CONTENTS Preface 1 Abbreviations and Acronyms 2 Hot Spots Map 3 SUMMARY: Thailand's Air Quality: At Crossroads 4 SOURCES 7 Emissions Inventory 7 Mobile Sources: Transport 8 Stationary Sources: Industry 9 Stationary Sources: Power 10 Area Sources: Waste Burning 11 November MONITORING 12 2002 POLLUTANTS 13 Particulates 13 Nitrogen Oxides 15 Lead 16 Ozone 17 Carbon Monoxide 18 Sulfur Dioxide 19 Greenhouse Gases 20 Ozone Depleting Substances 21 IMPACTS 22 Public Health 22 ThailandEnvironment Health/Non-Health 25 Monitor 2000 presented a snapshot of general en- vironmental trends in the country. Public Perception 26 RESPONSES 27 MANAGEMENT 30 Legislation 30 Institutions 31 Budget 33 CHALLENGES 34 Glossary of Terms 39 Useful Websites on Air Quality Management 41 Acknowledgements 43 ThailandEnvironment Monitor 2001 Assessed the status of water quality management in the country. Thailand-at-a-Glance 44 The Pollution Control Department in the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment; the World Bank; and the United States-Asia Environmental Partnership contributed to the preparationofthisdocument.TheWorldBankTeamconsistedofAnjaliAcharya,JennaDiallo,SurhidGautam,PatchamuthuIllangovan,SirinunMaitrawattana,EmilyManchee,Tanvi Nagpal,NatPinnoi,PhilSayeg,JitendraShah(TeamLeader),ManidaUnkulvasapaul,SutthanaVichitrananda,andHuaWang.JackKneelandandSaengroajSrisawaskraisornrepre- sentedtheUnitedStates-AsiaEnvironmentalPartnership.Dr.SupatWangwongwatana,MingquanWichayarangsarich,JanejobSuksod,PanyaWarapetcharayut,PhunsakTheramongkol, SeksanSangdowandSupapChunhongrepresentedthePollutionControlDepartment.ThedocumentwaspeerreviewedbyEdwardDotsonandToddJohnson.SirinunMaitrawattana coordinated the production of this Monitor. Katherin Golitzen provided editing support and Jeffrey Lecksell was responsible for map design.Yok Dechamorn and Sorachai Nanthawatcharawiboonpreparedthecoverdesignandlayout. The views expressed in the Thailand Environment Monitor are entirely those of the authors and should not be cited without priorpermission. They do not necessarily reflect the views oftheWorldBankGroup,itsExecutiveDirectors,orthecountriestheyrepresent.Thematerialcontainedhereinhasbeenobtainedfromsourcesbelievedreliablebutitisnotnecessarily complete and cannot be guaranteed. 01 PREFACE The Thailand Environment Monitor series tracks key On the global level, Thailand has demonstrated its commit- environmental trends in the country. Its aim is to engage ment by ratifying the Kyoto and Montreal Protocols, among and inform stakeholders on key environmental changes and other conventions. challenges as they occur. The 2000 Monitor benchmarked The Constitution of 1997 provides opportunities for general environmental indicators, while the 2001 Monitor civil society and the private sector to play an expanded role focused on water quality. This year, the Monitor concen- in environmental protection, including air quality manage- trates on air quality. ment. Government agencies should harness this additional Vehicles, power plants, factories, forest fires, capacity while improving coordination among themselves. agricultural burning and open cooking all contribute to air A multi-stakeholder partnership approach would benefit pollution in Thailand. While air pollution certainly has Thailand as it begins tackling the next set of challenges in regional and global implications, its most severe impacts attaining bluer skies. are felt by people living in cities, where concentrations are The 2002 Environment Monitor comprises seven higher. Air quality monitoring measures the principal sections. The first two sections after the summary deal with pollutants, including particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, the sources of pollution, and the monitoring of air quality. ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and The third section describes the trends for different lead. Much of the air quality monitoring information used in pollutants.Thefourthsectionestimateshealthandnon-health this document is drawn from the Pollution Control impacts of air pollution along with the public perception, Department's monitoring network. while the fifth section deals with various policy responses Economic and other activities in and around transport taken to address air quality issues. The sixth section corridorsresultinahighincidenceofpollution-relatedhealth focuses on environmental management (legislation, problems in Thailand's cities. Several studies demonstrat- institutions, and budget) pertaining to air quality ing the ill effects of air pollution on human health in management. The final section presents the main air Thailand have served as an important wake-up call. A quality challenges. decade ago, the health costs of exposure to lead, particulate This Monitor is the outcome of a joint exercise. The matter, and carbon monoxide in Bangkok were estimated to Pollution Control Department provided data, reviewed the be equivalent to between 8 and 10 percent of urban annual analysis, and coordinated inter-agency cooperation. The income. United States-Asia Environment Partnership supported the The many commendable initiatives taken by the public perception survey undertaken by the Thai Society of country include: enacting the environmental law in 1992; Environmental Journalists. The World Bank team was completing the phase-out of leaded gasoline by 1995; responsible for analysis, report writing, and quality improving fuel quality and engine specification; curbing assurance. In addition, several national agencies, pollution from power plants; moving enterprises to cleaner academics, civil society, and researchers participated in production practices; tightening construction standards; preparationoftheMonitor.Theinformationcontainedherein improving public transport; and substantially reducing the has been compiled from a variety of sources, including use of ozone depleting substances. As a result of the published and unpublished data and reports of Government improvements in air quality, air pollution costs to the agencies, universities, nongovernmental organizations, national economy are now estimated to be equivalent to 1.6 individuals, the World Bank, and international partners. percent of the GDP, down from 2.6 percent five years ago. H.E. Prapat Panyachatraksa Ian C. Porter Zafer Ecevit Gordon Weynand Minister Country Director for Thailand Sector Director Executive Director Ministry of Natural Resources East Asia and Pacific Region Environment and Social Development United States - Asia and Environment World Bank East Asia and Pacific Region Environmental Partnership World Bank ABBREVIATIONS ACRONYMS & AQI Air Quality Index MoTC former Ministry of Transport and Communi- BMA BangkokMetropolitanAdministration cations BMR BangkokMetropolitanRegion MP Montreal Protocol BMTA Bangkok MetropolitanTransitAuthority MT Metric tons BTS Bangkok Transit System NEB NationalEnvironmentBoard CDM Clean Development Mechanism NEPO former National Energy Policy Office CFC Chlorofluorocarbons NEQA NationalEnvironmentalQualityAct CH Methane NO Nitric oxide 4 CO Carbon monoxide NO Nitrogen oxides X CO Carbon dioxide NO Nitrogendioxide 2 2 DEDP former Department of Energy Development NGO Nongovernmental organization and Promotion O Ozone 3 DIW Department of Industrial Works ODS Ozone depleting substances EGAT Electricity GeneratingAuthority of Thailand OPPMO Office of the Permanent Secretary, The Prime ESP Electrostatic precipitators Minister's Office FGD Flue Gas Desulfurization Pb Lead GDP Gross Domestic Product PCD Pollution Control Department Gg Giga grams = 1015 grams PM Particulate matter smaller than 10 microns 10 GHG Greenhouse gas PM Particulate matter smaller than 2.5 microns 2.5 HC Hydrocarbon POP Persistent organic pollutants HOV High OccupancyVehicle ppb Parts per billion I/M Inspection and maintenance ppm Parts per million IPP Independent Power Producers SO Sulfur dioxide 2 LTD Land Transport Department SPP Small power producers LPG Liquefied petroleum gas TSP Total suspended particulates mg Milligrams µg Micrograms mg/m3 Milligrams per cubic meter µg/m3 Micrograms per cubic meter MLF Multilateral Fund (GEF) ULG Unleadedgasoline MoE Ministry of Energy UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on MoIND Ministry of Industry ClimateChange MoNRE Ministry of Natural Resources and Environ- US-AEP United States ­Asia Environmental Partnership ment USEPA United States Environmental ProtectionAgency MoPH Ministry of Public Health UV Ultraviolet MoSTE former Ministry of Science, Technology and VOC Volatile organic compounds Environment Exchange Rate: US$ 1 = Baht 43.58 (as of November 30, 2002) ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 HOTSPOTSMAP SUMMARY Thailand's Air Quality : At Crossroads Thailand has made remarkable progress over the past Table 1. Thailand's National Primary 3 Ambient Air Quality Standards in g/m decade in combating air pollution. Today, Bangkok's air µ quality ranks ahead of Beijing, Jakarta, New Delhi, and Manila, but lags behind other cities such as Hong Kong, Singapore, Taipei, and Tokyo. While overall air quality has improved, it is still a problem in traffic corridors and urban centers like Bangkok. Keyairpollutantsincludedust,smallparticulate matter (PM and PM ), sulfur dioxide (SO ), lead (Pb), carbon 10 2.5 2 monoxide(CO),nitrogenoxides(NO ),hydrocarbons(HC), x and ground-level ozone (O ). Other transboundary air 3 pollutants such as ozone depleting substances (ODS), greenhouse gases (GHG), and some persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have caused long term impacts on the regional and global environment. Source: PCD, WHO/SDE/OEH/00.02, Geneva 2000. Notes: In Thailand, motor vehicles, power plants, factories, 1. Geometric mean. 2. WHO no longer recommends air quality guideline for PM because there is no construction, forest fires, agricultural burning and open safe lower limit for PM. - Values of USEPA are for primary standards. cooking all contribute to the emission of these pollutants. - Annual average -- average of daily measurements taken over one year. Among transport sources, two-stroke motorcycles, diesel - µg/m3 is a unit of measurement and refers to one millionth of a gram of a pollutant in a cubic meter of air at 25 degrees Celsius at 1 atmosphere. trucks and aging buses are contributing significantly to air - Guideline refers to the safe level of a pollutant, for the given averaging time, to protect the public from acute health effects. pollution in urban areas. The Central Region in Thailand - CO values are in 1000 (K) of µg/m3. accounts for 60-70 percent of all industrial emissions in the country. Fossil fuel-powered thermal sources continue to With the Government's efforts and leadership, the ambient generate SO , NO and carbon dioxide (CO ) emissions, levels of key pollutants--Pb, particulates, SO and CO--in 2 2 2 2 while PM emissions from power plants have been curbed. Bangkok and other urban centers have fallen dramatically. In non-urban areas, sources such as agricultural burning With the exception of particulates and O , all pollutants now 3 also contribute significantly to particulate pollution. comply with the country's air quality standards (Table 1). Trends in the ambient levels of these air pollutants can AmbientPM,thepollutantwiththemostserioushealth be gauged through appropriate and systematic monitoring. impacts, still exceeds standards along traffic corridors. This In Thailand, the air quality monitoring system is well is particularly serious along roadsides in urban areas such developed. The Pollution Control Department (PCD) has as Bangkok (See Map). taken the lead in monitoring key air pollutants, establishing ambient standards, and recommending policy measures to reduce air pollution in critical areas. The PCD's monitoring network consists of 71 sites nationwide--37 located in Bangkok and 11 in the suburbs. Much of the information presented in this report is based on PCD data. Results of air quality data captured at these monitor- ing stations reveal that most air pollutants are declining. ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 SUMMARY Thailand's Air Quality : At Crossroads Visibility measurements at Don Muang airport in Benefit-cost ratios on health issues associated with air Bangkok have improved since 1996, even as improvements pollution are encouraging. One study of air pollution are reported in PM levels. Concentration levels of NO management in Thailand has estimated that under a 10 x and CO are stable and declining, respectively. SO levels medium investment scenario, the total annualized costs of 2 too have declined substantially as new technology is implementing air pollution controls would be US$660 installed at the country's power plants. Ozone levels are million in 2005 and US$1.5 billion in 2020, with corre- causing concern, with maximum values exceeding the sponding benefits of US$4.7 billion and US$25 billion, standard. respectively. In terms of GHGs, CO , methane (CH ) and nitrous Indoor air pollution, however, remains a concern. A 2 4 oxide contribute 68, 27 and 5 percent of total GHG recent study of indoor and outdoor exposure to small par- emissions. Among sources, the energy sector in Thailand ticulates in Bangkok concluded that daily fluctuations of accounts for 51 percent of total emissions. Consumption PM concentrations are correlated with PM concentrations of ODS has declined significantly over the last decade. at both near and ambient locations. However, most indoor environments,includingshops,livingrooms,andbedrooms, The presence of pollutants in the air contributes to hadlevelshigherthanambientlevelsofbothPM andPM 2.5 10 numerous health effects ranging from irritation and odor to acute and long-term lung impairment and cardiac problems. Improvements in air pollutant levels in recent years This then translates into health costs associated with can be attributed to the foresight and leadership of a few mortality and morbidity from respiratory and other cardiop- champions, policy corrections (e.g. engine and fuel quality ulmonary diseases. The drop in most pollutant levels in standards and a shift to natural gas in the power sector), Thailand has resulted in declining health costs. Health costs massive public spending in infrastructure, stepped-up are estimated to have halved in Bangkok during the past enforcement, and the market's response to advanced five years, but they still cost the equivalent of 1.6 percent technologies. of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) annually. SUMMARY Thailand's Air Quality : At Crossroads In the transport sector, new cars pollute very little and In October 2002, a new Ministry of Natural Resources motorcycles are increasingly four-stroke, though there and Environment (MoNRE) was created to oversee remains a large fleet of older two-strokes. While newer environmental management, including air quality. This new EURO II buses have begun to ply the Bangkok streets, a Ministry creates an opportunity for improving coordina- very large fleet of older diesel buses and trucks still emits tion, integrating environmental functions across agencies, large amounts of carcinogenic particulate pollution. and enhancing service delivery. The power sector is shifting more to natural gas and In summary, Thailand needs to address the following low-sulfur coal as fuel sources, and now requires sulfur major challenges in order to better manage its air quality dioxide scrubbers. At the same time energy efficiency over the coming decade: measures and demand-side management are improving emissions from this sector. Many industrial units have Focusing on fine PM in Bangkok. A recent action embraced cleaner production to reduce air pollution, but plan estimates that a 20 percent reduction from 1997 emissions from small and medium-sized enterprises still levels can be achieved by targeting diesel buses, and remain a major problem. Crematoriums are being upgraded trucks at a cost of about US$80 million, with corre- to reduce their contributions. sponding benefits estimated at over US$200 million. Area sources remain a major concern. In the Improving air quality management by strengthening countryside, open agricultural and forest burning is analyticalcapabilityinemissionsinventoryandhealth estimated to emit over 350,000 tons of PM annually. This impact assessment, stepping up enforcement, and smoke not only causes local impact, but is also a major expanding monitoring and modeling. source of cross-border pollution, especially from February toApril. Open burning of garbage in Bangkok has decreased Improving public transport and traffic management with the establishment of sanitary landfills. by increasing the number of priority bus lanes, controlling smoke emissions from buses, and encour- The many improvements in pollutant levels do not aging the use of the Skytrain. seem to have changed the public's perception about air quality.Arecent survey reported that three in four Bangkok Strengthening institutional effectiveness by improv- residents viewed air pollution as the most significant ing coordination among agencies and building pollution problem they faced. While air quality measure- capacity at the local level. ments reveal, and experts report, that Bangkok's air quality is getting better, the public remains skeptical. Such Broadening public involvement in air quality manage- skepticism implies that public disclosure of Government ment activities and improving public participation and programs and public participation in managing air quality disclosure. may be inadequate or ineffective. Harnessingglobalopportunitiesforlocalgoodby em- With several successes in addressing air pollution, the ployingtheCleanDevelopmentMechanism(CDM)in Government should now build on recent gains through an the country. integrated program that involves all segments of society. Comprehensive environmental legislation in Thailand also Tackling these challenges, accompanied by better contains specific articles and clauses addressing air quality. enforcement of environmental legislation and adequate However the enforcement of laws remains weak due to budgets, will put Thailand on the right path towards inadequate political will, capacity constraints at the local attaining bluer skies. level, lack of incentives and poor coordination among agencies. ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 SOURCES Emissions Inventory The major sources of air pollution in Thailand are Figure 1. Sources of PM in BMR, 1997 10 industry, power plants, transport (primarily automobiles), and area sources that include agricultural waste, and other biomass burning. Source emissions inventory is needed. The establishment of a reliable pollutant inventory by type of source and economic sector is the first major step in effective policy formulation and enforcement. While the major sources of pollution are easily identifiable (Figure 1), the relative contribution of each of these sources is highly uncertain. The PCD has been estimating emissions for Bangkok (Figure 2) and other regions of Thailand. The Department of Energy Development (DEDP) has applied emissions factors to estimated fuel use by sector (Table 2). Source: Radian, 1998. Note: Reentrainment estimates have been added by the World Special studies have also estimated emissions in Bangkok Bank. and Thailand from major sectors. There are, however, significant discrepancies in these inventories as discussed Figure 2. Emissions Inventory for BMR for in Box 1. Five Major Pollutants, 1997 Source: PCD Air emission source database update, 2000. Note: Total NO is 329,161. SO is 240,016. CO is 463,775. PM x 2 is 38,192. VOC is 35,909. (Unit: ton/year) Table 2. Pollution Emission Estimates, 2000 (*1000 Tons) Source: DEDP, 2000. SOURCES Mobile Sources : Transport Motorcycles dominate Thai roads. Thailand has Figure 3. In-use Vehicle Growth in Thailand recorded an annual vehicle growth of 15 percent--nearly 1000 vehicles daily--for the past two decades (Figure 3). In 1999, there were about 10 million vehicles on the road, of which 2.1 million were in Bangkok. It needs to be noted that the annual data published by the Land Transport Department (LTD) provide cumulative registrations and not the number of vehicles on the road. For Bangkok, it is estimated that in-use vehicles (on the road) are about 53 percent of the LTD reported values.1 Motorcycles account for 39 percent of the vehicles plying Bangkok streets, followed by cars, vans and pickup trucks, and buses and trucks. Nationally, motorcycles account for three quarters Source: LTD, 2002 of the vehicle fleet (Figure 4). Figure 4. In-use Vehicle Composition in Bangkok and Vehicles2 emit many pollutants, but PM is the most Thailand, 2001 critical. Cars are major sources of CO, HC, and NO . Two- x stroke motorcycles are a dominant source of HC and also contribute significantly to PM and CO emissions. Diesel trucks, both heavy and light duty, are responsible for high emissions of PM, NO , HC, and CO. Aging bus fleets in x urban areas, including Bangkok, are large emitters of PM. The vehicle types contributing to PM are listed in Table 3. 10 The extent of health impact is determined by the amount of population exposure, which in most urban centers is dominatedbythetransportsector.Forthisreason,air quality action plans for urban areas focus on the transport sector. Source: LTD, 2002. Diesel emits carcinogens. Diesel exhaust contains Note: Total vehicle count is 2,751,982 for Bangkok and 11,497,194 for Thailand. over forty substances that are regarded as toxic; some are considered carcinogenic by the USEPA. Almost all diesel PM emissions are fine particles less than 2.5 microns in Table 3. Estimated PM from Mobile Sources, 2000 10 diameter (PM ). The principal sources of PM pollution in 2.5 the BMR are the older light and heavy duty diesel powered vehicles that lack emissions control. Elsewhere, the large fleet of diesel-powered pickup trucks contributes to PM emissions. Source: Parsons Internationals final report for the Air Quality Man- agement Project to BMA, 2001. Note: Total emissions from mobile sources are estimated to be 1 Based on re-registration data calculating emissions for 1999. 10,000 t/y. 2 Vehicles include cars, buses, trucks, motorcycles, and vans. ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 SOURCES Stationary Sources : Industry As large sources such as power plants and refineries Figure 5. Industrial Emissions in Thailand, 2000 have been controlled over the last decade, small and mediumindustrieshaveriseninimportanceasmajorsources of PM and NO pollution. x The Central Region is the most industrialized. The Central Region, with 45,000 factories (including those in Bangkok), accounts for 60 to 70 percent of all industrial emissions in Thailand (Figure 5). Within the Central Region, BMR alone accounts for more than half of SO , 2 volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and CO emissions, and over a third of all NO emissions from industry. The 2 easternseaboardisalsoamajorindustrializedareawithhigh Source: Environmental Institutions Development Technical Assis- emissions. tance, The World Bank, Estimate of Industrial Emissions Thailand, 2000. Note: Total industrial emission of SO is 1,352,126. NO is 830,273. 2 2 KeyindustrialcontributorsofPM,SO andNO within CO is 817,475. VOC is 526,125. PM is 468,929. TSP is 600,572. 2 2 10 the Central Region are cement, lime and plaster manufac- Table 4. Top Five Industrial Sources of Emissions, turing; iron and steel making; and other medium to heavy Central Region, 2000 industries as listed in Table 4. Though emissions from industrial sources are much lower in other regions of Thailand, major contributors to emissions there are cement, lime and plaster manufacturing; sugar mills; sawmills; iron and steel manufacturing; industrial chemicals production; and pulp and paper manufacturing. Source: Environmental Institutions Development Technical Assis- tance, The World Bank, Estimate of Industrial Emissions, Thailand, 2000. SOURCES Stationary Sources : Power Fossil fuel-powered thermal sources dominate. In Figure 6. Electricity Generation by Process Type Thailand, electricity is generated primarily from burning fossil fuels such as lignite, oil, and natural gas. Figure 6 illustrates electricity generation by process type. Fossil fuel-based electricity generation results in significant emissions of PM, SO , NO , and CO (Table 2). 2 2 2 The Government's national energy policy promotes the use of natural gas, the combustion of which releases approximately half the amount of CO , and a small fraction 2 of the PM and SO produced by conventional fuels such as 2 oil and coal.3 The use of lignite has decreased slightly in recent years. Figure 7 illustrates the trend toward increased use of natural gas as a fuel source. Bang Pakong power Source: EGAT, 2002. plant has been retrofitted with electrostatic precipitators Notes: 1. Energy Purchased means electricity from Lao and (ESP) to control PM emissions Malaysia. 2. SPP = small power producers. 3. IPP = independent power producers. Sulfur dioxide emissions have been curbed. Figure 7. Electricity Generation by Fuel Source A critical problem for power plants in Thailand a decade ago was excessive SO emissions. This was particularly 2 true for plants operated in Mae Moh Valley in north of Thailand by the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT). SO emissions had severely impacted 2 human health and damaged crops and livestock in the area. In 1992 the situation reached crisis levels when the ambient 1-hr average SO concentration level hit 3,418 2 µg/m3, more than four times the current standard of 780 µg/m3. There were considerable chronic respiratory problems and many people in the vicinity of the power plant needed to be hospitalized. Today this is no longer the case as many of the plants are now fitted with Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) systems to control emissions. Source: EGAT, 2002. Notes: 1. Energy Purchased means electricity from Lao and Malaysia. 2. SPP = small power producers. 3. IPP = independent power producers. 3 Natural gas releases approximately 44 percent less CO than coal, 2 and oil produces 16 percent less CO /kWH than coal. 2 ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 SOURCES Area Sources : Waste Burning Area sources are underreported. Important area Table 5. Estimates of Thailand's TSP Emissions from Agricultural Burning 2000, Tons sourcesincludere-suspendedroaddust;opencooking using fossil fuels; and forest fires and agricultural burning. These sources of pollution are widespread, difficult to cover in inventories, and thus often overlooked. The occurrence of re-suspended road dust is highly correlated with building activity. However, even with moderate levels of construction, streets in urban areas get dusty and traffic activities resuspend this dust repeatedly. Source: PCD, 2002. Regular cleaning of road surfaces is a cost-effective way Note: This is an overestimate as it assumes that all crop waste is of reducing roadside PM emissions. burned. The contributions of different crops in order of significance are sugar cane (30.5%), corn (29.8%), cassava (11.0%), rice (9.8%), mungbean (8.3%), soybean (6.4%), and other (4.3%). Calcu- Haze is a transboundary problem. In the South East lations were made using USEPA emission factors. Asia region post-logging burning is an established practice, and has transboundary implications for Thailand. Table 6. Estimated Emissions from Selected The forest fires in Thailand in 2000 were estimated to have Area Sources, Chiang Mai Municipality 2001, Tons generated approximately 40,000 tons of TSP (equivalent to total emissions for Bangkok for all sources). The burning of agricultural residues generated 319 tons of TSP, causing widespread sub-regional haze. This haze impacts Bangkokandothercities(Table5).Emissionestimatesfrom an ongoing PCD study confirm that forest fires are a major source of TSP and CO in urban areas such as Chiang Mai Municipality (Table 6). Other pollution sources that are usually overlooked Source: PCD, 2002. are residential and commercial open cooking and refuse burning. Estimates for Chiang Mai show that CO and VOC emissions from these sources are estimated to be high; they contributed 693 tons of CO and 627 tons of VOC in 2001 (Table 6). MONITORING Monitoring is central to implementing an effective air The primary responsibility for monitoring rests with quality management program in any country. Thailand has the PCD. Its monitoring network currently consists of 71 established an extensive air quality monitoring network monitoring sites nationwide, which are linked to PCD's (Table 7) with the aim of providing up-to-date information central computer system located in Bangkok. on major atmospheric pollutants. It has also prescribed national ambient standards for all criteria air pollutants A fleet of mobile units is maintained by MoPH to (Table 1). respond to area-specific pollution complaints. The primary focus of MoPH monitoring is to study the health effects of The monitoring network expands. Thailand com- air pollution. menced air quality monitoring in 1983. The monitoring network has progressively evolved and expanded to cover Bangkok's City Government, the Bangkok Metropoli- a variety of pollutants. Air pollution monitoring assesses tanAdministration (BMA), has one permanent air and noise compliance with air quality standards. The majority of sites monitoring station and one mobile monitoring unit. Under in all five regions (North, Northeast, East, Central, and the decentralization process mandated by the new South) monitor particulates, CO, NO2, SO2, and ground- Constitution, BMA and other city governments in Thailand level ozone. However, not all stations monitor all these will progressive assume responsibility for air quality pollutants, and some monitor other pollutants in addition to monitoring functions, while policy making and standard those mentioned here. setting will continue to remain in the purview of national level agencies such as PCD and MoPH. Table 7. Number of Monitoring Stations in Thailand Source: PCD, MET, BMA, EGAT, MoPH ­ 2002 Notes: 1. BMA has 1 mobile station, EGAT has 2 stations, PCD has 7 stations (2 stand by in Mae Moh).and MoPH had 8 mobile stations which are no longer in use. ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 POLLUTANTS Particulates Atmospheric particles originate from a variety of Figure 8. Annual Trends of PM Concentrations 10 sources and possess a range of physical and chemical (24 hr average) in Bangkok, 1996 - 2001 (µg/m ) 3 properties. Examples of particulates include combustion- generated diesel soot or fly ash, photochemically produced particles such as those found in urban haze, salt formed from sea spray, and soil-like particles from re-suspended dust. Collectively, particulate pollution is often referred to as total suspended particulates (TSP). Fine particulates less than 10 and 2.5 microns in size are referred to as PM10 and PM2.5, respectively. These have the most significant impact on human health because they can penetrate deep into the lungs. PM emissions are a key health concern with estimated economic damage costs much higher than for other pollutants. Source: PCD, 2002. Data came from 5 sites. PM pollution sources are many and varied. Major Figure 9. Annual Trends of PM Concentrations, sources of particulate pollution in urban areas of Thailand 10 (24 hr average) Northeast Region 1996 to 2001 (µg/m ) 3 are vehicles, re-suspension of road and construction dust, and industry and commerce. In non-urban areas, sources such as agricultural burning contribute significantly to overall particulate pollution, and their impacts are also felt in urban areas. Ambient PM10 is declining. Average ambient mea- surements of PM10 have declined steadily in recent years as shown in Figure 8. Control measures and the Asian economic crisis of 1997 contributed to this decline. Ambient PM10 in other urban areas has declined steadily of late. In general, average ambient PM10 concentrations are at a level similar to that of Bangkok (reflecting the choice of Source: PCD, 2002. Data came from 2 sites in Khon Kaen and measurement sites that are usually near busy roads) in Nakorn Ratchasima. virtually all other urban areas for which measurements were Note: Standard for figure 8 and 9 is daily standard. taken, as shown in Figure 9 for the Northeast Region. Figure 10. Percentage of Air Exceeding Standards at All Sites (Ambient Air Quality in Bangkok) Moderate to high concentrations are experienced in and around Chiang Mai and Lampang. In Mae Moh, near one of Thailand's major power stations, the maximum PM10 concentrations recorded were more than double the standard (120 µg/m3 averaged over 24 hours), with the value exceeded on more than 12 percent of occasions. There was, however, a slight improvement over the previous year. Although improvements have been reported in PM10 levels, standards have been exceeded on occasion in numerous cities in the North, Northeast, and Central Regions. In Bangkok, such occasions are becoming less frequent (Figure 10). There are few measured air pollution problems in Southern Thailand. Source: PCD, 2002. POLLUTANTS Particulates The exceedances, as measured by the percentage of Figure 11. Variation in Ambient TSP Concentrations by 3 Month, 1999, Huaykwang, Bangkok (mg/m ) observations exceeding the standard, are more likely to occur from November to April. Toward the end of the year, temperature inversions that trap pollutants close to the ground commonly occur due to the onset of the cool season. From February to April, the burning of rice paddy and other agricultural residues results in higher variability in TSP and PM10concentrations in Bangkok and other urban areas (Figure 11). Roadside air quality still exceeds standards. Maximum recorded concentrations, although lower than before, still exceed standards in many places. Longer-term trends in Bangkok's TSP concentrations (measured at the Source: PCD, 2002. roadside) show that TSP spiked in the early 1990s, declined, Figure 12. Annual Trends of Roadside TSP Concentrations, and spiked again around 1996 (Figure 12).After 1997, levels 3 (24 hr average) Bangkok, 1988 to 2001 (mg/m ) declined further, mirroring trends in ambient PM10. Visibility is improving. Visibility measurements recorded at Bangkok's Don Muang airport over the last four decades reveal an interesting story. While the visibility worsened steadily between the 1960s and mid 1990s, it has improved since 1996, as shown in Figure 13. Because air pollution and reduced visibility are related, the change in the trend of visibility is similar to the PM10 levels measured for Bangkok reported in Figure 8. The visibility and PM10 measurements corroborate each other and support the expert opinion that air quality has improved in BMR in Source: PCD, 2002. Number of sites varied from 9 sites to recent times. However, it also shows that there is a long 21 sites from 1988 to 2001 Note: Standard for figure 11 and 12 is daily standard. road ahead which will need sustained efforts to reach Figure 13. Annual Average Visibility in Kilometers at visibility levels enjoyed in the 1960s and 1970s. Bangkok's Don Muang Airport, 1964 to 2001 Source: Department of Meteorology, 2002. ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 POLLUTANTS Nitrogen Oxides Nitrogen oxides, including NO2, are mainly produced Figure 14. Ambient NO (1 hr average) (ppb) at 2 by fossil fuel combustion in urban areas. They play a major All Sites in Bangkok, 1996 to 2001 role in the formation of ozone, PM, and acid rain. Short- term exposure, even less than three hours, to low levels of NO2 may lead to changes in lung function in individuals with pre-existing respiratory illnesses and can increase respiratory illnesses in children. Long-term exposure to NO2 may increase susceptibility to respiratory infections and cause permanent alterations in the lung. Diesel combustion is a major contributor. Transport, in particular diesel-powered vehicles, is one of the major contributors to NOx emissions in urban areas. Emissions from power generation and industry are also significant sources in Thailand. Source: PCD, 2002. Data came from 10 sites. Nitrogen dioxide levels are stable. In 2000, ambient (Figure 14) and roadside measurements of NO2 Bangkok were typically 20 percent of the national standard. Figure 15. Average Ambient NO (1 hr average) (ppb) at From 1996 to 2000, ambient NO2 measurements stabilized, 2 All Sites in Northeast Region, 1996 to 2001 although there is some evidence of growth in the recorded maximum during 2000 (Figure 15). NO2 concentration levels in Bangkok's suburban provinces were similar to those recorded in the city. Source: PCD, 2002. Data came from 2 sites in Khon Kaen and Nakorn Ratchasima. Note: Standard for figure 14 and 15 is 1 hr average standard. POLLUTANTS Lead Lead in ambient air is not an issue in Thailand any more. Lead is a highly toxic element that can result in damage to the brain, kidneys, blood, central nervous system, and reproductive system. Children who are exposed to high levels of lead may experience slowed cognitive µ development, reduced growth, and other health effects. µ Historically, the principal source of atmospheric lead has µ been the combustion of alkyl lead additives in gasoline. µ Since Thailand's complete phase-out of leaded gasoline at the end of 1995 , observed lead levels have fallen to almost nil, as shown in Figure 16. A recent study found that since the early 1990s, there has been a statistically significant decrease in blood lead levels in school children and traffic police, two groups that face the highest risk of lead exposure (Box 2).4 Figure 16. Roadside Lead (24 hr average) (µg/m ), 3 1988 to 2001, All Sites Combined, Bangkok Source: The Study on "Unleaded Gasoline Policy: Health Ben- efits for School Children and Traffic Policemen in Bangkok Metro- politan Administration" done by Chulalongkorn University and PCD, 2002. Source: PCD 2002. Number of sites varied from 9 sites to 21 sites from 1988 to 2001. Note: Standard is monthly standard. 4PCD, Unleaded Gasoline Policy: Health Benefits for School Children and Traffic Policemen in Bangkok Metropolitan Administration, February 2002. ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 POLLUTANTS Ozone Ozone is a highly reactive gas, formed by the reac- Figure 17. Average and Maximum 1-hour Ambient Ozone (ppb) at All Sites in Bangkok, 1996 to 2001 tion of VOCs and NOx in the presence of heat and sunlight. Ozone can cause a range of acute health effects including eye, nose and throat irritation, chest discomfort, coughing and headaches. Children who are active outdoors when ozone levels are high are most at risk. Ozone also affects vegetation and ecosystems, decreasing yields of commer- cial crops and plantations and lowering the aesthetic value of national parks. Ozone levels are a cause for concern. In 2000, measurements of ambient ozone in Bangkok showed that while average concentrations are low at all monitoring stations, maximum values exceeded the standards signifi- cantly and frequently (Figure 17).High ozone concentra- Source: PCD, 2002. Data came from 8 sites. tions are normally observed in the suburb areas downwind from center of Bangkok. Similar trends have been observed Figure 18. Average and Maximum 1-hour Ambient Ozone in Bangkok's adjoining provinces and throughout other (ppb) at All Sites in North Region, 1996 to 2001 urban areas in Thailand, as shown in Figure 18. Rising emissions of VOCs and NOx , which are precursors for O3 along with meteorological conditions, are causes of increasing maximum levels downwind of urban centers. However, several studies indicated that O3 problem in Bangkok is controlled by VOCs not by NOx. This means that VOCs emissions will have to be reduced in order to lower the levels of O3. Source: PCD, 2002. Number of sites increased from 5 to 7 in 1999 Note: Standard for figure 17 and 18 is 1 hr average standard. POLLUTANTS Carbon Monoxide Carbon monoxide is an odorless, invisible gas, formed Figure 19. Roadside Carbon Monoxide (8 hr average) (ppm), when carbon in fuel is not burned completely. The inhala- 1988 to 2001, All Sites Combined, Bangkok tion of CO can disrupt the supply of essential oxygen to the body's tissues ­ thus posing a major health risk. Those who suffer from cardiovascular disease are most at risk. At high levels of exposure, CO can be fatal. Automobiles are the largest source of CO emissions. Lesser sources include industrial processes, non- transportation fuel combustion, and natural or manmade fires. Peak CO concentrations typically occur during the colder months of the year, when CO automotive emissions are greater and nighttime inversion conditions are more frequent. Levels are steadily declining. Roadside measure- Source: PCD 2002. Number of sites varied from 10 sites to 21 sites from 1988 to 2001. ments from 1988 to 2001 show a steady reduction in CO Note: Standard is 8 hr average standard. over the 13-year period (Figure 19). In Bangkok's adjoining provinces, average concentrations were similar to those observed in Bangkok. In the rest of Thailand, CO levels are very low and have exhibited a downward trend similar to that of Bangkok. This decline is due for the most part to the catalytic converters on automobiles, which were mandated in 1993 after introduction of ULG. ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 POLLUTANTS Sulfur Dioxide Sulfur dioxide is a colorless gas with a choking odor that is formed when fuel containing sulfur (mainly coal and oil) is burned, and during other industrial processes. High concentrations of SO2 can result in temporary breathing impairment for asthmatic children and adults who are active outdoors. Together, SO2 and NOx are the major precursors to acidic deposition (acid rain), which is associated with acidification of soils, lakes, and streams, and accelerated corrosion of buildings and monuments. Fuel combustion, largely from lignite power plants, accounts for most of the total SO2 emissions in Thailand. Industry is the next largest source of SO2 emissions. Levels have been substantially reduced. Ambient levels of SO2 around cities have been within standards for a long time. Because power plants are the major source, measurements of SO2 are made near power stations around the country. In 2000, average measurements were typically about one percent of the national standard. Since the 1992 pollution crisis, when SO2 levels reached hazardous levels in the vicinity of the Mae Moh power station (discussed further in Response section), desulfurization technology has been progressively installed at power plants which has resulted in declining level of ambient SO2 in Mae Moh (Figure 20). In 2000, ambient and roadside measurements in Bangkok showed that average measurements of SO2 were µ well below the national standard, at around six percent, with the highest recorded maximum value being less than half of the standard. In Bangkok's adjoining provinces, SO2 con- centrations were similar to those of Bangkok. Figure 20. Average Annual Ambient Sulfur Dioxide Levels in Mae Moh, 1992 to 2000 POLLUTANTS Greenhouse Gases Thailand has ratified international environmental Global Environmental Facility (GEF). This agreements that aim to combat global warming. The United international, financial entity has been established by over Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 155 countries. GEF activities for Thailand fall into three (UNFCCC) obliges Thailand to develop, update, and areas--biodiversity, climate change, and international publish information on inventories of GHG emissions. water. GEF funds can defray the added costs of making Thailand ratified the Kyoto Protocol in August 2002. projects friendly to the global environment. GEF promotes Climate change caused by GHGs is likely to affect weather conservation of biodiversity; improving forest, farmland, patterns and cause sea level rise. Thailand has an extensive coastal, mountain, marine, and wildlife management; coastline and Bangkok is particularly vulnerable, being energy savings and renewable energy technology; and located in a low-lying coastal area. reduction of reliance on less efficient technologies that cause air pollution. Greenhouse Gases. Emissions of GHGs in 1998 are estimated at 297,000 Gg.5 Global GHG emissions from Table 8. Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector, 1998 Thailand include CO2, CH4, and N2O, O3, direct emissions of which contribute 68, 27, and 5 percent of total emissions, respectively. Deforestation and the conversion of previously forested land to agricultural and urban use, combined with fossil fuel combustion, are major sources of GHGs. Deforestation and wet rice paddy production (90 percent of total rice under production) are major contribu- tors to CH4, an important GHG. The energy sector contributes the most. The energy sector, which includes fuel consumed for transpor- tation, accounted for 51 percent of total emissions in 1998. Agriculture contributed a net CO2 equivalent of 23 percent Source: ERM, 2001. of national emissions for 1998, and land use changes and Table 9. Regional Comparison of CO Emissions the forestry sector contributed 17 percent (Table 8). 2 High per capita CO2 emissions. CO2 equivalent emissions are expected to increase by 2.3 percent per year during the current decade, and by 3.6 percent per year between 2010 and 2020. Thailand's CO2 emissions per capita are relatively high compared to some of its neighbors, as shown in Table 9. In view of the dominance of the energy sector in GHG contributions, initial control Source: Millennium Development Goals Monitor for CO2 Emis- measures should target energy efficiency. sions per capita, 1999. 5GHG emissions are measured in CO2 equivalent Gigagrams ; 1 Gigagram = 109 grams = 1 billion grams = 1,000 metric tons. ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 POLLUTANTS Ozone Depleting Substances Ozone Depleting Substances. The Montreal cancer and nearly 130 million cases of cataracts will be Protocol (MP) on Substances that Deplete the stratospheric avoided. The MP is often regarded as a model for global Ozone Layer, signed in 1987, has proven successful in environmental cooperation arrangements. progressively reducing the emissions of human-made ODS by phasing out their production and consumption. The Thailand has ratified the international environment stratospheric ozone layer provides a vital service in shield- agreements that aim to combat ozone depletion. Thailand is ing the denizens of Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. obliged to complete its ODS phase-out by 2010 (Figure This filter of ozone in the stratosphere is being stripped due 21). to the use of manufactured chemicals (such as chlorofluo- rocarbons CFCs, methyl bromide, and halons), and natural Figure 21. Consumption and Projection of ODS Use in Thailand, 1991-2010 chemicals (such as chloromethane, which originates from forest fires and rotting organic matter). CFCs are widely used as refrigerants, insulating foams, solvents, fire extinguishers, and insecticide. A large "hole" was discovered in the ozone layer in 1985 over the Antarctic. Negative health effects of ultraviolet radiation (UV) include skin cancer, cataracts, weakened immune systems, and blindness in some animals. Other effects of increased UV include reduced crop yield (due to the disruption of the normal physiological properties of plants leading to increased plant disease and other problems), and reduced phytoplankton production - a key element in the marine food chain. Global response to ozone depletion led to the Vienna Convention and the implementation of the MP. The MP establishes the time Meeting ODS targets. Thailand is ahead of target, schedule for the reduction and elimination of ODS and and is set to meet its 2010 obligations under the MP. requires that all parties to the Vienna Convention ban Through grants amounting to US$35 million provided by exports and imports of controlled substances. the Multilateral Fund of the MP, the Department of Industrial Works (DIW) has assisted over 100 larger A Multilateral Fund (MLF) for implementation of the enterprises through the World Bank and UNDP. An MP was established in June 1990. With the MP, the total additional US$15 million grant, administered by the World consumption of CFCs worldwide has dropped from about Bank, will support DIW to implement a national CFC 1.1 million tons of ODS in 1986 to about 150,000 tons in Phase-out Plan covering small enterprises and service shops. 1999. As of 2002, 160,401 metric tons of ODS had been However, meeting the phase-out targets for halons and phased out in developing countries Industrial countries, methyl bromide will be difficult. which consumed nearly 90 percent of ODS before the MP, stopped most ODS use after 1987, and Article 5 countries froze their consumption in 1999. Consumption of most ODS will be reduced to 50 percent of this by 2005, and to nothing by 2010. The benefits associated with the implementation of the MP add up to approximately US$ 460 billion in reduced damage to fisheries, agriculture, and materials. In addition, more than 20 million cases of skin IMPACTS Public Health Health impacts of air pollution vary based on the type of pollutant, length of exposure, and extent of interaction among pollutants. Fine particulate matter such as PM10 poses µ a serious and direct threat to human health as the particles penetrate deep into lung tissue, conveying toxic substances. Figure 22 shows that the level of PM10 concentration and the number of outpatients with respiratory diseases peak during the dry season, from November until February. There is a positive correlation with the number of outpatients with respiratory diseases for these months. Although PM10 µ is not the only factor that leads to respiratory diseases, policy intervention to curb the concentration of PM10 during the dry season can be very beneficial and cost effective. Figure 22. PM and respiratory patients 10 µ µ Table 10. Estimates of Thailand Health Impact and Costs by PM in Six Cities of Thailand for 2000 10 source: PCD and BMA.2002 Notes: 1. The PM10 data is the annual average and is from monitoring stations and estimates based on an air quality projection model. 2. Excess deaths and chronic bronchitis symptoms caused by PM10 are estimated based on simplified methodologies. 3. The total cost of deaths and chronic bronchitis caused by PM10 is estimated by first multiplying the unit costs with the respective cases and then adding up the costs for different categories. Since only PM10 related deaths and illness are included in the health damage estimation, the total costs presented in the table above are only lower bounds of the total costs caused by air pollution. ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 IMPACTS Public Health Numerous studies have attempted to estimate the health Figure 23. Health Costs of PM for Six Major Provinces 10 (billion Baht) cost of PM10 emissions. Some of these have calculated costs on a value per ton basis, with figures ranging from US$20,000 per ton (for hospital costs only), to over US$500,000 per ton for total community costs in some high-income countries.6 Others have attempted to put a value on mortality and morbidity, especially declining respiratory functions and other cardiopulmonary diseases. Valuing health costs. An initial analysis of the cost of health impacts of PM10 in six major cities in Thailand-- Bangkok, Chiang Mai, Nakhon Sawan, Khon Kaen, Nakhon Ratchasima, and Songkhla7--was undertaken for this Monitor (Table 10, Box 4). Based on earlier international studies, this analysis computed the numbers of excess deaths and incidence of disease due to impacts of PM10. The total cost of the exposure to PM10 in these cities for excess death and bronchitis is estimated at US$ 644 million per year and is a lower bound of the health damage. The analysis covered the period 1996-1999, and revealed the following Third, the 1997 economic crisis has caused a sharp three important results:8 reduction in economic activities, energy demand, and levels of PM10, which directly lowers health costs of First, the magnitude of total health costs was PM10 exposure. However, since the economic recov- substantial, equivalent to 1 to 1.6 percent of the ery in 1999, health costs have stabilized (Figure 23). national GDP from 1996 to 1999. In 1999, for ex- ample, health costs were equivalent to the entire Forecasting health costs. Recent research has found export value of footwear products.9 that long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution is a vital environmental risk factor for cardiopulmonary and lung Second, the health costs in Bangkok alone accounted cancer mortality. Each 10 µg/m3 elevation in fine particu- for more than 65 percent of the total costs of all six late air pollution was associated with approximately 6 cities. Since Bangkok accounts for roughly 35 percent and 8 percent increased risk of cardiopulmonary percent of total GDP, the health impacts in Bangkok and lung cancer mortality, respectively (see footnote 10). are equivalent to a significant proportion of the national GDP, i.e. 0.5 percent, in 1999. The average health costs of air pollution per person are estimated at US$46 (about 2,000 Baht) per year. 6 Parsons Internationals final report for the Air Quality Management Project to BMA, 2001. 7 The selection of these provinces is based on the availability of the ambient air quality data monitored by PCD 8The health costs comprise only the value of death and bronchitis costs caused by PM10. 9 In 1999, the total value of footwear export was 32.1 billions baht (BOT, Economics and Financial Statistics, January 2001). 10Pope, C. Arden, et. al. (2002), "Lung Cancer, Cardiopulmonary Mor- tality, and Long-term Exposure to Fine Particulate Air Pollution", Journal of American Medical Association, 287(9), pp. 1132-1141 IMPACTS Public Health Figure 24 shows trends in health costs associated with Figure 24. Health Costs of PM for Bangkok, 2001-2020 10 PM10 for Bangkok from 2001 to 2020, under different scenarios.11 Health costs decline slightly until 2009, and gradually increase thereafter for the low cost scenario. This is because the declining rates of PM10 during the initial period are higher than the growth rates of Bangkok's GDP. After 2009, income growth as well as the growth in value of statistical life outpaces the declining rates of PM10. Another study on the benefits of air pollution manage- ment in Thailand estimated that under a medium investment scenario, the total annualized costs of implementing air pollution controls would be US$660 million in 2005 and US$1.5 billion in 2020, with corresponding benefits of US$4.7 billion and US$25 billion, respectively. The World Bank estimated benefit-cost ratio is higher for Thailand than for other countries in the East Asia region.12 The main purpose of such forecasting is to illustrate the potential health damage that may be prevented and substantial costs that may be saved. This can be done by designing and implementing appropriate policy interventions. These include: controlling PM emissions from buses, phasing out two-stroke motorcycles and older automobiles that lack catalytic converters, and providing appropriate fiscal and economic incentives to reduce traffic volume in cities, especially at peak hours. 11Low case: national GDP growth = 2 percent per annum and Bangkok GPP growth = 1.5 percent per annum. - Base case: national GDP growth = 5 percent per annum and Bangkok GPP growth = 4.5 percent per annum. - High case: national GDP growth = 8 percent per annum and Bangkok GPP growth = 7.5 percent per annum. 12World Bank (1999) Thailand: Building Partnerships for Environmental and Natural Resources Management. . ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 IMPACTS Health / Non - Health IndoorAirPollution Figure 25. Contribution of Emissions of Various Pollutants to Local Damages from Fuel Burning in Six Cities, 1993 (percent) Indoor air pollutants are recognized as a potential source of health risks to exposed populations throughout the world. Problems vary widely in industrialized and non- industrialized settings. In rural environments exposure to emissions from biomass burning for cooking or heating is the main problem. In urban areas such pollution can originate from cooking or heating, and be worsened by poor ventilation. Epidemiological studies have indicated that women and children who spend large portions of the day in the home are often exposed to high levels of pollutants there. In addition, the location of the home is a major determinant of Source: Environmental Costs of Fossil Fuels ­ A Rapid Assess- total exposure. Indoor air pollution and its impacts are not ment Method with Application to Six Cities, by K. Lvovsky et al., well studied in Thailand. World Bank, 2000. Note: Six surveyed cities are Mumbai, Shanghai, Manila, Bangkok, Krakow and Santiago. A recent study of indoor and outdoor exposure to small particulates in Bangkok concluded that daily fluctuations of Transboundary and global impacts include acid rain, PM concentrations are correlated with PM concentrations global warming, and damage to stratospheric ozone. In at both near and ambient locations. However, most indoor Thailand, no studies have been done to value these impacts. environments, including shops, living rooms, and bedrooms, Meanwhile, Thailand continues to contribute to and suffer had levels higher than ambient levels of both PM2.5 and from the regional haze problem. Typical impacts caused by PM10.13 some of the pollutants are described in Table 11. Non-healthImpacts Table 11. Non-health Impacts of Air Pollution While health impacts are no doubt the most compel- ling reason to take action, non-health costs of pollution are also significant. These costs include those stemming from congestion and loss of productivity, and damage to ecosys- tems and physical infrastructure. One study estimates that in six international cities, including Bangkok, the non-health costs of NOx and SO2 outweigh health costs (Figure 25). In the case of particulate pollution however, health costs significantly outweigh non-health costs. 13Tsai, F.C., K. Smith, N. Vishit-Vadakan et al. 2000. "Indoor/outdoor PM10 and PM2.5 in Bangkok, Thailand," Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology, Volume 10, pp. 15-26. IMPACTS Public Perception The Thai Society of Environmental Journalists, in collaboration with US-AEP and Mahidol University, surveyed 643 Bangkok residents between March and May 2002 to gauge their perception of air pollution (Box 5). The public views are consistent on the sources, causes, and impacts of air pollution across age and gender. Vehicles are the main polluter. Nearly three in four Bangkok residents consider air pollution as the main environmental problem they face. Ninety percent identified transport as the main source of it, while road dust, construction dust, and industrial emissions were ranked next. Uncontrolled urbanization, over-population, inadequate city planning, poorly maintained vehicles, and the widespread use of two-stroke engines were thought to be the causes (Figure 26). Bangkok residents remain skeptical. Bangkok residents were well aware of air pollution. Eighty five percent had witnessed what they believed were motor vehicle emissions violations. They did not report such violations to the authorities, either because they did not know how to make a report, or did not feel it was their duty. Thirty-one percent indicated that they did not believe the relatively higher level of education believed more strongly Government would take any action even if they did report a that individual citizens have a greater responsibility in violation. The survey indicated that while Government helping to develop solutions. Users of public transportation authorities and air quality experts believe that Bangkok's air also believed that public transportation is an important quality is improving, the public believes the situation has component of any solution. In addition, while respondents continued to deteriorate, or has remained the same. recognized that effective solutions include mass transit and clean technologies, many cited the importance of Residents limit their exposure. More than 90 creating the right incentives. percent of the participants recognized that exposure to air pollution is a significant health risk. To guard against Figure 26. Public Perception in BANGKOK. exposure, they avoid highly polluted areas, use air- conditioned vehicles, or hold their breath and cover their What is the Most Significant Type ? noses. Overall, women were more likely to guard them- of Pollution in Bangkok? selves against exposure than men.Also, residents who were relatively younger (21 to 30 years of age), more educated, or worked in proximity to pollution sources took greater precautions to avoid exposure. ? Control measures are perceived as inadequate. What is the Main Source Citizens are aware of Government pollution control of Air Pollution? measures and campaigns and feel that these are on the right track, but see enforcement as weak and inconsistent. They would welcome more integrated policies and closer coordi- nation among responsible authorities. Everyone is responsible. The majority indicated that solving Bangkok's air pollution problem requires action not only from the Government, but also from citizens, civil society groups, and the private sector. Those with a ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 RESPONSES Since the early 1990s, Thailand has stepped up efforts to control air pollution. National and local agencies like the PCD, National Energy Policy Office (NEPO), LTD, BMA, city of Chiang Mai, and others have formulated policies, programs, and projects aiming to control air pollution. Similarly, the private sector and civil society also have undertaken several initiatives. A description of the different responses follows. Pioneering leaded gasoline phase-out in the region. Thailand was the first developing country in the region to address the issue of lead in gasoline, phasing it out completely by 1995. (see Box 6). Thanks to this phase-out, the ambient lead levels in Thailand are negligible today. Thailand's remarkable success has inspired other countries µ µ in the region, such as Vietnam and Philippines, to give priority to phasing out leaded gasoline. Achieving higher engine standards. The observed reduction in pollutant emissions from the transport sector in recent years has been due to a combination of new laws and regulations that have imposed higher emissions standards for new automobiles. Gasoline vehicle engines have become more efficient and less polluting through the use of technologies such as catalytic converters. These Source: Successful Conversion to Unleaded Gasoline in technologies have gone a long way in reducing emissions Thailand, World Bank Technical Paper 410, 1998. of NOx , HC, and CO. Continued reductions in PM emis- sions can be achieved with effective implementation of more stringent mandated tail pipe emission standards for new diesel vehicles. New diesel-fueled buses are required to meet Euro 2 standards. To meet the Euro 2 and Euro 1 standards, virtually all diesel engines require direct fuel injection and computerized engine maintenance systems. But many buses operating as Euro 2 buses do not employ such computer control technologies, and are unlikely to be operating to standard. RESPONSES Shifting to four-stroke motorcycles. Responding to increasingly strict emissions standards, awareness rais- ing campaigns, and motorcycle clinics, over 80 percent of Thai motorcycle production has shifted to four-stroke engines.(figure 27) These four-stroke motorcycles are less polluting, have better fuel efficiency and are priced similarly to the two-stroke. The Thai Federation of Industry and manufacturers may implement a program to phase out the highly polluting older two-stroke motorcycles to further encourage the switch to four-stroke. The legendry Tuk-Tuk used to be one of the biggest polluters in Bangkok; however, their numbers were reduced and the remainder required to run on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in the 1980s. There is discussion of requiring them to use clean four-stroke engines soon. Figure 27: Sale percentage of two-stroke and four-stroke motorcycles in Thailand from 1994 - 2001 Origins of Skytrain Patronage Source: PCD, 2002 Improving public transport in Bangkok. In Source: World Bank (1999) Bangkok Urban Transport: Options response to growing traffic snarls, congestion and for Sustaining Mobility and for Sources of Skytrain Patronage: Policy Appraisal Services Pty Ltd and Economic and Policy Ser- pollution, traffic and transport management has been vices (2001), Bangkok Mass Transit (Skytrain) Externalities Study, receiving attention at the highest levels of government in Final Report, prepared for the International Finance Corporation. the country (see Box 7). Among the measures taken to improve public transport are: (a) adding Euro 2 buses to the fleet; (b) implementing bus lanes in busy one - way traffic corridors; (c) implementing mass rapid transit systems; and (d) building overpasses in major traffic arteries. The light rail system, commonly known as Bangkok Transit System (BTS), became operational in December 2000. The underground metro system is at an advanced stage of construction and is expected to be completed in 2003. ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 RESPONSES Requiring factories to cut back pollution. Industrial emissions have grown despite the introduction of fairly stringent emissions standards during the 1990s. In response to these standards, many large factories have adopted cleaner production, energy efficiency and advanced emissions control technologies. However, small and medium-sized industries are less able to afford new technologies. They are also difficult to regulate because of their dispersed locations. Curbing SO2 emissions from power plants. In addition to tightening industrial emissions standards and switching to natural gas, the Government has required power plants to control emissions, as discussed in Box 3. EGAT began installing FGD systems in its Mae Moh power plants in 1995. The results are obvious a dramatic reduction in ambient SO2 concentrations, as shown in Figure 20. Requiring contractors to control dust at construction sites. BMA and other local governments have issued a code of practice to the construction industry to control dust, which has resulted in reduced dust on the street. Bangkok also has an extensive street cleaning program to reduce road dust. Reducing garbage burning. The practice of garbage burning has significantly declined in recent years in Bangkok but continues to be a problem in other urban centers. In Bangkok, two sanitary landfills receive the bulk of Bangkok's waste, and this largely relieved the problem. However, localized burning still takes place. Controlling haze. Thailand is a signatory to the Regional Haze Action Plan that was adopted by the South East Asian countries in 1999, after the regional haze problem of 1997 that affected 20 million people in the region. The Governments also adopted a "zero burning" policy in the same year. Action plan is being developed. The challenge now is their implementation. MANAGEMENT Legislation Legislation had an early beginning. The first Table 12. Air Pollution Legislation and comprehensive legislation on environmental protection was Responsible Ministries the Enhancement and Conservation of National Environ- mental Quality Act (NEQA), which was enacted in 1975. This act was superceded in 1992 by a newer act with the same title. The Constitution of 1997 deepened the state's commitment to environmental protection by including specific articles.14 The 1992 Act includes specific clauses on air quality.15 A catalogue of other relevant laws can be found in Table 12. There is a sound basis but weak enforcement. Although there are sufficient laws and regulations on the books, their effective enforcement remains a problem. Political will, capacity constraints at the local level, lack of incentives, cumbersome procedures and lack of coordina- tion among agencies contribute to weak enforcement. For example, roadside enforcement on black smoke remains low (Table 13). New institutional arrangements ­ A new Ministry takes over. On October 2, 2002, the Government announced the reorganization of its public sector after several years of preparatory work. The new MoNRE was created to oversee environmental management, including air quality. In addition, a new Ministry of Energy (MoE) was also established. MoNRE fills an important void, and is expected to improve coordination and integration of environmental functions across agencies and enhance service delivery. Previously, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (MoSTE) was responsible Source: World Bank Task Team Review of Thai Environmental for implementing NEQA under the auspices of the National Legislation Environment Board (NEB), the apex environment policy Table 13. Roadside Enforcement on Black Smoke in making body. The Government is currently finalizing the Bangkok roles and responsibilities of the Ministries and agencies, and a clearer picture will emerge once formal notification is announced in due course. A preliminary listing of agencies and their role in air quality management follows (Figure 28). 14Article 270. Source: Royal Thai Police Department, 2002. 15Part 4, NEQA: Air and noise pollution. Note 1: Projected figure, actual between January and September 2002 is 78,274 ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 MANAGEMENT Institutions Figure 28. New Institutional Arrangements BMA - Bangkok Metropolitan Administration; BMTA ­ Bangkok Mass Transit Authority; DIW ­ Department of Industrial Works; DMF ­ Department of Mineral Fuels; DOEB ­ Department of Energy Business; DOH ­ Department of Health; DOLA ­ Department of Local Administration; ECF ­ Energy Conservation Fund; EF ­ Environment Fund; EPPO ­ Energy Policy and Planning Office; EGAT ­ Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand; IEAT ­ Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand; IPP ­ Independent Power Producer; LTD ­ Land Transport Department; MET ­ Meteorological Department; MoE ­ Ministry of Energy; MoICT ­ Ministry of Information and Communications Technology; MoIND ­ Ministry of Industry; MoINT ­ Ministry of Interior; MoNRE ­ Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment; MoPH ­ Ministry of Public Health; MoT ­ Ministry of Transport; NEB ­ National Environment Board; NREPPO ­ Natural Resources and the Environment Policy and Planning Office; OCMLT ­ Office of the Commission for the Management of Land Traffic; PAO ­ Provincial Administration Organization; PCD ­ Pollution Control Department; Private ­Private Sector; RTP ­ Royal Thai Police; SPP ­ Small Power Producer; TAO ­ Tambon Administration Organization; TISI ­ Thai Industrial Standards Institute Varying degree of capacity. A preliminary assess- It could be broadly stated that human resources ment was made to determine the existing capacity for capacity in the three key agencies--PCD, LTD and DIW-- monitoring and enforcement functions. A combination of remains low. For example, one DIW inspector has to cover input, output and outcome indicators were chosen. The nearly 400 enterprises, while one LTD staff has to inspect summary of analysis is presented in Table 14. The findings over 40,000 vehicles. indicate varying degrees of staff capacity and utilization of facilities that have been procured over the years. MANAGEMENT Institutions Table 14: Indicators of Institutional Capacity for Air Quality Management in Thailand Source: The World Bank ­ compiled from a variety of sources, including personal communication with agencies Note: 1. PCD monitoring sites consist of 10 permanent, 7 semi-perminent, 20 temporary sites in Bangkok, 11 permanent sites in BMR (excluding Bangkok, and 23 permanent sites in other 13 cities) 2. Land area refers to the municipal area of the 19 provinces which have air monitoring stations. 3. According to the law, it gives the authority to traffic police to prosecute vehicles on air violation cases in Bangkok only. Consequently, testing equipment is provided to traffic police in Bangkok area only. In addition, testing equipment cannot be used to inspect motorcycle. Therefore, number of motorcycles is excluded. 4. Vehicle complaint program of Traffic Police began in December 2001. ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 MANAGEMENT Budget Spending on air pollution control has increased. Figure 29. Expenditures for Pollution Control Government spending for pollution reduction, prevention, and control has steadily increased since 1992. In 2000, the budget allocated to the key central agencies16 and BMA was Baht 8,965 million (approximately US$200 million), up from Baht 1,254 million in 1992 (US$50 million).17 No reliable estimates are available of investments and expenditures made by the private sector, petroleum refineries or EGAT, although these are likely to have been substantial as well (between 1992 and 2000). Of the total budget reported, air pollution control has received the lowest share, when compared to water pollution and hazardous wastes (See Figure 29). In 2000, it was 2 percent (Baht 158 million) of the total amount Figure 30. Causes of Complaints allocated by the relevant agencies. It should be noted that some expenditures, such as street sweeping and washing, are not reported as expenses to improve air quality. Therefore, total expenditure is understated. However, it is interesting to note that public complaints are higher for air pollution than for other types of pollution (Figure 30). It is important for PCD to systematically track expenditures for air quality management, as it will enable it to better assess the cost-effectiveness of Government interventions. 16Former MoSTE (PCD, OEPP, DEQP); MoPH, MoT, Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Industry, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, former Ministry of University Affairs. 17US$1 = 25 Thai Baht. CHALLENGES Thailand has made remarkable progress in improving associated with implementing technical solutions, for air quality and combating pollution as compared to Manila, example in the case of pollution caused by Bangkok's bus Jakarta, Beijing, Dhaka, Delhi, and other cities in Asia. It fleet (Box 5). has passed critical laws and regulations, created monitor- ing systems, strengthened enforcement capacity, and shown A recent study undertaken by BMA18 lays out an improvements in ambient air quality and airport visibility. action plan for the next five years that targets motor vehicles, traffic management, public transport, road dust, Champions in many agencies have been persistent in crematoriums, and industrial and utility boilers. The imple- their vision to improve air quality and have fought special mentation of this US$150 million-plan (Table 15) is interests over the years. Examples of success include estimated to reduce PM10 emissions by 6,000-8,000 tons introduction of ULG, improvements in fuel quality, control annually, representing a 20 percent reduction from 1997 of power plant sulfur emissions, regulations for motor levels19. The benefits (health and productivity) of imple- vehicles, and the monitoring systems. menting this plan are estimated to be over US$500 million. The main features of the plan follow. While overall air quality has improved, it is still a problem in traffic corridors and urban centers like Bangkok. Inspection and Maintenance (I/M). A large part of the The public perception that air quality has not improved is bus and diesel vehicle fleet in Bangkok is old and has due, in part, to traffic congestion and poor air quality in uncontrolled emissions. Improved I/M would go very urban areas. This perception is often a deterrent to tourism far in reducing vehicle emissions. However, I/M and foreign investment. requires significant institutional capacity and sustained effort by both Government and the private sector. The The economy has bounced back since the crisis of Government should improve its own I/M activities 1997, and congestion is beginning to re-emerge in Bangkok. while providing incentives for the private sector to Consequently, pollution problems can worsen and set back improve its services. the recent gains. So, the challenge for Thailand is to consolidate these gains and tackle more complex problems Two-stroke Motorcycles. New motorcycle production that include reducing PM2.5, NOx, and ground-level ozone is dominated by four-stroke engines, but the older two- in Bangkok and containing GHGs like CO2 and CH4. The stroke motorcycles continue to be a major source of challenges outlined below are based on the foregoing particulate emissions. The Government (mainly BMA) analysis and feedback received during the preparation stage and the manufacturers and traders should join hands of this Monitor. They cover both immediate actions needed to introduce incentive schemes for users to replace in hotspots like Bangkok; and longer-term reforms required their two-stroke motorcycles with four-stroke. for strengthening the policy and institutional framework. Control of Road Dust. A source apportionment study Tackling the unfinished agenda in done in 1995 indicated that a significant portion of the Bangkok. PM remains a major public health threat in PM loading in Bangkok is re-entrained dust, and Bangkok, with concentration levels exceeding standards by therefore it is necessary for BMA to give this a two-and-a-half times. There are several million gross priority. polluters--very old diesel vehicles that are continually rebuilt (such as the green mini-buses) or older two-stroke motorcycles--that need to be taken off the roads. Attempts 18Bangkok Air Quality Management Plan, February 2001, BMA/Par- to deal with these gross polluters have not been very sons. successful. There are social and political problems 19In 1997, over 38,000 tons of PM10 were emitted in Bangkok. This represents a 20 percent reduction. ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 CHALLENGES Table 15. Targeting PM Reduction in Bangkok - An Action Plan for 2001-2006 10 Source: Bangkok Air Quality Management Plan ­ Final Report; February 2001; BMA/Parsons. Notes: 1. Primarily health benefits; does not include economic savings realized through fuel efficiency and lower maintenance. Based on Monitor Team calculations. 2. Mainly savings in travel time and reduced operating costs. 3. Lower value is for sweeping while the higher value includes washing as well. Financing of the Plan. Thailand should tap private Improving air quality management. sector resources to finance the implementation of the Thailand does better than most countries on monitoring and plan, especially the operation of I/M facilities. This transparent reporting of data, but analysis of monitoring would require the Government to put in place some data is limited. A more organized approach is needed to incentives; at the same time, it will need to tighten the integrate monitoring and analytical capacity with decision- enforcement of its laws. Thailand can also investigate making. imposing a targeted tax on gasoline to control air pollution from the transport sector and promote mass transit. CHALLENGES Update of Emissions Inventories. Emissions invento- by epidemiological surveys. Quantifying and disclos- ries for major sectors and source-contribution to ing health and non-health costs of air pollution is an human exposure need to be updated (Table 16). effective way of generating public and political sup- Currently, large uncertainties about estimates make cost port for difficult, and sometimes expensive, actions. effectiveness analysis of action plans impossible. An updated source inventory is needed in Bangkok on a Control of Unconventional Sources. Local and central priority basis, to target cost-effective solutions for governments have to address agricultural waste and gross polluters. The role of area sources, such as forest burning, which contribute significantly to air waste, and agricultural and forest burning, should be pollution, and which are carried over long distances. quantified and control options identified. Existing control measures have tended to focus on pollution from industry and transport sources in urban Table 16. Who Pollutes What in Bangkok? 1997 areas. Improving public transport and traffic management. Bangkok traffic has improved over the last decade thanks to better management of traffic, introduction of priority bus lanes, and expansion of the high- Source: PCD, 2000. way system. However, as noted earlier, traffic congestion that had considerably eased after 1997 is worsening again. Strengthened Enforcement. Thailand has made impres- Without appropriate and timely actions, these increasing sive advances in managing air quality by setting traffic problems could potentially negate the gains made in standards and using the latest technology. Continued the late 1990s. progress will require more effective and sustained management and enforcement of large as well as Current regulations provide short-term solutions, scattered, small industrial and transport sources. however, in the long term, Bangkok needs to improve the Better enforcement requires clarity in laws and coverage and efficiency of its public transport system to regulations, appropriate incentives and fines for ensure sustained improvements in air quality. The follow- infringement, and a dedicated, trained corps of offic- ing areas of focus can help in easing congestion and ers with adequate resources. Further, the Government increasing vehicle speeds, thereby reducing pollution, needs to go beyond the command-and-control enhancing pedestrian safety, and encouraging the use of approach and build in incentives like economic instru- non-motorized transport. ments and public disclosure programs to encourage better polluter behavior. Priority Lanes and Traffic Management. In Bangkok, the use of High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes and Expanded Health-Causality Studies. Thailand was the provision of adequate sidewalks and bicycles lanes among the first countries in Asia to link air pollution will encourage people to use public transport, carpool, impacts to health, when research studies vividly bicycle, or simply walk shorter distances. demonstrated the debilitating effects of lead in children. However, this has not been replicated for Smoke-belching Buses and Trucks. PM levels along other pollutants. The effects of air pollution in terms the traffic corridors exceed air quality standards. of costs associated with morbidity and mortality, and Despite many years of discussion and policy alterna- linkages with poverty, need to be studied and publi- tives, local buses, trucks, and other high mileage cized. Health impact costs are currently based on vehicles remain gross polluters. Young children and estimated pollution and exposure, and not confirmed the poor continue to face the highest health risks, while ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 CHALLENGES the sight of traffic police covered in clouds of black offices. The experience of Chiang Mai (see Box 8) bus smoke is still common in Bangkok and other demonstrates the ample opportunity for local govern- cities. Efforts should target these gross polluters ment involvement. Expansion of the local government through appropriate technology and policy changes. role can be achieved in stages, in which selected local governments are strengthened. The initial set of Skytrain (BTS). The Skytrain was an effort to responsibilities could include: (a) monitoring smoke displace bus use, and encourage a less-polluting mass emissions from belching vehicles; (b) conducting transit option. However, ridership remains low (40 local awareness activities; (c) regulating small point- percent utilization capacity). The privately operated sources; and (d) managing existing ambient air quality BTS is handicapped by a large debt burden, and this monitoring stations. prevents it from offering incentives to passengers. Options need to be considered to increase mass transit capacity and ridership. Strengthening institutional effectiveness. In October 2002, the new MoNRE was created with the overall responsibility of environmental management, including air quality. At the same time, the Government has also put into place an ambitious program to decentralize functions to local governments. Given this, efforts need to focus on: Improved Inter-Agency Coordination. In Thailand, the various agencies with functions relating to air quality management need to be able to work cooperatively. For example, an assessment of Thailand's vehicle in- spection, which is managed by LTD, reports that the current system is inadequate in controlling vehicle emissions. The inspection of motorcycles for smoke required by PCD is not being carried out by LTD be- cause of implementation difficulties. Through better coordination, the monitoring, enforcement and licens- ing systems can be more effective. Expanded Local Government Role. While the central Government requires air quality monitoring on a regional level, there are few urban (local) authorities with such monitoring responsibilities due to capacity and budget restraints. Two exceptions, however, are BMA and the Chiang Mai Municipality. BMA, Thailand's largest local government, has several departments and divisions with responsibilities related to air quality management. Implementation and enforcement is being carried out through fifty district CHALLENGES Broadening public participation. While the Energy, agriculture, and waste sectors form the bulk level of awareness of air pollution is high, the level of public of GHG emissions, and therefore will be the focus of CDM participation in pollution control programs is low. Surveys initiatives. MoSTE recently prepared a National CDM show that while 72 percent of the population is aware of Strategy, which reviews different options and identifies pollution and existing regulations, they believe that enforce- opportunities in: (a) reducing CO2 in the energy sector; (b) ment is weak and that agency coordination is a bottleneck. converting CH4 from waste to energy; and (c) sequestering Given the limited capacity of national and local institutions, CO2 through reforestation and afforestation activities. the public and private sectors have important supplemental roles to play. For Thailand to engage and draw benefits from the CDM market, it will need to do the following: (a) designate Involvement of local communities is a critical part of a national CDM authority and approval process; (b) an integrated air quality management framework. The best institutionalize eligibility criteria and a transparent process technical plans may fail without community buy-in. to identify eligible investments; (c) establish a public Disseminating data and creating stakeholder awareness is participation mechanism; (d) ensure that the identified important in building political support for rational air quality CDM investments comply with the country's environ- management approaches. However, people also have to be mental impact assessment requirements; and (e) reach a willing to contribute on an individual level to reduce "distribution" agreement for Certified Emission pollution. Reduction with project sponsors. Examples of how the public can contribute include car-pooling or using mass transit, reporting smoke- belching vehicles to the relevant authorities, conserving electricity, composting instead of burning yard waste, and planting trees. Harnessing global opportunities for local good. Recently, Thailand ratified the Kyoto Protocol. While Thailand, as a developing country, has no emission reduction obligations under the Kyoto Protocol, MoSTE established a national goal of reducing CO2 emissions by 3 million metric tons annually or approximately 2 percent of total emissions. The primary funding mechanism is the CDM, which allows developing and developed countries to work together toward achieving Kyoto Protocol targets. Once the Kyoto Protocol has been ratified internationally and the CDM is operational, developing countries will be able to obtain funding for projects aimed at GHG emission reductions, while developed countries can use these emission reductions towards their Kyoto compliance limitations. Thailand's GHG emission is expected to nearly double by 2020 to 535,000 Gg CO2 equivalent emissions. ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 GLOSSARY OF TERMS Abatement: The reduction or elimination of pollution. climatic condition to another. In some cases "climate change" Acid Rain: Rain which is especially acidic (pH <5.2). has been used synonymously with the term, "global warm- Principal components of acid rain typically include nitric ing;" however, scientists tend to use the term in the wider and sulfuric acid. These may be formed by the combina- sense to also include natural changes in climate. tion of nitrogen and sulfur oxides with water vapor in the Dose-Response: The relationship between the dose of a atmosphere. pollutant and the response (or effect) it produces on a Adverse Health Effect: A health effect from exposure to biological system. air contaminants that may range from relatively mild Emission Standard: The maximum amount of a pollutant temporary conditions--such as eye or throat irritation, short- that is allowed to be discharged from a polluting source ness of breath, or headaches, to permanent and serious such as an automobile or smoke stack. conditions--such as birth defects, cancer or damage to lungs, Exceedance: A measured level of an air pollutant higher nerves, liver, heart, or other organs. than the national or state ambient air quality standards. Air Monitoring: Sampling for and measuring of pollutants Exposure: The concentration of the pollutant in the air present in the atmosphere. multiplied by the population exposed to that concentration Air Pollution: Degradation of air quality resulting from over a specified time period. unwanted chemicals or other materials occurring in the air. Fossil Fuels: Coal, oil, and natural gas; so-called because Alternative Fuels: Fuels such as methanol, ethanol, natural they are the remains of ancient plant and animal life. gas, and liquid petroleum gas that are cleaner burning. These Global Warming: An increase in the temperature of the may be used for powering motor vehicles. earth's troposphere. Global warming has occurred in the Ambient Air Quality Standards: Health- and welfare- past as a result of natural influences, but the term is most based standards for outdoor air that identify the maximum often used to refer to the warming predicted by computer acceptable average concentrations of air pollutants during a models to occur as a result of increased emissions of GHGs. specified period of time. Greenhouse Effect: The warming effect of the Earth's Carbon Dioxide (CO2): A colorless, odorless gas that atmosphere. Light energy from the sun which passes occurs naturally in the Earth's atmosphere. Significant quan- through the Earth's atmosphere is absorbed by its surface tities are also emitted into the air by fossil fuel combustion. and re-radiated into the atmosphere as heat energy. Carbon Monoxide (CO): A colorless, odorless, poisonous Greenhouse Gas: Gases, such as CO2, CH4, NO2, and gas produced by incomplete fossil fuel combustion. The others that increase global temperatures by trapping solar inhalation of CO can disrupt the supply of essential oxygen electromagnetic radiation. to the body's tissues--thus posing a major health risk. Those Hydrocarbons (HC): Compounds containing various who suffer from cardiovascular disease are most at risk. At combinations of hydrogen and carbon atoms. They may be high levels of exposure, CO can be fatal. emitted into the air by natural sources (e.g., trees) and as a Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs):Afamily of inert, non-toxic, result of fossil and vegetative fuel combustion, fuel volatil- and easily liquefied chemicals used in refrigeration, air ization, and solvent use. Hydrocarbons are a major conditioning, packaging, insulation, or as solvents and contributor to smog. aerosol propellants. Because CFCs are not destroyed in the Indoor Air Pollution: Air pollutants that occur within build- lower atmosphere they drift into the upper atmosphere ings or other enclosed spaces, as opposed to those occur- where their chlorine components destroy ozone. ring in outdoor or ambient air. Some examples of indoor air Climate Change (also referred to as "global climate pollutants are NOx, smoke, asbestos, formaldehyde, and change"): Used to imply a significant change from one CO. GLOSSARY OF TERMS Lead: A gray-white metal that is soft, malleable, ductile, penetrates most deeply into the lungs. and resistant to corrosion. Sources of lead resulting in Pollutant: Something which makes the environment physi- concentrations in the air include industrial sources and cally impure or unclean. crustal weathering of soils followed by fugitive dust emissions. Health effects from exposure to lead include brain Scrubber: An air pollution control device that uses a high and kidney damage and learning disabilities. energy liquid spray to remove aerosol and gaseous pollut- ants from an air stream. The gases are removed either by Mobile Sources: Sources of air pollution such as automo- absorption or chemical reaction. biles, motorcycles, trucks, off-road vehicles, boats, and airplanes. Smog: A combination of smoke and other particulates, ozone, hydrocarbons, NOx, and other chemically reactive Morbidity: Rate of disease incidence. compounds which, under certain conditions of weather and Mortality: Death rate. sunlight, may result in a murky brown haze that causes Nitrogen Oxides (NOX):Ageneral term pertaining to com- adverse health effects. pounds of nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and Stationary Sources: Non-mobile sources, such as power other oxides of nitrogen. NOx are typically created during plants, refineries, and manufacturing facilities, which emit combustion processes, and are major contributors to smog air pollutants. formation and acid deposition. NO2 is an air pollutant. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): A heavy, pungent, colorless, gas- Ozone (O3): In the stratosphere (the atmospheric layer 7 eous air pollutant formed primarily by processes involving to 10 miles or more above the Earth's surface) ozone is a fossil fuel combustion. natural form of oxygen that provides a protective layer Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Carbon-contain- shielding the Earth from ultraviolet radiation. In the ing compounds that evaporate into the air (with a few ex- troposphere (the layer extending up 7 to 10 miles from the ceptions). VOCs contribute to the formation of smog and/ earth's surface), ozone is a chemical oxidant and major or may themselves be toxic. VOCs often have an odor, and component of photochemical smog. Ground-level ozone some examples include gasoline, alcohol, and the solvents forms readily in the atmosphere, usually during hot used in paints. summer weather, and is a major contributor to smog. Ozone Depletion: Destruction of the stratospheric ozone Adapted from various air quality glossaries. layerthatshieldstheEarthfromultravioletradiation harmful to life. This destruction of ozone is caused by certain chlorine- and/or bromine-containing compounds (CFCs or halons), which break down when they reach the strato- sphere and then destroy ozone molecules. Particulate Matter (PM): Fine liquid or solid particles such as dust, smoke, mist, fumes, or smog, found in air or emissions. PM10: Particulates smaller than 10 microns. Small particu- lates are of special concern because of their ability to penetrate deep into the lungs and cause major health impacts. PM2.5: Tiny particles with an aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to a nominal 2.5 microns. This fraction of PM ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 USEFUL WEBSITES USEFUL WEBSITES ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This Monitor is a joint effort of several Government agencies, private sector and civil society organizations at both the national and local levels. A consultation workshop was held in Bangkok on October 21, 2002 to discuss a draft of the docu- ment. The following representatives from government, academia, NGOs and media attended the workshop and provided valuable comments and inputs, which is gratefully acknowledged: Government agencies Academia, NGOs and others Pollution Control Department (PCD) College of Public Health, Chulalongkorn University · Dr. Supat Wangwongwatana · Dr. Nuntavarn Vichitvadakarn · Mingquan Wichayarangsarid Faculty of Environment and Resource Studies, Mahidol · Pansak Teeramongkol University · Marnwipa Kusol · Dr. Anuchat Poungsomlee · Supap Chunhong World of Environment Program Bangkok MetropolitanAdministration (BMA) · Kitti Singhapat · Prapim Borisuthi Kenan Institute · Jarupong Pengkrieng · Kitti Kumpeera Department of Industrial Works (DIW) Thailand Environment Institute (TEI) · Sirakarn Srilekha · Tittaya Waranusantikule · Nongkran Sudjaritkittikul United States ­Asia Environmental Partnership (US-AEP) · KanchanavadeeAmphaisri · Saengroaj Srisawaskraisorn Department of Land Transport (LTD) · Silpachai Jarukasemratana · Saimate Thawanaphong Office of the Commission for the Management of Land Traffic (OCMLT) · Peerapol Sittivijan · Parada Poosiri · Chutintorn Praditphet Support and cooperation was also provided by the Department of Meteorology, Department of Health, Department of Energy Development and Promotion, Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand, National Energy Policy Office, National Statistical Office,AntiAir Pollution and Environmental Protection Foundation, CleanAir Initiative forAsia andAusAid. Dr. Piyasvasti Amranand (Deputy Permanent Secretary of OPPMO and Former Secretary-General of NEPO), Dr. Bhichit Rattakul (Director of Anti Air Pollution and Environmental Protection Foundation, Former Governor of BMA from 1996-2000), Wasant Techawongtham (President of Thai Society of Environmental Journalists) and Dr. Supat Wangwongwatana (Deputy Director-General of PCD) participated in a roundtable discussion that is included in the Video of the Thailand Environ- ment Monitor 2002. Their insights are acknowledged. Photographs for the Monitor were provided by the Pollution Control Department Video of Thailand Environment Monitor 2002 was produced by Kitti Singhapat (Producer of World of Environment Program) THAILAND AT A - GLANCE - - Source: The World Bank - complied from various government and international data sources. ThailandEnvironmentMonitor2002