POSITION PAPER C U R E Published by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP France and The World Bank, 1818 H Street, NW Washington, DC 20433 United States of America © UNESCO and INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT/THE WORLD BANK 2018 ISBN 978-92-3-100288-5 This publication is available in Open Access under the Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO (CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/igo/). By using the content of this publication, the users accept to be bound by the terms of use of the UNESCO Open Access Repository (http://www.unesco.org/open-access/ terms-use-ccbysa-en). 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The publication was supported by the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery and the Tokyo Development Learning Center. POSITION PAPER C U R E Foreword Foreword The world is urbanizing at a speed and scale that is unprecedented in human history. Today, nearly 55% of the world’s population lives in cities, and this is expected to expand to more than two-thirds of the world’s population by 2050. Meanwhile, we are witnessing a rapid increase in the frequency and intensity of natural hazards – the impacts of which are disproportionately affecting urban areas. Each year, more than 200 million people are affected by storms, floods, cyclones, and earthquakes, a situation that is being exacerbated Ernesto Ottone R. Ede Ijjasz-Vasquez by climate change. Assistant Director- Senior Director for General for Culture, the Social, Urban, Rural At the same time, armed conflicts are increasingly causing widespread UNESCO and Resilience Global destruction in cities. Many cities have seen people’s collective memories © UNESCO Practice, The World and symbols of their cultural identities – their tangible and intangible cul- Bank Group tural heritage – damaged or destroyed during conflict as a means of erasing © The World Bank people’s ties to their identities and communities. Tackling the impact of such crises – whether they stem from natural hazards, armed conflict, or acute urban distress – requires responses that consider the needs of all social groups and provides opportunities for social inclusion and economic development, while also acknowledging the specific needs, priorities, and identities of communities. For this reason, culture – including tangible and intangible cultural heritage and creativity – is essential both as an asset and as a tool for city recon- struction and recovery. Placing culture at the heart of urban reconstruction and recovery strategies and processes is critical to effectively restoring the physical and social fabrics of cities. This Position Paper offers a framework on Culture in City Reconstruction and Recovery (CURE) and operational guidance for policymakers and practitioners for the planning, financing, and implementation phases of post-crisis interventions for city reconstruction and recovery. UNESCO and the World Bank are committed to placing culture at the heart of city reconstruction and recovery processes in the wake of crises. This is done by raising awareness of the value of culture and encouraging the integration of cultural heritage, creativity and diversity of cultural expres- sions into city reconstruction and recovery strategies and interventions. As the foundation that integrates people-centered and place-based policies, culture needs to be mainstreamed across the damage and needs assessment process, as well as in policy and strategy-setting, financing, and implementation. This paper also reflects the broader aim of UNESCO and the World Bank of integrating culture in urban development, specifi- cally during city reconstruction and recovery processes after crises that threaten cities’ identities, with the goal of making our cities more inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable. Ernesto Ottone R. Ede Ijjasz-Vasquez 3 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery Acknowledgements The Position Paper is the result of a joint reflection between the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the World Bank, by a team comprised of: Sameh Naguib Wahba, Francesco Bandarin, Ahmed Eiweida, Lazare Eloundou Assomo, Dorine Dubois, Cristina Iamandi, Christianna Johnnides Brotsis, Rana Amirtahmasebi, Yuna Chun, Barbara Mínguez García, Sara García de Ugarte, and Inel Massali. Background papers and case studies served as inputs to this Paper. These were developed by: Changmo Ahn (case study on Seoul), Howayda Al-Harithy (case study on Beirut), Rana Amirtahmasebi (paper on the phases of post-crisis reconstruction), Lazare Eloundou Assomo (case study on Timbuktu), Tom Avermaete (paper on post-World War II urban reconstruc- tion strategies in Europe), Ursula Bianca Baigorria Köppel (case study on Medellin), Wesley Cheek (paper on key international policy frameworks on urban reconstruction and recovery), Amra Hadžimuhamedović (case study on Sarajevo), Yuko Okazawa (case study on Tokyo), Mizuko Ugo (case study on Tokyo), Santiago Uribe Rocha (case study on Medellin), Robert Wrobel (paper on socio-economic recovery and inclusion), Soo Yeon Lim (case study on Seoul), and Jez Foster (case study on Kathmandu). The Paper benefited from the advice provided by the following peer reviewers: Raja Arshad, Laura Bailey, Christina Cameron, Ellen Hamilton, Eric Huybrechts, and Mike Turner. We are grateful to the following staff and external experts who provided key inputs during the production process of the Paper. On UNESCO’s side: Ernesto Ottone R., Mechtild Rössler, Lynne Patchett, Giovanni Boccardi, Nada Al-Hassan, Tim Curtis, Yonca Erkan, Youmna Tabet, Sophie Abraham, Alyssa Barry, Léonie Evers and Caroline Munier. On the World Bank’s side: Margaret Arnold, Senait Nigiru Assefa, Maitreyi Bordia Das, Markus Kostner, Jolanta Kryspin-Watson, Guido Licciardi, James Newman, Zheng Jia, and Zuzana Stanton-Geddes. Special thanks are due to Jennifer Semakula-Musisi, Executive Director of Kampala Capital City Authority, José Manuel Corral, Mayor of Santa Fe, Argentina, and Catherine Cullen, Special Adviser on Culture in Sustainable Cities of the United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG), for acting as panelists during the consultation conference held at the 9th session of the World Urban Forum in Kuala Lumpur in February 2018. 4 Acknowledgements, Acronyms and Abbreviations Acronyms and Abbreviations 3P People, Places, and Policies ASD Agenda for Sustainable Development BCD Beirut Central District CFW Cash-for-Work CURE Culture in City Reconstruction and Recovery DaLA Damage and Loss Assessment DoA Department of Archaeology DRF Disaster Recovery Framework DRM Disaster Risk Management DRR Disaster Risk Reduction GIS Geographic information system HFA Hyogo Framework for Action HUL Historic Urban Landscape IAP2 International Association for Public Participation ICCROM International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property ICOMOS International Council on Monuments and Sites ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross IMF International Monetary Fund KMC Kathmandu Metropolitan City LVC Land value capture MINUSMA United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali NGO Non-governmental organization NUA New Urban Agenda OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development PCNA Post-Conflict Needs Assessments PDNA Post-Disaster Needs Assessments PFM Public financial management PPP Public-private partnerships RPBA Recovery and Peacebuilding Assessments SCS Special Coordinator for Sarajevo SDG Sustainable Development Goals UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UN-Habitat United Nations Human Settlements Programme UNISDR United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction UNDP United Nations Development Programme WB World Bank WWII Second World War 5 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery List of Boxes 1. Defining culture, reconstruction, and recovery 2. Definition of the Historic Urban Landscape 3. Culture and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development 4. People, Place, and Policy (3Ps): A culture-based approach to urban development 5. Building a “citizen culture” to address urban distress in Medellin, Colombia 6. Intangible cultural heritage: Local knowledge and practices at the heart of recovery 7. Fostering peace and reconciliation through culture-based interventions in Banda Aceh, Indonesia 8. Leveraging cultural tourism to boost local development in Seoul, Republic of Korea 9. Promoting reconciliation through preservation of cultural heritage in Nicosia, Cyprus Rebuilding the city’s multicultural identity through the symbolic reconstruction of the Mostar Bridge 10.  in Bosnia and Herzegovina Engaging communities in the restoration of tangible and intangible heritage to foster social cohesion 11.  and reconciliation in Timbuktu, Mali 12. Public-private partnerships: The need for a balanced approach in Beirut, Lebanon 13. Multi-hazard vulnerability assessment for priority cultural heritage sites in the Philippines Creativity and digital technologies as drivers of meaningful community engagement in post-crisis recovery 14.  in Christchurch, New Zealand 15. Building a safe city through participatory planning in Medellin, Colombia 16. Promoting a multi-disciplinary approach to recovery planning in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 17. Improving disaster risk management for cultural heritage sites in Bagan, Myanmar 18. Adopting a hybrid management model for post-disaster reconstruction in Kobe, Japan 19. Safeguarding heritage for community resilience in Kathmandu, Nepal 20.  Post-earthquake cultural heritage conservation and recovery of the Old Town in Lijiang, People’s Republic of China 6 Table of contents Table of contents Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Acronyms and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1. Linking Culture to Reconstruction and Recovery Frameworks . . . 16 Chapter 2. A Framework for Culture in City Reconstruction Chapter and Recovery (CURE). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 3. Implementing the CURE Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Chapter Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 7 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery Executive Summary As urban growth and development continue at a breath- to strengthen disaster risk management and to build the taking pace across the world, cities are increasingly resilience of nations and communities. These include the bearing the brunt of conflicts, crises and disasters, which Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015 and its succes- themselves are growing in number, magnitude and com- sor, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction plexity. The convergence of these two trends – increasing (DRR) 2015-2030, which currently guides the DRR-related urbanization and growing crises – demands an enhanced interventions of the international community today. approach to city reconstruction and recovery, one that In 2008, the World Bank, the European Commission puts culture at its heart. Elaborated by the World Bank and and the United Nations (UN) signed a joint declaration on UNESCO, this Position Paper outlines one such approach, post-crisis assessments and recovery planning, pledging the Framework for Culture in City Reconstruction and to collaborate on a common approach to post-disaster and Recovery, also known as the CURE Framework. post-conflict management. Two key tools resulted from The CURE Framework is a culture-based approach to this declaration: the Post-Disaster Needs Assessments the process of city reconstruction and recovery in post (PDNA) and the Recovery and Peacebuilding Assessments conflict, post disaster and urban distress situations that (RPBA). accounts for the needs, values and priorities of people. Building on the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Develop- It provides a roadmap for post-crisis economic devel- ment, and the New Urban Agenda as well as other interna- opment and the management of complex social, spatial, tional frameworks, such as the UNESCO Recommendation and economic transformations, while addressing the on the Historic Urban Landscape (2011), specific guidelines shortcomings of current reconstruction and recovery and recommendations were developed to mainstream processes and enhancing their effectiveness and sus- culture in reconstruction and recovery over the past tainability. The CURE Framework draws from existing decade, including a dedicated PDNA - Culture volume. frameworks and tools for reconstruction and recovery However, a disconnect between place-based and in urban settings, knitting together people-centered and people-centered strategies in city reconstruction and place-based approaches into integrated policies that recovery efforts can still be observed, and culture has share a common cultural thread. been given little consideration in these processes. The This Paper serves as a guide for development practi- objective of this Position Paper is to bridge these gaps. tioners, particularly the World Bank and UNESCO teams operating on the ground, as well as national and local Culture in city reconstruction and recovery: authorities, planners, and international organizations The CURE Framework to integrate culture, both as an asset and as a tool, in all phases of city reconstruction and recovery. This Position Paper proposes a framework that main- The Paper consists of three parts that analyze the streams culture into post-crisis city reconstruction and evolution of reconstruction and recovery frameworks in recovery, integrating people-centered and place-based recent decades, introduce in detail a dedicated framework policies. In the CURE Framework, culture is mainstreamed for Culture in City Reconstruction and Recovery, together into all sectors and areas of intervention and across all with key guiding principles, and provide operational phases of the reconstruction and recovery process, guidance for their implementation. including needs assessments, scoping, planning, financing, and implementation. While current place-based strategies prioritize the reconstruction of physical assets, integrating The evolution of reconstruction and recovery culture strengthens a community’s sense of belonging, frameworks: The role of culture as well as the livability of the built environment. Culture Post-World War II reconstruction provided key lessons can also support the reconciliation process through the for post-conflict city reconstruction and recovery, from (re)construction of cultural landmarks, monuments and both a physical and a social perspective. However, it is other places of significance to communities. At the same only since the 1970s that comprehensive international time, people-centered strategies are critical to strengthen response frameworks have been developed, largely in community ownership and to accelerate the socio- response to the increased frequency of natural hazards. economic recovery of cities. This requires prioritizing the The 1994 Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer safeguarding and promotion of norms, traditions, local World focused on disaster prevention, preparedness, knowledge, crafts and cultural industries in reconstruction mitigation and relief. Subsequently, a number of tools and recovery processes. were designed to address gaps in earlier frameworks, 8 Executive Summary The CURE Framework is founded on seven guiding prin- – 3. Financing. This phase includes the identification of ciples, derived from a thorough analysis of case studies modalities to finance the reconstruction and recovery from different regions of the world and historical periods. process combining public and private financing, as well as other funding sources, the management of land – Principle 1. Acknowledging the city as a “cultural resources and the development of financing tools and construct” where built structures and open spaces incentives. are closely linked to the social fabric. – 4. Implementation. This phase, which is critical to – Principle 2. Starting the reconciliation process with the success and sustainability of reconstruction and the (re)construction of cultural landmarks and places recovery efforts, includes setting up effective institu- of significance to local communities. tional and governance structures, a risk management – Principle 3. Fostering cultural expressions to offer strategy, and a communication and engagement strategy. appropriate ways to deal with post-crisis trauma and reconcile affected communities. Overall, the CURE Framework should be understood as a flexible, iterative process, (as opposed to a sequential – Principle 4. Prioritizing culture early in the planning or linear process), which requires detailed knowledge of process, starting with needs assessments and the the intervention context and which should be adapted to implementation of emergency interventions that reflect the socio-economic specificities of each city. Its scope community priorities. encompasses the entire city and not just historic areas, – Principle 5. Engaging communities and local govern- the latter requiring specific intervention tools and tech- ments in every step of the recovery process. niques. Its implementation should reflect the need to provide rapid responses to emergency situations, while – Principle 6. Using finance models that balance imme- allowing sufficient time for conducting the necessary diate/short-term needs with the medium/long-term consultative processes to ensure that people’s priorities development timeframe of reconstruction plans. are well identified and respected. These considerations – Principle 7. Ensuring effective management of the recon- are all the more important given that post-crisis recovery struction process by striking a balance between people’s and reconstruction is a long-term undertaking, which needs and the recovery of a city’s historic character. may span across decades. Implementing the CURE Framework Key Takeaways The operationalization of the CURE Framework is adapted The CURE Framework and its seven guiding principles from the Disaster Recovery Framework (DRF) and involves reflect the shared commitment of the World Bank and four phases: UNESCO to place culture at the forefront of the recon- struction and recovery of cities in post-conflict, post- 1. Damage and Needs Assessment and Scoping. – disaster, and urban distress situations. The following key This phase includes the assessment of damages and messages summarize this joint undertaking: impacts to tangible and intangible cultural heritage, cultural and creative industries, housing stock and land Culture plays a key role in post-crisis reconstruction – resources, services and infrastructure, and the tourism and recovery processes. sector, as well as the resulting economic losses to the – ­ Culture should be acknowledged as the foundation that affected population from the interruption of services integrates people-centered and place-based policies. and use of assets. Building on the damage and needs assessments, a scoping process is conducted, which Effective city reconstruction and recovery programs – includes data collection, asset mapping, stakeholder require that culture be mainstreamed across the dam- mapping and the development of a vision for city age and needs assessment and scoping, setting policy reconstruction and recovery. and strategy, financing, and implementation phases. 2. Policy and Strategy. This phase involves designing – By integrating culture into sustainable urban development the policies, strategies and planning processes that policies that address the impact of urban crises, the CURE translate the damage and needs assessments and Framework aims to help make cities more inclusive, safe, vision into plans and planning regulations, through resilient, and sustainable. participatory approaches where stakeholders and communities are fully engaged. 9 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery Introduction 10 Introduction The current context: T he world is urbanizing at a speed and scale that is unprecedented in human history. Today nearly 55% Rapid urbanization, of the global population lives in cities and the figure is expected to rise to 70% by 20501. Such rapid urbaniza- increasing disasters tion is accompanied by an increase in the frequency and intensity of natural hazards that disproportionately impact urban areas. More than 200 million people are affected and evolving by natural hazards each year with storms, floods, and earthquakes increasing considerably in recent years as a result of climate change. By 2030, it is estimated that conflicts disasters will cost cities around the world some US$314 billion in annual damages and losses. This figure is nearly double the average of the last 15 years.2 At the same time, armed conflicts are becoming increasingly complex, involving intra-state actors and causing widespread destruction in cities.3 Armed conflicts have always had a devastating effect on culture including the intentional destruction of people’s collective memories and the tarnishing of symbols representing their cultural identities. In recent decades, culture has been increas- ingly targeted as a means of erasing people’s ties to their communities, cities, and nations. Similar targeted acts of destruction are undertaken to erase cultural diversity and pluralism and to deny victims their cultural rights and fundamental freedoms. As a result of these events, across the globe today, 68.5 million people are affected by displacement. Of these, 19.9 million are refugees, of which 60 per cent live in cities.4 The number of displaced persons is expected to grow significantly as disasters and conflicts increase. Disasters and conflicts put additional pressure on cities that are already confronted with rapid and uncontrolled urbanization. Fragile states face a number of challenges in preparing appropriate urban policies and governance that result in the proliferation of slums and the chaotic expansion of cities with little regard for sustainability issues and potential risks. Poor urban development strategies and economic crises have exacerbated urban decay, excessive building density, substandard housing, dilapidated public facilities, inadequate infrastructure, major social disruption, and urban poverty. In addition, rapid urbanization and the parallel decentralization of 1. United Nations, 2018. 2. World Bank, 2016a. 3. The recent joint World Bank-UN report entitled “Pathways to Peace” signals several worrying trends. In 2016, for example, more countries experienced violent conflict than at any time over the past three decades. Much of the recent violence has targeted urban areas and public spaces, and the civilian death toll due Al-Nuri Mosque, Mosul, Iraq. to this kind of violent conflict doubled between 2010 and 2016. © UNESCO 4. UNHCR, 2018. 11 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery functions make the need to strengthen the role and The role of the World Bank and UNESCO capacities of local governments all the more pressing. in city reconstruction and recovery Crises generated by acute urban distress need to be Created for reconstruction and development in the addressed by responses that consider the needs of all aftermath of WWII, the World Bank has a long history of social groups and provide opportunities for social inclu- interventions in this area. Since the late 1990s, the World sion and economic development that acknowledge the Bank has been increasingly investing in cultural heritage specific needs, priorities, and identities of communities, and providing technical assistance having financed to and in particular youth. For this reason, culture, through date more than 300 lending and non-lending operations cultural heritage and creativity, is essential as both an that include components in historic city regeneration and asset and a tool for city reconstruction and recovery. If cultural heritage preservation. As the only UN agency culture is not placed at the core of urban reconstruction with a mandate in culture, UNESCO has been promoting and recovery strategies, reconstruction processes can the role of culture in sustainable development and has induce additional disruption of the physical and social put an emphasis on its programs in urban development fabrics. The emergence of civil society, boosted by social as part of the process that led to the adoption of the 2011 media and connectivity, further reinforces the impact of Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape and the the cultural dimension on reconstruction and recovery integration of culture in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable processes. Development and the New Urban Agenda. Defining Culture, Reconstruction, and Recovery 1 For the purposes of this Position Paper, the following The definition of culture also includes the cultural definitions will be employed in the interest of having a and creative industries, which refer to infrastructure shared lexicon across actors and contexts. and the resources and processes for the production, distribution, and sale of creative cultural goods such as Culture is regarded as “the set of distinctive spiritual, music, crafts, audio-visual products, theater, cinema, material, intellectual and emotional features of society and books in both formal and informal economies. or a social group that it encompasses, in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value The definitions of reconstruction and recovery used systems, traditions and beliefs.”5 This comprehensive in this Position Paper are those established by the definition of culture refers to cultural heritage in all United Nations International Strategy for Disaster its forms as well as to creativity and the diversity of Reduction (UNISDR). Reconstruction is defined as cultural expressions. the medium and long-term rebuilding and sustain- able restoration of resilient infrastructure, services, It should be underlined that cultural heritage relates housing, facilities, and livelihoods required for the full to both tangible and intangible heritage. Tangible functioning of a community or a society affected by a cultural heritage includes buildings and structures disaster. Recovery involves the restoring or improving recognized as having cultural significance as well as of livelihoods and health, as well as economic, physical, to natural protected areas. Intangible cultural heritage social, cultural and environmental assets, systems consists of practices, representations, expressions, and activities of a disaster-affected community or skills, and traditional knowledge and management society. Both definitions align with the principles of systems recognized by communities as part of their sustainable development and “build back better,”6 to cultural heritage and transmitted from generation to avoid or reduce future disaster risk. generation. Although rarely considered, intangible cultural heritage is particularly important in recovery and reconstruction processes for its power in rebuilding the social fabric as well as for effectively maintaining and managing cultural diversity, fostering intercultural dialogue, and enabling the effective monitoring of Build back better” is defined as “The use of the recovery, 6. “ rehabilitation and reconstruction phases after a disas- cultural change in post-conflict situations. ter to increase the resilience of nations and communities through integrating disaster risk reduction measures into the restoration of physical infrastructure and societal systems, and into the revitalization of livelihoods, economies and the 5. UNHCR, 1982. environment.” (United Nations General Assembly, 2016) 12 Introduction With the shared conviction that culture is critical to Definition of the 2 achieve sustainable urban development and to ensure Historic Urban Landscape effective post-crisis reconstruction and recovery pro- cesses, the World Bank and UNESCO decided to jointly elaborate this Position Paper to propose an enhanced (Extracted from the UNESCO Recommendation culture-based framework for city reconstruction and on the Historic Urban Landscape, 2011) recovery that integrates both people-centered and place- based approaches. Core to the HUL approach is a new understanding of the historic urban environment. As defined by the Recommendation, “the historic urban Scope and Structure landscape is the urban area understood as the This Position Paper focuses on reconstruction and recov- result of a historic layering of cultural and natu- ery in cities affected by disasters, conflicts and distress. ral values and attributes, extending beyond the However, it moves beyond the idea of a clear-cut sequence notion of ‘historic center’ or ‘ensemble’ to include of in-crisis and post-crisis processes and takes a flexible the broader urban context and its geographical approach to these temporalities. In today’s context, these setting. This wider context includes notably the periods may expand over decades, overlap, or intertwine, site’s topography, geomorphology, hydrology and therefore can no longer be seen as separate silos. and natural features, its built environment, both Crises rarely follow a linear path. Economic crises can historic and contemporary, its infrastructures extend over decades. The frequency and magnitude of above and below ground, its open spaces and disasters has increased significantly, and conflicts can gardens, its land use patterns and spatial orga- last a number of years with different stages of intensity. nization, perceptions and visual relationships, as This makes it difficult to determine when conflict ends and well as all other elements of the urban structure. post-conflict begins despite political agreements. Thus, It also includes social and cultural practices and although the scope of this Position Paper mainly covers values, economic processes and the intangible post-crisis situations, it also includes reconstruction and dimensions of heritage as related to diversity recovery processes that start during crises. and identity.” (UNESCO 2011) While particular attention is given to the reconstruc- tion and recovery of historic urban areas, this Paper encompasses the entire city, seen as a historic urban landscape, thus as a cultural construct where all the layering of values and attributes – new and old, tangible and intangible, cultural and natural – are considered. This Position Paper is intended as both a policy docu- ment and operational guidance to support policy-makers Chapter 2 presents the CURE Framework, which empha- and practitioners, especially the World Bank and UNESCO sizes the need to integrate people-centered and place- staff operating in this field, for effective city reconstruc- based strategies and policies with culture as the foun- tion and recovery, where culture constitutes a bedrock dation to achieve sustainable change. Building on the for such processes. People, Places and Policies framework developed in the UNESCO Global Report ‘Culture: Urban Future’, the CURE The paper is structured as follows: Framework addresses the specific challenges of city Chapter 1 provides an overview of the evolution of inter- reconstruction and recovery in the aftermath of crises. national frameworks for post-crisis reconstruction and Chapter 3 translates the CURE Framework into guidance recovery outlining the mechanisms and actors of these for city reconstruction and recovery using a project processes, from the establishment of the United Nations cycle approach – needs assessments and scoping, in 1945 onwards. It presents recent efforts made to link planning, financing, and implementation – and build- culture to city reconstruction and recovery including ing on existing instruments including the Recovery existing frameworks and tools developed in the culture and Peacebuilding Assessments (RPBA) and Post- sector and highlights the need for an enhanced framework Disaster Needs Assessments (PDNA), as well as the to address current shortcomings. Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape (HUL). 13 1 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery 14 1. Linking Culture to Reconstruction and Recovery Frameworks Linking culture T he international response to disasters and conflicts has undergone significant development since the to reconstruction first international cooperation efforts in the late 19th cen- tury. While mitigation and relief were prioritized in early and recovery strategies, post-disaster and post-conflict reconstruc- tion and recovery only began to be directly addressed in strategies in the 1990s. International cooperation has frameworks been strengthened around a common approach and consensus on the importance of “build back better” approaches in post-disaster settings and on prioritizing peacebuilding, culture and reconciliation in post-con- flict recovery with a particular emphasis on community involvement. However, the links between these diverse approaches to reconstruction and recovery, particularly people-centered and place-based strategies, still require further development. Early international post-disaster and post-conflict frameworks and approaches Early frameworks for post-disaster and post-conflict reconstruction and recovery were mainly ad-hoc and localized approaches used by individual countries, each facing its own unique event.7 World War II (WWII) triggered the development of post-conflict response mechanisms focused on stabilizing global financial markets and engag- ing in the physical reconstruction of affected countries. As a result, the creation of the United Nations (UN) and Bretton Woods institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) after WWII was vital in addressing post-war destruction and marked the beginning of contemporary reconstruction policies. These institutions, in coordination with other multi-lat- eral and bi-lateral organizations, formed a mechanism for international development cooperation in post-crisis reconstruction and recovery. This cooperation remains part of the current, evolving international system. While the post-WWII reconstruction and recovery system targeted economic stabilization, it evolved into a system that mainly tackled natural disasters, concentrating on disaster risk reduction and recovery. Recently, however, the 7. There was no overarching system or international cooperation framework until the International Committee of the Red Cross Plastering Mosque Djingareyber in Timbuktu, Mali, (ICRC) solicited donations from domestic and international donors for relief and rebuilding after the 1889 Johnstown Flood in rural February 2017. Pennsylvania. ICRC’s actions set the stage for a paradigm shift © UNESCO / Modibo Bagayoko towards international cooperation. 15 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery international community finds itself back in the position of Current global frameworks dealing with the impact of conflicts on local communities and with the spill-over impact on neighboring countries. and tools for reconstruction Post-conflict reconstruction and recovery present a set of and recovery complexities that are distinct from those in post-disaster At present, the international community draws on a series settings. Social tensions, weak or compromised national of key frameworks and tools that focus on enhancing and local governments, and internal instabilities contribute resilience, mitigating the impact of disasters, and strength- to the dynamics of conflict and make reconstruction and ening international cooperation to respond effectively to recovery significantly more difficult. conflict situations and build a path towards long-term Since the 1970s, the number of disasters per year world- recovery and peace. wide has more than quadrupled. In response to increasing A joint protocol for action on post-crisis assessments calamities, the international community began focusing and recovery planning: The post-disaster setting is a on mitigation and relief in post-disaster situations. In complex and demanding environment that calls for the 1971, the UN created the Disaster Relief Office, whose effective support and coordination of a wide range of mission was to predict disasters, mitigate their destructive national and international actors. In the past, however, impacts, and facilitate recovery efforts. To foster further post-disaster assessment and recovery planning were international cooperation and share technical knowledge, often characterized by a multiplicity of needs assessments the UN declared the 1990s as the International Decade and planning exercises conducted in parallel by agencies for Natural Disaster Reduction. and donors. To foster better synergies and to provide In 1994, the First World Conference on Disaster Risk more coordinated support to national counterparts, Reduction held in Yokohama, Japan, adopted a Strategy the European Commission, the UN, and the World Bank and an Action Plan. The Yokohama Strategy for a Safer signed a Joint Declaration on Post-Crisis Assessments World focused on disaster prevention, preparedness, and Recovery Planning in 2008 to develop a common mitigation, and relief. It emphasized community involve- approach for post-crisis assessments and recovery plan- ment and the empowerment of women and other socially ning. This commitment capped four years of joint work disadvantaged groups as essential to the recovery process, to refine and update the frameworks for post-conflict and rallied the international community around broader and post-disaster response. The Joint Declaration built definitions of vulnerability and inclusive participation. upon previous separate global experience with two main While the Yokohama Strategy solidified the idea that the instruments: the development and use of PDNAs and international community has a responsibility to support Recovery Frameworks that grew out of the Damage and countries in the aftermath of disasters, the strategy did Loss Assessment (DaLA) Methodology used in post-di- not directly address the post-disaster reconstruction saster settings, and Post-Conflict Needs Assessments and recovery process. (PCNAs) and Transitional Results Matrices, used in post-conflict settings. The aim was to bring together To address gaps in the Yokohama Strategy, the interna- national and international stakeholders in order to align tional community came together to develop the Hyogo recovery efforts in a coordinated and effective way. Both Framework for Action (HFA) 2005-2015: Building the DaLA/PDNAs and PCNAs are methodologies to consoli- Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters. The date information on a range of critical areas: the physical HFA recognized cultural diversity as an essential element impacts of a disaster or conflict, the economic value of for effective planning and reconstruction. It also empha- the damages and losses, the poverty and vulnerability sized the gender aspects of reconstruction and recovery impacts experienced by affected populations, the priority and the fact that unaddressed inequalities would result needs for reconstruction after a disaster or peacebuilding in disproportionately high damage and death tolls among and statebuilding after a conflict, and related recovery vulnerable populations in the aftermath of disasters. needs and priorities. Currently, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk In 2015, building on the PDNAs and the growing demand Reduction 2015-2030 , which builds upon both the for a resilient disaster recovery framework, the three Yokohama Strategy and the HFA, governs the interventions institutions published a Guide to Developing Disaster of the international community in this field. The Sendai Recovery Frameworks to assist policy-makers and Framework calls for “the substantial reduction of disaster other stakeholders in formulating medium to long-term risk and losses in lives, livelihoods and health and in the post-disaster recovery frameworks. This methodology economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental was applied to cultural heritage as part of the Nepal assets of persons, businesses, communities and coun- Earthquake: Post-disaster Recovery Framework 2015, tries.” It explicitly recognizes that inequality and poverty in which the restoration and retrofitting of historical are direct drivers of vulnerability and establishes the role buildings and structures were prioritized. of culture as a component of disaster risk management. 16 1. Linking Culture to Reconstruction and Recovery Frameworks BOX 3 Reinforcing international recovery and peacebuilding: Culture and the 2030 Agenda 3 As part of the 2008 Joint Declaration on Post-Crisis for Sustainable Development Assessments and Recovery Planning, the three insti- tutions also committed to providing joint support for more effective and coordinated engagement in countries In 2015, with the adoption of the 17 United Nations that are emerging from conflict or a political crisis. This Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), culture tripartite agreement is executed via the mechanism of was integrated in the international development joint Recovery and Peacebuilding Assessments (RPBAs), agenda for the first time. The 2030 Agenda for previously known as Post-Conflict Needs Assessments Sustainable Development acknowledges the (PCNAs). RPBAs support national ownership of recovery integral role of culture across many of the SDGs and peacebuilding processes and help identify and address including quality education (SDG 4), economic immediate and medium-term recovery and peacebuilding growth and sustainable consumption and produc- requirements while laying the foundations for the elabora- tion patterns (SDGs 8 and 12), environmental tion of a longer-term recovery and peacebuilding strategy sustainability (SDGs 14 and 15), inclusive and in countries facing conflict or transitioning out of a crisis. peaceful societies (SDG 16), gender equality (SDG RPBAs help national governments “identify, prioritize and 5), food security (SDG 2), and health (SDG 3). sequence recovery and peacebuilding activities, provide an inclusive process to support political dialogue and Culture is explicitly addressed in Goal 11 – ‘to make participation of stakeholders, and coordinate international cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, support through a joint exercise and monitoring system.” resilient, and sustainable’ – which identifies cultural and natural heritage as essential levers for In the decade following the 2008 Joint Declaration, promoting sustainable development (Target 11.4). significant investment has been made in analyzing and Beyond cultural heritage, the cultural and creative responding to the drivers and dynamics of conflict industries are among the fastest growing in the and violence. The focus is no longer on ‘event-centric’ world. Intangible cultural heritage represents a frameworks that assume the majority of situations involve source of resilience and knowledge for addressing a peace event which ends a conflict. The reality is a key challenges including poverty and disasters. spectrum of situations of fragility, conflict, and violence, Intercultural dialogue and respect for cultural which often ebb and flow, with cycles that can be virtu- diversity are powerful tools for reconciliation ous or vicious. This new global perspective has resulted and the creation of peaceful societies. in the World Bank’s 2011 World Development Report on Conflict, Security, and Development and the 2018 joint From cultural heritage to cultural and creative World Bank-UN Pathways to Peace report. industries, from sustainable tourism to cultural institutions, culture enables and drives the social, While cultural heritage has been included as a com- environmental, and economic dimensions of ponent in some of the above-mentioned international sustainable development. It is a crucial factor mechanisms, culture in all its forms and as an underlying, for social cohesion and poverty alleviation and cross-cutting component, still remains to be considered supports transversal issues such as education, in all reconstruction and recovery frameworks and in the urban development and gender equality to enable “build back better” approach. the full achievement of development outcomes. It has become clear that culture can no longer be a dividend of development, but is rather a prerequisite to its achievement. 17 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery Integrating culture in city Culture-based frameworks and tools reconstruction and recovery for reconstruction and recovery frameworks Integrating culture in all phases of reconstruction and recovery processes can help address existing gaps: in Many studies and initiatives have underlined the role post-disaster settings, culture can enhance the effec- of culture as a resource for sustainable development.8 tiveness and sustainability of recovery programs as Yet, it was not until 2015 that culture was integrated, well as preparedness and response capacities, while in for the first time, in a global framework for collective post-conflict situations culture can contribute to long-term action. The adoption of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable recovery by enhancing social cohesion and resilience, Development by the United Nations General Assembly and building bridges for reconciliation. marked a crucial step forward, by placing culture at the heart of international development policies.9 Culture as a key dimension of disaster risk reduction and preparedness: The Sendai Framework constitutes The 2030 Agenda’s acknowledgement of culture as a an unprecedented step in the recognition of culture as vital component of urban development was reinforced a key dimension of disaster risk reduction and the need by the New Urban Agenda (NUA) adopted at the Third to protect and draw on cultural tangible and intangible UN Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban heritage as an asset for resilience. In particular, the frame- Development in Quito, Ecuador, in 2016. The NUA proposes work calls for: (i) the integration of a cultural perspective a new model of sustainable urban development that pro- in all policies and practices, (ii) the understanding of the motes equity, welfare and shared prosperity, and places cultural heritage impacts, as appropriate, in the context culture and cultural diversity at the core of sustainable of event-specific hazard-exposure and vulnerability development of cities by promoting civic engagement and information; (iii) the protection of cultural institutions fostering active participation in development processes. and other sites of historical, cultural heritage and reli- The transformative role of culture in sustainable urban gious interest; (iv) the use of traditional, indigenous and development was further acknowledged in UNESCO’s local knowledge and practices to complement scientific Global Report Culture: Urban Future.10 Drawing on case knowledge in disaster risk assessment. studies from around the world, this comprehensive report Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape proposes a three-pronged approach, the People, Places, (HUL): Aimed at preserving the quality of the human and Policies (hereinafter referred to as the 3P Approach), environment, the UNESCO HUL Recommendation (2011) that integrates cultural heritage and creativity as essential promotes an integrated approach to managing heritage elements for sustainable urban development. resources found in dynamic and evolving urban environ- The 3P Approach is key to city reconstruction and ments. Although originally intended to guide the role of recovery as it helps fill the gaps of current frameworks culture in shaping peace-time urban development, the such as “build back better,” whose emphasis is on the HUL Recommendation provides tools that can be used quality of the built environment and its resilience to future in assessing, planning, financing and implementing city disasters. In conflict-affected cities, culture can facilitate reconstruction and recovery.11 The HUL approach for peacebuilding, tolerance, and social inclusion. The power identifying, conserving and managing historic areas within of culture for reconciliation manifests through the entire their broader urban context, is rooted in a balanced and range of cultural expressions. This helps to reconnect and sustainable relationship between the built and natural foster better understanding between diverse communi- environments, between tangible and intangible cultural ties involved in conflicts and stimulates young people to heritage values, and between the needs of present and learn more about a city’s intangible heritage and history. future generations and the legacy of the past. It also Moreover, cultural heritage assets and creative and cultural promotes participatory mechanisms for urban heritage industries help (re)build identity and pride in communities management that give a voice to local communities and affected by economic insecurity, poverty, inequality, and stakeholders and engage them in the decision-making discrimination, as well as enhance mutual understanding process. Local culture and heritage, as well as the values and dialogue between various social groups tied together they carry, are at the heart of the decision-making process by community bonds. according to the HUL approach. These aspects require a series of specific instruments adapted to local contexts, 8. Available at: http://openarchive.icomos.org/1763/ 9. The Preamble of the 2030 Agenda: “We acknowledge the natural and cultural diversity of the world and recognize that all cultures and civilizations can contribute to, and are crucial enablers of, sustainable development.” Available at: http://www.un.org/en/ 11. See Item 20 of the HUL Recommendation: “Changes to historic development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/ urban areas can also result from sudden disasters and armed globalcompact/A_RES_70_1.pdf conflicts. These may be short lived but can have lasting effects. Culture: Urban Future. Global Report on Culture for Sustainable 10.  The [HUL] approach may assist in managing and mitigating such Urban Development. UNESCO, Paris, 2016. impacts”. 18 1. Linking Culture to Reconstruction and Recovery Frameworks People, Place, and Policy (3Ps): A Culture-based Approach to Urban Development 4 The UNESCO Global Report Culture: Urban Future than top-down initiatives. From this perspective, (2016) presents a culture-based approach to urban the accurate identification and assessment of rele- development, founded on three propositions. vant local contextual conditions and characteristics 1. People-centered cities are culture-centered spaces. becomes crucial. Place-based urban planning incorporates local 2.  Place-based policies offer useful guidance not only for history and culture. the rebuilding and regeneration of historic urban areas, Integrated policies employ culture as a tool for 3.  but also for the planning and design of those urban sustainability and resilience. areas that need to be built anew. Urban heritage offers People-centered approaches place people, as well valuable lessons in sustainability that are manifested in as their needs, values and social practices, at their resilient planning and design, inclusive public spaces heart. The people-centered development model that connect people, a close relationship between aims at improving local communities’ self-reliance built and natural environments, human scale, mix of and promotes social justice and participatory deci- functions, use of local materials, adaptation to climatic sion-making while ensuring that minority groups are conditions, and energy efficiency. Acknowledging and not left behind and that gender equality is respected. promoting the cultural diversity of a city’s inhabitants Sustainability is thus an inherent component and can increase residents’ awareness of place, identity, explicit goal of people-centered development. and sense of belonging. Cultural heritage has the power to unite communities in places where citizens, including Traditionally, people-centered approaches and policies socially-excluded residents, associate the historic are used in post-crisis recovery while place-based environment with a shared identity and community approaches are used in reconstruction processes, feeling. In cities affected by crises, in particular by although both approaches could be used concurrently disasters, a place-based approach involves paying when reconstruction and recovery are conducted greater attention to the local context and especially simultaneously. Reconstruction and recovery can be to vernacular architecture and its relation to nature. people-centered when they engage local community members across the four phases of the recovery Integrated policies aim at addressing the challenge of process. (See Chapter 3) In the policy and strategy placing cultural heritage and creativity at the core of phase, people-centered policies can engage citizens sustainable urban development and at addressing the in identifying cultural priorities for reconstruction, challenges of governance. The participation of local intangible cultural assets for revival, and providing fora governments is crucial to design, implement, and for a diverse set of community members to coalesce monitor policies, to ensure that the values of cultural around common goals. In the financing phase, peo- heritage are preserved, and to promote the cultural ple-centered policies can leverage community assets and creative industries. The role of communities in including funding and in-kind donations to invest in this model of culture-based governance requires reconstruction and recovery. For the implementation commitment, collaboration, and coordination between phase, people-centered policies can harness public different stakeholders at all levels. Lastly, integrated energy for basic reconstruction efforts, engage citizens culture-based policies require new, innovative, and in awareness raising, and leverage citizens’ cultural sustainable financial models that provide sufficient memories, values, and attributes. financial support to culture in order to fully contribute to socio-economic development and urban livability. Place-based urban development reflects the need The Historic Urban Landscape approach promoted by to build on local contexts and leverage local charac- the UNESCO Recommendation of 2011, reflects the teristics. This development approach is increasingly 3Ps approach by recognizing the fundamental role replacing centrally-driven strategies which have of cultural heritage and landscape for sustainable often been unable to effectively address local devel- local development while highlighting the opportunity opment issues. Proponents of place-based policies of adapting heritage to the present needs of society. consider the empowerment of local stakeholders as an opportunity to enhance urban development by allowing decision-making processes that are more reflective of local realities and contextual conditions 19 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery which include civic engagement tools, knowledge and systematic approach to the recovery of cultural assets planning tools, regulatory systems and financial tools, and highlights the role of cultural diversity and pluralism in to be further developed by the relevant stakeholders. post-conflict and post-disaster settings. It also stresses the need to strengthen cooperation with actors outside Post-Disaster Needs Assessments Guidelines for the the culture sector, notably humanitarian, security and culture sector: To complement the PDNA, specific guide- peacebuilding actors, especially in the framework of joint lines for sectoral assessments were developed in 2013 assessments (via PDNAs and RPBAs), and the impor- to cover the social, economic, and government-related tance of awareness raising among the general public, in impacts of a disaster that are specific to each sector. The particular young people. PDNA-Culture volume provides guidelines specifically designed for assessments of the culture sector in recon- In 2017, the International Council on Monuments and struction and recovery processes. A holistic understanding Sites (ICOMOS) produced a Guidance on Post-Trauma of the cultural context contributes to the effectiveness Recovery and Reconstruction for World Heritage Cultural and sustainability of recovery programs as experience Properties15, which focuses on World Heritage properties has shown that the resilience of social systems to crises and acknowledges the wider social, environmental, and is profoundly influenced by cultural factors. Finally, the economic factors that recovery must address. In 2013, the PDNA-Culture volume supports implementation proce- International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and dures that involve women and men of all ages and minority Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) developed a groups in decision-making while promoting human rights long-term, multi-partner initiative on conflict and disas- based practices and increased social equity. PDNAs for ter prevention and mitigation, which aims to enhance the culture sector lay the basis for the restoration of the nations’ capacities and facilitate efficient local responses pre-disaster condition, the consolidation of the culture in order to protect heritage during complex emergencies. sector, and sustainable reconstruction by addressing the This was followed in 2017 by a set of recommendations weaknesses or gaps identified in the sector while carrying on sustainable approaches to the reconstruction of out the assessment.12 Since 2015, a number of PDNAs destroyed or damaged historic cities, providing guidance addressing culture were carried out, including those for professional communities, networks, decision-makers conducted in Ecuador (October 2016), Haiti (December and institutions responsible for the protection of cultural 2016), and Antigua and Barbuda (October 2017). heritage at risk. Mainstreaming culture in recovery and peacebuilding: Building on the above initiatives, the recent Warsaw Culture can be integrated into RPBAs through two important Recommendation on Recovery and Reconstruction of channels: the participation of the representatives of the Cultural Heritage (2018)16 provide a number of principles cultural sector and the inclusion of elements of cultural highlighting in particular: a) the importance of under- identity as contributors to reconciliation. This creates an standing the values of a heritage site and the attributes opportunity to strengthen relationships with leading RPBA that carry these values prior to taking any decision on a actors, to influence policy-making, and to participate in proposal for reconstruction and recovery and integrating future joint crisis response exercises. Participation of the the values identified by local communities, as well as culture sector in response mechanisms facilitates the including new values resulting from the traumatic events assessment of the crisis’ impact and the estimation of associated with the destruction; b) the need to follow peo- recovery priorities meant to inform the long-term planning ple-centered approaches and fully engage communities in places affected by armed conflicts. and relevant stakeholders in reconstruction and recovery processes; c) the importance of proper documentation Recent initiatives promoting the application of a cul- and inventories; d) the need for the establishment of a ture-sensitive approach to crisis response include the strong governance based on a fully participatory process Strategy for the Reinforcement of UNESCO’s Action for including mechanisms for the coordination of national the Protection of Culture and the Promotion of Cultural and international actors; e) the adoption of the Historic Pluralism in the Event of Armed Conflict (2015)13 and its Urban Landscape (HUL) approach, to set out a holistic Addendum concerning emergencies associated with planning strategy for reconstruction and recovery that disasters caused by natural and human-induced hazards integrates cultural heritage within the larger framework (2017)14. This Strategy promotes a comprehensive and of urban development; and f) the role of education and awareness raising to promote the knowledge, appreci- 12. UNESCO has undertaken several PDNAs for the culture sector over the past few years that have demonstrated that the existence ation, and respect for the diversity of cultures. of this tool is not sufficiently known and related capacities are not present. The roll-out of a training package prepared by UNESCO in relation to PDNAs for the culture sector in capacity-building initiatives in this field is highly recommended. 13. Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002351/ 235186e.pdf 14. Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0025/002598/ 15. Available at: http://openarchive.icomos.org/1763/ 259805e.pdf 16. Available at: https://whc.unesco.org/document/167955 20 1. Linking Culture to Reconstruction and Recovery Frameworks Shortcomings in implementing infrastructure and assets. Urgency and cost-efficiency may also hinder quality reconstruction. It is important to existing reconstruction quickly identify heritage values and attributes to be pre- and recovery frameworks served before demolition. A reconstruction process, or any place-based strategy for that matter, that fails to place Despite the above achievements and overall positive people at its center is an important missed opportunity to outcomes of implementing current frameworks, practice ensure that outcomes (infrastructure, assets, services, highlighted a series of conceptual limitations and gaps, etc.) are embedded in strong community ownership, which are summarized below and which reinforce the reflect societal priorities, and are used, operated, and need for a more effective and adequate framework that managed in a sustainable manner. Reconstruction and addresses the new current challenges. recovery are also an opportunity to reconcile different identities through creative initiatives. Large open spaces Disconnect between reconstruction and recovery and resulting from demolitions, for instance, might create between place-based and people-centered strategies: new opportunities for reinvesting in urban areas through In post-conflict and post-disaster settings, a lack of cultural projects such as exhibitions, festivals, and other integration between reconstruction and recovery has at cultural activities. times been noted, which results in developing distinct people-centered and place-based strategies. In fact, As recovery entails the restoration of livelihoods and the there is often a debate about the merits of people-cen- social and economic structures of society affected by a tered versus placed-based development strategies. disaster or conflict, it requires an in-depth understand- Proponents of people-centered strategies argue that this ing of a society’s culture, values, norms, traditions, and approach fosters individual choice and gives beneficiaries priorities, all of which are critical to societal identities and the opportunity to find the best suited place or service a sense of place. Pressures to urgently attend to large- for their needs, which leads to better satisfaction and scale recovery needs and to address the dire situation on development outcomes. Critics highlight the negative the ground in terms of poverty, vulnerability, large-scale impacts on community structures and the erosion of displacement, and devastation of assets and livelihoods social capital, which are both factors that could limit can often skew the choices of interventions in ways that the achievement of outcomes. Proponents of place- may undervalue culture. based strategies argue that investing in place matters In order to address the gaps and limitations of the existing to preserve community structures, social capital and frameworks, an enhanced framework using culture as people’s livelihoods. Critics highlight negative impacts a driver and enabler of post-crisis city reconstruction including perpetuating places with a concentration of and recovery is necessary to inform critical actions poverty and not giving people the opportunity to start related to state-building, institution-building, and societal fresh in new places/communities that are more aligned reconciliation. with their aspirations. In practice, reconstruction and recovery interventions need to integrate place-based and people-centered strategies and identify the underlying issues, contextual factors, and the right conditions for each strategy to prosper. Similarly, there tends to be a tension between reconstruction and recovery that are driven by external actors instead of local communities, which draw on local knowledge and culture. As reconstruction entails the rebuilding of physical assets (infrastructure, housing, and tangible cultural heritage) and the restoration of services in communities affected by crises, the rebuilding process inherently requires a medium to long-term timeframe to ensure planning that is responsive to community needs and aspirations as well as to quality design and construction. Coupled with resource constraints, political and societal pressures to accelerate the rebuilding process to return to normality might limit meaningful community participation and adequate plan- ning and may favor location/construction decisions that are influenced by cost-consciousness rather than what is needed to “build back better” and produce resilient 21 2 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery 22 2. A Framework for Culture in City Reconstruction and Recovery (CURE) A Framework U sing culture to achieve transformative change in cities requires investing in people, places and poli- for Culture in City cies with the aim of contributing to a sustainable urban future17. Building on this approach, this Position Paper Reconstruction proposes an enhanced framework for action in post-di- saster, post-conflict, and urban distress settings, the Framework for Culture in City Reconstruction and Recovery and Recovery (CURE), which allows to enhance existing frameworks of city reconstruction (such as “build back better”) and (CURE) socio-economic recovery of people’s livelihoods by integrating culture - in its many forms - in reconstruction and recovery processes as a binder of people-centered and place-based policies. Culture in City Reconstruction and Recovery – Towards an Enhanced Framework The CURE Framework (Figure 1) introduced in this Position Paper integrates culture as a core element for city reconstruction and recovery with the aim of achieving a sustainable urban future. It adapts the 3P Approach to the specific challenges of city reconstruction and recovery in the aftermath of disasters, armed conflicts, and severe urban distress with the following premises in mind: People-centered approach as the heart of place-based – strategies: In post-crisis reconstruction strategies, whether for infrastructure, housing, services and/or cultural heritage assets, it is critical to ensure that people and local governments are at the center of the process. Places may acquire new values and mean- ings due to trauma, mass displacement, and sudden socio-economic changes. Reconstruction and recovery processes should reflect this evolution. Community engagement and meaningful participation should be considered in all stages of the reconstruction process including design (site selection, decisions to restore form and function of destroyed assets), prioritization (in light of budget constraints), implementation (including contributing labor and overseeing of reconstruction), and post-completion (use, operation, and maintenance of assets). Only through meaningful participation will the community really “own” the assets, and their sustainable use, operation, and maintenance be enhanced. It is also critical to place the cultural and creative industries, Mobile Mini Circus For Children, Bamiyan, Afghanistan. © Seth Bloom / Mobile Mini Circus For Children 17. UNESCO, 2016a. 23 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery Figure 1. Culture in City Reconstruction and Recovery Framework Allows for strong community ownership, to reflect societal priorities and operate sustainably People-centered to develop infrastructure, policies housing and facilities that Community consultation and are linked to people’s meaningful participation culture and identity Integrating cultural and creative socio-economic industries and intangible heritage physical recovery reconstruction Livehoods, creativity and social Infrastructure, housing and and economic structures tangible cultural heritage Considering norms and traditions and community perception of tangible heritage Allows to understand a society’s culture, values, norms, traditions, and priorities, which are critical place-based policies to acquire a cultural identity Recovering infrastructure, and a sense of place housing and facilities 24 2. A Framework for Culture in City Reconstruction and Recovery (CURE) and intangible cultural heritage (especially traditional Building a “citizen culture” 5 building methods, techniques and materials) at the to address urban distress heart of the reconstruction process to rehabilitate or in Medellin, Colombia rebuild infrastructure, housing, and facilities that are linked to people’s culture and identities. This should be achieved without sacrificing the opportunity of improving design attributes such as use, capacity and other functionalities of these assets through the “build back better” approach to respond to resilience needs and a community’s evolving priorities. Place-based approach as the heart of people-centered – strategies: In post-crisis recovery strategies, be it restoration of livelihoods or a society’s socio-economic structures, it is critical to ensure that a sense of place is central to the process to reflect a society’s identities, values, norms, traditions, and priorities in the recovery process. This requires prioritizing the restoration and strengthening of societal organizational structures and traditions (e.g. collective ownership of assets and natural resources and collective mobilization/action for the common good), traditional crafts, and the cultural and creative industries, and prioritizing the safety of intangible cultural heritage. The centrality of intangible cultural heritage and a sense of belonging are critical to Medellin, Colombia. rebuild people’s identities, particularly in the aftermath © Antoine Barthelemy/Shutterstock.com* of violence and conflicts that have divided the society. Medellin, Colombia, is part of the 100 Resilient Cities – Culture as the foundation to integrate place-based Program and faces shocks and stresses related to and people-centered strategies: Adopting an inte- crime and violence, in addition to natural disasters grated appr oach with culture as the foundation of the such as landslides and flooding. In Medellin, the reconstruction and recovery process is key to integrat- concept of cultura ciudadana, or ‘citizen culture’, ing place-based and people-centered strategies. This was developed in the 1990s as a counterbalance ensures that community needs, priorities, aspirations, to the extreme level of violence in the city. The and traditions are central to the reconstruction and four main objectives of citizenship culture are: recovery processes and enhances the outcomes from (i) to increase compliance with norms of civic both the perspectives of community ownership and from interaction; (ii) to increase the number of citizens the alignment of the resulting infrastructure, assets, encouraging compliance with norms of civic inter- intangible and tangible cultural heritage restoration action; (iii) to increase the number of disputes that with community values and traditions. A central role for are resolved peacefully based on a shared vision of culture in the reconstruction and recovery process is the city; and (iv) to increase the ability of citizens to particularly critical in informing governance and policy communicate through art, culture, recreation, and as well as institutional and regulatory frameworks of sport. The concept of citizenship culture sought to the reconstruction and recovery process. harmonize the three regulatory systems governing human behavior: law, morality, and culture. This harmonization included working with government institutions and communities to reduce the moral and cultural justifications for illegal behavior and to increase moral and cultural support for the rule of law. Reshaping social norms and culture promoted a new sense of accountability that reinforced civic rights and responsibilities to guide national and local government activities. 25 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery Intangible Cultural Heritage: 6 Local knowledge and practices at the heart of recovery Intangible cultural heritage plays an essential role in of communities. Vernacular architecture, particularly city recovery and reconstruction processes, partic- that which is associated with socially significant com- ularly through local knowledge and practices, as a munity structures, has disaster resilience built into its critical source of resilience and a bridging expression design. Local knowledge is an essential component of of a community’s livelihoods and environments. Local preparatory mechanisms in food security strategies knowledge is recognized in the field of post-disas- to offset variability in food production and to recover ter recovery and reconstruction as a critical tool to from cyclone and drought damage. strengthen resilience and reduce vulnerability.18 Today, During and immediately after a disaster, forging disaster specialists acknowledge the role of culturally inter-communal networks offers immediate relief to embedded mechanisms of information transmission affected communities. Drawing on intra-communal concerning history, memory, and knowledge as essential resources can help respond to immediate health, vehicles for the inter-generational transfer of disaster food, and shelter needs.21 The recovery of a com- mitigation strategies and the value of social activities munity depends on the capacity of the community as recovery mechanisms.19 to prepare and respond and on the broader state or In the domain of disaster risk management, the concept society capacity to assist. Lessons learned from the of intangible cultural heritage is not fully considered 1997-98 drought and famine in Papua New Guinea as and mostly limited to local and traditional knowledge well as from the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami prove that without paying due consideration to the dimensions pre-disaster preparedness in local housing and food of inter-generational transmission as well as the supply reduces the immediate impact of a cyclone and socio-cultural meaning and context of local knowledge also significantly diminishes the time and resources and practices. Yet, both aspects of transmission and required for recovery. Where knowledge of how to socio-cultural meaning and contexts are key to sustain harvest and prepare famine foods has been passed prevention and recovery efforts. down over generations, the capacity to endure the post-disaster period is similarly enhanced.22 PDNAs have recently highlighted the role and potential of intangible cultural heritage along with the creative Local knowledge in the form of cultural beliefs and industries in disaster recovery and reconstruction, values plays a fundamental role in the recovery pro- through the generation of local income and the provision cess.23 Belief systems may foster resilience and lead of the local materials, craftspeople, and knowledge to proactive recovery and enhanced community cohe- necessary to rebuild and often revive local knowledge sion. After the Samoan Tsunami of 2009, aspects of and practices in the process.20 Aside from PDNAs, the Samoan way of life (fa’a Sāmoa) were identified limited guidelines exist on how to integrate intangible as central to post-disaster recovery. The concept of heritage into reconstruction and recovery processes. hospitality, in combination with the āiga (the extended There is a need for a comprehensive framework that family unit), provided a powerful social and familial encompasses people, places, and policies that inte- network for sharing and maximizing resources.24 grate intangible cultural heritage into the process by Intangible cultural heritage, including local technical providing guidelines to assess the impact on intan- knowledge related to disaster mitigation, needs to be gible cultural heritage in the aftermath of disasters integrated into the broader systems of city recovery and promoting the role of intangible cultural heritage and reconstruction. From understanding the value as a key contributor to disaster mitigation strategies. of traditional site location as a mitigation measure In the case of seasonal disasters such as cyclones and to promoting the role of music and performance in floods, preparatory measures are deeply embedded post-disaster recovery, intangible cultural heritage within cultural practices that enhance the resilience has a significant untapped potential for recovery and reconstruction. 21. Terrell et al., 2011. 18. UNISDR, 2008, Mercer et al., 2009, Wonesai et al., 2015. 22. Clinton, 2006; Allen and Bourke, 2009. 19. Dekens 2008, Wonesai et al., 2015. 23. McGeehan, 2012: 18-19; McGeehan, 2014. 20. Throsby, 2015. 24. McGeehan 2012, p. 78. 26 2. A Framework for Culture in City Reconstruction and Recovery (CURE) Applying the CURE Framework Embedding culture in city reconstruction and recovery contributes to building resilience. The intergenerational towards inclusive, resilient, transmission of traditional knowledge systems and their and sustainable cities socio-cultural significance for the community (intangible heritage) as well as built cultural assets (tangible heritage) The success of reconstruction and recovery is highly offer insights to address potential environmental risks and dependent upon engagement with local communities and to inform disaster preparedness and resilience. Culture- local governments to ensure community ownership and based strategies aimed at enhancing the resilience of cities sustainability. To increase effectiveness, cultural activities include reinforcing the structure of built heritage assets can serve as identity references and sources of dignity to protect against future climate change impacts as well for communities and can increase citizen awareness of as implementing heritage and arts programs for citizens the reconstruction and recovery process. Governments, in post-disaster recovery. Building community resilience the private sector, and the international community should allows people not only to recover from the physical impact prioritize the rebuilding of communities and local govern- of conflicts, but also to heal, reconcile, and prevent future ments as a vital component of their efforts to increase conflicts. Culture is a source of dignity, and allows for the urban social and economic resilience over time. (re)creation of a pluralistic shared identity. Culture plays Fostering peace and reconciliation through culture-based 7 interventions in Banda Aceh, Indonesia In Banda Aceh, where three decades of separatist conflict had damaged communities and caused deep social and political divisions, the tsunami disaster created an opening that facilitated the resolution of the armed conflict. The Government of Indonesia imple- mented a post-disaster reconstruction strategy totaling over US$6 billion as well as a post-conflict recovery program worth US$890 million. The reconstruction process was one of several important factors that united people and helped to end the fighting between the Indonesian Government and the Acehnese indepen- dence movement, Gerakan Aceh Merdeka, resulting in the 2005 Memorandum of Understanding that ended armed hostilities. Transparency and community engage- Baiturrahman Mosque view after earthquake ment in the reconstruction and recovery processes and tsunami hit Banda Aceh City in December 2004. © Frans Delian/Shutterstock.com* were critical to counter sources of misinformation that could stoke tensions. given training in “forum theater” techniques as well as “Unity in diversity” is a hallmark of Indonesia’s national financial support from a small grants fund. The plays identity and provided an entry point through which were performed at refugee shelters as well as at the to provide information and solicit feedback on the Banda Aceh Cultural Park. Many of the plays were reconstruction and peace processes. The World performed in the native Aceh language. The “forum Bank and other development partners supported theater” method catalyzed interaction between the the Government of Indonesia in its communication actors and the audience as local audiences enthu- and outreach efforts through a range of culturally siastically commented and discussed each play’s informed interventions implemented by a variety of disaster-recovery theme. Creative community strat- partners from both the UN system and civil society. egies based on the use of media and arts can leverage For instance, reconstruction leaders collaborated with rich and diverse local cultural input to (a) inform the local theater groups to develop and perform new plays post-disaster reconstruction and peace processes, that promoted dialogue on Banda Aceh’s reconstruc- (b) solicit citizen feedback, and (c) engage vulnerable tion and peacebuilding process. Local troupes were or at-risk groups for improved resilience. 27 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery a crucial role in this process through the restoration and of vulnerabilities and tensions with a view to adopting a reconstruction of those symbolic and religious buildings conflict-sensitive approach through which culture is used or specific urban neighborhoods that reflect the identi- appropriately to foster reconciliation and appreciation of ties of local communities, as well as through public art, cultural diversity. exhibitions, movies, and other cultural expressions that Embedding culture in reconstruction and recovery con- engage the community. tributes to city competitiveness as culture offers a unique Destruction is often accompanied by a massive displace- opportunity to reinvigorate local economies through ment of the local population and radical changes in the cultural heritage and creative industries as new com- social and economic fabric of a city. As a result, certain petitive sectors in post-crisis recovery and drivers of cultural assets can acquire new values and meaning economic growth. while other assets are irreversibly destroyed. Post-crisis The first priority in economic recovery is the improvement migrants can bring new cultural traditions to a city and of living conditions, which enables local populations to replace the cultural traditions of evacuated residents. In enjoy the benefits of heritage-sensitive urbanization. this process, culture can act as an enabler and facilitator Effective economic recovery requires planners to have of adaptation to a new urban environment and of social (a) a firm grasp of local traditions and dynamics, (b) an inclusiveness. A culture-based approach to resilience understanding of the potential for the revival of local cultural building respects and supports the cultural rights of and creative industries, and (c) a clear and transparent all residents, and contributes to political, social, and strategy to mobilize local agents for industry recovery. economic recovery. Its implementation requires com- prehensive analyses that look at the cultural dimensions Leveraging cultural tourism to boost local development in Seoul, Republic of Korea 8 After a long focus on economic development following the Korean War, culture-based reconstruction leveraged tourism and local cultural recovery in Seoul to great effect. In the 1990s, four decades into recovery, Seoul’s 600th anniversary as a capital city provided the impetus for long-term efforts to restore its urban cultural and historical assets. Seoul’s “6th Centennial Celebration Project” included the restoration of old palaces and the development of historical and cultural trails along the old city walls. These efforts established a connec- tion between old Seoul and contemporary Seoul through community-oriented projects that restored and enhanced cultural heritage. The historical and cultural trails surrounding the 600-year-old fortress walls were developed as a unique cultural tourism asset. The trails follow the path of the surrounding mountain ranges and serve to harmoniously connect Seoul, Republic of Korea. the Old Walled City with the modern metropolis that © Daengpanya Atakorn / Shutterstock.com* is present day Seoul. For visitors and locals alike, this juxtaposition provides insight into Seoul’s dynamic history and distinct geography as tourism revenue is invested into the local community. Visitors can enjoy traditional hospitality and ceremonial presentations while contributing to the local economy through tourist income. Through these culture-based projects, Seoul maintains a balance between modernity and tradition. 28 2. A Framework for Culture in City Reconstruction and Recovery (CURE) Guiding Principles Promoting reconciliation through 9 of the CURE Framework preservation of cultural heritage in Nicosia, Cyprus Case studies conducted for this Position Paper reveal the seven key guiding principles needed to effectively implement the CURE Framework in a post-crisis setting. These focus on culture as the foundation supporting both reconstruction and recovery across the damage and needs assessment, scoping, policy and strategy, financing, and implementation phases. Principle #1: Acknowledging the city as a “cultural construct” where built structures and open spaces closely relate to social fabrics: To successfully recon- struct and recover following a disaster or a conflict, governments, the private sector, and the international community should acknowledge the city as a ‘cultural construct’ consisting of interwoven built structures and open spaces, and social fabrics, in line with the defini- tion of the 2011 Recommendation on the Historic Urban Landscape. To overcome the trauma of destruction and reconcile communities, authorities responsible for reconstruction must engage with the collective memory of Ledra Street, Old City of Nicosia, Cyprus. the city, embed reconstruction in daily lives of residents, © FrimuFilms / Shutterstock.com* appreciate cultural representations, and regenerate the urban landscape accordingly. This principle fundamentally shifts culture to the forefront rather setting it aside until An evolving strategy implemented in the divided such time that a city can “afford” to invest in it. city of Nicosia, Cyprus, sought to promote recon- ciliation through the preservation of immovable Principle #2: Starting the reconciliation process with cultural heritage. After the conflict in 1974, one the (re)construction of cultural landmarks and places of the first positive contacts between the two of significance to local communities: Important cultural communities revolved around the preservation landmarks (public or religious buildings and structures, of their shared cultural heritage within the Old and historic urban areas) embody the identities of local Walled City of Nicosia. Decades of experience communities. These landmarks can be prioritized in implementing projects which initially sought only the reconstruction process as focal points of the social to safeguard heritage morphed into a strategy recovery process and as common ground to develop that actively preserves the shared collective co-financing models across public and private actors. memory of the city and seeks social recovery Experience demonstrates that when cultural assets, within the urban fabric. Rehabilitation of heritage particularly landmarks, are intentionally targeted during buildings adjacent to the UN protected buffer conflict or lost in disasters, communities are less resilient zone has brought families and businesses back and cities risk becoming places of vulnerability that can into neighborhoods that were devastated and often revert to instability. abandoned because of the conflict. The historic Principle #3: Fostering cultural expressions to offer buildings along Ledra Street, the main commer- appropriate ways to deal with post-crisis trauma and cial avenue that physically links the two sides reconcile affected communities: Intangible heritage and of Nicosia, were rehabilitated resurrecting it as the cultural and creative industries can help shape more a bustling business area, albeit separated by sustainable and inclusive reconstruction and recovery checkpoints. The results of these efforts are the processes with full ownership of communities if inte- re-establishment of social networks in what was grated into all phases of the process. Intangible cultural once a war zone and the preservation of tentative heritage has an essential role in effectively maintaining linkages between communities. and managing cultural diversity, fostering intercultural dialogue, and enabling the successful monitoring of cul- tural change in post-crisis situations. Meanwhile, artists and cultural institutions play an important role in ensuring freedom of expression and fostering inclusive dialogue. 29 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery In post-conflict societies, cultural activities and artistic heritage and the promotion of creativity as well as an expression provide a platform to start healing the scars analysis of the economic and social value and meaning of the past and restore a sense of normality. of heritage to the city. Urban plans can be prepared through open competitions as well as through public Principle #4: Prioritizing culture early in the planning debates and exhibitions. These plans can also become process, starting with needs assessments, and imple- tools for reconciliation and the reintegration of different mentation of emergency interventions that reflect segments of the population. Through these plans, res- community priorities: In the earliest stage, a Cultural idents and citizens can provide detailed feedback and Heritage Task Force should be established to prevent the engage with urban development professionals and neigh- destruction of tangible heritage through demolition. The bors to prioritize strategies for reconstruction. Equally demolition process should never precede this step. The important for the reconstruction and recovery effort is needs assessment phase evaluates physical damages to the implementation of emergency interventions such as assets as well as economic losses to households, firms, restoring clean water supply, electricity or reconstruction and the economy caused by disasters, conflicts, and/or of access roads that respond to communities’ priorities. urban distress. The phase also assessment the impact Impact assessments (social, environment, and heritage), on community organizations, structures, social capital, which are often conducted in conjunction with needs and intangible cultural heritage. To ensure that culture assessments, are an opportunity to include culture as becomes an integral part of urban design and planning, part of the recovery process. needs assessments must prioritize the appreciation of Rebuilding the city’s multicultural identity through the symbolic reconstruction 10 of the Mostar Bridge in Bosnia and Herzegovina View of Stari Most Bridge and Mostar old town, Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina. © Asiastock / Shutterstock.com* For Mostar’s citizens, the Mostar Bridge was a cultural For them, this form of reconstruction symbolized the icon that defined the city’s identity. When the bridge re-establishment of desecrated values.”25 was destroyed in 1993 during the Bosnian War, local The community’s message was clear, “A person killed inhabitants prioritized reconstruction of the bridge over is one of us; the Bridge is all of us”26, articulating the housing, indicating its true value to the community. fundamental role of culture as identity in the recovery The people of Mostar demanded “a full rebuilding of process for the people of Mostar, Bosnia. the bridge on the spot where it stood, in the form it had, and from the same materials as originally used. 25. Hadzimuhamedovic, 2018. 26. Drakulic, 1993. 30 2. A Framework for Culture in City Reconstruction and Recovery (CURE) Engaging communities in the restoration of tangible and intangible heritage 11 to foster social cohesion and reconciliation in Timbuktu, Mali The recovery of Timbuktu, Mali. © MINUSMA-Tiecoura N’DAOU / Flickr.com* In the case of Timbuktu, local communities were peace, cohesion and tranquility, this ceremony consti- actively engaged in the reconstruction and recovery tuted the last step of Timbuktu’s cultural rebirth after process from planning to implementation. After the 2012 the mausoleums’ destruction. conflict, development partners undertook concerted Moreover, the local communities, helped in exfiltrating actions to safeguard cultural heritage assets in Mali. most of the old manuscripts to Bamako – another This process included not only local and international collective effort that contributed to their safeguarding. experts, but also cultural site managers and Timbuktu’s In addition, training courses and various awareness local communities. The reconstruction works under- raising cultural activities were organized for local taken on the thirteen destroyed mausoleums, as well communities to strengthen their ownership throughout as the restoration of the damaged minaret and rein- the process and ensure resilience and sustainability. forcement of the surrounding wall of the Djingareyber Mosque, were assigned to local masons rather than The global approach of the reconstruction project that to construction companies. Timbuktu’s communities targeted both tangible and intangible cultural heritage were actively involved in these works, guided by the laid its foundations on sustainability. The focus on local mason corporation. The collective plastering traditional knowledge and skills in the rehabilitation works, which had been discontinued in 2012 because works and the revitalization of cultural practices, of the conflict, contributed to the (re)building of social along with a participatory approach gathering local cohesion and unity and constituted a strong symbol communities and experts, allowed for the recovery of regained peace. Moreover, a re-sacralization cere- of cultural identity for the affected communities and mony allowed the families to retake possession of their the restoration of pride and dignity. mausoleums. Calling the divine mercy to maintain 31 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery Public-private partnerships: The need for a balanced approach in Beirut, Lebanon 12 Nejmeh square, downtown Beirut, Lebanon. © Council for Development and Reconstruction (Beirut, Lebanon) Reconstruction after the Civil War (1975-1990) in Beirut that act as physical barriers to access. The typology followed two approaches. The first approach, which of large blocks designed for high-rises stood in stark demonstrated mixed results, is that of the Beirut contrast to the low rise, dense fabric that characterized Central District (BCD). This example, which began the pre-war architecture of the city center. Pre-war after the war, is a cautionary tale of a rigid, centralized social networks and communities were pushed out approach. Initially, limited oversight for BCD recon- through the exchange of property ownership for struction allowed one set of stakeholders, in this case shares in the real estate development company. Driven the private sector, to overtake the entire reconstruction by profit, reconstruction took place absent both the and recovery process. Focusing mainly on economic public participation process and adequate government development as the strategy for reconstruction of the oversight in decision-making and monitoring. BCD, Solidère, a private development company, was Until recently, BCD featured both exclusive spaces that entrusted to rebuild the area. Solidère had initially were not accessible to all socio-economic groups and prioritized attracting foreign investors to finance luxury security zones with barriers that suffocated devel- offices and apartments within the setting of the city’s opment while leaving empty apartments and failing iconic architecture and prioritized the transformation businesses behind. Recently, recognizing the need for of old souks (markets) into commercial spaces devoid a more balanced approach, the Government of Lebanon of community life. The model prioritized urban design stepped in with a more comprehensive approach to over community involvement. Profit was prioritized address challenges in BCD and carried out concrete over social inclusion and diversity. actions to enhance linkages between the BCD and As a result, BCD became an extremely well-designed, local communities. A recent series of cultural events, yet exclusive and high-end enclave, the completion of concerts, and exhibitions were well-received by local which was affected by the slower economic growth communities and are contributing to a rediscovery of as a result of regional tensions. BCD was a central BCD. These recent efforts are yielding positive results transportation node prior to the Civil War. Its capacity through a more balanced partnership between the to bring together people from different socio-economic public and private sectors. backgrounds was drastically reduced. BCD became an enclave detached from its surroundings by infra- structural breaks such as a network of major roads 32 2. A Framework for Culture in City Reconstruction and Recovery (CURE) Principle #5: Engaging communities and local govern- cultural heritage and recover cultural assets ensures a ments in every step of the recovery process: Participatory coordinated reconstruction process. At the same time, approaches are essential for governance systems to the planning process should engage actors in the co-con- effectively plan, implement, and finance reconstruc- struction process from the beginning of reconstruction tion and recovery strategies and for ensuring the full to better manage the present and the future. involvement of their beneficiaries and the complete ownership of all stakeholders. Taking into account the cultures of concerned communities and individuals is key to a participatory approach. Communities can also be involved in activities, such as debris removal, which provide for a potential cash-for-work program to sup- port livelihoods and serve as a catalyst for economic recovery. The action of collecting and securing historic elements such as historic building materials and artifacts can inspire a renewed spirit of community and become an important first moment for cooperation and reconcil- iation among citizens. Appropriate knowledge-sharing and capacity-building are also key in these processes. This participatory approach should be supported by local governments that are responsible for delivering basic services. This is the way to institutionalize the relation between the population and the local governments. Principle #6: Using financial models that balance immediate/short-term needs with the medium/long- term development timeframe in reconstruction plans: Financial models integrate the economic and physical contributions of various urban actors including citizens, civil society, the market, and/or the state. A successful reconstruction and recovery process depends upon its model’s capacity to engage across parallel timelines. Effective financial models require policies and plans that mediate between short-term necessities such as emergency housing, temporary commerce, infrastructure, and communal services and the ambition to engage with the long-term and often arduous process of re-defining a city’s cultural identity. Principle #7: Ensuring effective management of the reconstruction process by striking a balance between people’s basic needs and the recovery of a city’s historic character: It is especially critical to balance people’s need to immediately rebuild their destroyed homes with the need to guide reconstruction in the context of cultural heritage. Measures must be taken to avoid a chaotic process that could affect the urban fabric’s cultural heritage and/or the structural integrity of historic buildings. Imposing a moratorium on reconstruction can create tensions with the local community and may lack the support of local leaders while at the same time being difficult to enforce. On the other hand, a laissez-faire approach, whether through a lack of capacity or through intentional policy, can cause irreparable damage that deteriorates the character of the urban fabric and could jeopardize overall property values and cities’ tourism potential. A rapid deployment of guidelines for reconstruction to protect 33 3 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery 34 3. Implementing the CURE Framework Implementing T his chapter translates the CURE Framework into operational guidance for city reconstruction and the CURE recovery using a project cycle approach. It addresses policy-makers and practitioners and provides operational Framework tools that integrate culture throughout all phases of the reconstruction and recovery process. The paper provides an initial roadmap for the implementation of the CURE Framework. More detailed guidelines would need to be developed through a participatory approach to ensure that it is effectively implemented by all stakeholders. This operational guidance builds on several existing approaches and tools including UNESCO’s Recommen- dation on the Historic Urban Landscape (HUL), PDNA specific guidelines for the culture sector (PDNA – Culture volume27), RPBAs, the DRF, and the Strategy for Reinforcing UNESCO’s Action for the Protection of Culture and the Promotion of Cultural Pluralism in the Event of Armed Conflict. For the purposes of this chapter, these tools have been adapted to suit a city-level reconstruction and recovery process. The four phases of the CURE Framework The operationalization of the CURE Framework involves four phases, each with several components, as detailed below and highlighted in Figure 2.28 Damage and Needs Assessment and Scoping. This 1.  phase includes the assessment of damages and impacts to tangible and intangible cultural heritage, the cultural and creative industries, housing stock and land resources, services and infrastructure, and the tourism sector, as well as the resulting economic losses to the affected population from the interrup- tion of services and use of assets. Building on the damage and needs assessments, a scoping process is conducted, which includes data collection, asset mapping, stakeholder mapping and the development of a vision for city reconstruction and recovery. Policy and Strategy. This phase outlines the poli- 2.  cies, strategies and planning process that translate 27. PDNA Guidelines Volume B 28. The DRF has six phases. They are a) needs assessment, b) policy and strategy setting, c) institutional framework, d) financing, e) implementation arrangements, and f) strengthening recovery Local workers rebuild a temple in Pokhara, Nepal. systems. The four phases of the CURE framework broadly cover © Yurakrasil / Shutterstock.com* the content of these six phases. 35 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery Figure 2. The Four Phases of the CURE Framework Component 1.1: Tangible Cultural Heritage Component 1.2: Intangible Cultural Heritage Damage and Needs Component 1.3: Creative and Cultural Industries Assessment Component 1.4: Cultural Tourism PHASE 1 Component 1.5: Historic Housing Stock and Land Resources Component 1.6: Data Collection and Analysis Component 1.7: Asset Mapping Scoping Component 1.8: Stakeholder Mapping Component 1.9: Vision Development Component 2.1: Designing a Planning Process Setting Policy PHASE 2 Component 2.2: Regulatory Mechanisms and Strategy Component 2.3: Civic Engagement Component 3.1: Identifying Funding Resources Component 3.2: Management of Land Resources PHASE 3 Financing Component 3.3: Land Value Capture Component 3.4: Land Readjustments Component 3.5: City-led Financing Tools Component 4.1: Institutional Arrangements PHASE 4 Implementation Component 4.2: Risk Management Component 4.3: Communication and Engagement Strategy 36 3. Implementing the CURE Framework the damage and needs assessments and vision into Phase 1. Damage and Needs plans and planning regulations, through participatory approaches where stakeholders and communities are Assessment and Scoping fully engaged. This phase starts with a post-crisis damage and needs assessment exercise, which includes physical damages 3. Financing: This phase includes the identification of and economic losses and an identification of needs. It modalities to finance the reconstruction and recovery continues with a more comprehensive scoping component, process combining public and private financing, as which builds and elaborates on the needs assessment well as other funding sources, the management of and includes data collection, asset and stakeholder map- land resources (one of the most critical assets cities ping, and the development of a vision for reconstruction possess), and development of financing tools and and recovery. incentives. 4. Implementation. This phase, which is critical to the success and sustainability of post-crisis recon- Damage and Needs Assessment struction and recovery efforts, includes setting up The first step in this phase is to conduct an assessment effective institutional and governance structures, a to identify damages and their impacts on tangible and risk management strategy, and a communication and intangible cultural assets, the cultural and creative indus- engagement strategy. tries, and cultural tourism as well as to calculate economic losses arising from the interrupted use of such assets and These phases offer policy-makers and practitioners a services. PDNAs are an established methodology to use systematic, integrated approach to design and imple- when assessing damage, loss and economic impact on ment a participatory city reconstruction and recovery the affected economy; and identifying the short, medium, strategy with culture at its core.  Naturally, post-crisis and long-term recovery and reconstruction needs.29 This recovery and reconstruction is a long-term undertaking phase links the assessment to the recovery project cycle. and may span decades. In the immediate aftermath of a crisis, emergency relief efforts tend to focus on providing The damage assessment examines the physical harm food, basic services, and shelters. Once the immediate and value to rehabilitate, restore or reconstruct historical emergency relief situation stabilizes, reconstruction and assets, while losses look at the economic impact (forgone recovery efforts can start. revenues, productivity, etc.) as a result of the crisis.30 Given that historic areas are part of a larger urban agglomera- It is important to note that the four phases are not meant tion, the assessments should take into consideration the to be implemented in a linear or sequential order. Rather, impact of the crisis on the whole city. For example, if an they tend to overlap and are part of an iterative process affected historic area was in the central business district that depends on each city’s unique situation, the level or in a major tourism center, the losses must be assessed of damage, technical capacity, political economy, and for the whole city and not just the historic area since the institutional arrangements. Given the evolving nature economic losses extend to a larger affected population. of crises, which have become increasingly protracted Drawing from the RPBA methodology, in cases of conflict, without a clear beginning or end, the framework can apply this first phase would benefit from an analysis of root to particular instances during crises. The framework is causes, drivers, stakeholders, dynamics of the conflict, also intended to cover the entire city and not just historic and local peacebuilding capacities, which will inform the areas, although the latter require specific intervention assessment of needs for the community and will define tools and techniques. The extent to which factors such what should be reconstructed in priority and how. as the speed and cost of reconstruction and recovery weigh in will also differ from one place to the other. The Throughout the process, historic and non-historic areas implementation of emergency interventions becomes a should be well identified to enable an adapted approach for critical factor in rallying the different stakeholders around reconstruction and recovery. In many countries, historic the process. At the same time, it is critical to allow suf- urban areas are inscribed in the national or local registry ficient time for the necessary consultative processes to of historic places or in UNESCO’s World Heritage List. be conducted to ensure that people’s priorities are well Listed or registered areas are expected to have a wealth of identified and respected. information about the historical and cultural significance of the urban area and management mechanisms for the historic sites. A site management plan usually includes 29. Available at: https://www.gfdrr.org/sites/default/files/publication/ DRF-Guide.pdf 30. Available at: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/ handle/10986/19047 37 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery Multi-hazard vulnerability 13 an assessment of values and the attributes that carry assessment for priority cultural these values, as well as a comprehensive inventory of heritage sites in the Philippines all tangible heritage assets – movable and immovable – and details of their locations and conditions. When management plans are available, needs assessments and subsequent phases should incorporate applicable elements from these plans. This phase includes assessments of tangible cultural heritage, including monuments, religious buildings, historic urban fabric and infrastructure, archaeological sites, movable cultural heritage, such as works of art, manuscripts and archival records, and cultural infrastruc- ture, including museums, libraries, theaters and other cultural institutions. Box 13 summarizes an example of such assessments in the Philippines. Further, assessments must examine intangible cultural Tacloban, Philippines, after Typhoon Haiyan in November heritage practices through community-based needs 2013. © Ymphotos / Shutterstock.com* identification as well as the cultural and creative indus- tries, which include infrastructure and the resources and In 2013, the Philippines experienced two major processes for the production, distribution, and sale of natural disasters – a magnitude 7.2 earthquake, and creative cultural goods such as music, crafts, audio-visual the Category 5 Typhoon Haiyan, which damaged products, cinema, and books. Lastly, cultural tourism several major culturally significant structures. With assets also need to be assessed. the assistance of the World Bank, the Department of Tourism, Philippine cultural agencies, such as There are five components to the damage and needs the National Commission for Culture and Arts assessment phase, each of which is detailed below. and the National Museum, and the Intramuros Component 1.1. Tangible cultural heritage including  Administration took on a multi-hazard vulnerability built heritage and cultural sites, moveable proper- assessment of the existing and damaged cultural ties and collections, and repositories of heritage: heritage. This component includes the on-site assessment of This exercise included site surveys and data collec- damage to structures and their contents by experts tion, as well as stakeholder workshops and training using historic documentation or photographs as well activities to support the development and dissem- as information on the economic value associated with ination of the utilized methodology. The method- the loss of the structure’s function. To record losses, ology is planned for adoption in the forthcoming all immovable tangible cultural assets must be included Philippine Standards for Conservation31. In the in the assessment process. Damage can range from absence of this initiative, these standards would significant structural damage affecting the function have not been disaster risk-informed. Strengthening of the site to the damage of façades, architectural historical and cultural assets against the impacts decorations, and ornamentation. of disasters is a new approach for the Philippines Once the scale of damage is known, a replacement beyond traditional focus on critical public facilities value for the damaged structures or objects must be such as schools and hospitals. This contribution calculated with the understanding that the calculation will be a key step toward mainstreaming disaster is at best an estimate. Assigning a present-day value risk reduction into the conservation of cultural to non-replaceable cultural resources is challeng- heritage structures through public and donor ing because cultural goods have important non-use, resources, beyond the multi-hazard vulnerability non-market values (e.g. spiritual, symbolic, etc.) that are assessments developed for the three pilot sites. difficult to translate into monetary terms. Moreover, the replacement of certain cultural assets, when technically possible, may not be possible without a considerable loss of authenticity. Part of the 2nd Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction 31.  Development Policy Loan with a Catastrophe Deferred- Draw-Down, Option, Result Indicators framework 38 3. Implementing the CURE Framework When repair and reconstruction of damaged cultural affected and in assessing the impact of the disaster on assets is possible and desirable, the related cost should them. It is central to the process that community groups be calculated on actual local market prices of labor, assess the value of their own intangible cultural heritage, materials, and management broken down by public which should not be subject to external judgements of and private sector. For historic structures, these costs value or worth.34 will have to consider the special requirements of such Component 1.3. Creative and cultural industries: Assets  a complex undertaking which cannot be compared to in this category include establishments providing or the replacement of an ordinary modern building. producing cultural goods or services. Impacts to this Economic losses due to the disruption in function of sector manifest themselves in an interruption in sales cultural properties and institutions must also be calcu- or export of cultural goods or the provision of services lated. For instance, structures with less architectural associated with cultural tourism. significance can have residential or commercial uses. In assessing the impact of disasters or armed conflicts Monuments and structures with high architectural on cultural assets, attention must be paid to determine significance are often used as museums or cultural which skills or intangible knowledge, or know-how, might centers catering to domestic or international visitors. have been lost. It is also important to assess whether Economic losses should be estimated using forgone any schools of craft or informal training centers were economic income while a historic property is not in use. affected or whether any established craftspeople (and Since the extent of the losses will be determined by an especially master craftspeople) were displaced due to estimate of the time required until full recovery has been the crisis. Institutional aspects such as the existence of achieved, as well as the capacities of the sector to imple- regulatory or licensing authorities for arts and culture ment the necessary measures, the calculation of their should also be noted. The assessment should also economic value will be based on a realistic assumption capture indirect economic losses to agencies such as of a post-disaster scenario including timeframe and the those for marketing or promotion of the local creative possibility of adopting certain temporary solutions.32 and cultural industries. Component 1.2. Intangible cultural heritage: Cultural  Impacts of disasters or armed conflicts on creative indus- heritage extends beyond monuments, sites, and col- tries should capture affected structures, equipment, lections of objects. It also includes traditions and living and raw materials and should use the replacement cost expressions transmitted inter-generationally.33 Intangible method to account for funds needed to rebuild struc- cultural heritage is instrumental in maintaining cultural tures or the industry. Understanding the impact on the identities within communities and cultural diversity manufacturing sector can be challenging depending on throughout the world. In post-crisis situations, intangible the type and size of establishments in the historic area. cultural resources can have a tremendous impact in The assessment must consider the pre-crisis condi- rebuilding the social cohesion and community resilience tion of the facilities and markets for cultural heritage needed for the reconstruction process. Consultative products. Baseline data should be collected on the processes that rely upon local, community-centered number, type, and size of commercial and manufacturing historical knowledge, rather than external expertise, facilities, their specifications and machinery, data on will be most valuable in identifying core cultural prac- annual production and equivalent dollar amount, and tices that can be contributors to reconciliation. Special information on the destination of the manufactured care must be taken to allow space for reviving cultural goods. Data on local or domestic consumption and the practices that may have been forbidden or suppressed value of cultural product exports must also be collected. during a conflict. While it is important to assess impacts This process creates a pre-/post-crisis inventory that of disasters or armed conflicts to intangible cultural includes the typologies, sizes, and gross of units of heritage, it is difficult to record such losses as they production and sales. happen over time and disrupt a certain way of life. Such destruction is more difficult to detect, for example the Component 1.4. Cultural tourism sector: The tourism  disruption of a festival or performing arts routine, of sector includes the set of productive activities that cater social or religious rituals or of cultural practices. mainly to visitors.35 In many historic cities, tourism is a major source of economic activity for local residents. Local community members must take the lead in identi- Revenues are derived from tourist expenditures on fying which intangible cultural heritage assets have been accommodations, transport, travel related services, food, and cultural goods. The assessment must examine For more information on estimating the economic value of 32.  damage, see PDNA Guidelines Volume B (Culture), pp.16-17. 33. Available at: https://ich.unesco.org/en/traditional- 34. Available at: https://ich.unesco.org/en/ethics-and-ich-00866 craftsmanship-00057 35. Available at: http://www.oecd.org/cfe/tourism/TSA_EN.pdf 39 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery both the demand and supply-side as the timeline for Creativity and digital technologies 14 rebuilding tourist accommodations (the supply side) as drivers of meaningful community should correspond with the estimated number of tourist engagement in post-crisis recovery arrivals (the demand side) during recovery.36 Boosting in Christchurch, New Zealand demand post-crisis will require marketing and informa- tion campaigns to advertise the destination as safe and reliable for both domestic and international visitors. Component 1.5. Historic housing stock and land  resources: Housing is one of the most important sec- tors in the reconstruction of post-crisis cities. Damage assessments must examine the status of historic hous- ing and related land together as many housing units in historic areas are built on land with unclear property rights that include public, private, religious, or communal property, and are occupied by people with uncertain or undocumented tenure. It is critical to include renters or residents with informal tenure in the assessment, irrespective of their lack of legal rights to the land. Ballerina being painted on the back of the Isaac Theater Assessing damage to the housing sector requires Royal, which was destroyed by the 2011 earthquake, Christchurch, New Zealand. consultation of pre-crisis regulations and guidelines © Jocelyn Kinghorn / Flickr.com specific to historic areas, land-use and architectural requirements, national and local housing regulations, In September 2010 and February 2011, the city of and financing options. Christchurch was hit by two devastating earth- quakes. To generate community input, the city Scoping council launched an online platform about 10 weeks after the second earthquake. Residents submitted The scoping step of this phase starts once the city has their ideas for the redevelopment process online. advanced or completed relief efforts and has reached a Within six weeks the platform had received 58,000 relatively more stable state to start the rebuilding process. visits. A community expo, which drew more than Building on estimates of the damage and loss and the 10,000 visitors, was organized to present the preliminary listing of reconstruction and recovery needs, results of deliberations to the community. as well as on information on the previous and actual state of historic areas, scoping processes consist of bringing all stakeholders together to identify their needs and to develop a common vision for reconstruction and recovery. conducted on both a micro scale (historic area) and a Data analysis is required to develop a broad picture of the macro scale (city-wide). Baseline data on all sectors is post-crisis situation and to develop relevant objectives useful to understand the city’s relationships within the tailored to unique local characteristics and conditions. country and region. While it is helpful to have baseline Identification of stakeholders in a post-crisis situation may data from the pre-crisis period, this is often a great be challenging. If conflicts or disasters have displaced challenge. When available, pre-crisis data could be used people or resulted in casualties, this must be included as to construct a database against which the principles of an essential component of this phase. Local stakeholder “build back better” can be measured. Data collection engagement is even more important when reconstructing should include information on cultural and natural heritage places of historic and cultural value because of the poten- assets, economic data, social data, growth dynamics, tial for conflicting views on the historical and memorial market assessments, and obstacles to growth. significance of a given place. The scoping phase has Component 1.7. Asset mapping: This exercise records  four components: available human, social, cultural, economic, and phys- Component 1.6. Data collection and analysis: While  ical resources in the affected areas. These resources historic centers represent only one part of a city, they could include community infrastructure and services, are often anchors upon which the civic structure of the community centers, institutions, local skills, and social present-day city was developed. Historic areas should networks. Asset mapping exercises use different meth- be linked to the overall development patterns and growth ods to collect information about community resources, dynamics of the larger city. Data collection should be but community input in understanding the value of assets is important to ensure a comprehensive approach. This 36. Ibid. 40 3. Implementing the CURE Framework process can be useful in identifying specific cultural Building a safe city through 15 practices that would be good contributors to peace- participatory planning in Medellin, building efforts. Colombia Governments can embark on cultural asset mapping by identifying the community’s cultural resources and collecting data on each individual asset. Based on data collected through on-the-ground surveys, a geographic information system (GIS) can be a useful mapping tool. GIS digital maps can be overlaid with other data on hazards, demographics, economic activity, and trans- portation to enrich the inventory and inform the planning process. Where technologies are not available, data gathered through on-the-ground surveys can be mapped manually or by using basic open-source software. Component 1.8. Stakeholder mapping: Identifying and  engaging the community in the reconstruction process ensures its sustainability and continuity. The team should address the key community issues and dynamics pre and post-crisis. Local organizations must be identified and engaged. Furthermore, under-privileged groups that have not conventionally participate in the plan- Comuna 13, Medellin, Colombia. ning process should be identified and encouraged to © Casal Partiu / Flickr.com participate. In designing the engagement process, the team must In Medellin, Colombia, which has transformed first identify the relevant stakeholders. The engagement itself from a violent past to an exemplary city, process should include the stakeholders who are directly participatory planning was a major component affected by the rebuilding process and decisions, such in post-crisis healing. The city established as community leaders and organizations, religious and communal forums at the neighborhood level ethnic groups, private sector, owners, renters, informal to produce a participatory diagnosis of recon- community, youth, and women. In addition, a second struction needs. Through this process, each group of essential stakeholders who are involved in community identified its own local problems and shaping the reconstruction process and its execution proposed its own solutions. Over 1,000 people should be involved. These include educational and and around 430 social organizations participated academic institutions, local government officials, policy in the forums, which were spaces to debate local and planning professionals, and technical experts. The and city-wide issues. team must identify and include all the stakeholders and map out the dynamics and relationships among them. Component 1.9. Vision development: Developing a vision  is the main step of the scoping phase. A vision, which is vital to articulating the direction of the reconstruction process, should be aspirational and provide a clear benchmark against which to measure progress. The visioning process provides a shared idea for the future direction of the city that is owned by all stakeholders. It gives mayors and local administrations political capital for reaching out and recognizing citizen voices. The vision formulation process can also bridge political administrations for continuity. Two factors are key in the visioning process. First, the process of developing a vision must be inclusive involving all stakeholders and especially minority groups, women, and youth. Second, the visioning process must be empirically grounded using all data sources available from pre-crisis to post-crisis. 41 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery Promoting a multi-disciplinary 16 Phase 2. Setting Policy approach to recovery planning in and Strategy Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina This phase outlines operational actions that translate the needs and damage assessment and vision into an implementable plan. It is often the case that local and provincial government cannot function efficiently in the immediate aftermath of a disaster. Planning recon- struction is a way to reposition local governments in the institutional framework and recover legitimacy vis à vis the population. The phase includes three components: first, the team must create a clear planning process with the participation of all stakeholders; second, regulatory mechanisms must be defined to ensure that “build back better” principles are in place; and third, a process of civic engagement should be designed so that recovery and reconstruction has the support of all stakeholders and thus is sustainable. Component 2.1. Designing the planning process: The  planning process for post-crisis reconstruction should be inclusive, transparent, and objective. A transparent process allows public, private, and community stake- holders to interact in reconstruction development and Building destroyed during the 1992–1995 civil war, implementation. These interactions set the stage for a Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. shared recognition of cultural diversity, an acknowledg- © akturer / Shutterstock.com* ment of culture as a source of dignity, and encouragement After the Bosnian war ended, Sarajevo’s first step of cultural participation and public access to heritage was to draft a recovery and development strategy as a precondition for a stable, resilient society. In some within a period of six months. As is the case with cases, a city may have several sectoral plans being imple- many visioning exercises, this process was an mented in parallel. This is not an ideal situation, but it can invitation to the international community to assist in be addressed by having a central coordination entity or defining a development strategy for Sarajevo. The platform and institutions responsible for implementation visioning process included an analysis of applicable and for ensuring compliance and harmonization of these market laws, municipal management development, diverse plans. For example, the Urban Plan of Sarajevo and proposed transitions of the economic system. was prepared for the period from 1986 to 2015 and aimed The process also analyzed relationships between at improving living conditions throughout the city while economic enterprises, secured financing for city dealing with spatial, social, economic, and geopolitical functions, established land markets, zoned busi- changes. The Sarajevo Canton Development Strategy ness premises, city property management system, was another planning document that was developed foreign capital investment, and the interests of by 18 institutions addressing 48 priorities including public companies. strengthening the economic base and contributing to a livable environment. Component 2.2. Regulatory mechanisms: The post-cri-  sis reconstruction process is a good opportunity to revise existing planning regulations and ensure the development of building codes and regulations that will produce a more sustainable and resilient urban area. These regulations not only address the phys- ical development of the historic area, but also offer provisions for social and environmental concerns. In post-disaster situations, the lack of clear regulations can raise a community’s level of concern and mistrust over how projects are approved as well as questions 42 3. Implementing the CURE Framework of the intended outcome.37 Effective regulations can be A master plan examines the need for public spaces accompanied by streamlined approval processes and for community gatherings as well as the needs of the adoption of new regulations specific to the goals particular sectors of the local economy. Robust and of the reconstruction area. proactive planning considers how human needs can drive the physical reconstruction. The most common regulatory mechanism in urban set- tings is a spatial and land use planning process including – Specialized Plans. Land use plans often interact with a prioritization framework where policy-makers, citizens, supplemental planning efforts. Regional or national and other stakeholders can identify urgent needs and plans are often created to apply across jurisdictions and priorities, evaluate trade-offs and risks, and sequence increase governmental coordination and cooperation projects by ranking the competing priorities of urban between different cities and/or with their surrounding space. Land use and spatial planning can reconcile land suburbs. Specialized plans should be developed to use with environmental concerns and resolve potential guide policy in a specific area of interest (e.g. historic conflicts between sectoral interests and potential uses. urban area regeneration, etc.).   It can also increase land tenure security and clarify the Zoning and Municipal Code Plans. Whereas land use – customary land tenure of communal lands.38 Land use plans are broad, future-looking instruments, zoning planning is a responsive process that is open to input and and municipal codes are immediate and specific strives for transparency. Proper land use planning can regulatory controls that apply to every land parcel also guide the financing of reconstruction and recovery. inside the covered area.  Zoning codes are subject Several types of plans can be used post-crisis based to a land use plan and defer to the overall goals on each city’s capacity and organizational structure. of reconstruction. For instance, if a land use plan These include: designates an area as high risk, the zoning code – Strategic Plans. Strategic plans may be developed will include specifics about how each property may to outline a process or plan of response to specific be used and set standards for the physical design. issues such as disaster scenarios including plans for Common elements in a zoning code might include the emergency response. They are broad and comprehen- building structure, required setbacks, the number of sive and address the interrelationships between the floors, safety measures, aesthetic considerations, and economic, physical, social, cultural and institutional more. Where a master plan takes a bird’s-eye view dimensions of any reconstruction program. In contrast of the whole area, zoning codes in conjunction with to traditional comprehensive plans, strategic plans other municipal codes dictate standards property by are conceptual and do not cover in detail all elements property and use by use. governing the long-term growth of the city. Strategic For historic urban areas, the regulatory systems include plans need to identify the cultural resources and their special ordinances, acts, or decrees to manage tangible management. and intangible components of the urban heritage includ- – Master Plans. A master plan is a multi-year, for- ing their social and environmental values. Traditional and ward-facing regulatory document that guides future customary systems should be recognized and reinforced change and development in a systematic fashion. The as necessary. In post-crisis settings, regulatory systems term “master plan” may refer to an entire jurisdiction, provide the legal means to protect historic urban areas such as a city or region, or it may mean a more limited in complex inheritance and property contexts (such as area being redeveloped at a specific time. Regardless of religious endowments and absentee owners) and they whether a plan is a revitalization plan or a general plan address and regulate the private sector’s pressure and for a whole jurisdiction, land use plans tend to share interests. common components and structures. Plans assess A good example of a master plan that includes his- current conditions through economic or social analy- toric reconstruction is the 2003-2023 Spatial Plan for sis, maps, and statistics, anticipate future challenges Sarajevo. The plan considers customs and cultural facing the area, and propose and implement goals and identity as significant assets for city development, and policy solutions for the intermediate or long-term future emphasizes the importance of the city’s historic core ranging from 3 to 10 years. It is crucial to note that a and the urgency to preserve its spatial elements such strong master plan is inclusive of both the physical as image, structure, and form. The plan differentiates and social fabric of the area by anticipating both the between (a) the wider historic urban area of the city, physical needs of the space such as necessary transit which coincides with the area inscribed in the World improvements and the character of the affected area. Heritage Tentative List; (b) the historic urban core; and (c) the old town area, with the most stringent protection 37. Amirtahmasebi et al., 2016. regime. The Spatial Plan of Sarajevo also lists 891 cultural 38. Metternicht, 2017. 43 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery Improving disaster risk 17 heritage properties located in the Municipalities of Stari management for cultural heritage Grad and Centar.39 Another example of a post-disaster sites in Bagan, Myanmar plan in Bagan, Myanmar, is detailed in Box 17. Component 2.3. Civic Engagement: The involvement  of the communities in all reconstruction and recovery processes is essential both as a means and as an end. Planning must evaluate community dynamics, capacity, and post-crisis social capital to identify the way in which communities can be engaged in the reconstruction and recovery processes. It should therefore involve a diverse cross-section of stakeholders and empower them to identify key values in their urban areas, to develop visions that reflect their diversity, to set goals, and to agree on actions to safeguard their heritage and to promote sustainable development. These tools, which constitute an integral part of urban governance dynamics, should facilitate intercultural dialogue by learning from communities about their histories, traditions, values, needs, and aspirations and by facilitating mediation and negotiation between groups with conflicting interests. While merely informing the communities may be appro- priate only in the exceptional case of immediate and acute danger, in most situations, the best practice is View of old pagoda in Bagan, Myanmar, still under reconstruction after the 2016 earthquake. empowerment, knowing that in the last years there © Boyloso / Shutterstock.com* has been a move from community participation to community engagement40. Following the 2016 earthquake in Myanmar, Genuine interaction where the community views are UNESCO and the World Bank along with other actively sought and their inputs are taken on board is partners supported the government recovery recommended only once their immediate safety has efforts led by the Department of Archeology and been secured. This becomes challenging when national National Museums of the Ministry of Religious authorities, often unelected transitional leaders, want to Affairs and Culture. The Bagan Disaster Risk claim a mandate to define recovery priorities. Community Management Plan, the first plan of its kind in consultations need to be as robust as possible to begin Myanmar, developed with the support of the World to set in place new patterns of trust. Bank and the Government of Japan, helps to better understand the risks faced by the city of Bagan, integrate relevant management frameworks, and Phase 3. Financing apply current Disaster Risk Management (DRM) Financing and managing funds in a post-crisis setting is measures. The development of the plan brought challenging. As funds ebb and flow during the reconstruc- together many stakeholders ranging from govern- tion and recovery process, managing the cash flow is a ment ministries, sub-national agencies, interna- challenge. To finance post-crisis reconstruction, cities tional and national experts, local communities, must deploy a combination of public and private funds. and the private sector for the management and The process usually starts with a large, upfront invest- protection of Bagan going forward. ment by the public sector to rehabilitate infrastructure and housing. The process then moves to leverage gov- ernment investment and public assets to attract private sector investment. Investments in urban resilience have various levels of return. Some are direct investments in public goods by governments or donors and they are 39. Sarajevo Canton Government, 2006. 40. Experience demonstrated that treating the community members as passive recipients of an “informing” effort reinforces the violation of their own self-determination and agency that the conflict itself caused. 44 3. Implementing the CURE Framework not expected to generate market-viable returns directly. component of any reconstruction strategy. Culture However, such investments can indirectly have a posi- here has a major role to play through the reliance on tive impact on a city’s economic growth and can boost local institutions (e.g., notaries public), traditional dis- private sector confidence in the reconstruction process. pute resolution mechanisms, and effective community Other investments may not be sufficiently transparent participation. or predictable enough to attract private sector capital. In cities with a large number of informal settlements, In these cases, the government or international donors crises may provide an opportunity for the normaliza- can develop risk transfer or credit enhancement and tion of land tenure. Land tenure normalization or “land guarantee mechanisms to enable a safer investment cli- titling” has many social, economic, and political impacts mate. Alternatively, the government can use concessional including increases in income, productivity, credit finance by shifting the investment risk-return profile and access, housing investment, and child education. In the reducing risk with flexible capital and favorable terms. aftermath of a disaster, when most of the population Lastly, in the more advanced phases of reconstruction, is displaced, chaos can overtake communities and the investments can generate viable returns, which make rights of informal settlements and renters can be put in them attractive for private sector financing. This case jeopardy. Normalizing property tenure is an important usually requires stable and robust investment climates component of any long-term, sustainable reconstruc- that eventually emerge several years after the crisis.41 tion and recovery policy as it provides residents with There are three components to financing reconstruction security and stability. and recovery projects, each of which is described below. Depending on a city’s governance capacity and level of Component 3.1. Identifying funding resources: When  sophistication, digital records of land ownership may or the source of funds is identified and the city has access may not exist. Major disasters and conflicts can destroy to a reliable pool of funds to start rebuilding, a capital digital records even if they existed pre-crisis. In more investment plan can be developed. After major natural dire situations, cities that keep paper records may lose disasters or conflicts, a national level agency usually all traces through fire or property damage. Even when oversees the disbursement of available funds for local they exist, paper records are usually drawn by hand and reconstruction. This is usually the case in most devel- are often disputable. Without proper ownership proof, oping countries where national or regional governments implementing a reconstruction strategy will face diffi- carry more power than local authorities. That said, local culty in assigning grants or loans to rebuild structures. government should have reliable public finance man- Developing proper systems of land administration is agement systems to be able to use the funds efficiently important to support efficient land markets and land and on schedule. use control systems. Especially in the aftermath of a large disaster, effective land tenure systems can provide The financing schedule for post-crisis reconstruction significant social and economic benefits. Social inclu- can be in the same format as a capital investment sion, access to credit, management of land disputes, plan. However, the reconstruction process usually and poverty alleviation are just a few of these benefits.43 differs from regular budget cycles and procedures. The post-crisis reconstruction process must be quicker One example of managing land resources is the case and more flexible due to urgency. Flexibility is favor- of Mount Merapi in Indonesia, where over 3000 house- able in post-crisis situations where conditions change holds lived in what is considered a high-risk zone. The so rapidly that waiting for budget decisions from the “REKOMPAK” program helped relocate some 2,516 central government can create unacceptable delays.42 families voluntarily to a safer area in a short time. Local governments assisted with land purchases and land Component 3.2. Management of land resources: In  swapping. Over 1,600 disaster-affected households many cities in the developing world, land is owned received non-residential land certificates to be used by various entities and property ownership does not as farmland.44 The REKOMPAK program is designed to necessarily follow as clear-cut a regime as in advanced empower communities to lead their own reconstruction economies. The presence of informal settlements, and resettlement efforts and to engage effectively with absentee owners, renters and religious endowments local governments. adds to the complexity of land ownership. This situation can become more complex after a crisis when most Component 3.3. Land value capture: Land value  residents move out or are displaced or where ownership capture (LVC) is an umbrella term used to describe deeds and tenure records are lost. Therefore, manag- different financing schemes that cities use to leverage ing post-conflict urban land resources is an important land assets in financing infrastructure. The goal is to 41. World Bank, 2016a. 43. Amirtahmasebi et al., 2016. 42. Fengler et al., 2008. 44. Kurniawan et al., 2017. 45 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery capture part of the incremental increase in land values Component 3.4. Land readjustment: Land readjustment  resulting from public investments in infrastructure is a principle that allows landowners to pool their land or regulatory changes such as change of land use or in cooperation with the local government to undertake a densification, where appropriate. It is assumed that redevelopment project. Local government traditionally incremental increases in value due to public action should uses a portion of the pooled land to develop infrastruc- be shared between the owners and the public interest. ture, which in turn adds to the value to the remaining Hence the use of the captured part of the land value pooled land that is returned to the original landowners. increase to finance infrastructure in the city. The use of As a result, each landowner walks away with a smaller LVC clearly requires a land market that is normalizing, parcel of land that is higher in value due to the provision an adequate regulatory and governance framework, and of infrastructure and the ability to develop the land at available records of ownership. A particularly relevant higher densities. The local government is therefore not use of proceeds from LVC would be to finance cultural burdened with a large upfront expense to buy land for investments, including cultural heritage, infrastructure, infrastructure construction. Land readjustment should and cultural and creative industries. be conducted using a transparent process with ade- quate protections to the original owners and occupants In general, there are two categories of LVC. Some are as conflicts and disasters often displace the existing tax or fee-based value capture instruments, and some residents. are development-based value capture instruments. Tax or fee-based instruments were the earliest examples of One of the advantages of land readjustment is that it LVC and were basic impact fees or assessments to cover can be implemented in cities with formal or informal some or all cost of improved infrastructure. Betterment land ownership regimes. If implemented in a city where taxes, special assessment districts, and impact fees residents do not have legal rights to the land, the local are examples of such instruments. Development-based government can cut a deal with the occupants to pool LVC instruments are more entrepreneurial and are often the land, build infrastructure, and transfer land rights to found in Asia. Unlike their North American counterparts, the community. In Japan or Europe, where sophisticated private railway corporations in Hong Kong and Japan legal and institutional frameworks exist, land readjust- have been able to finance and manage large-scale ment can be used in more advanced projects to expand property development around transit nodes. To do so, infrastructure to new parts of the city in exchange for these corporations have used development-based LVC higher land-density regulations, which result in higher mechanisms such as land readjustment or development property values for landowners. rights sales.45 Since land readjustment projects usually merge several The post-crisis reconstruction process is an opportune lots, the traditional block patterns in a historic area may time for a city to employ some of these tools, where be lost. Therefore, land readjustment in historic urban appropriate. However, as discussed above, these tools areas should be undertaken in exceptional cases, where are not suitable for the immediate, post-crisis period lands are of unusual shape or result from recent subdi- when cities and communities are focused on providing visions. The priority should be given to the conservation basic services and building housing and shelter for the of architectural and urban heritage and the traditional displaced. They are also not suitable in historic urban urban fabric. For instance, in Seoul, land readjustment areas where the characteristics of the urban fabric do projects resulted in the loss of traditional alleyways, not allow for densification or land use changes. Such which were important urban heritage structures that instruments also need to align with existing national and detailed the historical growth of Seoul and its identity. local regulatory frameworks and/or customary laws. One of the unique features of old Seoul was that it fully When the initial recovery period is over and the city enters respected its natural environment despite having been the longer-term reconstruction phase, practitioners can a planned city. Instead of introducing a grid-based begin engaging private sector investment for recon- system, traditional roads and buildings did not face struction by using impact fees, developer exactions, southwest following natural waterways.46 In addition, business improvement districts, betterment levies, and alleyways behind the main roads had irregular shapes special assessments where appropriate. Overall, the as they were gradually formed in multiple stages by application of such tools should be approached with the residents.47 However, these structures were lost as caution and sensitivity to the local context to avoid risk lands and roads were reorganized into straight lines. to important heritage values. Although land readjustment created an improved public road system, the result was achieved at the cost of losing a part of Seoul’s urban heritage. 46. Seoul Development Institute, 2005. 45. Suzuki et al., 2015 47. Ibid. 46 3. Implementing the CURE Framework Component 3.5. City-led financing tools: While most  incentives are a good tool to encourage development in large-scale reconstruction policy decisions and financial post-crisis situations where the land market is not strong. resources usually come from the central government, Selectively and intelligently designed tax incentives can local governments can also use their regulatory pow- play a major role in absorbing private sector capital for ers to facilitate and encourage development during reconstruction. Tax incentives can be given to private reconstruction. City authorities can use incentives sector developers or to individual building owners in or regulations to create attractive real estate markets historic neighborhoods to stimulate real-estate markets. and encourage redevelopment in post-crisis situations This tool will only work in cities with clear designed where the private market is not yet strong enough to plans, strong regulatory frameworks, and effective tax invest. City officials can also move the market towards collection systems. a tipping point where the market dynamics become There are also other forms of indirect incentives includ- stronger over time. Policy instruments do not require ing loans and guarantees. The calculation of incen- the exchange of funds between the government and the tives should be based on equations that include the private sector and therefore do not require immediate amount of funds needed for reconstruction projects, cash outlays. Policy instruments only stimulate the the amount that should be covered by local and national market and incentivize private landowners to invest in governments, and the amount to be paid by the own- post-crisis reconstruction. Fiscal tools, on the other ers. Incentives may transfer risk from one level of the hand, facilitate the exchange of funds between the gov- government to another. ernment and the community to promote reconstruction. The transfer of development rights is one creative tool at a local government’s disposal. Development rights can Phase 4. Implementation be transacted between an owner, whose development Once the damage and losses are inventoried, the commu- rights have been limited due to historical significance nity is engaged, a vision is developed, needs are identified, of the structure, and a developer, who tends to develop and financing is secure, a framework for implementation a parcel of land in another part of the city on a density may be created. The implementation phase brings together higher than permitted by zoning regulations. In this all previous elements of the reconstruction project cycle. scheme, the authorized, but unbuilt floor area of the It does so by setting up an institutional framework that historic buildings can be transferred to certain districts ensures the sustainability of the process and divides the with proper higher density. This way the conservation project into logical activities. Creating a clear implemen- cost is borne by more parties and not just the owner tation process is critical to the success of any post-crisis of the historic structure. reconstruction and recovery effort. The implementation phase includes the three components described below. Other tools for encouraging development in post-crisis situations are direct or indirect incentives. The most Component 4.1. Institutional arrangements: A recon-  common form of direct incentives are grants. Grants are struction and recovery management structure should given to the owner of a historic structure for a specific be set up with a long-term vision in mind and should purpose such as maintenance or rehabilitation. Grants lead all efforts from emergency management to the can also be given to non-profit organizations active recovery phase through to normal governance and in the field of historic preservation and conservation. stability.48 Some cities manage the rebuilding process These grants are either block grants given to the own- in-house by reshuffling existing offices and agencies ers or tied grants given to implementing agencies. In within the current urban governance framework. In block grants, an owner of a historic structure would other cases, a central government management agency apply or is eligible by default for a grant to preserve or with emergency powers manages the process in the rehabilitate the structure. Such grants signal that the early stages and then gradually hands it off to the local government views the owners of historic structures as municipality for later stages of implementation. Some trustees of the public interest. This grant process should cities use existing development corporations or rede- be transparent and accountable. Similar to grants, the velopment agencies that already have the necessary local government can also allocate low-cost loans for skillsets for reconstruction and that are familiar with conservation of individual historic buildings. the permitting and development process.49 Indirect incentives work in the same way as direct A recent study reviewed different reconstruction and incentives. However, they do not involve any transfer of recovery processes around the world.50 The report funds between the state and the property owner. Tax- based incentives are the most common form of indirect 48. Johnson, 2014. incentive. A tax benefit can take the form of an alleviation 49. Ibid. of an owner’s property tax or income tax burden. Tax 50. Johnson and Olshansky, 2016. 47 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery summarizes these global practices based on their Adopting a hybrid management 18 institutional and management structures. For large model for post-disaster disasters, which surpass regional and state boundaries, reconstruction in Kobe, Japan central governments are not just involved in mobilizing a range of financial resources from international donors and national reserves, they also actively manage the recovery process and create recovery organizations at the national level. Following the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake in People’s Republic of China, a General Headquarters for Earthquake Relief was established within the Chinese cabinet, receiving its authority from the highest ranks of the government. This arrangement was successful in managing a speedy physical recon- struction effort, but the lack of a local government role in decision-making and community involvement in the recovery process has resulted in an uneven and inequitable economic recovery. Hanshin earthquake memorial, Kobe, Japan. In contrast to the previous example, a decentralized © Tishomir /Shutterstock.com* recovery management model involves various organiza- tions across different levels of government. Decentralized A good example of a hybrid management structure reconstruction management systems prioritize pol- is the reconstruction experience of the City of icy-making at the local level with some support and Kobe and the urban corridor of southern Hyogo coordination provided by the national government. India, Prefecture along Osaka Bay following the 1995 Indonesia, and the United States have used this approach earthquake in Japan. To manage the recovery when hit with disasters. Usually, the national government process, the national government established (or the state government in the case of India) takes on a a restoration headquarters under the prime coordination and support role, which extends to multiple minister’s office that included various cabinet levels of government and other institutions involved in ministers. Each ministry had a role in funding and recovery management.51 Lastly, hybrid models exist policy execution and the headquarters maintained between centralized and decentralized setups. These an oversight function. However, implementation work across different levels of government, but remain of the policies was decentralized to local govern- under tight supervision from the central government. ments. Furthermore, a national advisory council Later in the recovery process as cities stabilize, the pri- was established that included city-planners, vate sector may become significantly engaged in recon- scholars, the business community, the mayor of struction. The public and private sectors can interact Kobe, and the governor of the Hyogo Prefecture. through formalized public-private partnerships (PPPs) At the local level, the City of Kobe established which range from simple management contracts where an earthquake recovery headquarters under the the private sector is contracted for service delivery, to mayor’s supervision as well as a 27-member joint ventures, to design-build-operate-transfer models. recovery planning committee that included offi- cials and academics from different disciplines. Under certain circumstances, a development corpo- This structure evolved over the planning process ration can be formed to take on the reconstruction as the city established an earthquake restoration efforts, but only under the control of local governments. planning council composed of 100 selected stake- These development corporations must have strong holders and academics. This group translated the technical capacities, notably in culture, heritage, and vision and guidelines into a draft recovery plan.52 communication. They operate outside of restrictive civil service legal frameworks (especially for recruitment and procurement) and are semi-autonomous. As a result, a 52 Ibid. development corporation is free of the bureaucracy that can slow reconstruction driven by the public sector. A development corporation has the authority to work in a problems and obstacles of reconstruction and recovery specific geographical area of historical and/or cultural in historic areas while creating a mechanism to share significance. Development corporations deal with the costs and benefits among various stakeholders. 51. Ibid. 48 3. Implementing the CURE Framework The boundaries of the target historic urban area should implementation. External risk can arise from disgruntled be large enough to include the key monuments, signifi- community groups and civil society organizations. In cant buildings and structures, open spaces and gardens, the aftermath of a crisis, political instability and policy historic land use patterns and spatial organization, and regulatory changes can foster political risks, which perceptions and visual relationships, as well as all other is why in public-private-civil society partnerships risks elements of the urban structure. Consideration should should be distributed and borne by the entities) best also be given to social and cultural practices and values, able to manage them. 53 Risk apportionment and shar- economic processes and the intangible dimensions of ing can be very complicated in contexts of fluctuating heritage as related to diversity and identity, when estab- macro-economic fundamentals, social tensions, and lishing the boundaries of the project area, to enable a fragile post-crisis stability. sound urban design and reconstruction strategy. Component 4.3. Communications and engagement  The next step is to create and define the mandate of strategy: The reconstruction and recovery programs the corporation. Once established, a corporation can should be established by all stakeholders including represent different stakeholders including local resi- national and local governments, international institutions, dents, outside investors, and the local government. This development agencies, civil society, youth organizations representation can be in the form of selling shares to and the affected population groups in order to foster a shareholders, assembling boards of directors, or other sense of ownership and belonging within the planning organizational structures that allow for cooperation and and policy-making processes. An effective communi- involvement of the different partners. The experience cation and engagement strategy requires: of Beirut Central District shows the counterproductive Mapping existing initiatives on the ground including – effects of excluding the local population from the con- good practices to identify possible institutional and cerned area. It is therefore essential to establish how financial partners. the population and local government will keep control of the project from the beginning. Corporations have the Giving due consideration to the importance of pub- – authority to conserve the area’s urban heritage while lic and civic spaces in the collective post-conflict enforcing building codes, building infrastructure, and healing process. restoring service delivery, and in some instances, they Advocating for increased collaboration between – have the powers of eminent domain and management institutions, civil society organizations, cultural and of resettlement and compensation processes. artistic public policies, and youth-led initiatives. Component 4.2. Risk management: Any large-scale  Taking into account post-conflict induced change in – construction project faces risks. Construction risks the composition of the inhabitants of historic urban cover all potential problems related to the design and areas and the emergence of new local communities. implementation phase of the reconstruction process including building cost overruns and project delays. There Mediating conflicting opinions on the value of heritage – are also financial risks which are related to variability in for different local communities amid political and interest rates, exchange rates, and other factors affecting identity tensions as reconstruction can also trigger financing costs. Another risk is imposed by delays in conflict when one community/authority might claim the design phase of the reconstruction project, which their heritage and reject that of other communities. can result in the withdrawal of some stakeholders. Such Public participation should always aspire to extend delays can threaten the sustainability of a reconstruction beyond simply “informing” the community to “consulting,” project and can result in disappointment on the part of “involving,” “collaborating,” and “empowering.”54 At its residents and the community. There is an additional risk most basic level, a stakeholder engagement strategy of erosion or loss of authenticity or meaning resulting must ensure that the public is well informed about from the reconstruction process. In terms of urban the process and decisions. This can be accomplished conservation, traditional building techniques and the through public meetings either in-person or virtual. use of traditional building materials may be at odds with In post-conflict situations where different groups of the political push for rapid reconstruction processes. citizens are scattered in different resettlement areas, The speed of reconstruction of non-historic parts of the use of mass media, text messaging, and the internet the city compared to historic parts of the city should can ensure access to information for all. differ. Craftsmen skilled in traditional building techniques should be involved in the implementation process. The digital revolution is a major driver for community engagement and empowerment. Websites and social In rebuilding after crisis, the stakes are even higher because of trauma and a lack of human and social capital. 53. Lindfield, 1998. Risks can threaten construction projects during project 54. The International Association for Public Participation (IAP2) 49 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery Safeguarding heritage for community resilience in Kathmandu, Nepal 19 people from the rubble, gave little consideration to heritage structures, a situation made worse by the lack of clear heritage protection protocols. Three years on, and with a consolidated Government, the PDNA plans and solutions can be improved and updated. The Nepal Reconstruction Authority is now well established, executing a wide-ranging recon- struction program. This includes the reconstruction of heritage sites; 79 were completed as of January 2018, with a further 314 still in progress. However, challenges remain. The Department of Archaeology Bhaktapur Square, Kathmandu, Nepal. © filmlandscape / Shutterstock.com* (DoA) has attempted to prescribe strict guidelines around rebuilding heritage, yet some cities have failed The earthquakes of April 25 and May 12, 2015 were the to comply. The Kathmandu Metropolitan City is facing worst to hit Nepal since 1934, when nearly 12,000 lives stiff community criticism for failing to comply with the were lost. In 2015, 200 people died due to the collapse guidelines of the DoA, particularly thanks to its use of the 19th century Dharhara Tower alone, a site that of concrete to rebuild the Ranipokhari historic pond. was also destroyed following the 1934 earthquake. Although cultural recovery began as a unifying focus Similarly, Kathmandu Durbar square has been subject for the community, the implementation has been frac- to repeated destruction as a result of earthquakes. tious. For the global community, several fundamental The impact of the loss of this heritage on the local lessons can be learned that go beyond the adoption of community became clear during the structural assess- innovative conservation techniques. The importance of ments conducted immediately after the earthquakes. establishing dedicated cultural heritage units within civil The recovery of iconic heritage assets became a protection agencies, as well as a knowledge network unifying force, creating a sense of hope, both individual promoting training and collaboration, is crucial. The and communal, and inspiring action, particularly among work of European Civil Protection Forum and Cities youth. As external emergency aid poured in, help also Partnership Challenge, under the Global Compact, may came from small foundations and NGOs. However, result in heritage resilience driven by the communities the Army and police, who were focused on rescuing emerging as a priority. media tools can serve as part of the communication of community leaders and organizations must already strategy for reconstruction projects. In cases where be in place to act as a liaison with the public entity. In access to the internet or online media is limited, simpler such situations, different cultural groups should be tools can be used to inform the community. Information given voice to participate equally. kiosks and repositories are good tools to reach wide To consult and engage with the community members, audiences. In cases where the number of stakeholders the recovery team should use tools to allow them to is less manageable, press releases and printed material generate input. Through their input, the community is can be distributed on site. enabled to participate in the decision-making process, Beyond basic information, it is critical to ensure public to share information, and to express their opinions. participation that encourages collaboration between This method includes charrettes, interviews, focus communities and reconstruction teams. In situations group discussions, community forums, and similar where a diverse and large group of stakeholders are formats to generate public input. New technologies present and ready to engage, the reconstruction team can be an immense help in generating input from the collaborates with the community to develop alterna- community. There is a wide variety of media tools that tive solutions and scenarios and evaluate them. The allow for online interaction between the community ideal situation for community engagement is when the members and the project team. These tools allow a community is empowered enough to exercise deci- large number of stakeholders to access and provide sion-making power over the construction decisions input in real-time at virtual public meetings through and processes. For a community to engage in this level electronic polling devices.  of empowered decision-making, an existing network 50 3. Implementing the CURE Framework Post-earthquake cultural heritage conservation and recovery of the Old Town 20 in Lijiang, People’s Republic of China Lijiang old town, Yunnan, People’s Republic of China. © Chensiyuan Lijiang, an 800-year-old town in southwest China, is Today, the recovery of the Old Town of Lijiang, and famous for its well-preserved historic streets, bridges particularly the design guidelines developed under the and buildings, as well as for its intangible cultural World Bank program, serves as an international best heritage, including that of its minorities. In February practice for incorporating cultural heritage conser- 1996, a 7.0 magnitude earthquake caused 309 fatalities vation in post-disaster reconstruction. In particular, and damaged basic infrastructure, including 410,000 the reconstruction and recovery process emphasized housing units. Yet effective cultural heritage conser- community engagement; resident committees evalu- vation and timely recovery efforts led to the inscription ated housing rehabilitation schemes and community of the Lijiang Old Town as a UNESCO World Heritage groups were involved in housing repairs. Site just one year later, in 1997. Lijiang’s inscription as a World Heritage site trans- In response to the earthquake, the World Bank mobi- formed the town into a year-round tourist magnet (with lized US$30 million in credit for infrastructure and approximately 40 million visitors to Lijiang in 2017) and housing reconstruction, as well as US$7 million for significantly enhanced the local economy. Although rehabilitating cultural heritage assets in compliance the Conservation and Economic Development Plans, with the World Heritage criteria. Key physical invest- and the Regulations for Conservation and Management ments included: (i) recovering and upgrading damaged of the Lijiang Old Town, recognized the threats of infrastructure, while remaining in harmony with the rapid tourism growth, in recent years over-tourism historic streetscapes; (ii) repairing and reconstructing has undermined the quality of life of local residents damaged houses to be earthquake resilient without and the experience of tourists. With the support of compromising their cultural value; and (iii) restoring, the State Administration of Cultural Heritage and the adaptively reusing, and sustainably managing the China National Tourism Administration, the Government Mu Family Complex, a major cultural heritage site, of Lijiang is revising the old town conservation and for tourism and preserving intangible heritage. Key management plan, as well as the economic devel- technical assistance included: (i) damage assessments; opment plan and regulations for enterprises. These (ii) developing the Design and Construction Technical measures aim to balance cultural heritage conservation Guidelines for Houses in Lijiang; and (iii) providing with the diverse needs of different stakeholders, and guidance on sustainable tourism development. shift the emphasis from quantity to quality in tourism development in Lijiang. 51 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery Conclusion 52 Conclusion I n recent years, many cities around the world have faced acute stresses and shocks while experiencing consider- able trauma and humanitarian problems. As they emerge from crises, these cities find themselves faced with the need to reconcile communities, to promote economic development, and to manage complex social, spatial, and economic transformations. In many instances, such crises have affected historical areas of great importance that were at the core of local identities and represented significant assets for local economic life. Experience shows that restoring social cohesion and reconciliation in conflict areas and rebuilding community resilience after a shock are significant challenges. Culture is a major source of resilience and stimulates other development sectors when integrated into the planning, financing, and implementation process of post-disaster and post-conflict reconstruction and recovery. While the cultural and creative industries contribute to economic growth, promote social inclusion, and bolster a city’s image, cultural heritage is a key resource for city recov- ery, reconciliation, and social cohesion. Cultural heritage provides cities with a distinctive character and a factor that enhances their attractiveness and competitiveness while contributing to their economic recovery. Culture is therefore critical for post-crisis reconstruction and recovery processes. Building on the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the New Urban Agenda’s recognition of the trans- formative role of culture in the sustainable development of cities, this Position Paper argues that culture in all its different forms is an effective tool to support reconstruc- tion and recovery policies and programs. Drawing from existing reconstruction and recovery experience by the World Bank and UNESCO, this Position Paper proposes the CURE Framework that places culture as a foundation for post-crisis city reconstruction and recovery by bridging people-centered and place-based development approaches into a comprehensive framework. The CURE Framework adopts a culture-based approach to ensure that community needs, values, and priorities are central to recovery and reconstruction processes while safeguarding intangible heritage, fostering social inclusion, promoting creativity and innovation, and contributing to dialogue and peacebuilding initiatives. Three main messages emerge from the CURE Framework The Ahwar of Southern Iraq: Reconstruction using traditional proposed in this Position Paper. building techniques and local material. © Jasim Al-Asady 53 Culture in city Reconstruction and recovery 1. Culture plays a key role in post-crisis reconstruction working in the field of reconstruction and recovery, and recovery processes: Earlier frameworks for post-crisis international organizations in the field of culture, national reconstruction and recovery have not fully acknowledged and local governments, non-governmental organizations, the central role of culture in the process. This Position and local communities. Paper and the CURE Framework aim to address such Lastly, it is the view of this Position Paper that integrating shortcomings. Culture is key to socio-economic recovery culture into sustainable urban development policies – and is equally central to ensure a sustainable physical relying on the CURE Framework to address the impact reconstruction process, and should therefore be part of of urban crises – will contribute to making these cities the process from the earlier stages. A community’s culture, more inclusive, safe, resilient, and sustainable. including its tangible and intangible cultural heritage as well as creativity, can play a key role in rebuilding identities, strengthening the social fabric of the city, and promoting inclusion in a post-crisis setting. The reconstruction and recovery process should therefore take into account the traditional knowledge and skills of local communities and support the transmission of their socio-cultural values. Lastly, culture can represent an important economic resource for cities through sustainable tourism and the creative economy. 2. Culture should be acknowledged as the foundation that integrates people-centered and place-based pol- icies: Adopting an integrated, culture-based approach ensures that communities’ needs, values, and priorities are central to reconstruction and recovery processes. This integrated approach fosters the reconciliation process and restores normalcy and stability. Putting people at the center of place-based strategies contributes to community ownership, ensures that societal priorities are reflected, and promotes sustainably by linking infrastructure, housing, and facilities to people’s culture and identities. This should be supported by strong local government capacity. Linking places to people-centered strategies helps understand a society’s culture, organizational structure, norms, traditions, values, and priorities, all of which are critical to sustain cultural identities and to promote a sense of place and belonging. 3. To produce an effective city reconstruction and recovery program requires mainstreaming culture across the damage and needs assessment, scop- ing, planning, financing, and implementation stages: Existing reconstruction and recovery instruments can be enhanced by including a cultural dimension as this recognizes people’s value systems and adapts the pro- cesses to their needs and social practices. Following these strategies, the development of integrated policies will promote culture-based participatory processes and enhance the role of communities in local governance. The World Bank and UNESCO intend for the CURE Framework to underpin an important area for policy and operational cooperation between both institutions and to provide overarching key principles and operational guidance. 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Key issues such as poverty, inequality and environmental degradation are particularly aggravated by the rapid rise in the world’s urban population, which is set to increase by an estimated 2.5 billion people by 2050. As the fundamental bridge between cities and their inhabitants, culture is essential to overcoming these challenges, particularly at a time when conflicts natural hazards and urban crises are increasingly frequent and complex. Building on the combined experience of the World Bank and UNESCO, the Culture in City Reconstruction and Recovery (CURE) Position Paper provides a roadmap for a more effective response to post-conflict, post-disaster and urban crisis situations that accounts for the needs, values and priorities of people. The result is the CURE Framework, an innovative approach that knits together people-centered and place-based approaches into integrated policies that share a common cultural thread. This approach aims to guide development practitioners, national and local authorities, planners, and international organizations to integrate culture, both as an asset and as a tool, in all phases of city reconstruction and recovery. 9 789231 002885