the more difficult competencies in the personal and social domains can be assessed more easily. This form of assessment is a critical tool for teacher improvement (either as a formal requirement, or as an informal visit to generate professional discussion). However, there will be need to train and re-direct school supervisors into the classroom assessment process. School and classroom visitation and teacher observation should be clearly defined as part of their role. This process may face some barriers due to existing school culture. However, where incentives such as a salary increase or a promotional opportunity are available to teachers, greater acceptance of the procedure will occur. Whether incentives are attached or not, classroom observation and feedback should become part of the regular teacher supervision process. It will benefit teacher quality and student achievement alike. Some may be cautious about teacher observation for assessment, fearing it has too great a subjective element and is open to favoritism and poor judgment. However, with training in the use of purpose- designed report forms, perhaps training by use of video-clips of exemplar teachers with group discussion of individual assessments, and the involvement of the principal, the soundness and consistency of judgments will compare very favorably with alternative methods of assessing teacher's work. Teachers should be encouraged to practice for the visit of a school supervisor to their classroom. Self- assessment or assessment-by-peers are both valuable strategies that can be used prior to a school supervisor's classroom visit. Observation sheets can be used by teachers to record their achievements and the achievements of others in the classroom. Specific skills, behaviors and evidence of achievement can be observed and monitored. Individual checklists and self-checklists can facilitate peer and self- assessment strategies. Self-improvement strategies can be outlined in manuals developed to support the introduction of the classroom assessment process. The teacher might also be encouraged to keep a journal to record reflections on their teaching practices and what they have learned and to clarify meaning following a teaching episode. Journals are most effective when teachers are willingly engaged in the learning process and have a clear understanding of the intended learning outcomes and how they will be assessed. Teacher-made tests are an integral part of the teaching and learning process and should flow from the lesson as a normal classroom activity. Tests may also be used at the end of a learning cycle or at defined periods of time to measure progress. Test results of this type should always be made available to the school supervisor. 151 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification School supervisors should be trained as an elite group of educators to be able to assess teacher performance, establish new practicing standards for all teachers, and assist principals to undertake the same process to their own judgments about their own teachers and ensure they have the skills to maintain high standards. In particular, action should be taken to improve the work of under-performing teachers and, following an intensive period of school-provided support, to re-deploy or dismiss teachers unable to meet required standards. This is a very powerful tool for teacher quality improvement and will require considerable investment of time and energy in training, practice and de-briefing guidance to operate effectively. However, the process is at the core of real teacher improvement. If school supervisors visit classrooms to make judgments about performance, and provide accurate and constructive reports to guide teachers, a great deal of improvement will occur. The adoption of such practices by school principals and experienced teachers will establish a climate of instructional improvement in schools. In the longer term the process can be used by the district to establish an annual performance appraisal cycle in schools linked to school goals set by principals for school development and the quality improvement of instruction. c) Assistance from BERMUTU: BERMUTU will assist in building the capacity of the local school supervisor working groups (KKPS for primary school supervisors, and MKKPS for secondary subject school supervisors) as a mechanism for the effective delivery of training at the school level to improve management and supervision practices. In this process they will use learning modules designed to develop management, supervision skills, and change behaviour. Module activities will include: (i) supervision of cluster working groups and schools; (ii) skills in the review of initiatives and ability to identify best practice; (iii) understanding and disseminating policy, and recommendations; (iv) networking to improve practice; and, (v) teacher classroom performance assessment. Within the 75 districts taking part in BERMUTU, technical assistance will be provided to establish school- based teacher induction programs for beginning teachers and a performance assessment reporting process by the principal at the end of the probationary year. Grant funding will be available to train principals in strategies for direct assistance to beginning classroom teachers, to evaluate their classroom performance, and to make recommendations on their efficiency at the end of a probationary period. School supervisors will have a key role in supporting principals in this process. It will be designed to develop the capacity of both school supervisors and principals to manage personnel in the workplace and so contribute to the long-term growth of a professional climate in schools. QITEP will be provided with technical assistance to fulfill its key role in the development of training materials and manuals for these processes and to conduct workshops to disseminate these resources. A grants program will be used to fund workshops to train supervisors and principals in the conduct of teacher classroom assessment and the writing of reports on beginning teachers before the completion of their probationary period at the local school cluster level. These courses and instruments will adhere to the teaching standards developed by the BSNP. District offices will be encouraged to conduct KKPS and MKKPS forums and KKKS and MKKS forums at the district level. This support system will review the results of the principal and school supervisor clusters in the district and develop recommendations to assist in monitoring the clusters and coordinating cluster activities. Forums will be attended by representatives from each cluster. In re-defining the role of school supervisors, the new decree (12/2007) has created an agenda for their 152 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification quality improvement. TENDIK (Directorate of Non-Education Personnel) is in the process of designing course materials for the induction of new school supervisors in order that they understand these duties and have the skills to undertake them. Other programs training to improve their capacity will follow. New merit selection procedures also need development to provide guidelines to districts for their selection. In addition, the role of the supervisor in the teacher certification process is significant. The teacher portfolio process requires a report from the school supervisor on the classroom performance of the teacher and a formal endorsement of their effectiveness. To undertake this effectively the school supervisor must have had in-school contact with the principal and be aware of the classroom work and social and personal activities of the teacher applying for certification. Evidence suggests that, whilst some school supervisors are closely involved with the work of the school and regularly enter classrooms to assist teachers, this is by no means universal. This duty needs closer attention. 7. Strengthening the role of the principal Traditionally the Indonesian school principal is a respected senior teacher who serves as the main link between the school and its community on the one hand, and the district and national education authorities on the other. Whilst many principals are well educated and capable, their training and knowledgeofschoolmanagementisoftennotadequateformodernrequirements.Mostprincipalssimply implement educational policy and administrative requirements as a matter of routine rather than acting as an instructional leader. They are relatively poorly paid and appear to exercise little authority over the teachers in their school. Few adopt a supervisory or instructional leadership role towards their teaching staff. They are often selected following an examination conducted at the district office or may, in many case, be simply the nomination of a district education officer. They are rarely selected by a competitive merit process and receive little training for the task. In 2002, school-based management was legalized in Indonesia. This management shift from the central level to the school level gave much greater responsibility to school principals.Their role in a range of areas such as school planning, curriculum development, finance and school budgeting, staff management and community involvement increased considerably. The principal now has a key role in a devolved system where school-based management has become the expectation. However, few principals are yet capable of effectively managing these processes and few have been supported with training in this role. Educational reform in Indonesia has led to improvements in education, but the district authorities have not always equipped the school principal well to manage these new responsibilities effectively. The knowledge and skills of principals need to be expanded in a number of areas, including: a. Instructional leadership: principals need to be trained to take a greater role in the introduction of new teaching techniques and new educational ideas into the classroom. This means they should be able to facilitate class action research and improved learning methods in the school; b. Teachers'professionaldevelopment: principals should be involved in the development of in-school teacher training programs.This will require the identification of teacher weaknesses and contact with a network of expert teachers prepared to be involved in the improvement of teaching in the school; c. Teacher selection: classroom teachers are usually appointed by the district office, with little involvement of the principal in the selection process. There needs to be greater input by the principal in this selection if the principal is to be accountable for the results of the students and if the principal is to have any real management authority over the school and its performance; d. Staff supervision: principals should be actively involved in the supervision of their staff. This 153 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification requires them to actively monitor the classroom activities and student results obtained by these teachers. All teachers should be called to account for poor performance and failing teachers should be strengthened through in-school improvement programs; e. Supervision of students in the school: student examination results and other achievements should be monitored and the outcomes of special programs regularly assessed. Non-performing students should be identified and provided with additional teaching to lift their achievements. Standards should be benchmarked and expectations of higher achievement become the norm; f. Decision-making: decision-making meetings with staff should be regularly held and participation of staff in the management of the school encouraged. This will improve the professionalism of staff and assist in motivation and higher morale; g. Budgeting and school finance: recent introduction of grants to schools (BOS grant) together with local fees and other fund raising has given schools a greater degree of autonomy in financial management. However, principals need the financial skills to develop budgets, and to plan and fund the school improvement plan. This gives the school greater freedom to implement initiatives in line with improved teaching and higher quality learning activities for students. The public display of the budget (on a notice board near the school gate) is critical to ensure accountability and involve the community in this process; h. Curriculum: the new government competency-based curriculum requires school staff to shape subject matter towards local content. This school-based curriculum development means staff members must be involved in the development of curriculum at the local level. Principals need the knowledge and skill to be able to provide the instructional leadership required for its effective adoption; i. School committees and parental involvement: principals need the knowledge and skills to establish school committees with local parent and community involvement. Involvement of parents ensures active support for the school and its charter. Principals must take the leadership in encouraging staff to fully accept these changes if the school is to benefit from this initiative. The responsibility of principals has expanded. Their management practice and access to resources needs attention as a matter of priority. There is need for clearer roles for educational personnel, increased government financial support, improved intergovernmental communication, improved community involvement and awareness, and increased leadership training. Training is needed in instructional leadership and making judgments about the effectiveness of teachers. This is often best done through observation in the classroom, discussions with parents and students, and interviews and discussion. This form of leadership by the principal is preferably learnt in the school and in consultation with another professional such as an effective school supervisor. Principals must be able to support their teachers with development activities which focus on improving student learning and scores. Principals have a key role in this supervision by ensuring: · Thoughtful preparation of lesson material; · Sufficient time in the classroom is spent"on task"; · Student-centered learning; · Regular assessment of student progress; · Remedial testing and re-testing to get results; 154 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification · Firm classroom discipline, without oppression; · Teachers'taking a personal interest in students; · Involvement of parents in classroom activities; · Good initial training and regular in-service; · Lesson observation and feedback from a skilled supervisor who helps set goals; · Involvement in school curriculum development and school-based decision-making; · Professional dialogue with other teachers. This form of supervision often means a change in school culture. This requires a high degree of professionalism and an atmosphere where discussion between teachers about learning issues is the norm. Principals may not wish to fully accept the task of entering classrooms, observing teachers, discussing the effectiveness of their work, writing reports on their work when necessary, making judgments about areas for improvement, identifying the failing teacher, and providing a planned program of effective support until the failing teacher improves. Furthermore, teachers may not fully accept the principal and the school supervisor entering their classrooms to assess their work and to make professional judgments on them in this way. The district office may also have reservations about accepting a report from the principal recommending that a teacher be approved for placement on a higher salary increment or another teacher needs dismissal or redeployment action. Mechanisms and strategies to resolve these issues must be identified and put in place. b) Assistance from BERMUTU: Local principal working groups (KKKS and MKKS) in the BERMUTU districts will receive funding support through their network to hire lecturers and consultants to plan and deliver effective training at the district level to assist principals to learn new management techniques and improved methods for the supervision of staff. Modular training materials will also be funded and made available from the central government material designed to develop exemplar practices, supervision skills, and to change attitudes. These will include: (i) strategies to review initiatives and identify best practice; (ii) methods of program planning for the teacher working group networks, including input for KKG and MGMP activities; (iii) techniques for the dissemination of policy and recommendations; (iv) establishing and maintaining networking systems; (v) teacher induction programs; (vi) managing teacher quality visits; and, (vii) teacher classroom performance evaluations. Furthermore, BERMUTU will also provide technical assistance to develop a school-based teacher induction program for beginning teachers and a performance assessment reporting process by the principal at the end of the probationary year. Principals will be trained in strategies for direct assistance to beginning classroom teachers, to evaluate their classroom performance, and to make recommendations on their efficiency at the end of a probationary period.This process will develop the principals'capacity to manage personnel in the workplace and so contribute to the long-term growth of a professional climate in schools. The development of teacher induction training materials and manuals for the training of trainers will be undertaken by QITEP with support from program funding. The working groups of school principals will use this material to implement effective teacher induction training programs for beginning teachers in each cluster. Some induction programs will be conducted by the principal within the school, others will use their local working group structure to bring beginning teachers from cluster schools together. These workshops will use the materials and manuals developed by the central government and the district KKKS and MKKS. 155 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification A grants program will also be used to fund workshops to train school supervisors and principals together in groups in the skills of teacher classroom assessment and the writing of reports on beginning teachers. These will be held at the district level.These courses and reporting instruments will adhere to the teaching standards developed by the BSNP. The policies and procedures emerging from these activities in the 75 BEMUTU districts will form the basis of implementation of these strategies across the remaining 366 districts. 8. Strengthening capacity at the district level TheTeacher Law places considerable responsibility on the management capacity of the district education office in a number of ways. This includes: (i) For teacher certification: · Socialization of the certification process and all its ramifications for teachers; · Selection of the teachers to fill the annual quota according to a defined set of criteria; · Ensuring principals and school supervisors are knowledgeable and skilled in fulfilling the teacher performance assessment component of the teacher portfolio process. This may require further clarification of the role of these personnel and the conduct of training courses for them; · Administering the process by gathering portfolios, channeling these to the certifying LPTK, monitoring the success of candidates, establishing a database of certified teachers, and providing this data to the PMPTK for payment of the professional allowance; · Monitoring the progress of candidates who fail the initial process and need to undertake the nine-day re-training program (PLPG) provided by the LPTK. (ii) For the teacher training upgrade: · Activating the local teacher working groups (KKG and MGMP) and providing resources to facilitate their operation; · Establishing links between the district education office and the local LPTK to facilitate the use of distance education resources by the school clusters; · FacilitatingthegrantsprocesstoenableschoolclusterstoemploytrainersfromLPTKandother sources to conduct accredited course of instruction to ensure the coursework contributes to teachers'S1/D4 qualification; · Providing scholarships and monitoring results to assist teachers in the upgrade process; · Developing training programs and employing trainers for the continuous professional development (CPD) of teachers; · Conducting education forums at district and sub-district level for the socialization of best practice strategies used for the improvement of teacher skills at the cluster level. (iii) For other mandated requirements: 156 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification · Monitoring all schools to ensure certified teachers have a 24-hours per week teaching load as a condition for payment of the professional allowance; · Developing new personnel policies to facilitate the transfer of teachers unable to reach the minimum teaching load of 24hpw; · Improving the overall efficiency of staff employment by training teachers to work in multi- grade classes and requiring secondary teachers to instruct in at least two different subjects; · Identifying remote and disadvantaged schools using objective criteria for payment of the special (location) allowance; · Payment of the functional allowance according to the responsibilities of teachers; · Implementing procedures for determining the efficiency of teachers and the application of sanctions to incumbent teachers unable to achieve certification at the end of the ten-year cycle. These tasks place a considerable administrative requirement on the district education office. With the devolution of educational management to the local level over the past eight years, many districts are struggling with implementation of such demands. The definition of duties and areas of responsibility has often been unclear and the implementation of central requirements has been uncoordinated. The ability of district education authorities to manage these tasks varies quite widely. In general, the capacity of districts to implement this process needs improvement. Additional funding and technical support is therefore critical. There is need to clarify the role of the district office in education management and resource the district office appropriately. There is need to hold districts and schools accountable for the quality of education being provided. Schools and districts need to gather data on student results for analysis and identification of strategies for increasing achievement. The quality of teachers should also be monitored for relationships between performance and qualifications and performance and student achievement. Failing teachers, no longer able to perform their tasks to the satisfaction of the principal, should be provided with professional support within the school. There are sanctions for teachers who fail to gain academic qualifications, competencies and educator certificates within the 10 years grace provided by the Teacher Law. The district should be instrumental in dealing with such teachers. The importance of applying sanctions has been pointed out by a national consultant:"... when it comes to the domain of the civil service, it is not a common event to see a superior fire a staff member, despite the fact that a regulation on that does exist. In fact, even the probationary status in the civil service system that covers the first year of employment ... a civil servant candidate or "calon pegawai negeri", abbreviated CPNS, is already virtually ensured of permanent employment. It is only a court decision for criminal offense that could result in the termination of employment for civil servants. Upon reflection, as has been customarily voiced by individuals from other countries, perhaps it is this phenomenon that constitutes one of the two inherent weaknesses of the civil service system, the other being remuneration that is not tied to the quality of performance. With this kind of legal framework, civil servants are by and large not motivated to perform well ...."(Raka Joni, et al, 2005) Districts will be provided with guidelines and authority to re-deploy or discharge underperforming teachers. This will require considerable political and administrative will. Nevertheless, the quality of teacher instruction is critical to the improvement of student achievement, and school morale can be severely undermined by the attitudes and work of ineffective teachers. 157 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification It is essential for district education officers to establish that principals are responsible for the learning output of the school and are accountable for it. They are therefore responsible for the effectiveness of the teachers who provide instruction in the school. On-going professional development and training is an important element in teacher improvement. Hire of consultants to conduct district-wide courses, fostering of local teacher working groups, conduct of district forums and other strategies are clearly the responsibility of district officials. District education officers are responsible for developing the leadership of school principals. Effective instructional leadership will focus on educational development throughout the school, with most or all classrooms showing similar signs of increasing improvement. Successful leadership is almost always signaled by openness and inclusiveness. Good leaders involve others in decision making, readily delegate authority and lead by working in the classroom with students, and teachers, and involving the community. Similar principle can be used with district and sub-district leadership, and effective school supervisors who can mentor and coach principals in good school practice. Successful leadership at these levels is marked by a willingness to visit schools and interact openly with stakeholders at school level and to identify and learn from the best practices at that level. Economical use of resources, particularly in teacher deployment, is increasingly important to the district. Employment policies must be consistently applied to maintain realistic student/teacher ratios in all schools. Teachers in schools with surplus teachers must be required to transfer to other schools or be placed on leave-without-pay. Secondary teachers should be required to train in at least two subjects. An appropriate workload (such as the 24 hours per week teaching load rule) should be enforced for all teachers. Cost savings through an effective transfer and a uniform teaching load will release funds for other purposes, such as teacher training. There may be some difficulty in establishing new processes for PNS teachers because they are members of the wider civil service. However, this could be overcome by enacting a new Teaching Service Law to create a separate teaching service mandating a new method of employing teachers. Teachers represent a group of employees with quite different terms of service requirements because the nature of their work is quite different. The most significant of these is their role in teaching children ­ the nation's greatest future asset. This work also involves teachers in constant contact with parents who represent the greatest number of voters in a democratic system. Teacher's work is constantly under scrutiny by the majority of the public. Districts are also beginning to accept greater responsibility for facilitating the upgrading of teacher training and improving the quality of their teachers. For example, some districts are using their budget to fund additional scholarships to pay fees for teachers wishing to upgrade their qualifications. They are also responsible for activating local school cluster working groups of teachers and ensuring that they have the management skills to operate effectively. District expert teacher teams will be trained by provincial teams in the modular material to become available for upgrading at local level. Furthermore, under the BERMUTU program, twenty-six district consultants will be selected (one for each three districts of the 76 BERMUTU districts). Each will be employed for a period of 16 months to establish networks of local trainers, support the guruinti in training teachers in schools in use of centrally developed teacher training modules and creating structures to ensure sustainability. 158 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification The BERMUTU district consultants: BERMUTU has funded the development of a number of management-based and subject-based modules of instruction for the local working groups of teachers (KKG/MGMP) to use for the improvement of teacher knowledge and skill in the classroom. The modules, together with local expert teachers to deliver the training, will be provided to local school clusters through the regional LPMP and P4TK using a train- the-trainer model. Twenty-six district-level Block Grant Facilitation Consultants (one for every three districts) will support the implementation of the learning modules through KKG and MGMP at the local level. These consultants will be located at the LPMP in the province in which the districts to which they are assigned is located. Their prime task is to facilitate the effective use of the block-grants approved for and allotted to gugus for teacher improvement. Each consultant will support district officers in monitoring the quality of the KKG and MGMP programs of modular instruction for the teachers. They will be supported by the national training teams and will be responsible to a senior consultant in QITEP. They will undertake initial training with this national team. Each consultant will visit the KKG and MGMP in the district for which they are responsible to assist in the preparation of funding proposals, including the identification of the objectives of each proposal, its relationship to school planning, the steps identified for its implementation, its costing and budgeting, as well as the evaluation strategy proposed. Part of their role will be to actively visit KKG and MGMP to monitor and strengthen training activities and to supervise the implementation of approved activities. They will evaluate KKG and MGMP training activities and provide guidance whenever training support is required. By facilitating implementation of activities, the district consultants will ensure that the process is in line with the technical, administrative and financial procedures outlined in the funding manual. A critical responsibility will be to establish an annual work-plan in conjunction with district education authorities and to provide regular reports on the progress of the activities conducted by KKG and MGMP. This will require the district consultants to meet with the KKG and MGMP cluster committees to review programs and advise on the administration of such activities as compilation of financial records, budgeting, and the quality of planning. They will also liaise with the provincial LPMP quality assurance agencies to establish mechanisms for the on-going evaluation of grant proposals and the monitoring and evaluation of grant- funded activities. Whilst the BERMUTU program will support approximately 20 percent of districts, the intention is to encourage all district education offices to use this model as an exemplar of how such consultancy support might assist them in establishing a self-sustaining form of local training network which can deliver quality learning experiences for teachers, both in upgrading for teacher certification, as well as in the longer term for on-going continuous professional development. 9. Support from BEC-TF67 and SISWA68 The Ministry of National Education, in collaboration with the World Bank, is currently planning two further projects to follow-on from BERMUTU by providing capacity development at the district level in particular. Both work on the principle of strengthening the existing district management structure to better implement the quality improvements foreshadowed in the earlier program. 67 BEC-TF (Basic Education Capacity-Trust Fund) 68 SISWA (Education System Improvement through Sector Wide Approaches). Siswa also means"student"in Bahasa Indonesia. 159 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification Both projects will also depend upon the use of an assessment tool based the concept of minimum service standards (MSS) to determine the readiness of districts to receive support. The basic MSS developed in 2004 by the Ministry for Home Affairs (MHA) is currently being revised to include a larger number of indicators of a district's readiness. Once applied the instrument will assist in two ways: (a) to determine whether the management and implementation structures of the district are sufficiently developed to accept financing under the projects; and (b) to set a benchmark of the status of education within the district ­ the instrument will be applied again at fixed points during the progress of the program to determine the level of improvement achieved. a) The Basic Education Capacity ­ Trust Fund (BEC-TF) program The Basic Education Capacity ­ Trust Fund program (BEC-TF) is a USD50 million grant-funded capacity building program. The World Bank will contribute USD17 million and the Government of Indonesia USD 33 million. This program will set the scene for a much larger national basic education Sector Wide Approach (SISWA) with up to USD 1 billion at its disposal. The BEC-TF program has two primary roles in supporting SISWA. It will: · fund analytical studies, which will contribute to the government's preparation for the SISWA; and · build the capacity of selected districts to meet minimum sector governance and management criteria for inclusion in SISWA. These two BEC components will focus on capacity building at district level for: (a) public financial management capacity; and, (b) management information systems. The five pillars of BEC-TF and the technical focus areas at district level will be: · planning and budgeting, including: medium-term educational funding, performance-based planning and budgeting; performance-based incentive systems (individuals at Dinas level); participatory planning and budgeting involving stakeholders; needs assessment; educational development planning, and a capacity development plan · management information systems, including: refinement of school, teacher and working group database (accurate, and regularly updated); analysis of data and use results in budgeting and planning, education management; dissemination and accessibility of data for public knowledge; implementation, support, and assessment of Management Information Service tools (e.g. piloting of new data collection tools such as Paket Aplikasi Sekolah (PAS); PADATI, JARDIKNAS, and existing district data base tools); and, training of personnel (ensuring that trained personnel are kept in the organizational structure and not permitted to shift too frequently) · fiduciary management, financial planning and good governance, including: reform of rules and regulations (e.g. financial management, school fees, participation of private sector, community participation); development of cash, asset and resource management systems, procurement policies, procedures and controls; strengthening of internal and external audit (including follow- up action); integrated complaint handling and conflict resolution systems (e.g. MONE's ISO); education and training to change mind-set, ethic-set, and code of conduct; training in financial management and monitoring and evaluation; and, empowerment of the district education board, sub-district education office and supervisors. 160 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification · school level capacity building and management development, including: integrated and performance-based school planning and budgeting; performance-based incentive systems and/or merit systems at school level; review and refinement of school regulations on financial management, resource management, school fees, provision of books, and community participation; mainstreaming and encouraging expansion in the adoption of the School Improvement Program (school based management, and community participation); re- empowerment of the community and school committee; and, improvements to teacher training and the teaching-learning process. · knowledge-sharing systems, including a library of good practices, consisting of descriptions of the programs and good practices developed; guidelines on how to implement the programs; model sites to visit; training and support materials which focus on inquiry, active and contextual approaches in the classroom; school-based management resources; district management learning activities; and, a list of approved trainers. It will also establish a knowledge sharing exchange and networking system consisting of forums, seminars, newsletters, electronic media such as web sites and e-books, competitions and student clubs for science, technology, sports, and the arts. Education policy studies consisting of case studies, and best practice descriptions will be provided to support all five pillars. This capacity building will, as a rule, be implemented and executed by the government of Indonesia using a Program Implementation Unit (PIU) which will contract service providers. These service providers will be accredited by MONE. MONE will manage BEC grants to local governments which will be used for procurement of further training and capacity building. BEC will lay the foundation for SISWA. Once a district has met the minimum standards for financial management and information systems (supported by BEC) it will be eligible for SISWA support. Where districts do not have the necessary capacity in financial management and information systems, they will be unable to support SISWA. A strong foundation at district level is required for SISWA to be successful. It has been proposed that districts showing strong commitment to improving their governance and management of the basic education sector will be classified according to three levels of readiness based on a number of objective criteria: (a) Those classified as RED are low capacity districts which will require considerable time and effort to fulfill their capacity targets; (b) Those classified as YELLOW are districts which fulfill most of the capacity targets and have a reasonable readiness level such that with a moderate amount of work will be sufficient to reach their remaining capacity targets; and, (c) Those classified as GREEN are ready and eligible to receive district budget support. These activities will strengthen district education office management in its expanding role in the teacher certification process. This will assist them to socialize schools and teachers in the process and make them ready for its implementation. Part of the work will involve fostering the work of (and, in some cases, establishing) KKG and MGMP cluster groups and supporting their workshop programs with resources, training and advice. It will also involve close liaison with universities, and LPMP and P4TK regarding the processing of teacher portfolios submitted for consideration and providing the remedial training for those who initially fail the portfolio process. In spite of the socialization process undertaken by most district offices and the completion of the first round of certifications, teachers continue to express concern that they do not have a clear idea of how the process will be implemented and the expectations required of them. Undoubtedly this uncertainty will be reduced as the process proceeds in future years. Many teachers below the threshold S1/D4 level have already identified the avenues they will use for their own upgrade training and have commenced 161 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification this process. To a degree this is evidence that some teachers' initial reaction to the process is to prepare themselves and this is, in itself, potentially, a quality improvement step based on self-motivation. Although the annual quota is calculated centrally and advised to each district, the district education offices are involved in the identification of teachers eligible for the process. They will determine the names of those teachers to have priority in providing the portfolios to the regional LPTK responsible for assessing the portfolio.The names of teachers identified to undertake the process in 2006, 2007 and 2008 have been placed on the gurusertifikasi website The district will need to develop a database for teachers successful in gaining certification and provide this advice to the PMPTK who will release the necessary funding for the payment of the professional allowance by the districts. This database will be linked to provincial offices and the central Ministry of National Education. In preparing districts with BEC-TF funding and initiatives, the district education office is strengthened in its capacity to manage the teacher certification process and in its long-term ability to improve the knowledge and skill of teachers in their task of educating the nation's students. b) SISWA: A Sector-wide Approach (SWAp) SISWAwillestablishaframeworkandfundingfacilitytosupportimprovementsinbasiceducation(defined as elementary and junior secondary) in Indonesia. It is designed to increase equity in and access to basic education and improve its quality. These improvements are expected to increase net enrolment rates in lower secondary schools, gain higher achievement in and more timely completion of basic education, and ensure higher student learning achievement. It will largely focus on strengthening district-level systems (especially for basic education). This will support Indonesia's decentralization law and Government of Indonesia's policies on school-based management (SBM) and community empowerment. The key driver in the SISWA program will be the competition between districts and schools for the SISWA funding available. By placing stringent capacity requirements on districts (and providing funding to assist them build capacity through BEC-TF) to determine their eligibility for funding, districts will be competing with each other to reach the threshold for commencement of funding. This will be intensified through inter-district visits and forums to enable districts to compare their level of readiness against the leading districts. Schools within districts will also be competing for first opportunity to enter the school improvement program. Regular district forums for schools will enable principals and key school personnel to compare their schools with others and devise improved strategies to draw funding priority. SISWA will have three key elements: a. Sector Governance and Management. Funding and activities in this component will be designed to strengthen the governance and management of the basic education sector and improve its performance; b. Budget support for key sector outputs. Here the objective is to facilitate the achievement of key sector outputs by co-financing a part of the marginal cost of increasing basic education access, quality, efficiency, equity, and sector management effectiveness; c. Improved knowledge management and capacity building. This component will build the capacity of the districts and schools to improve their efficiency and effectiveness by facilitating access to 162 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification global knowledge, introduction of effective practices and support of district experimentation on promising innovations. In particular, Component 3 seeks to develop the capacity of districts and schools by increasing access to global knowledge, the introduction and dissemination of good practice, and supporting experimentation in districts and schools. This component will enable responsible authorities and communities to adopt practices that will enhance their performance ratings as measured by a number of indicators of education improvement. In doing this, the component will assist: a. The Central Government (and selected Provinces) to improve capacity to guide and support the development of the education sector; b. The beneficiary Districts to strengthen their capacity to oversee, support, empower and motivate schools, including religious and private schools; and c. The schools and their communities to improve teaching and learning. Funding under SISWA Component 3 will be available for four sets of activities: a. establishing a central Good Practices Information Centre; b. identifying and training service providers, including fostering of the private sector; c. developing delivery mechanisms to ensure good practices are available to districts and schools; and, d. monitoring and evaluation of the achievement of targets set by districts and schools. Current planning places BEC-PT as the preparatory stage leading to the grant-funding of SISWA. Districts seeking to participate in the program will initially undertake a local government capacity assessment. Here a range of selection criteria will be applied to generate a capacity data set. A potentially long list of districts will be selected in the preliminary stage. Districts in this long list will then be classified according to their readiness in terms of capacity using the RED, YELLOW or GREEN status categories. Districts short- listed will be interviewed and a determination made concerning their commitment to the program. District"capacity gaps"will be identified and the district required to prepare a Capacity Development Plan (CPD) with technical support. When approved, the plan will be used by MONE as a basis for the delivery of capacity-building support, usually by large scale service providers. When the district is deemed to have the necessary capacity, Education Development Plans (EDPs), or District RENSTRAs (including capacity building components) will be required in order to obtain grants from MONE. MONE will administer BEC Grants (for further capacity building expenditure) to districts on the basis of the EDPs. 163 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification 10. How BERMUTU and SISWA will support teacher certification and quality improvement The SISWA program will complement the BERMUTU and build upon the initiatives which work well. Both have a focus on strengthening the districts as the key delivery points for educational improvement in Indonesia. Both support the knowledge and skill upgrading of teachers seeking to meet the quality requirements of the Teacher Law. BERMUTU will use trainers recruited from districts and cluster working groups which have already experienced the activities conducted by donor programs such as CLCC and DBE2. It is anticipated that SISWAschoolimprovementactivitiesattheschoollevelwillbelargelyanextensionofthistheme.Therefore, considerable pressure may be placed on the existing number of qualified trainers due to competition for their services. An expanded number of service providers under SISWA will assist in maintaining services to schools. As the number of service providers expands the issue of quality will arise. This will emphasize the need for a properly constituted accreditation body for trainers. The structures developed at the cluster and district level in the 75 selected BERMUTU districts can be usefully employed by SISWA districts where they overlap. The District Core Team (DCT) of trainers, for example, could also be involved with SISWA schools. However, whilst duplication of structures and competition for resources must be carefully avoided, care must be taken to ensure these structures are not over-stretched. Both BERMUTU and SISWA are working to improve teaching skills and the programs complement each other in this area. However, there are some elements of the BERMUTU training focus that may differ from that of SISWA. For example, the classroom improvement focus of BERMUTU may be more important than that in SISWA, where the focus is directed more at total school improvement and the interface of schools with districts and districts with provincial administrations. The role of the school supervisor will evolve over the course of these two programs. Initially under BERMUTU their key role will involve: (i) knowledge of strategies for active learning in the classroom and school-based management; (ii) ability to undertake performance assessment of teachers in the classroom; and, (iii) skill in providing induction training for teachers and principals, including an ability to mentor principals. Later, in SISWA, their role will evolve to encompass: (i) targeted external school review (TESR); (ii) performance assessment of teachers whose efficiency is in question and the design of programs of support; and (iii) development, analysis and monitoring of data collection systems to provide reports on the performance of schools to the district. 11. Strengthening schools and teacher in-service training with the BOS69 program Following the reduction in the fuel subsidy in 2005, the Government re-allocated most of these funds to other social programs, including BOS. This program is provided to support primary and junior secondary schools and commenced in the first semester of the 2005/6 academic year. The program was established on certain conditions, one of which was that schools were required not to charge fees for students. In this 69 BOS: Bantuan Operasional Sekolah: School Operational Assistance. 164 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification way the program was meant to be pro-poor and targeted to an increase in enrolments. In 2005 about 70% of primary (SD/MI) and junior secondary schools (SMP/MT) did not charge fees to students, but the number had decreased to about 40% in 2006. Funds flow through the national budget and the provincial accounts directly to school accounts. Schools submit a financial statement quarterly, but this is not a condition of quarterly disbursement, which is automatic. It is also intended to support the aim of achieving the goal of nine years of compulsory education. The BOS Program supports teaching and learning activities in schools and will increase community access to education, especially for the poor. The guidelines provide that this funding may be spent by the school on the following items: · Electricity, water, and telephone; · Stationery and other learning materials; · School repairs and maintenance; · Remedial teaching programs, sports, and art; · School examination costs and student report cards; · Operational costs related to the registration of new students; · Textbooks and reference books; · Remuneration of honorary teachers (locally employed by the school); · Teacher professional development; · Transport costs for poor students; · BOS program operational costs; · Religious equipment and dormitory facilities; · Sporting equipment, study materials, and furniture. In addition, in 2007 the components also included the provision of one text book per student, to the value of Rp 22,000 per book. The size of the BOS allocation to each school is based on the number of students at the school. In the first round, it amounted to Rp 235,000 (or USD 25) per annum for each elementary school student and Rp 324,500 (or USD 35) per annum for each junior secondary student. The allocation of BOS funds for the first semester of the 2005-2006 school year was approximately Rp5.2 trillion for approximately 40 million students. In 2007, the BOS increased to Rp 276,000 per primary student and Rp 376,000 per junior secondary student.The total budget for the BOS rose to about Rp 10.4 trillion (USD 1.2 billion) by 2007 and formed approximately 15 % of the MONE budget. In 2008, this figure will grow to 25% of the budget. This improvement in school finance has a significant impact on schools. The majority of schools have been able to increase their resources and now have more predictable funding. Combined with the adoption of school-based management, this financial benefit has increased the autonomy of schools and enabled them to plan out their programs and activities with greater freedom. The flexibility now enjoyed by schools will assist them in targeting key programs and activities and will increase their effectiveness. However, much depends on the ability of school management to prepare budgets linked to school improvement. In this area, there is need for increased financial and administrative skill. 165 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 6 Strengthening the Agencies Supporting Teacher Certification The ability to allocate funding at the school level for teacher professional development has strengthened the ability of the school to identify priorities and target teacher need. This will operate to strengthen the structure for providing teacher training at the local level through the KKG and MGMP. At this stage, the program does not provide performance measures for schools.There is also at present no strong incentive for ensuring the effective use of the funds for better teaching and learning. It is therefore critical that some accountability and incentive schemes be incorporated in future programs. To ensure maximum funds are available to the school, provinces and districts are bypassed with the BOS allocation. However, the program tends to have a substitution effect. For example, in eight of the 10 sample districts included in a SMERU study70, the government reduced spending on education after BOS was introduced. This may cause districts to reduce their incentive for involvement in education service delivery, and also in the supervision and monitoring of BOS use. Overall the availability of BOS funding to schools has been a significant and positive step in decentralized management of education. With the additional revenue received through BOS funding, schools have enjoyed considerable benefit including: an increased availability of teaching resources; improved school infrastructure; extra-curricular activities and lessons; and professional development activities to enhance the quality of teachers. In addition, there are many cost-saving benefits enjoyed by parents and students including: school fees became cheaper or free; the provision of books by the school; extra-curricular activities; exams and tests; and extra lessons. The potential for teacher professional development, in particular, has been enhanced. With school funding teachers will be able to fund and organize training activities in the local teacher working groups. With the advent of BERMUTU, learning modules will be available to support this activity. Accreditation of some of these units will mean under-qualified teachers can gain credit points towards the S1 degree and teacher certification. In 2008, BOS funding will reach 25% of the MONE budget which provides schools with a significant budget. Furthermore, as the BOS funds are built into the budget and are on-going, there is opportunity for teachers to have access to a funded and sustainable professional development mechanism. 70 SMERU Research Institute, The Rapid Appraisal of the PKPS-BBM (Compensation Program for Reduced Fuel Subsidies) for Education Sector School Operational Assistance (BOS) 2005, March 2006 166 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 7 Financial Implications of Teacher Certification 1. Funding the process The financial implications of teacher certification are considerable and will shape the education budget in future years. By far the largest cost will be that of the professional allowance which will double the base salary of each certified teacher. Each year an increasingly larger portion of the education budget will go toward teacher pay as new teachers enter the system71 and in-service teachers succeed at the certification process. Theprofessionalallowancedwarfsallothercostsassociatedwithcertificationasitcomprisesapproximately 91% of the total certification-related costs over the next 10 years. Nevertheless, these other costs must also be taken into account when viewing the overall financial implications. The certification process itself has many associated costs, including: (i) the fee paid to universities to review the teacher portfolios to determine whether a teacher has passed; (ii) basic remedial training for teachers who are not successful in passing the portfolio review; and, (iii) re-testing these remedial teachers (the PLPG course). New teachers entering the system will face an additional cost as they must undertake additional coursework (the PPG course). Early childhood and primary school teachers will have an additional semester of coursework while junior and senior secondary school teachers will have two semesters. For primary school teachers there is the requirement that they attend a boarding facility where they stay in 71 Future new teachers entering the system should already have an S1 degree and be certified. 167 Chapter 7 Financial Implications of Teacher Certification a dormitory together for the semester. This cost is sometimes covered by districts and sometimes borne by teachers themselves. Because most in-service teachers currently do not meet the 4 year degree requirement, there will be a massive upgrading effort, with associated costs. When certification was announced in 2005, only 37% of teachers met the S1/D4 prerequisite, meaning 63% of teachers would have to upgrade in order to undertake the required72 certification. The costs associated with upgrading are borne by both the teachers and GOI. These costs can take many forms, with various cost implications. The most expensive upgrading involves physically attending a university to take courses. Teachers not working within traveling distance of the university need to take leave from their teaching post. A less expensive option is distance learning, which also offers teachers in rural and remote posts the option to continue working while undertaking coursework. Finally, there is the possibility of teachers receiving credits through teacher working group (KKG and MGMP) activities. Experienced teachers will also have the opportunity to receive credits for their previous years of teaching, training and other activities through Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL). This will reduce the number of credits that a teacher must earn, thus reducing the time and cost of upgrading. Many teachers have already commenced the upgrading process since the four-year training requirement was mandated by the Law. Enrolments of teachers in the Open University (Universitas Terbuka) and regular universities have increased significantly. In addition, a number of government initiatives to support teachers in seeking this training have been established, including: (a) an expanded number of scholarships will be available from district budgets (170,000 in 2007 and 270,000 in 200873); (b) distance learning has been expanded and an innovatory project is being piloted through 23 teacher education universities (LPTK) with 7,500 students enrolled in an S1 upgrade program (HYLITE program) for primary teachers in 2008; and, (c) planning has commenced for the provision of continuing professional development (CPD) through school clusters (KKG and MGMP) at district level. Table 7.1 Sharing the Costs Associated with Certi cation 74 Costs associated with Certi cation Who bears the cost? Government Teachers Remuneration - Professional allowance Yes No Certification Process - Portfolio review Yes No - Remedial training for teachers who fail the certification process Yes No - Re-undertaking the certification process for teachers who fail Yes Yes - Pre-certification induction for new teachers (one semester for ECD, and Yes Yes primary; two semesters for JSS, SSS) - Administrative costs of running certification Yes No Upgrading - Upgrading through distance learning Yes Yes - Upgrading through university courses Yes Yes - Recognition of Prior Learning (process) Yes No - Upgrading through KKG-MGMP (some upgrading credits to be available) Yes Yes - Opportunity cost for undergoing the upgrading process78 No Yes 72 Certification is not optional, as all teachers are by law required to be certified by 2016. All incumbent teachers who are below S1/D4 would technically be required to upgrade or could be removed from the system. 73 Presentation slides from the Director of Teacher Profession, PMPTK. 74 Teachers who leave their post to attend university to upgrade would have the opportunity cost of lost salary. The large majority of teachers are staying at their post and upgrading through part-time courses or distance learning. 168 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 7 Financial Implications of Teacher Certification The costs associated with certification have massive implications for the education budget and how these costs are managed is critical. Increasing teacher salaries upon certification is justified, particularly when the present low current salary level is considered and comparisons are made with neighboring countries. However, as this expenditure increases, unless there is a significant growth in the overall education budget, financial constraints will impact on other programs and areas of expenditure. The new allowances for teachers could crowd out other pressing priorities on the agenda for education spending in Indonesia. For example, increasing funding directly to schools under the BOS program to foster local decision-making and to ensure education is free for all students is seen as a critical element of government policy. Fully addressing the mandated minimum service standards is also seen as a government imperative. It may not be possible to achieve these to the degree required if funding is more limited than originally envisaged. There is competition for the limited funds available. When the potential expenditure on salaries is considered, there is a clear opportunity cost involved in the implementation of the Teacher Law, and some have questioned its introduction on the basis of affordability, given the large number of other demands on the education budget. The implementation must, therefore, be done in a manner which is cost efficient and improves quality in order to justify the opportunity costs and achieve the ultimate goal of increased student achievement. The subsequent sections provide an estimate of the costs associated with certification. The estimates focus on the financial costs. While opportunity costs are important, these costs are not estimated here. There are multiple factors that could affect the costs of certification. A number of scenarios are presented to demonstrate the impact that certain policy decisions could have on cost. Because of the significant costs involved, controlling these costs will be critical, so the final section focuses on mechanisms that are currently being used by MONE or could be considered in the future to control the costs. 2. Estimated Costs by Category For purposes of assessing the financial implications of teacher certification, the associated costs are grouped into four categories: (1) cost of the certification process itself, (2) cost of pre-certification professional training (PPG), (3) cost of the professional allowance for certified teachers, and (4) costs of upgrading in-service teachers to S1/D4. Amounts will be presented in constant 2006 prices to enable ease in comparisons across years. Although the fourth cost is indirectly related to certification and much of the cost burden will fall on teachers themselves, it is important to recognize this cost in the overall analysis. In a later table, a comparison of all costs is presented, highlighting the fact that by far the biggest cost is for the professional allowance. This is important because any policies intended to control costs related to the certification or upgrading process will be still minimal compared to the remuneration. (a) Certification Process Aselaboratedinpreviouschapters,thecertificationprocesswillbeundertakenbycompletionofaportfolio review to be conducted by designated universities. These universities receive a payment of Rp 2 million for each teacher processed for certification. This covers the cost of performing the portfolio review and, for teachers who do not pass the portfolio test, the university remedial training course and examination (PLPG). MONE has established a quota for the number of teachers who can undergo certification each year through to 2014. Assuming these quotas are followed, the cost per year can be shown as follows: 169 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 7 Financial Implications of Teacher Certification Table 7.2 Estimated cost of the Teacher Certi cation Process by Year75 Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Quota of teachers 20,000 180,450 200,000 346,500 396,504 396,502 396,502 258,055 111,502 Cumulative total79 20,000 200,450 400,450 746,950 1,143,454 1,539,956 1,936,458 2,194,513 2,306,015 Cost (millions of Rp., real terms in 2006 prices) 40,000 360,900 400,000 693,000 793,008 793,004 793,004 516,110 223,004 Cost (millions of US$) 4 36 40 69 79 79 79 52 22 Cost (millions of Rp., 40,000 386,163 456,000 838,530 1,015,050 1,070,555 1,126,066 769,004 347,886 nominal terms with 7% inflation) Source: PMPTK Data The table above shows that by 2014 MONE estimates that the cumulative total of certified teachers will be 2.3 million, which is less than the 2.7 million teachers currently in the system. The number of teachers eligible for and who can successfully pass certification will depend upon the variety of factors mentioned above. The impact in 2015 will in large part depend upon the number of additional teachers that have been brought into the system but have not yet had the opportunity to undergo certification. If the number of teachers continues to expand to adhere to the current STRs, then the number of teachers is estimated to be over 3.3 million. This would mean that an additional 1 million teachers would need to be certified. (b) Pre-certification Training Course for new teachers (PPG) For new teachers entering the system, an additional pre-certification induction course (the Pendidikan Profesi Guru, or PPG) is to be required. For pre-primary and primary school teachers, this induction course is one semester in length and is provided through the PMPTK. It is set up as a residential learning experience where teachers will live and work in a dormitory setting. For Junior Secondary and Senior Secondary candidate teachers the requirement is two additional semesters, while for early childhood and primary candidate teachers the requirement is for one additional semester. The cost for this is generally to be borne by the teachers and can be seen as an extension of the S1 degree, which thus takes 4 ½ to 5 years to complete. This additional cost will generally be paid by the teacher candidates, with a cost of approximately Rp 2.4 million per semester. Currently there are 3,000 teachers going through the primary PPG with the cost for some teachers being covered by the districts in which they will work. It may evolve over time to become common practice for districts to cover this cost. (c) The Professional Allowance The cost of the professional allowance will be determined by the number of certified teachers. Due to both financial and logistical constraints, it is not feasible to have all eligible incumbent teachers (all teachers holding an S1/D4 degree) undergo the certification process immediately. In an effort to effectively manage the number of teachers receiving the professional allowance, MONE established a quota system, ensuring that each year a batch of teachers will be eligible to undergo the certification process. Under MONE's current phased approach, all teachers will be certified by 2014. Teachers who become certified in a given year will receive their professional allowance the following year and will continue receiving it until retirement. 75 The number of teachers undergoing certification is dependent on the quota. MONE estimates assume that all teachers undergoing the certification process will pass, but there will most likely be a number of teachers who do not pass certification or meet the 24 periods per week teaching requirement. 170 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 7 Financial Implications of Teacher Certification Table 7.3 Quota of teachers undergoing Certi cation and Associated Professional Allowance Costs Cumulative Real Annual cost Nominal Annual cost Quota of % of Year number of (million Rp in 2006 (million Rp with 7% teachers Teachers teachers certi ed prices) in ation) 2006 20,000 20,000 158,742 158,742 2007 180,450 200,450 8.5% 3,608,100 3,860,667 2008 200,000 400,450 20% 8,649,720 9,860,681 2009 346,500 746,950 40% 16,134,120 19,522,285 2010 396,504 1,143,454 55% 24,698,606 31,614,216 2011 396,502 1,539,956 70% 33,263,050 44,905,118 2012 396,502 1,936,458 80% 41,827,493 59,395,040 2013 258,055 2,194,513 90% 47,401,481 70,628,207 2014 111,502 2,306,015 100% 49,809,924 77,703,481 2015 Complete Source: PMPTK estimates To put cost in perspective, by 2015 the professional allowance alone will be approximately two-thirds of the total 2006 education expenditure (central, province and district) in real terms (without taking inflation into account). Taking other teacher salary costs into account (base salary, the new functional allowance and special area allowance), by 2012 the amount allocated to salaries alone will be more than the total education expenditure of 2006. In nominal terms (taking inflation into account) by 2015 the amount going to salaries alone will be 170 trillion, which is more than double the total 2006 education expenditure. Figure 7.1 Increase in amount to be spent on teacher allowances (real terms in 2006 prices) 180 160 140 Total cost of salary and 120 taken into account p R 100 2006 Education Expenditure of (for comparison purposes) onslilirT80 Professional Incentive 60 Special Area Incentive 40 Functional Incentive 20 Teacher Base Salary Cost 0 2006 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Total Education Expenditure Source: PMPTK data with assumption that efficiency gains are made so that the number of teachers in the system does not increase. (d) Upgrading of In-service Teachers Approximately 63% of all incumbent teachers did not have the required S1/D4 degree in 2006. The cost associated with upgrading these teachers is significant, particularly considering that some of the cost burden will be borne by teachers themselves. While the central and local governments are assisting in covering these costs through scholarships, many teachers have taken the initiative to begin upgrading 171 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 7 Financial Implications of Teacher Certification at their own expense and enrolments of teachers in the Open University (Universitas Terbuka) have increased significantly since the four-year training requirement was mandated by the Law; A number of initiatives to support teachers in seeking the upgrading initiative have been established: (a) an expanded number of scholarships will be available from district budgets (170,000 in 2007 and 270,000 in 200876); (b) distance learning has been expanded and an innovatory project is being piloted through 23 teacher education universities (LPTK) with 7,500 students enrolled in an S1 upgrade program (HYLITE program) for primary teachers in 2008; and, (c) planning has commenced for the provision of continuing professional development (CPD) through school clusters (KKG and MGMP) at district level. Regular university is the most expensive method of upgrading, with an estimated cost of Rp 2.5 million per semester.77 With additional costs such as transportation and books, the cost would be approximately Rp3.5 million. Open University (distance learning) has a Teacher Equivalency Program (Program Paket), which includes the tuition fee, modules, tutorials and practical work for Rp 1 million per semester. The Teacher Upgrading and Certification Cost Analysis Study78 prepared for the PMPTK under the Australia- Indonesia Basic Education Program (BEP) provides an indicative costing of the teacher academic upgrading and certification process to be completed by 2016. The study estimates of total projected cost for teacher academic upgrading and certification range from Rp7.6 trillion (USD 0.84 billion) to Rp24.5 trillion (USD 2.7 billion). The costs cover teacher certification for more than 2.5 million teachers between 2007 and 2016. Estimating total costs is difficult because the percentage of teachers attending regular university rather than adopting distance learning is unknown. It is also difficult to know how many credits will be given for Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) or how many credits teachers will be able to gain through CPD activities in school clusters. It appears that for cost, time and distance factors, most teachers are upgrading through distance learning. If 1/3 of teachers upgrade through regular university and 2/3 through distance learning, then the average cost per year per teacher would be Rp3.66 million. Using the estimated number of teachers upgrading per year from the BEP study,Table 7.4 below shows the cost per year for upgrading. Table 7.4 Estimated Upgrading costs 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Number of 235,433 470,865 672,827 784,852 828,904 778,182 576,221 374,259 189,549 Teachers Total Real Cost (millions Rp, 2006 863,254 1,726,505 2,467,032 2,877,791 3,039,315 2,853,334 2,112,810 1,372,283 695,013 prices) Total Nominal Cost 923,682 1,968,216 2,985,109 3,683,572 4,103,075 4,051,734 3,148,087 2,140,761 1,132,871 (millions Rp, 7% inflation) Source: Teacher Upgrading and Certification Cost Analysis Study by the AusAID-Basic Education Program, 2007 for number of teachers upgrading per year and assumed average cost of Rp. 3.66 million per teacher for 1 year of upgrading. (e) Summary of costs 76 From overhead slides presented by the Director of Teacher Profession, PMPTK. 77 At UGM (a non-LPTK) there is a Rp 600,000 tuition fee and Rp 75,000 per credit, with a maximum of 24 credits per semester. This totals Rp 2,400,000 per semester. 78 Australia-Indonesia Basic Education Program, Teacher Upgrading and Certification: Cost Analysis Study, November, 2007 172 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 7 Financial Implications of Teacher Certification As shown in Table 7.5 below, when comparing the costs of upgrading and certification with the cost of the professional allowance, it becomes clear that the professional allowance is the most significant driving factor associated with certification in the long-term. In the first few years of the process, the upgrading and certification costs make up a reasonably significant portion of overall costs, but the professional allowance will make up 90% of total costs by 2012 and 91% of the cumulative costs from 2007-2015. Table 7.5 Comparison of Costs Associated with Certi cation 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Professional allowance 158,742 3,608,100 8,649,720 16,134,120 24,698,606 33,263,050 41,827,493 47,401,481 49,809,924 Assessment & certification 360,900 400,000 693,000 793,008 793,004 793,004 516,110 223,004 223,004 In-service upgrading 1,323,300 1,466,667 2,541,000 2,907,696 2,907,681 2,907,681 1,892,403 817,681 817,681 Total real cost (2006 prices) 1,842,942 5,474,767 11,883,720 19,834,824 28,399,291 36,963,735 44,236,006 48,442,166 50,850,609 Nominal cost (7% in ation) 1,971,948 6,241,234 14,379,301 25,388,575 38,339,043 52,488,504 65,911,649 75,569,779 82,886,493 Professional as % of total 9% 66% 73% 81% 87% 90% 95% 98% 98% Certification as % of total 20% 7% 6% 4% 3% 2% 1% 0% 0% Upgrade as % of total 72% 27% 21% 15% 10% 8% 4% 2% 2% Source: Calculations based on compilation of data from previous tables The magnitude of the professional allowance in relation to other certification-related costs is shown graphically in Figure 7.2 below. Whilst cost efficiency gains could be made in the areas of upgrading and the certification process itself, they would be insignificant compared to any efficiencies gained in terms of the number of teachers in the system. When examining how to control costs, then, it is important to focus on the professional allowance. Figure 7.2 Comparison of upgrading and assessment costs to professional allowance costs 60,000,000 50,000,000 40,000,000 In-service upgrading 30,000,000 Professional allowance 20,000,000 10,000,000 0 2007 2008 2009 2010 11 13 20 2012 20 2014 2015 Source: PMPTK data. 173 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 7 Financial Implications of Teacher Certification 3. Key Variables Influencing Cost As is illustrated in the previous section, the professional allowance will be the driving factor in the costs related to certification. It is, therefore, important to consider some key factors that will influence these costs. Since the cost of the professional allowance is driven by the number of certified teachers meeting the minimum work requirement of 24 class periods per week, any factors influencing this number will impact on the professional allowance cost. The main factors include: (a) Percentage of teachers that upgrade their training and undertake certi cation: The doubling of base salary is a big incentive for teachers who are below the S1 degree requirement to upgrade their training. There is substantial evidence that most teachers are in fact taking the initiative to upgrade. Many others may yet decide it is not worth undergoing the additional 2, 3 or 4 years of training to reach the S1 degree. Of the 63% of teachers who have less than the required S1/D4 degree, approximately 26% have only a high school level qualification, which would require an additional 4 years of schooling. If credit is given through Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL), this will reduce the amount of upgrading required. Nevertheless, it is likely that due to time, cost or access barriers many incumbent teachers will decide the upgrading process is too difficult. It is possible that 10-15% of incumbent teachers may still not have the S1 degree by 2015. Figure 7.3 Distribution of Teachers by Education Attainment ALL TEACHERS 26% 3 26% 7% 37% Senior Secondary 4%1 2 12% 80% Junior Secondary 11% 7 8 14% 60% Primary 35% 2 44% 2 16% Kindergarten 63% 5% 19% 2 11% 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 <= SLTA D1 D2 D3 S1+ Source: NUPTK 2006 database (b) Increase in enrolment rate: An increase in enrolments will have an impact on the number of teachers required.Tied to the teacher oversupply issue (point (c) below), the ability to more efficiently distribute teachers as enrolment increases will offset some of the additional hiring requirements. (c) Number of new teachers hired: Previous studies have highlighted the fact that, whilst Indonesia has a general oversupply of teachers, they are poorly distributed with many schools having an oversupply of teachers and others an undersupply. Improving efficiency will become increasingly important in order to control the costs associated with hiring teachers. Using predicted enrolment rates of students at each level, the number of teachers required can be estimated. Currently there are 2.7 million teachers in the system. If there are no efficiency gains and the current student teacher ratio (STR) is kept, then the number of teachers in 2016 could be over 3.34 million. If the STRs move closer to regional averages, then the number of teachers would be only 2.08 million by 2016. (This estimate is elaborated in Box 1 below.) 174 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 7 Financial Implications of Teacher Certification The total number of civil servant (PNS) teachers has decreased from 1,548,526 in December 2003 to 1,465,262 in December 2007, indicating an effort on the part of GOI to control the number of government-paid teachers.79 As will be discussed later, however, GOI cannot control the hiring of all teacher types. Box 7.1 Estimated Number of Teachers Required Based on Student Projections The number of teachers required in the system will first be driven by the number of students enrolled in each level of education. Based on population figures and enrolment targets set by GOI, the estimated total number of students can be calculated for each level of schooling. The total number of students in the system currently is 46 million, but will increase to approximately 53 million by 2015. Using this number, the total number of teachers in the system can be estimated. Indonesia's education system currently has a general oversupply of teachers, with some of the lowest student-teacher ratios (STRs) in the region. This inefficiency will become more costly as more teachers become certified and begin receiving the professional allowance. The requirement that teachers work a minimum of 24 periods should assist in reducing this inefficiency. The three scenarios presented in the table below are based on whether there is no efficiency gain (STR is kept the same), a slight efficiency gain (STR increases slightly) or a big efficiency gain (STR approaches regional average, although still lower). Slight efficiency Large efficiency Regional average School Level Current STR Gain Gain (for comparison) Primary 19.5 24.0 28.0 31.0 Junior Secondary 13.9 22.0 25.0 28.0 Senior Secondary 13.0 16.0 20.0 25.0 Based on these scenarios, the total number of teachers in the system by 2016 could range from 3.34 million to 2.08 million. The difference of over 1 million teachers would have obvious implications for education costs. 4,000,000 3,500,000 3,000,000 2,500,000 No STR change Teachers 2,000,000 of 1,500,000 Number1,000,000 500,000 - 9 2008/ 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 2016/17 2015/2016 Year 79 The number of teachers actually increased from 1,465,262 in December 2007 to 1,629,635 in June 2008 because a Government undertaking to convert all centrally hired contract teachers to PNS by 2009. Many of these teachers were converted between December 2007 and June 2008. 175 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 7 Financial Implications of Teacher Certification (d) Pass rate of teachers undergoing the certi cation process: There is political tension in the meaning and intent of certification. Some policy makers and teachers have the perspective that teacher salaries are low and the professional allowance is primarily to improve teacher welfare. For many in this group the belief is that all teachers undergoing certification should pass. Others believe that while teacher welfare is important, the primary purpose of certification is to improve teacher quality. If this is the case, then only well-qualified, competent teachers should pass certification and the certification process is an opportunity to identify and reward the best teachers while removing the underperforming or unqualified teachers. It is significant to note that the pass rate in the first cohort of teachers undergoing the portfolio review was 50%, but the majority of teachers who were initially unsuccessful in the portfolio review have passed the second chance exam. (e) Quota of teachers determined to undergo the certi cation process each year: MONE has established an annual quota through to 2014 that places a cap on the number of teachers to receive the professional allowance. This tightly controls the number of teachers able to be certified each year. A change in this quota would greatly alter the number of teachers receiving the professional allowance. (f) Implementation of the 24 periods (hours) per week minimum teaching load policy: The Teacher Law requires certified teachers to have a minimum of 24 class periods per week in order to receive the professional allowance. Although the central government can control the number of civil servant teachers hired, it cannot directly control the number of additional teachers hired by the district or the school. The 24 period requirement is, in part, a mechanism to prevent schools from overstaffing and to encourage teachers in overstaffed schools to relocate to understaffed schools where it is possible for them to more easily meet the 24 period requirement. Many teachers currently do not meet this requirement. The policy is an innovative method of indirectly controlling teacher costs, although, for logistical and political reasons, it can be a challenge to enforce. The 24 period requirement is discussed in detail below. In presenting the following costing scenarios, the estimates are largely based on MONE's assumptions and established quotas. The high-cost scenario is based on the assumption that there are no efficiency gains and the current low STRs are maintained and would mean there would be 3.34 million teachers in the system by 2016. MONE's current estimate is approximately 1 million teachers less, which means there would need to be efficiency gains in upcoming years. Regardless of the scenarios, an important overall conclusion is that, although teachers are underpaid and the professional and functional allowances are justified, the costs will be the most significant budget factor over the next decade. As teachers become a more expensive resource, efficiency in the employment and deployment of teachers is critical. 4. Mechanisms to Control Certification Costs MONE has introduced two key policies intended to control certification costs and ensure that the education budget is able to accommodate the professional allowance. The first is a yearly quota on the number of teachers that are able to undergo the certification process each year. The second is the requirement that all certified teachers must teach a minimum workload of 24 periods per week to be paid the professional allowance. Two other indirect control mechanisms to manage the costs are the pass rate for certification and the number of new teachers hired. These control mechanisms are shown below: 176 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 7 Financial Implications of Teacher Certification Control Mechanisms Level of Control Comment on Level of Control by MONE a. Yearly quota of teachers to HIGH Established by MONE. Can be controlled and quotas have undergo the certification already been specified up to 2014 process b. Minimum teaching MEDIUM Policy used to indirectly limit the number of new teachers workload of 24 classroom hired. Policy controlled by MONE. Some enforcement can periods per week be undertaken, but lack of data and exceptions (e.g. team teaching) may make actual compliance a challenge c. Pass-rate for certification MEDIUM to HIGH Standards and pass rate can be influenced by MONE, but process universities have a degree of autonomy. It would also be politically difficult to keep the pass rate low. d. Number of new teachers LOW to MEDIUM GOI hires PNS teachers at the central level. Policy on contract hired teacher hiring now frozen, but districts hire contract teachers. Public schools also hire some teachers (GTT) and private schools also hire their own teachers (GTY). (a) Quota system In 2006, more than 1 million teachers had an S1 or D4 degree, making them eligible to undergo the certification process. For both logistical and financial reasons, it was not possible to allow all these teachers to undertake the process in the first batch. In order to allow for a gradual increase in budget and to cope with capacity constraints, a quota system was introduced. Each district was allocated a quota based on their teacher population. Teachers were prioritized by experience, age, and civil service rank. Teachers have generally accepted this process and it seems unlikely to be altered through political intervention. All incumbent teachers who already hold an S1/D4 degree should be processed by 2011. This quota system is the primary control mechanism and should provide a measured increase in the number of certified teachers, enabling the education budget to meet the increasing cost in a manageable and predictable manner. (b) Minimum teaching load of 24 Periods per week Currently many teachers have low workloads, particularly in junior and senior secondary schools. MONE has adopted a policy requiring all teachers who receive the professional allowance to work full-time, with a minimum of 24 class periods per week. It is not unreasonable to expect that a teacher receiving a doubling of salary plus an additional functional allowance should work full-time. The policy will also assist in rationalizing the number of teachers appointed to schools and prevent significant increases in the number of teachers hired. While the number of PNS teachers can be controlled centrally80, school-hired teachers in public schools (GTT), teachers contracted by the districts (Honor Daerah) and teachers in private schools (GTY) are outside to control of MONE and MORA authorities.The 24 period requirement now prevents schools from hiring too many teachers. Schools already adequately staffed with teachers working 24 periods per week will be reluctant to hire additional teachers because this would cause some teachers to fall below the 24 hour minimum and become ineligible for receipt of the professional allowance. Whilst this control mechanism is important for all schools, it is particularly so for private schools, where MONE and MORA have little control over the number of teachers hired. The workloads of teachers are currently quite low and actual implementation of the 24 period teaching load policy will present many challenges. In the figure below the working hours of teachers are shown by school level. In primary and secondary schools 46% of all teachers already meet the 24 80 BKN determines the number of civil servants that will be hired each year and gives a quota to each district. This number was 300,000 for 2008, with approximately 2/3 of those hired being teachers. 177 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 7 Financial Implications of Teacher Certification period minimum, meaning over half of all teachers fall below the minimum. In primary schools, 70% of teachers meet the minimum and 18% have between 13-23 periods, so for these teachers it may not be so difficult to find the additional hours to meet the minimum requirement. The majority of teachers not meeting the requirement are religion and sport teachers who are typically not assigned as many teaching periods (hours). Figure7.4 Percent of Teachers by Number of Teaching Periods All Teachers 29% 28% 6% 30% 8% Primary 11% 18% 6% 51% 13% Junior Secondary 40% 41% 8% 9% 1% Senior Secondary 43% 38% 5% 11% 2% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 1-12 periods 13-23 periods 24 periods 25-36 periods >36 periods Source: NUPTK 2006 database The workloads for junior and senior secondary teachers are significantly lower, with only 19% of junior secondary and 18% of senior secondary teachers meeting the minimum requirements. This is largely because teachers are hired for specific subjects. In small schools it is more difficult for teachers to find 24 hours, particularly for subjects like geography where only one period is required in the general senior high school (SMA) curriculum. Currently the mechanism for enforcing the 24 period requires the school principal to provide a letter stating that a teacher has a workload of at least 24 periods. Such a system could be fairly easily circumvented and MONE will need to monitor the system more closely to prevent abuse. With accurate, up-to-date data from each school, the total number of hours required can be obtained and the total number of hours assigned to teachers could be calculated and compared to determine whether the number of teaching hours exceeds the total number of school hours.The teacher census database kept by PMPTK allows for such calculations, but there is a year-by-year lag in collecting the data and entering it into the system. Because many teachers do not currently meet the requirement, there could be considerable pressure on MONE to ease this policy. In the current GOI guidelines "team teaching" is now allowed which permits two (or more) teachers to operate in the same class. Teachers can also obtain additional teaching hours through extra-curricular activities (e.g. coaching a school soccer team outside school hours). Whilst it is understandable to allow some flexibility, particularly during an interim period as the system adjusts to the new policy, there is a danger that the policy will lose its teeth. In the case of team teaching, for example, a school could simply assign additional teachers, who are currently under the minimum 24 hour requirement, to existing classes. There is also the risk that the "team teaching"may in fact become"turn teaching"where teachers simply take turns teaching the class, so that any potential benefits of increased face time would be lost. 178 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 7 Financial Implications of Teacher Certification (c) Pass rate for Certi cation The law states that all teachers must be certified by 2015. This has been interpreted by some to mean that all teachers in the system will undergo certification and pass. If the professional allowance is seen as a teacher welfare tool, then the bar for passing the certification process may be set low. However, if the certification process is also seen as a quality control mechanism, then the bar should be set to where less qualified teachers do not pass. A recent international study estimates that an education system typically needs to remove at least 10% of underperforming teachers in order to remain healthy.81 The certification process could be used as a tool to single out and reward better qualified teachers. The initial pass rate for the 2007 batch of teachers was only 50%. Subsequently, most of these teachers undertook the 90-hour remedial training course and the majority passed. (d) Number of new teachers hired One of the most fundamental factors driving the cost of the professional allowance is the number of teachers in the system. As mentioned earlier, there is already current teacher over-supply and an inequitable distribution of teachers. Using realistic STRs that follow international best practice and are in line with the regional average, Indonesia has a teacher over-supply of approximately 21%.82 Estimating the number of students in the system (based on population figures and increased enrolment) and assuming that the current student-teacher ratio (STR) is kept, then 3.34 million teachers will be in the system by 2016. In a scenario that reduces the STR to levels more comparable with the regional average, the total number of teachers would only be 2.14 million. Dispensing with the difference of 1.26 million teachers (assuming all were certified) would provide a saving of approximately Rp 6.3 trillion per year. Considerable efficiency gains can be achieved by reducing the present oversupply83 of teachers by encouraging districts to become more efficient employers. A range of employment and deployment policies could be adopted, such as: · Ensuring all certified teachers must teach 24 hours per week before they become eligible for the allowance. This will save teacher numbers by providing an incentive to ensure all teachers have a full load of classes; · Requiring a minimum student-teacher ratio (STR) and staffing schools on the basis of audited enrolment figures. This will save teacher numbers by ensuring classes are not too small and all teachers have optimal class sizes; · Improvingdistributionofteachersbyrequiringthoseinschoolswithanoversupplyofteachers to transfer to schools with an undersupply; · Requiring all teachers to teach a range of subjects (say, a minimum of two) to facilitate them teaching a full 24 hours per week in their school. 81 ESA workshop held August, 2008. 82 World Bank, Investing in Indonesia's Education: Allocation, Equity and Efficiency of Public Expenditures. Jakarta. January, 2007. Annex 6. 83 Approximately 10% of teachers are in the oversupply category and significant savings could be made by use of policies designed to curb this inefficiency 179 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 7 Financial Implications of Teacher Certification 5. Concluding Comment The cost implications of certification are massive and will shape the education budget over the next decade. The challenge will be to make the investment lead not only to improved teacher welfare but also improved quality of education. The current inefficiencies in the system (oversupply of teachers, poor distribution) will be exacerbated as the cost of teachers increases, making it essential that efficiencies accompany certification. Control mechanisms to ensure that costs increase in line with the budget's ability to expand will be important, with the 24 period minimum requirement, in particular, playing a key role. This and other policies will be a challenge to enforce and will require improved data collection and monitoring on the part of MONE. 180 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions 1. Developing good policy Successful policies interpret the meaning of legislation to the implementing agencies. Legislation often includes political and social trade-offs in a democratic society. Party politics, pressure groups, and vested interests, as well as international best practice and sound education measurement often combine in the mix that finally results in effective policy. In turn, monitoring and evaluation of implementation provides feed-back to refine policy. Good policy is carefully worded and must be socialized to ensure an understanding of its purpose at all levels of the civil service, if it is to be effectively applied. In the case of education policy making, it should directly and indirectly improve the learning of children. At its highest level, policies help translate the intentions of government into action. Effective policies can improve decision-making by clarifying the intent of government and providing a direction for action. It should also provide some consistency in action, even though good policy must often need to provide some flexibility in interpretation to meet local circumstances. Policy development requires the use of clear evidence, rigorous analysis and regular evaluation. Good policy explains why change is necessary and can communicate government intentions and action. It also deals in equity and fairness. 181 Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions In the case of the Teacher Law, for example, the teacher certification policy sets out a strategy to improve teacher quality and, in so doing, indicates government commitment to dealing with the challenge of comparatively poor student literacy and numeracy scores. Effective policies also provide a framework and guidelines for government and district decision-makers to solve problems, to plan ahead, and to make appropriate judgments. In this manner, good policies manage risks and provide a confident avenue for action. In the case of teacher certification, the associated policies will engage districts in a range of operational procedures which will ensure effective implementation and action. The diagram identifies the relationship between the key stages and levels in policy development: Figure 8.1 The Role of Policy Development TEACHER LAW (UU14/2005) is the legislative mandate for development of policies and procedures REGULATION 19/2007 describes the implementation Revisions to arrangements for the Teacher Law Regulations POLICIES Feedback to provide the overriding framework and g uidelines revise for the operation and administration of the process policies RULES AND PROCEDURES give detailed guidance to the implementing agencies All policies should incorporate an evaluation process to assess the impact of the policy and a timeline for this activity. During the evaluation phase, all stakeholders should be consulted so that any resulting revision to the policy will take into account their feedback, whilst at the same time continuing the government's intent in the original policy decision. In the case of theTeacher Law, for example, the Ministry has commissioned and conducted an internal and an external review of implementation. As a result of recommendations from these evaluations, changes have been made in policies and procedures. Overall directional change occurs through legislation. Early drafts of the Teacher Law date as far back as 1999 and indicate a long and thoughtful preparation period. Specific policies and procedures originate from this base and are usually developed through consultation within the administrative and organizational areas of government. In general, good policy reflects the determination to implement change through the structures of government for the benefit of the wider community. 2. The policy agenda High quality education is one of the foundations of modern society. It ennobles the person and empowers individuals to rise to the challenges of social, cultural, economic and technological change. This requires a highly skilled and professional teaching force. The Teacher Law recognizes the vital role that teachers 182 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions have in imparting knowledge and skills to young people, and, in striving for quality teachers, has provided a legislative framework to guide the development of a wide range of policies. These can be grouped into three main categories and a number of policies in each listed as follows: · Policies relating to a teacher's career: Examples include initial selection of teachers, pre-service training, induction, career progression and promotion (also covering incentives) and continuing professional development; · Policies relating to school organization: Examples include teacher deployment (encompassing hard to staff locations, specialist shortages, and class sizes), teacher workload, categories of teachers, forms of teacher support; · Policies relating to teacher management: Examples include school leadership, performance appraisal, dealing with poor performance, retirement, and so on. The teacher certification process is placing considerable pressure on a range of agencies and stakeholders in the education system. Implementation has required close examination of each of these elements and generated revision of policies and development of new policies where none existed before. Policy, of course, is one thing; effective implementation resulting in a measurable impact on student learning is another. A. Policies related to a teacher's career (a) Policies for selection of quality teachers84 Teachers can make a major difference in the lives of children. However, many of the characteristics of good teachers are elusive and hard to measure. The policies enacted by governments and local school districts determine those gaining access to training and employment as teachers. The policies followed should, therefore, be based on the best knowledge available. If this does not occur, prospective teachers who might prove to be quite effective are excluded and others who might be less effective are admitted. The issue of mismatch might also continue to arise, making the supply of effective teachers to local schools increasingly difficult. Whilst sound national and district employment policies can assist in the selection of teachers, there should be greater input at the school level in the selection process. Principals of schools generally know the type of teacher required and can often select capable staff. They should be given a greater role in selection within the Indonesian system. There is a sound case for local selection of teachers at the school level because it will reduce mismatch between the teacher's specialist training and the vacancy at the school. Although there is a lot more we should know about what constitutes a good teacher, enough is known to assist in the selection of effective teachers. Currently, many policies in place do not reflect the best research and it is important that policymakers look for new and better ways to improve teacher quality and help schools understand that no regulation, no matter how sound, can replace the critical need for districts and schools to screen prospective teachers carefully. Well-designed policies based on good research will increase the possibility that the individuals selected to teach are persons of quality and expertise. 84 National Council on Teacher Quality, Increasing the Odds: How Good Policies can Yield Better Teachers, Washington, DC. 183 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions (i) Attraction of the professional allowance: The high professional allowance now available for certified teachers places the teaching profession in a good position to attract outstanding candidates to apply for training. Experience has shown, however, that success in gaining academic qualifications does not necessarily guarantee an outstanding teacher. Much will depend on the personality of the teacher, their commitment to children, and their ability to relate to students in the classroom. These subjective aspects of selection are critical in the identification of teachers for employment. If training institutions can develop an entry screening process which goes beyond simple academic scores, these subjective factors can be taken into account in selecting the cohort for training. This also means that the teaching practicum and the mentoring of trainee teachers by the LPTK during their coursework are critical. Partnerships should be built with model schools, and a wide range of regular schools in order to expose the trainee to the practical side of teaching and nurture their professionalism. There is need to bring the principals of regular schools into this training partnership. During the probationary period of the new teacher, each principal should be required to provide induction training and write a report on the new teacher to be incorporated as part of the certification process. New policies in this area need to be developed. (ii) Experience: Experience is highly valued in the teaching profession, and the civil service pay scales are linked to this factor through the annual incremental mechanism. However, research suggests that the initial benefits of experience are only realized for about the first five years in the classroom. After an initial steep learning curve, the rate at which teachers continue to improve begins to slow. Teachers, therefore, need new challenges and new methodologies to maintain their professional growth. This requires access to teacher development resources and experiences. If student achievement gains are a district's primary focus, teachers must be motivated through the district training division or the teacher working group (KKG and MGMP) to examine examination scores and methodologies, link with exemplar programs and develop new ways of teaching. (iii) More exible entry for mature-age candidates: ProspectiveteachersinIndonesiacompleteaformaldegreetrainingprogramaccreditedbytheemploying authority which includes coursework in both a subject area and pedagogy. In addition they must pass the PPG (Pendidikan Profesi Guru) to gain certification. Whilst this process and certification provides a quality assurance to the employer and the public, there remain a number of locations within the nation where it is difficult to obtain fully trained and certified staff members. Policy-makers should, therefore, ensure that the certification system remains sufficiently flexible to accommodate capable non-traditional candidates who may enter teaching by alternative routes such as work-experience and distance learning. This will be critical in the staffing of schools in more remote and disadvantaged areas (iv) Level of literacy of teachers: Effective teachers can be shown to be more literate than less effective teachers. Unfortunately, recruitment of highly literate teachers is often not a priority. Employing authorities often focus on the teacher's elected subject area and education methodology training rather than the broadly based coursework that is directly relevant to what a K-12 teacher needs to have in their repertoire. 184 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions School districts are reluctant to consider important indicators of teachers' literacy that might help to determinethecaliberoftheirteachers.Suchindicatorscouldincluderelativeperformanceonstandardized tests. A study conducted in 1999 by the Educational Testing Service found that if all states in the United States set their passing scores on a test of basic skills (reading, writing, and mathematics) to the level in the state of Virginia (the state with the highest passing score), the number of candidates in the nation who would pass would drop from 77% to 47%.85 Studies repeatedly conclude that teachers who are more literate are more likely to produce greater student learning gains. For example, research has shown that a teacher's level of literacy as measured by vocabulary and other standardized tests affects student achievement more than any other measurable teacher attribute, including certification status, experience, and the amount of professional development that a teacher receives.86 Clearly a prospective teacher's level of literacy, however measured, should be a primary consideration in the employment process. Those applicants who score relatively highly on tests of literacy are more likely to be effective teachers. Such tests could be applied prior to a candidate's entry into a teacher training program and could also be used as a discriminator in the short-listing of applicants for a teaching post at the district level. (v) Standard of the training college: When employing new teachers, districts and schools in the United States tend to look first for those who have gained certification rather than those with greater academic standing. Public schools do not necessarily give preference to candidates with strong academic credentials. Fewer than 7% of U.S. public school teachers graduated from selective colleges. By comparison, private schools give greater emphasis to hiring teachers from selective colleges. Without exception, studies find that students make greater learning gains if their teachers have attended a more prestigious selective college. These research findings provide further evidence that teachers with strong academic credentials are more likely to produce greater student learning gains. However, because of the ability of such teachers, districts which recruit such candidates may need to prepare for higher turnover rates, unless they also address the factors that cause these teachers to leave the classroom. (vi) Personal attributes: Whilst the need for employing authorities to set standards for entry into the teaching profession leads them to focus on measurable characteristics, teacher effectiveness often depends on the subjective personal attributes of a teacher. These are much harder to measure and it is more difficult to make consistent subjective judgments when employing teachers. However, in order to gain a full view of a teacher, the Teach for America87 program has identified seven critical attributes in selecting effective teachers. These are personal attributes common to teachers who produced the greatest student learning gains: 85 Gitomer, D.H., Latham, A.S., and Ziomeck, R., 1999, The academic quality of prospective teachers: The impact of admissions and licensure testing. Princeton, NJ: Education Testing Service 86 Wayne, A.J., andYoungs, P., 2003. Teachercharacteristicsandstudentachievementgains:Areview. Review of Educational Research, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 89-122 87 Teach for America website, www.teachforamerica.org, 2008 185 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions 1. High-Achieving: The individual has a history of success no matter what the endeavor. 2. Responsible: Instead of blaming others or circumstances, the individual takes full responsibility for achieving a positive outcome. 3. Critical thinker: The individual reflects about the linkages between cause and effect instead of simply reacting to the effect. 4. Organized: The individual is able to juggle multiple projects and tasks successfully. 5. Motivating: The individual is able to influence and motivate others to action, as evidenced by effective leadership in extracurricular activities such as student-run organizations or athletic teams. 6. Respectful: The individual assumes the best about people, especially people in low-income communities. 7. Shares the goals of the organization: The individual wants to work toward TFA's mission of eliminating educational inequities. In the second stage of its application process, theTFA program uses a day-long interview for 12 candidates at a time, conducted by two trained interviewers. During the day, applicants teach a self-designed five- minute lesson to the group, analyze in writing a complex problem they could face as a teacher, discuss as a group the causes of and solutions to the achievement gap, and engage in a highly structured one-on- one interview. Candidates are then rated on each of the seven personal attributes to arrive at an overall profile that generates the final decision about their suitability. Currently,successinpassingwrittenexaminationspredominatesintheIndonesianselectionprocess.Even at the point of final selection, all civil service teachers must pass a generic civil service entry examination conducted by the personnel division at the district level. It is important to examine alternative selection procedures and to identify where new policies and practices might be developed and applied. (b) Policies for pre-service training of teachers The higher remuneration now available will attract increasing numbers of candidates for teacher training. This will provide greater scope for the LPTK to be more selective in choosing teacher candidates. They will be able to adopt screening devices to eliminate poor quality entrants. Basic skills tests and new experimental techniques should form part of this process. (i) Pre-service education courses: The training expectations placed on teachers-in-training should be more demanding. All S1 elementary teachers, for example, should be trained in the management of multi-grade classes in their field. All S1 secondary teachers should be required to teach in two subjects. TheneedfornewandimprovedteachingmodelsbyuniversitylecturersandLPTKstaffshouldbesupported by sabbatical leave provided for university staff to teach in schools to perfect their methodologies and improve their capacity for transmitting exemplar practices to novice trainees. Professional development schools (PDS), and laboratory, model or demonstration schools will provide the incubators for excellent practice. Future teachers should also receive experiences in poor, rural, urban, large, small, graded, and multi-grade schools. The new PPG (Pendidikan Profesi Guru) program for S1 graduates in their professional one semester or two semester teaching course will draw on these models of excellence in teacher training. 186 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions LPTK and these schools should have modern laboratories and libraries with age appropriate books. Intending teachers should have classroom practice experiences and internships built into their training courses throughout their period at the LPTK. Newly graduated teachers should have at least one-year's induction within the school context before the final certification decision is made. Whilst academic standards are important and education courses have increased in rigor and substantial content, prevailing views indicate that many teaching skills are best learned"on-the-job". Appropriate policies for the implementation of these practices are now required. (ii) Subject area knowledge: To be considered suitably qualified, teachers must be able to demonstrate knowledge in the subjects they teach. In the case of secondary teachers, specialist subject training is essential. In the case of elementary teachers, broad training across many subject areas is more important. For secondary teachers the need to train in two subjects is critical in order to staff schools appropriately. However, current staffing procedures have made it difficult to allocate a full teaching load to teachers trained in only one subject field. The Educator Certificate issued to secondary teachers only certifies them to instruct in one specialist subject field. Such a policy makes schools difficult to staff on the basis of the 24 hours per week teaching load. Certified teachers are unable to meet the 24 hours per week teaching requirement because they are unable to find enough of their subject specialist classes to teach. All secondary teachers should be trained in a subject"major"which should be complemented by a subject"minor"to facilitate the allocation of staff to secondary schools. A third category of "other" subjects could also be added to these two to facilitate delivery of the large number of subject specialties needed in the modern secondary school. An important policy to develop in future will be the need for LPTK to ensure all graduates are trained in two subject areas and the Educator Certificate issued to successful graduates should be endorsed for both subjects. (c) Policies for managing the probationary year process In most occupations, the probationary period is intended to be an employment trial during which the employer can evaluate whether an employee is suited to a job or not. This usually requires additional contextualtrainingorinductionforthenewemployeebeforeconfirmationinthepositiononapermanent basis (with all the obligations that entail for both parties). Most occupations do not confer automatic permanency of tenure, even for experienced employees joining the organization. Policies should be developed for the induction of new teachers (as well as other categories of position such as principals and school supervisors). Currently, all civil servants (and teachers constitute around 65%) are placed on probation88 for one year before their appointment can confirmed. This period should be used for the induction of staff and for their evaluation as future teachers. The law provides for the termination of staff during this period if their work is found to be unsatisfactory. In practice, however, confirmation of permanency and progression within the Indonesian civil service is virtually automatic. 88 Probationary civil servants are termed calon pegawai negeri (CPNS) because they are"candidates"rather than full PNS. 187 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions Figure 8.2 Using the probationary year for induction training Four years training for PPG PROBATIONARY YEAR PERMANENT S1 INDUCTION EXPERIENCE EMPLOYMENT Graduate Completion of Completion of with S1 Professi induction. Pendidikan Principal writes Guru: one or an assessment two semesters of teacher's of professional work. If training. successful, Teacher may be probation is employed on concluded and probation permanency Under the current rules of the civil service, all employees (including teachers) are subject to a probationary period of one year during which they receive a salary of 80% of the rate determined by their rank on entry to the civil service. They also will not receive the professional allowance which would double their remuneration. Teachers are subject to a generic performance evaluation (DP3 Form) and, if unable to perform satisfactorily, may have an extension of probation for up to two years. However, it seems that, at present, few are not confirmed permanent after this second year. In the case of teachers, it may be possible to vary the procedure by replacing the DP3 requirement with the performance assessment report written by the principal. If the report prepared by the principal (or school supervisor) is satisfactory probation is completed after one year and they would go onto full salary. However, is the report is unsatisfactory, the teacher could have probation extended for another year and have permanency and the increase to 100% of salary deferred until then. Alternatively, the teacher certification process could be re-designed to require success in two elements: (a) The university-based pre-service element: Teachers would need successful completion of both the four-year S1 academic qualification, and the Pendidikan Profesi Guru (PPG) or post-graduate professional pedagogical qualification. This is the current requirement for all beginning teachers; (b) A school-based post-entry element: This would require the principal's professional assessment of the teacher's performance in the classroom at the end of the probationary year. The principal would be acting on behalf of the university. The principal's report, with its comments and recommendations, could be forwarded to the certifying university to confirm the decision to certify the teacher and award the Educator's Certificate.This element is an additional component to current requirements and would require an amendment to the Regulation By creating this step, the teacher certification process would be strengthened by requiring teachers to be able to demonstrate their competence whilst on the job during the probationary year. The added benefit would be the assurance that the beginning teacher can put into practice the learning gained over five years in an academic institution. It also confirms the ability of the teacher to perform satisfactorily under the normal stresses of the workplace. 188 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions During this year, the professional allowance will also not be paid. This will add further incentive to the teacher to perform well during the induction program. The same rules would apply ­ teachers unable to perform satisfactorily by the end of the first year could have their probation extended for a further year by the principal, with consequent deferral of payment of the professional allowance. Following further support from the school, if the teacher were still unable to perform in the classroom, they could be re- deployed. In this manner ineffective teachers would not remain in the school to mismanage the learning of children or to burden their colleagues with behavior that can seriously compromise the operation of the school and the morale of the teaching staff. Such a policy would not, in any way, alter the responsibility of the certifying university for the certification process. The certifying university would continue to make the determination to certify a teacher and to issue the Educator Certificate on the basis of the exams passed by the trainee teacher and the report written by the principal at the end of the teacher's first year of service. (d) Policies for the induction of beginning teachers The induction of teachers in the workplace is often poorly undertaken, but in recent years has gained greater attention as the potential for improvement of the teacher has been identified. The last study of induction practices which included Indonesia was undertaken by survey in 1995 by an APEC study team investigating programs in a number of Pacific Rim countries. The results are shown in the following table: Table 8.1 Teacher Induction Programs in APEC Member Countries89 Member Where implemented Formal or Feature informal Australia Nearly all schools in nearly all Both Orientation, mentoring, in-service states training, and probation Brunei Darussalam All schools Informal Orientation Canada Some schools in some provinces Both Probation and mentoring Japan All schools Formal Mentoring and training Indonesia None None N/A Republic of Korea All schools Formal Pre-appointment orientation New Zealand All schools Formal Probation and program of advice and guidance (mentoring) Papua New Guinea All schools Both Mentoring meetings and"inspection" Singapore All schools Both Mentoring, seminars, and national handbooks Chinese Taipei All schools Formal Internship United States Most schools in half the states Formal Mentoring and assessment The lack of attention devoted to this issue reported by Indonesia is striking. The other issue is the wide variation between countries in the formality of programs and the type of strategies employed. Programs varied from a formal pre-service orientation, networking mentoring and in-service at the provincial and school level, to an informal welcome arranged by principals. Strategies employed might include workshops, orientations, teacher meetings, observations of model classrooms, mentoring, distribution of handbooks, internships, peer probation, training and evaluation. 89 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum (APEC), From Students of Teaching to Teachers of Students: Teacher Induction Around the Pacific Rim, January 1997 189 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions Increasingly, school systems have begun to mandate such programs for their schools by Regulation. For example, the Massachusett's Department of Education induction guideline states:"All school districts are required to provide an induction program for teachers in their first year of practice. Induction programs providethestructurethatmaximizesbeginningteacherlearninginthecontextofclassroomexperience... "90 In the busy atmosphere of a large school, it is easy to overlook the uncertainties and insecurities faced by a beginning teacher.Yet an effective induction program is probably the single most important training experience provided to teachers and can have a significant effect on their future career. Even though well- prepared by pre-service training, the beginning teacher may approach a class of challenging students with trepidation, and support at this point can make a difference in shaping the attitudes and motivation of a new teacher towards their future career. In most occupations the probationary period is intended to be an employment trial during which the employer can evaluate whether an employee is suited to a job or requires additional contextual training before being confirmed in the position on a permanent basis (with all the obligations that entails for both parties). It is not intended to confer automatic permanency of tenure. Policies should be developed for the induction of new teachers (as well as other categories of position such as principals and school supervisors). A teacher induction training kit to support principals in this process will include modules such as: sharing experiences of the first days and weeks; school routines, procedures and general information; school policies, curriculum documents and resources; special features of the teacher's school; professionalism and the legal responsibilities of teachers; assessment of the probationary teacher and progress towards the principal's report; classroom and playground management of students; behavior management; programming classroom work; establishing an individual development plan; education system organization and policies; communicating with parents and caregivers; student assessment and reporting practices; staff welfare and services; working in rural and isolated communities; working with gifted and talented students; working with students with disabilities and learning difficulties in regular classes; working as a mentor; collegial approaches to beginning teacher development; team teaching and classroom observation; workplace learning, school culture and teacher induction; and, ethics and teaching. This program could be extended over a period of one year. Introduction of a policy to provide such training to all beginning teachers would require all participating principals to have a short period of training when the kit is issued to ensure they have the skills to lead their teachers through the course. Conduct of the series of workshops could be shared with senior staff members who could take turns in conducting sessions. Educational leaders have a responsibility to support and guide teachers entering or re-joining the profession. Effective induction practices embedded in the work of schools provide a strong foundation for teachers' professional growth and learning. School-based induction practices that incorporate mentoring and effective supervision provide teachers with comprehensive professional support during their early years of teaching and help establish attitudes and practices of importance to on-going quality improvement. Principals need support to build their confidence in making decisions regarding the performance of staff in the classroom. Classroom observation skills can be improved with the use of video-study of class instruction. Principals can work together to analyze the characteristics of each teacher and to assist them in making judgments about good practice. This can be a sensitive process and principals will need 90 Massachusetts Department of Education, Guidelines for Induction Programs, October 2001. 190 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions assistance through individual mentoring and coaching to gain the confidence to commence the process. This professional development (including an experiential component) is best gained at the school cluster or district level. Experiences could be shared in the district meetings of principals (KKKS) with personnel who have undertaken classroom performance assessment. (e) Policies to foster continuous professional development linked to incentives Teacher certification and qualifications upgrading policies were adopted to improve the quality of teaching. Teachers have been strongly motivated to undertake this process because of the powerful monetary incentive involved. Whilst there is some concern that teachers, once certified, will not actively continue to seek to improve their skills, the Regulation do requires all teachers to seek training on a continuous basis (at least once per annum) if they are to retain their certification as a teacher. Such extensive provision of professional development, however, questions the ability of the system to deliver this training and the substance of the training itself. In adopting the principle of continuous professional development, certain policies follow: (a) Continued strong support and funding for the teacher working groups as the key local structure for the delivery of in-service training to teachers; (b) Further refinement of the competency framework for teachers, principals and school supervisors and its linking with a ladder of progressive training and development programs for personnel from entry level, to middle tier posts and senior posts; (c) Identification of a funding and resourcing strategy to maintain these programs on a continuing basis; (d) Development of a matrix of programs for teachers from initial training to posts of responsibility and school management roles. These programs will be able to be delivered at provincial or district level, by distance learning, or at cluster level; (e) Adoption of a modular training program for school supervisors and school principals; (f) Planned development of programs and links with universities, and other training providers and institutions, and P4TKs for improving the quality of teachers and upgrading the qualifications of teachers for various career steps. With assistance from the BERMUTU program, the structure and mechanism for the continuous professional development of teachers will continue to be developed. It is intended that the instruction modules being written for use in the training of teachers at the local school cluster level will receive some accreditation towards a university qualification which will count towards teacher upgrading for the purposes of achieving certification. These training modules will also link into the teacher profile system being developed in order that they count towards progression on the salary scale in future years. This will ensure teachers have an in-service training structure which is on-going beyond certification and linked to long-term career development and advancement, and is driven by the incentive of increased financial reward. 191 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions The progression system being developed proposes four steps on the teacher profile as shown in the following table: Table 8.2 Teacher Pro les and Continuous Professional Development SALARY FUNCTIONAL TITLE STANDARDS FOR LEVEL TRAINING LEVEL (PNS LEVEL MODULES REQUIRED scale) 4d and 4e Utama Master School Supervisor, Master Teacher, School-based management Principal and leadership 4a and 4c Madya Senior Fully professional level Instructional leadership 3c and 3d Muda Junior Capable teaching level Class action research 3a and 3b Pertama Novice Formative teaching level Class action research Preferable if certification occurs here INDUCTION Probation Beginning teacher level Good teaching practice As teachers ascend the functional level scale, they will progress from the induction training program for beginning teachers yet to be certified, through the novice (Pertama) level and the junior (Muda) level to the senior (Madya) level. Increased training and experience will gradually equip the teacher to become fully professional. At the highest master (Utama) level the teacher's knowledge and skills have reached the depth required for master teachers, principals and school supervisors. These positions will be filled from this pool of teachers. This teacher profile is linked to the development of teacher progression and promotion policies and procedures. Standards for each of the four levels proposed will need to be developed in consultation with a range of stakeholders. Furthermore, guidelines will need to be developed to determine the readiness of teachers to be accredited with the different levels. Some form of assessment will be necessary to determine whether teachers are achieving at the level they seek. This can be done through classroom performance assessment, by teacher interview, or the preparation and submission of a teacher portfolio, or some combination of all these evaluation methods. However, this mechanism will need to be thoughtfully devised because of the link to the existing salary scale and the pressure that may be placed on officials to by-pass the rigor of proper evaluation. How this will be accepted by the wider civil service is also a matter of conjecture and it may become necessary to legislate for a special Teaching Services Act with its own teacher salary scale. Policies linking the teacher profiles and functional positions with different salary levels will create an incentive structure to reward teachers who participate in the continuous professional development strategy. This is the key to effective policy making as the incentives will drive the process of teacher quality improvement. The relationship between local cluster-based training activities and long-term career development is shown in the diagram below. In time, it will be important to establish accreditation links between series of courses. A policy to coordinate the instruction modules by level and sequential difficulty will be essential to avoid repetition and to ensure due credit is given for each module. Teachers should be able to mix and match modular instruction to ensure the continuous development program meets their individual needs and at the same time enables them to accumulate credits towards progression in the career structure. As principals in schools involve themselves in the educational program as instructional leaders and begin to participate in the performance appraisal scheme to be developed, they will be in a better position to advise staff on their strengths and weaknesses. This feedback will assist teachers in selecting modules from the continuous professional development program that address their weaknesses. In this manner, 192 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions each teacher will have the opportunity to develop into a well-rounded professional capable of self- analysis and motivated to undertake self-development. Figure 8.3 A Framework for the Continuous Professional Development (CPD) of Teachers, Principals and School Supervisors91 TEACHER EDUCATOR LAW CERTIFICATE The competencies of teachers will be linked to their level and function CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) An assessment or audit system will link teacher performance to their function KKG and MGMP CAREER (GUGUS) DEVELOPMENT The type of training required for the developmen of the competency of teachers, supervisors and A: Standards for KKG and Validate the quality of KKG MGMP: A system of incentives will encourage teachers to and MGMP: · Standard for programs improve their functioning. Alternatives are: · Quality and quantity of · Standard of learning · Accumulate the credit points gained activities materials · Relate incentives to functional level · Quality of outcomes and · Standard of assessment · Provide teachers with the necessary authority evaluation · Standard of trainers and acknowledgement whether principal, · Quality of trainer · Standards of outcomes and supervisor, trainer, or core teacher · Internal and external evaluation monitoring B: Policy of CPD through · Validation of instruments KKG/MGM P and trainers C: Development of the KKG MGMP network B. Policies related to school organisation (a) Policies for the deployment of teaching staff Recent official guidelines to the determination of the number of teachers a school can employ advises: "Minimum standard is the obligation of a teacher to teach for a minimum of 24 class hours per week, divided into 18 face-to-face teaching hours and 6 hours for preparing a learning unit, assessment and other related activities"92. Certified teachers without such a workload cannot be paid the professional allowance. The Teacher Law mandates this clear standard for the workload of teachers. It is the responsibility of schools and districts to adhere to this guideline, and it is clearly in the best interests of certified teachers to seek out and adhere to such standards. There has also been concern with the distribution of teachers between schools and the difficulties caused by mismatch between the training of a teacher and the subject requirements for the position to which they have been appointed.The same official guideline document notes:"A study by the Directorate General of Quality Improvement of Teachers and Educational Personnel (PMPTK) of the Ministry of National Education shows that many teachers teach subjects that mismatch their educational backgrounds, many schools lack 91 Modified from a diagram discussed with Profesi Directorate in PMPTK, June, 2008 92 Ministry of National Education, Assessment of Needs for Teachers", 2007, translation No. HLM03August08, page 8 193 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions teachers in certain subjects, certain schools have an abundant supply of teachers and many teachers do not have minimum educational qualifications"93. This factor has lead to many teachers being unable to obtain the 24 hours per week load. TheTeacher Law requirement now provides an effective rationale and incentive for the transfer of teachers to other schools to obtain a 24 hours per week workload in their subject area. It will also motivate under- load teachers to seek out part-time work at other schools to build up their teaching load. Thus, by with- holding the professional allowance payment, a sanction has been introduced to encourage more efficient use of teaching staff across the nation. Three strategies are suggested94 to assist teachers unable to meet the 24 hours per week teaching load requirement for payment of the allowance: · Teachingatotherschools,openschoolsandlearninggroups:Theteachercanmeettheloadrequired by: (a) teaching in "... his or her specialized subject at other schools or madrasah (either public or private) in the same district"; (b) becoming a counselor in an SMP or a pamong to guide students at designated learning places; or, (c) becoming a tutor with a group using Packet A, Packet B, or Packet C. However, the teacher must teach for at least 12hpw in their own school. · Team Teaching: In this situation" ... two or three teachers who teach the same subject handle one class at the same time." However, the document stipulates that team teaching can only be done when "... the curriculum demand more than one teacher handle one class in one place at one time". · Giving special enrichment or remedial lessons: It is suggested that teachers could increase their hours per week to 24 by undertaking remedial teaching for under-performing students or extension work for gifted students. The current policy has caused a revision to current teacher deployment and transfer procedures. This has resulted in the first steps being taken toward more efficient staff employment and deployment at the district level. It has been estimated that approximately 10-20% of teaching staff in Indonesia can be conserved by more efficient teacher distribution. Re-distribution will require all teachers being able and willing to teach a full load of classes. It will also require strict adherence to a more equitable staffing formula and teacher transfer policy to ensure all teachers have the required minimum teaching load and are transferred to schools where this load can be provided. The Ministry guideline foreshadows: 95 "The assessment of needs for teachers and description of some implications are the first steps taken to create effectiveandefficientprimaryandsecondaryeducationmanagement...itisexpectedthatthesameperception will be achieved in making policies among local officials, including managers and heads of primary and secondary education units in assessing their needs for teachers. This is critical because accurate data on needs for teachers per school and per subject will facilitate the planning of appointment, placement, equalization and career development of teachers. This is part of the effort to equalize the quality of education service to students and improve the quality of education". 100 Whilst teacher transfers have always been possible in the Indonesia system, they have not been implemented widely as an instrument of personnel policy to rationalize resource use and mange the 93 Ibid, page 4 94 Ministry of National Education, Pedoman Penghitungan Beban Kerja Guru, 2008, (Guidelines on Teacher Workload Calculation) 95 Ministry of National Education, Assessment of Needs for Teachers", 2007, translation No. HLM03AUGUST08, page 54 194 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions budget more efficiently. Districts, reluctant in the past to face the task of teachers transfer, now have an effective policy to rationalize staffing. This opportunity must be fully taken up by district administrations to ensure Indonesia's scarce resources are more fully and efficiently used. (b) Policies to overcome unsatisfactory and illegal practices The teacher certification process is complex and involves a number of different agencies. Critics have pointed to the opportunity for unsatisfactory or illegal practices. The Koran Tempo96 newspaper, for example,indicatedthat,duringtheteachercertificationprocessin2007,"...irregularitiesfoundwerevarying from falsification of training certificate, award certificate, teaching working plan, and fake diploma. Moreover, almost all of the fake documents have been legalized by their school principals. There were also briberies, where money has been inserted among the documents submitted." Nevertheless, the teacher training institutes appointed to administer the process in the regions had kept a record of all such irregularities, and, as Koran Tempo continues, "... those irregularities involved less that three percent of the entire applicants. The number of teachers who cheated is less than thousands out of almost 200,000 applicants. Even though the percentage of cheating was quite insignificant, generalization hurts honest teachers. A handful of dishonest teachers did not represent all teachers in Indonesia."This provides some indication that, in general, the process has been relatively well-managed and steps have been taken to ensure the possibility of fraudulent activity is minimized. Teacher portfolios submitted require the inclusion of university training award statements, references, evidence of attendance at in-service courses, reports on their work provided by the principal and the school supervisor, as well as five lesson plans. These were forwarded to the certifying university to be marked. Those failing the process have been required to attend a university-designed nine-day (90-hour) training course and pass a test on this work before being awarded certification. Successful teachers will be awarded their Educator Certificate, and the LPTK will advise the Ministry so that districts can commence payment of the professional allowance to these teachers.Throughout this process there are opportunities for organizational delay and mismanagement as well as for unsatisfactory practices. Preliminary results of a rapid assessment of the process indicated, however, that the districts surveyed were well organised and there were few problems with the first batch of teachers undertaking the certification process in October-November 2007. Nevertheless, the nature of the process does provide opportunity for illegal activity. For example, the allowance itself introduces an incentive for teachers to falsify their portfolios and offer "rent" or "fees" or gratuities to decision-makers. Although it is not known if this occurred with the certification process, in other contexts it has been reported that abuse of the system by teachers (for example, by possessing double identification numbers (double salary), and receiving salary even after retirement) has taken place in both MONE and in MORA.97 The risk of illegal behaviour can be identified at various levels within the structure: · individual level: teacher, principal and school supervisor: payment between individuals for satisfactory results in classroom observation, performance appraisal, and other activities; · schoollevel: between schools and districts identification of teachers to join the annual quota for certification, eligibility criteria for training and selection of people for scholarships and training programs; 96 Koran Tempo, 23 January, 2008. 97 Editorial. Media Indonesia 195 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions · inter-government level: between districts and other levels of Government: a payment from the jurisdiction which stands to profit from favourable decisions to the regulatory body; among different subsets of the civil service which could result in pressure to the national budget and fiscal pressures if all these other subsets demand the same treatment by the Law. Policies have been adopted to maintain the integrity of the process. Control mechanisms such as close examination of documentation and anonymity of the candidates when the university marking process is undertaken. It is important that these control mechanisms continue to be carefully monitored to maintain its quality and ensure its processes are not brought into poor repute. Currently, for example, university assessors are paid on the basis of the number of portfolios assessed. Such a basis may result in increasingly rapid assessment with a tendency to become careless in marking. A policy of vigilance in managing the process will ensure it retains its early reputation as a measure of quality that has integrity before the profession and wider public. Introduction of attractive financial incentives may always tend to place pressure on normal system accountability. However, as policies change toward the adoption of merit as the leading principle for advancement, promotion and rewards, there will be less opportunity for favouritism and illegal payments to gain positions and allowances. Such a merit selection policy will reinforce the efficacy of the process and its procedures. . The Teacher's Law is only a partial answer to other necessary policies and reforms in the wider civil service which will address other issues such as the devolution of functions, the roles and responsibilities of districts, national priorities, and resource availability. The Law assumes certification and the higher pay it will bring will result in better quality teachers. Although national policies are now being developed to facilitate this, the final outcome has yet to be produced and measured, and much of the effectiveness of the certification policy will depend upon these wider reforms. C. Policies related to teacher management (a) Policies to strengthen school leadership Whilst many principals in Indonesia are well educated and capable, their training and knowledge of school management is often inadequate for modern requirements. Many principals implement educational policy and administrative requirements as a matter of routine without the knowledge and skills of an instructional leader. Often their professional development as school leaders consists of little more than a briefing on policy documents issued by the district office. They are poorly paid and have little authority over the teachers they supervise. Consequently, few adopt a pro-active supervisory and developmental role towards their teaching staff. They are often selected following an examination or are simply nominated by a district education officer. They are rarely selected by a formal merit process and do not have induction training or other preparation for the task. Ministerial Regulation 44/2002 mandated school-based management in Indonesia. This placed educational management firmly in the school with the principal and a representative school committee as the key decision-maker. The commencement of the BOS funding program in 2005 placed resources at the school-level to facilitate this decision-making. Principals now have an effective role in a range of areas including school planning, curriculum development, school finance and budgeting, staff management and community involvement. The principal now has a key role at the centre of a devolved system where 196 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions school-based management is the expectation. Principals in Indonesia now need greater skill in more effectively managing these processes. Educational reforms in Indonesia have brought improvements in education, but principals have not always been properly equipped to manage their new responsibilities effectively. Over recent years principals have required additional new knowledge and skills in areas such as instructional leadership, in-school professional development of teachers, teacher selection at school level, supervision of staff teaching in the classroom, monitoring of student examination results, school-based management and decision-making, school budgeting and school finance, implementation of a new competency-based curriculum, and the involvement of school committees in school management. With such an expansion of responsibilities, the management practices of principals and their access to resources needs attention as a matter of priority.There is also need for clearer roles for educational personnel, increased government financial support, improved intergovernmental communication, improved community involvement and awareness, and increased leadership training. This has been recently recognized in the Annex to Ministerial Regulation No 13/200798 on standards for school principals and principals of madrassah. International best practice suggests that Indonesian school principals should be selected on an open and competitive merit basis, following an assessment of their ability to demonstrate leadership skills. Initially, the appointment of principals would preferably be on a limited tenure (5 years) contractual basis, with renewal subject to a performance review. Their salary should be significantly higher than at present. The knowledge and skill of principals in school-based management and leadership skills should be improved through extensive district training courses supported by their mentoring in the workplace by school supervisors. Principals also need to be trained in techniques of classroom observation of teachers at work to assist in the identification of areas for improvement and the development of improvement plans for teachers. Training in strategies for the fostering of community involvement in the school and the encouragement of increased awareness of school activities and educational issues is also critical. In time it is anticipated that school principals will take a more active role in the management of their schools in terms of the effectiveness of their personnel, efficient use of financial resources, and their accountability for student results and achievements to parents and the wider community. Principals will also become instructional leaders taking a positive role in the improvement of the quality of instruction at their school and this will be reflected in improved student scores. (b) Policies for the management of poor performance by teachers In return for the incentive of the professional allowance, teachers are expected to lift their performance and to continue their teaching at improved levels on a sustainable basis. Policies and procedures should be developed requiring teachers to remain efficient and effective in their work based on the Regulation defining the standards expected of teachers, principals and school supervisors. Once duties are defined, teachers can be required to perform at a level that satisfies requirements for the position held. Ensuring all teachers remain efficient and effective in their work is one of the most critical roles of the principal. It is important to develop principals in personnel management procedures and to underscore their responsibility to assess their staff on a regular basis as part of their routine management. In this way, principals should become aware of difficulties experienced by staff members and maintain a vigilant 98 Annex to the Ministerial Regulation, Ministry of National Education, No 13/2007 on Standards for School/Madrasah Principals, April 2007. 197 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions attitude towards their efficiency. A useful policy, for example, could require principals to annually certify the efficiency of each member of their staff by completing a teacher assessment review schedule which is forwarded to the district office. Such a schedule would consist of a list of the names of all staff members at the school. The principal would simply confirm the efficiency of each staff member by a tick. If the work of all staff members is well known to the principal, this will be a simple process. However, where a tick cannot be given, a program of improvement will have had to be established. Such a program should be introduced to support a failing teacher at any time during the year. Such a teacher assessment review schedule will provide the district office with data on teachers' performance from the principal and ensures that the performance of all teachers is appraised by annual review. The district office can deal with this annual review in a number of ways: · By not permitting a teacher on an improvement program to progress along the common civil service salary incremental scale until they can demonstrate by means of this annual review that they have returned to continued efficiency in teaching practice, satisfactory performance and professional growth; · Byensuringtheprincipalprovidessupporttopoorlyperformingteacherswithregularcounseling and observation, and, where teachers fail to improve, recommends action for re-deployment or discharge; · By ensuring the principal supports an annual review of all teachers by: (a) regular conferences with each teacher; (b) observations of educational programs; (c) review of documentation such as lesson planning, lesson material and student; and, (d) work-plans, evaluations and reports; · By ensuring that, in implementing the annual review, the principal takes into account the level of experience of the teachers (so that less experienced teachers are given greater attention); and the particular circumstances of the school. Students have a right to be taught by competent teachers. It is the principal's responsibility to identify teacherswhoseefficiencyiscausingconcernand,inconsultation,todeviseaprogramfortheimprovement of that teacher. In negotiating an improvement plan, the principal must ensure the teacher has fair treatment; and receives honest, valid and constructive feedback. Teachers must also be fully informed of matters which significantly affect them; and be given the opportunity to respond to statements or decisions affecting them and to have that response fully consideredTeachers should also have access to professional support and training in any program of improvement devised to assist them. In designing such a program of improvement, a principal should sit together with the teacher to collaboratively develop a plan of action to improve performance. The plan must commence with an agreementontheareasoftheteacher'sworkwhichneedattention.Examplesofpoorperformanceshould be enumerated together with the evidence which influenced the principal's decision to commence a plan of improvement. Against each deficiency, the principal must agree on the type of assistance which will be given and, in many cases, this may involve the input of other experienced members of the staff who will work alongside the weaker teacher. A timeline should be agreed and a series of targets set and meetings scheduled. Wherever an improvement plan is required to support a failing teacher, the principal must fully discuss the situation with the teacher to prevent any misunderstandings. This discussion must include establishing 198 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions the procedures for formal classroom observations, the nature of informal observations, clarification of assessment criteria and definition of the roles and responsibilities of all parties involved in the plan. The principal will conduct periodic conferences with the teacher according to the timeline included in the plan to discuss the results of the teacher's progress towards successful completion of the plan and return to efficiency. All action taken and support given, as well as the progress of the teacher, should be carefully documented with copies supplied to the teacher. In the event that dismissal action must be taken, the decision must be well documented. A decision to place a teacher on an improvement plan is not an easy one and usually occurs after a period of unsatisfactory service and warnings. Effective implementation of such a plan is often time-consuming and difficult on interpersonal relationships. However, the identification of the needs of such teachers and the provision of effective support for their improvement is a critical role of the principal. Failure to deal with this situation can impact negatively on school morale, the learning of many other students, and relationships with the local community. During such a period, the teacher will have a particular responsibility to assess and improve their own performance; seek additional assistance from colleagues, including executive staff if further difficulties arise; participate cooperatively in the program designed to assist them to improve; and provide assistance to colleagues experiencing difficulties, in the context of a negotiated program of assistance. In fulfilling their responsibility for the leadership and management of staff in schools, including dealing with instances of inefficiency, principals have a particular responsibility to: (a) monitor the performance of teaching staff and provide appropriate feedback; (b) ensure that teaching staff, whose efficiency is of concern, receive guidance and support through a formal negotiated and documented program of assistance and, where there is no improvement, through an improvement program; (c) properly inform teaching staff about these procedures and timelines and of any statements or decisions arising from the procedures which affect them; (d) ensure that teaching staff have the opportunity to respond to statements or decisions arising from the application of these procedures and properly consider such responses; and (e) prepare all relevant documentation and report to the district office on a teacher's efficiency. (c) Policies for a new type of teacher performance appraisal Performance appraisal is a personnel management tool used in many large organizations.The Indonesian civil service has a performance management scheme for the supervision and advancement employees. The DP3 form is used throughout the civil service, irrespective of division, and covers all categories of personnel.Supervisorsassesspersonnelonthefollowingeightelements:(a)loyalty;(b)workachievement; (c) responsibility; (d) compliance; (e) honesty; (f) co-operation; (g) initiatives; and (h) leadership.Whilst this form embodies the requirements of the existing process, appraisal systems in schools and education, generally, adopt a more dynamic and cyclical approach closely linked to school and individual objectives. This results in constructive supervision and improved results rather than maintenance of effort. Supervision of employee performance is an essential part of management anywhere. However, unless it is undertaken in a consultative manner and is linked to meaningful and relevant school activities, it can stifle creativity and imaginative solutions to problems in the workplace. Performance management policies should provide such a flexible and interactive management process. Performance appraisal can support the organization's key objectives by linking individual as well as team performance to them. With performance appraisal the emphasis is more on producing results as opposed to managing processes. 199 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions Because teachers form a large majority of the civil service in Indonesia and represent a key implementing arm of government, the importance of performance appraisal cannot be over-emphasized. In their wide ranging role with children and communities, teachers are often seen by the public as role models and there are high expectations of them in regard to such matters as: (a) transparency and honesty, and being averse to corruption and fraud in official dealings; (b) exemplary standards of efficiency in service with minimal waste; (c) have well-planned and cost-effective programs; and (d) accountability for decisions and actions. Policy developed for the implementation of teacher performance appraisal has the potential to improve the quality of education on a sustained and long-term basis. This is done by linking an annual assessment of a teacher's performance by the principal to objectives and goals agreed with the teacher at the beginning of each year. The cycle commences each year with the principal interviewing the teacher to agree on a number of goals the teacher and the school might have in a range of areas.The year's goals are negotiated and recorded on an appraisal record sheet to be signed by both teacher and principal as an agreement. A record is also made of any advice or support the school may be able to provide throughout the year to assist the teacher achieve these goals. Objectives may be set in a number of professional areas such as lesson presentation, curriculum preparation, community involvement, student welfare, or other areas for growth and improvement. It might also involve setting a goal for an effective teacher to support a weaker teacher or vice versa. A face- to-face review of progress is held between the principal and the teacher at mid-year and at the end of the year. The appraisal instrument provides space for the progress or otherwise to be recorded and dated at these reviews. Figure 8.4 Typical Performance Appraisal Cycle Setting of initial goals both personal and from School Plan. Training and resources committed. Form completed and signed by both parties New performance Mid -year review of agreement draftedfor progress. Problems. following year. Includes Resources. Notes made incomplete activities and comments on from pre vious year progress End of year review of achievements. Decisions made regarding salary increment . Report written and provided to teacher Following completion of the annual report on the teacher's activities, goals can be set for the following year. This may include completion of activities from the previous year. Thus, an appraisal cycle of goal setting, support, appraisal, reporting and further goal-setting becomes established. Reports on a teacher's achievement can be used for a variety of purposes including: confirmation of efficiency; payment of a salary increment; or identification of areas for improvement. Goals can also be 200 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions linked to the school's development plan. With practice, this beneficial cycle will become embedded in the school's management structure. The performance appraisal cycle can also be linked to targeted professional development as part of a continuous professional development (CPD) strategy. By receiving regular feedback on performance, teachers can gain a better insight into the areas where their work needs improvement.This assists students in their classroom and also helps their career development. Performance appraisal generates professional dialogue between teachers and their supervisors and thus is a mechanism for continuous improvement. A policy of performance appraisal can change the culture of a school because it focuses teachers on self-appraisal and improvement. The principal and each teacher can engage in regular and focused discussion about their work. Teachers welcome recognition of their work and seek further opportunities to participate. Even weaker teachers appreciate the support and advice from an experienced teacher.This creates a professional climate in the school. Critical elements of this policy include: (a) the necessity to have a brief pro forma on which goals are written down, resource promises recorded and achievements acknowledged; (b) the need to make appointments with teachers well in advance and in a quiet location; (c) the need to establish goals from two directions ­ the teacher's personal interests and teaching, and the school's broader goals to achieve its vision; (d) the need to train the principals in the process. The easiest way to train principals is for them to have their own performance agreement with the school supervisor. Performance appraisal systems are simple in concept but effective in creating a collaborative relationship between the principal and the school's teachers. Its adoption as policy will build the principal's confidence in managing the school because it sets up an agenda to be discussed with each teacher without exception. (d) Policies for fostering teacher professionalism Successful schools are marked by positive and open teacher attitudes toward their work, high morale and achievement by students, and total school engagement in learning. Involvement in decision making and a widely shared vision or sense of purpose will produce a sense of community in the school. Supportive community attitudes and having parents as partners is also seen as important in delivering quality programs for students. Within the framework of the new Teacher Law and with targeted funding from the BERMUTU project, this climate will be fostered within many Indonesian schools. Good schools encourage and develop good teachers. This process is assisted when a professional and collaborative relationship exists between teachers, and between teachers and school leadership. It works best when there is regular and relevant feedback to teachers about their performance at the school level. By setting personal goals for teachers in the context of the school's objectives and creating a structure in which achievements are reviewed and assessed, performance management will develop a climate of continuousschoolimprovement.Teacherswillseektoimprovethequalityoftheirworkplaceperformance. By creating a focus for individual teacher work and encouraging self-assessment by teachers (with later validation by the principal), a sense of professionalism can develop within the schools. The management skills of principals in a decentralized system of education are critical. The legalization of school-based management has empowered principals to make a range of new decisions for which 201 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions they are not always prepared. Many of these decisions will require consultation with staff, parents and the wider community. Policies adopted must facilitate the development of a culture of continuous professional improvement for all teachers, and the concept that every school is a"learning community"with students, teachers and the wider community enhancing their knowledge and skills through activities generated in the school. Most people would agree that the quality of a school is much more than the curriculum or the work of a particular teacher or classroom. Its climate or culture can often be sensed by visitors through the interaction they have with the school.This is often one of the school's most important attributes and arises from the beliefs and behaviors of the people who teach and attend there. School culture is, therefore, an important factor to engage in developing strategies to affect overall improvement in student learning and performance. School culture signals which might be seen on a visit could include: teachers actively engaged in instruction and students engaged in learning; learning displayed on building notice-boards; academic, athletic, and artistic excellence equally valued; staff having a sense of purpose; students in designated areas at designated times; and visitors being greeted and assisted. Culture emerges from community. When people come together and work toward a common goal, a community is formed. In schools, that goal is learning. Some schools tend to be more successful learning communities than others, and everyone, from parents to researchers to policy makers, investigate the characteristics that distinguish one learning community from another. Peter Senge99 developed the concept of a school learning community where organized groups of teachers regularly collaborate to seek and share knowledge to benefit student learning. The goal of the professional learning community is not to provide a quick fix to problems; it is to provide school re- culturing. It is important to replace teacher isolation with a sense of connectedness and purpose. Teachers in professional learning communities in schools have: · A clear sense of mission; · A shared vision of the conditions they must create to achieve the mission; · An ability to work together in collaborative teams to determine the best practice to achieve the mission; · Organized into groups, headed up by teacher-leaders; · A focus on student learning; · A goal- and results-orientation; · A desire to collaborate with each other; · Shared values and beliefs; · A commitment to continuous improvement; and · A desire to see themselves as life-long learners. Effectiveschoolscanoftenhavealargenumberofteacher"learninggroups"devisingandsharingmethods and materials that teachers can use to improve learning. These groups may develop and conduct surveys 99 Senge, P., The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organisation, 1990. 202 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions within the school community (including students, teachers, parents and local citizens) to gain a greater knowledge of how programs of lessons could be changed to improve their relevance and motivation. Another activity might include using physical education classes to promote better health standards in the school and wider community. A noticeable emphasis will be the focus on how students learn rather than how teachers teach. Restructuring schools to include decentralization, shared decision-making, schools within schools, teacher teaming, and professional communities of staff can improve student learning. It has also been shown that when professional learning communities are established student dropout and absenteeism rates decrease, student achievement rises, and there are greater gains in core course achievement. 3. The need for an integrated policy framework100 There is need for an integrated policy framework designed to sustain and continually enhance the quality and accountability of teachers during the introduction of teacher certification and continuing into the future. Such a framework will enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of the incentive schemes and benefits incorporated into the Teacher Law, with a view to forging closer links between performance and reward. It will also improve accountability between the principals and school supervisors and between principals and teachers. The Teacher Law has made it necessary to develop more effective policies and procedures relating to progression and promotion, performance appraisal, and underperformance which are new to the more traditional civil service structure. It will be necessary for policymakers to review the teacher progression and promotion structure in order to design a progression and promotion profile for teachers to more appropriately reflect the Teacher Law. It will be necessary to identify criteria for a number of progression levels which will signify professional growth and attract salary increases. Such a promotion structure will be merit-based, and embedded in the profile. It will also seek to increase the range of opportunities available and should therefore also act as an incentive for career-oriented teachers. These policies will need to incorporate the functional allowance, and the other provisions such as the use of fringe benefits, rewards, and promotion, as defined by the Law. These policies will result in a more professionally-oriented progression and promotion framework designed to enhance career opportunities and related rewards for teachers. This will require a core of trained personnel at the district level. It will also involve the development of new policies for teacher improvement which are performance- based.This will be a more professionally-oriented approach to teacher performance and will complement a revised progression and promotion framework.This new approach will be consistent with the mandated competencies and civil service requirements stated in the Teacher Law and will seek to develop a professional accountability mechanism for the more effective management of teachers, principals and supervisors. Many policies will be based around the annual school plan and the identification of strategies for its implementation. Annual teacher goals, and self-evaluation and policies linked to the achievement of annual school goals will form the basis of the accountability network. This, in turn, will be linked to teacher progression and promotion. A cadre of trained personnel at the district level will be available to assist schools, evaluate progress, and record and gather data for national targets. 100 BERMUTU (Better Education through Reformed Management and Universal Teacher Upgrading), Project Appraisal Document, Component 3, May 2006 203 Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Strategy for Teacher Quality Improvement Chapter 8 Implications for Future Policy Directions New policies for effectively addressing continuing underperformance of certified teachers will be necessary. This will involve properly organized school-based support programs to assist failing teachers to improve. Those unable to meet the necessary requirement will be re-deployed. BERMUTU activities will support technical assistance and a series of workshops and case studies in selected districts to trial these policies. The case studies will be used to refine policies and procedures, develop manuals of advice, write training materials and train trainers. Development of policies and procedures to strengthen the provision of continuing education will be critical for the professional growth of teachers, principals and supervisors, following certification. Initiatives to involve trainers from schools, donor programs, LPTK, P4TK and the private sector will lead to an expansion of accredited training support through the local cluster-based teacher working groups. Many of these will be teacher-generated and will represent the growing professionalism of the teaching service. As the number of certified teachers increase, it will be necessary to monitor the resource implications of different options for national, district and school-based initiatives. A revised set of policies and procedures for continuing education incorporating structures and mechanisms may be required. These policies will link with and promote a career continuum based on the teacher profile developed. The central component of this integrated policy framework will be a career-oriented profile applicable to teachers, principals and supervisors, consistent with the Teacher Law and Regulation, and civil service requirements. It will incorporate policies, procedures and instruments, based on the findings of the series of studies and district trials funded by BERMUTU, and will take into account international best practice. The beneficiaries will be teachers, principals and supervisors. 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