43
ESP Discussion Paper Series
17G76
Scientific Information and Literature
Bojana Boh
September 1994
Education and Social Policy Department
Human Resources Development and Operations Policy
The World Bank



ESP Discussion Papers reflect work in progress. They are intended to make lessons emerging from th
current work program available to operational staff quickly and easily, as well as to stimulate discuss
and comment. They also serve as the building blocks for subsequent policy and best practice papers. -
views expressed here are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank or its Bo
of Executive Directors or the countries they represent.



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Lauritz Holm Nielsen for giving me the opportunity to work on scientific
information and literature in the Science & Technology Program of the Education and Social
Policy Department (ESP). I am also thankful to the staff of the World Bank libraries, especially
the Sectoral Library, for their cooperativeness and professional services. Finally, I am grateful
to Erik Thulstrup and Kin Bing Wu all colleagues from the ESP for their support and help in
preparing in publishing this paper.



ABSTRACT
The paper discusses an intensive growth of scientific and technological publications and
computerized databases, and the resulting challenges, problems and opportunities for individual
scientists, researchers, scientific communities and countries. Trends and characteristics of
traditional literature sources, especially scientific journals, books, and patents, and of computer-
supported databases accessible on-line, on CD-ROM or on personal computers, are reviewed.
The main strategies for achieving an efficient acquisition of scientific and technological
information and the methodologies for its transfer into research and education are presented.
The information and communication differences between industrial and developing countries are
identified, and the main obstacles hindering the exchange, transfer and use of scientific and
technological information are discussed. In the light of identified problems, the paper provides
recommendations for priority actions and programs to develop/improve the acquisition and use
of scientific literature, databases, information services, and to promote the transfer of knowledge
into research, education and development.



FOREWORD
The last three decades have been characterized by an intensive growth of scientific and
technological knowledge and information. The increased production of traditional publications,
combined with the development of telecommunication and computer technologies, has resulted
in the development of scientific and technological informatics as a scientific discipline, and in
the emergence of an information industry.
The wealth of scientific and technological information presents both new opportunities
and risks for the developing countries. The availability of information from all over the world
is important for the quality and advancement of scientific research and education, and contribute
for example to develpment of industrial and enhancement of agricultural production. However
active participation in scientific and technological communication and exchange of knowledge
is not automatic. Too many developing countries are virtually isolated from the flow of
knowledge and will have to depend on others for technology transfer etc.
This paper presents the information and communication differences between the industrial
and developing countries, and discusses the main obstacles hindering the exchange of scientific
and technological information between low-income and high-income countries. The core of the
paper gives an overview on traditional literature sources, especially scientific journals, books,
and patents, as well as on computer-supported databases accessible on-line, on CD-ROM or on
personal computers. Possible acquisition methods of scientific and technological information and
the information-supported methodologies are discussed in relation to the specific problems in
developing countries. In the light of identified problems, the paper offers recommendations for
actions and programs to support the development, improvement, promotion and use of scientific
and technological information in developing countries.  Reducing the information and
communication gap between the industrialized and the developing countries, and strengthening
the transfer of knowledge, is one of the most urgent priorities in development programs.
The intention has been to provide an overview of current trends in scientific and
technological literature, databases and information-supported methodologies. The paper may
serve as an valuable source not only for the Bank staff working on science and technology, and
higher education projects, but also for those who are involved in broader fields of education,
research, communications, planning and development.
Lauritz Holm-Nielsen
Education and Social Policy Department
The World Bank



Table of contents
EXECUTIE SUMMARY                                                                     VI
The age of information
Infornation as a resource                                                   1
Scientific and technological information                                    1
The rapid growth of infornation in science and technology                  2
Information-supported approaches in research and education                  3
The importance of scientific and technological information for the developing countries  7
The widening gap between industrial and developing countries                          9
Why is the international communication in science and technology so difficult?
The cultural, scientific and technological differences                     14
H'igh adult illiteracy rates                                               15
The foreign language barrier                                               18
Absence of an enabling technological enviromnent                           19
Insufficient training in S&T informatics                                   19
Lack of information                                                        20
High cost of S&T information, lack of funds                                20
Scientific literature: a basic source of S&T information
Scientific journals                                                        21
Books                                                                      26
Proceedings from S&T events                                                26
Patents                                                                    29
Standards                                                                  35
Technical and research reports                                             35
Dissertations                                                              35
Commercial publications (trade literature)                                 34
Maps                                                                       35
Secondary literature sources                                               36
Other traditional sources in S&T communications                            36
I1



Computer-supported databases
The database industry                                                        37
On-line databases                                                            43
Databases on CD-ROM                                                          45
Specialized databases on personal computers                                 47
Acquisition of S&T information
Users of S&T information                                                     50
Acquisition methods                                                         50
Problems in acquisition of S&T information in developing countries          52
Improving the access to and use of S&T information in developing countries
Recommended actions                                                         53
Bibliography                                                                           56



List of tables
Table 1:  An example of information-supported research strategy: introductory
studies, main methodological steps and the phase results
Table 2:  Communication profile: differences between industrial and developing countries
List of Figures
Figure 1:  The growth of on-line accessible databases
Figure 2:  Growth of the Chemical Abstracts database
Figure 3:  Dynamics of information growth on the specialized scientific field: number of
records on microencapsulation technology in the Chemical Abstracts Database
Figure 4:  GNP per capita in low-, middle- and high-income economies
Figure 5:  Share of population between low-, middle- and high-income economies
Figure 6:  Adult illiteracy rates in low-, middle- and high-income economies
Figure 7:  Expenditure for research and development in industrial and
developing countries
Figure 8:  Total number of scientists and engineers working on research and
development in industrial and developing countries
Figure 9:  Number of R&D scientists and engineers per million of population in
industrial and developing countries
Figure 10: The geographical differences in science and technology manpower density
Figure 11: Percentage distribution of population and book production
between developed and developing countries
Figure 12: Number of book titles per million inhabitants
Figure 13: Number of radio receivers per 1,000 inhabitants
Figure 14: Examples of countries with high illiteracy rates
Figure 15: The relationship between adult illiteracy and GNP per capita:
examples of countries with high illiteracy rates
Figure 16: Illustration of a language barrier. a large proportion of Japanese patents on microencapsulation
technology
Figure 17: Distribution of main contributors to scientific papers in selected
American and European scientific journals
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Figure 18: Average annual growth rates of scientific papers output for USA,
selected European and Asian countries
Figure 19: A comparison of research paper productivity and citations per paper
for selected English speaking and other industrialized countries
Figure 20: Production of national professional journals in selected countries
Figure 21: The number of scientific book titles published in selected countries
Figure 22: The number of textbook titles published in selected countries
Figure 23: Cumulative growth of patent and non-patent literature for an industrially
important technology: interfacial polymerization mnicroencapsulation
Figure 24: Dynamics of patent and non-patent literature during the research and
development cycle of monoclonal antibodies
Figure 25: Examples of countries with less than 100 patent applications per year
Figure 26: Examples of countries with 100 to 1,000 patent applications per year
Figure 27: Examples of countries with 1,000 to 10,000 patent applications per year
Figure 28: Examples of countries with 10,000 to 100,000 patent applications per year
Figure 29: The patent mega-powers with more than 100,000 patent applications per year
Figure 30: Growth of computer and communication equipment industry in the USA
Figure 31: Growth of records in computer-supported databases
Figure 32: Growth of database industry: databases, producers and hosts
Figure 33: The geographical distribution of databases
Figure 34: The growth of database entries in the USA and other countries
Figure 35: A percentage distribution of databases by producer
Figure 36: Main classes of databases by form of data
Figure 37: The subtypes of textual databases
Figure 38: Distribution of databases according to the main subject areas
Figure 39: Distribution of databases by different media
Figure 40: Distribution of new and newly implemented science, technology
and medicine database products by medium
Figure 41: The growth of on-line database searches in the USA in comparison
with the increases in database records
IV



Figure 42: Some examples of the largest on-line databases in science and technology
Figure 43: The growth of CD-ROM products
Database records
Record 1: Example of a record for a patent description from a specialized bibliographic
database on microencapsulation
Record 2: Example of a record from a highly specialized factual database
containing qualitative and quantitative data on interfacial polymerization
microencapsulation procedures in water-in-oil emulsions
Abbreviations
CD-ROM Compact Disc - Read Only Memory
CDS/ISIS Computerized Documentation System/lntegrated Set of Information Systems
GIS       Geographical Information Systems
GNP       Gross National Product
PC        Personal Computer
R&D       Research and Development
RS        Retrospective Search
S&T       Science and Technology
UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNDP    United Nations Development Program
UNIDO    United Nations Industrial Development Organization
V



EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The results of scientific research are being applied much faster today than before in the
development of new products and technologies. The life-time of information is becoming shorter.
Information and knowledge are being treated as a scientific concept and resource or commodity
with value and price. Accessibility, exchange and use of scientific and technological information
have strong effects on the quality and advancement of scientific research, education, industrial and
agricultural developments: they stimulate new research and prevent its duplication, provide
knowledge on new materials, products and technologies, support better decision-making and
planning for a sustainable development. All these are the characteristics of the post-industrial
information age, where information and knowledge became the key components for development.
The intensive growth of scientific and technological information during the last three
decades, combined with the growth of computer industry, has resulted in the development of
scientific and technological informatics as a scientific discipline which has contributed to the
prosperity of infonnation industry. New information services and technologies have been offered to
gather and process increasingly higher amounts of data from traditional and specialized scientific
literature. However, the large amount of information alone does not necessary ensure a better
quality of education and research. Scientists and researchers are faced with new information
challenges, such as (1) the time-pressure in acquiring new information, (2) competition for priority
publishing of new discoveries and inventions, (3) acquisition, selection and processing of highly
specialized but dispersed, fragmented and sometimes unreliable data, and (4) effective transfer of
processed information into scientific research, teaching, industrial and agricultural developments.
The main strategies for achieving an efficient acquisition of scientific and technological
information and its transfer into practice utilize (1) information-based methodologies, such as
data structuring, design of knowledge maps, pattern recognition and problem solving, and (2)
computer-supported technologies for communication, information retrieval and data processing.
Traditional sources of S&T information include (1) scientific journals, which are still the
major source of new findings in fundamental research. The strongest and most prestigious and
influential S&T journals are published in English and come primarily from American and
European publishing houses. Scientists from developing countries contribute less thn 5% of their
articles. (2) Patents bring the information on scientific discoveries, inventions and improvements in
strategic fundamental research, applied science and technology. They are an indispensable source
of information for applied research and industrial development. (3) Scientific books, although not
as timely as journals, provide a few years older but more comprehensive and better structured
knowledge. (4) Proceedings from S&T conferences, seminars and workshops, (5) standards, (6)
technical and research reports, (7) dissertations, (8) trade literature and (9) special maps are
important sources of data in any S&T information study. Access to traditional sources of scientific
and technological information is the basic prerequisite for any research project or educational
process. For an in-depth infonnation coverage of a specific scientific field, all available types of
scientific publications have to be acquired and analyzed. Limitations to only a few information
VI



sources may lead to gaps in acquired information, serious losses of the whole information sets,
costly duplication/repetition of research, or unnecessary authorship/intellectual property conflicts.
Secondary literature sources provide bibliographic data on primary literature and often
include an abstract or at least key words describing the main theme of a document. The large-
volume indexes and abstract books are being rapidly replaced by computer-supported databases.
The last twenty years have been characterized by a rapid growth of computers,
communication and database industries. Database records have grown from 1975 to 1991 by a
factor of 87, number of databases by 26, database producers by 15 and vendors by a factor 14.
Geographically, the largest producer of computerized databases remains the USA, followed by
Westem Europe, Asia, Australia, South America, Eastern Europe and Africa. Science, technology
and engineering databases hold 19% of all commercial databases. Together with health/life
sciences (9%) and multidisciplinary academic databases (4%) they are the main competitor to the
strongest database group - business databases (33%).
The largest on-line bibliographic databases on S&T already contain several millions of
records. They are either multidisciplinary or they cover specialized scientific disciplines, such as
chemistry, biological sciences, medical research, physics, electronics and computer science,
pharmaceutical research, agriculture, food production and processing, technology and engineering,
environment and pollution, and biotechology. Other types of textual on-line S&T databases
include data on patents, business and trade, different regulations, or contain directory-type
information on academic and research institutions, manufacturers, suppliers, information services,
natural resources and microbial culture collections. Specialized factual databases in natural
sciences are designed for a direct support to research, and contain highly specific information, such
as physical and chemical properties of materials, molecular structures, sequences of proteins and
nucleic acids, or genetic maps.
An alternative to on-line databases are CD-ROM products. They seem to be of particular
interest to monodisciplinary research groups (who only depend on one or a few databases), to
academic research and educational institutions (repetitive processing of a CD-ROM database by
students and research trainees does not result in additional costs), and institutions from developing
countries (CD-ROM can operate in harsh environmental conditions, does not require
telecommunications links, can be portable and can serve multiple workstations).
Another possibility are specialized bibliographic and factual databases on mini or micro
computers, built by the researchers, S&T information specialists or students, who analyze primary
literature in their field of work. Building and/or processing of databases on specialized scientific
topics can improve the research efficiency and contribute to higher quality of S&T education in
schools and universities.
The increasing amount of scientific and technological information presents both new
opportunities and risks for the developing countries. The possibilities to access and use the
scientific and technological information from all over the world can speed-up the country
development, shorten the transition period and contribute to better industrial and agricultural
planning and performance. However, remaining outside the scientific and technological
communication and exchange of knowledge may lead to an infornation isolation, a deeper
underdevelopment and dependency on foreign resources.
vn



There are severe information and communication differences between industrial and
developing countries. The gap is visible not only in higher illiteracy rates, lower spending on
science and research, fewer scientists and engineers and insufficient telecommunication
infrastructure, but also in lower production of literature, especially scientific books and journals,
and very low participation of scientists from developing countries in the intemational exchange of
knowledge.
The exchange of scientific and technological information between developing and
developed countries is hindered by several obstacles, such as (1) cultural differences, (2)
educational problems in developing countries, including high illiteracy, lack of scientists,
technologists and information specialists, (3) the language barrier, (4) technological problems, e.g.
insufficient infrastructure, lack of compatibility of equipment and software, maintenance problems,
(5) inappropriate selection of priorities in foreign information aid programs, (6) organizational
problems and complicated bureaucratic procedures in developing countries, (7) lack of infornation
on different possibilities for cooperation and information exchange, (8) high cost of S&T
infonration services and lack of funds.
Reducing or bridging the infonnation and communication gap between the industrialized and
developing countries should be one of the urgent priorities in the programs for more balanced
world development. The recommended actions and programs to support the development,
improvement, promotion and use of S&T literature and information services in developing
countries include:
(1) Definition of the information needs for all target groups,
(2) Introduction of S&T informatics to regional and national information policies and
development plans,
(3)  Improvement of technical environments for S&T information acquisition, processing and
distribution,
(4)  Provision of reliable funding sources,
(5)  Coordination of activities between local, national and intemational organizations,
(6)  Cooperation between foreign consultants and local scientists and information specialists in
all S&T information projects and programs for developing countries,
(7)  Stronger participation of scientists from developing countries in intemational scientific
communication and publishing (by providing training in scientific writing, advise/help in
achieving high quality standards, and promotion of scientific articles from developing
countries in internationally recognized S&T journals),
(8) User-oriented training and assistance in design, building and updating of information systems
for the local needs,
(9)  Increased sustainability of information systems in developing countries,
(10) Establishment/strengthening of S&T information networks among individuals and/or
institutions in industrialized and developing countries,
(11) Organization of specialized pre-service and continuous in-service education in S&T
informatics for different groups of information professionals and end-users,
(12) Introduction of S&T information services and methodologies in all areas of scientific
research, industrial development, transfer of technological know-how, planning, decision-
making and education,
(13) Advise and help in the transfer of knowledge (know-how) in all imports of technologies,
processes and materials,
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(14) Replacement of school teaching practices, which emphasize memorizing of data, with more
information-based teaching for the development of skills for searching, processing and using
S&T information,
(15) Support for efficient literacy programs in countries with high illiteracy rates,
(16) Development and promotion of S&T terminology, information processing and scientific
publishing in indigenous languages,
(17) Introduction of training courses in S&T English and/or other main languages used in S&T
communication to the university studies,
(18) Establishment/improvement of local production of basic consumables, such as paper, toners,
inks, cables, diskettes,
(19) Simplification of rigid bureaucratic procedures which hinder a more efficient acquisition of
S&T infornation and technologies,
(20) Improvement of the social status of S&T information specialists.
ix



The age of information
Information as a resource
While the poorest regions of the world are still struggling to fulfill their basic human needs,
several societies in the developed world have already transcended the classical industrial phase and
entered the post-industrial information age, where information and knowledge have become
essential resources and commodities. Information is now being treated as a scientific concept.
Scientists interpret nature as matter, energy and information. Economnists regard information as a
resource equal of land, capital and labor. Information can be collected, stored, maintained,
retrieved, processed, applied, bought and sold - all for a price. Today, scientific progress is
transformed much faster than before into new products and technologies - which increases the
value and price of information, and at the same time shortens its life-time. What students learn in
school at present, may become obsolete in five to ten years. With the rapidly changing processes
and technologies, the necessary working skills may have to be upgraded or replaced several times
in someone's professional life. In an information-based economy, acquiring skills for collecting,
processing and using infornation are becoming just as important as gaining the specific knowledge
in a specialized professional field. Policies for education, training, science and technology became
the vital information age policies. Information has an equally important role for economic,
scientific, technological, industrial, as well as for rural, social and cultural development.
Scientific and technological information
Scientific research relies heavily on the ability to communicate - gather reliable data, have
access to information, collaborate on research projects, participate in meetings, conferences,
seminars and scientific discussions, and to disseminate the results. The accessibility, exchange and
use of scientific and technological information (S&T information) have a direct influence on the
quality and prosperty of education, fundamental and applied research, industral developments and
technological innovations. In the past, science was characterized by objective observation,
powerful methods and techniques, and the ability for prediction. Today, these characteristics are
upgraded by the transfer of results into production and decision making processes. The traditional
information sources - scientific papers, books, conference proceedings and dissertations - are tlUS
supplemented with patents, standards, research reports, technical papers and know-how offers.
Access to and proper use of the information about new achievements in S&T has several
positive effects in both industrialized and developing countries. S&T information can:
(1) stimulate new research and development and bring fresh approaches to the existing
projects,
(2) help prevent duplication of research,
(3) provide knowledge on new promising technologies, materials and products,
(4) enable the recognition of developmental trends,
1



(5) support better decision making in the selection and in adoption of foreign technologies
and products, and
(6) help in better planning for local industrial development, utilization of raw materials,
expansion of trade and selection of economic partners.
The rapid growth of information in science and technology
The last three decades have been characterized by an intensive growth of publications in
most S&T disciplines, primarily as a result of more intensive fundamental research, highly
competitive applied and industrial research, and a substantial increase in the number of research
institutions and researchers, both in industrial and developing countries. The rate of diversification
and specialization in scientific and technological fields has increased. In addition to traditional
scientific disciplines, new fields with an exponential growth of information are emerging.
Specialization in science and technology leads into the production of large amounts of highly
specialized publications, resulting in high dispersion and fragmentation of information. In order to
cope with large sets of data, several information firms were established, offering different
information services and products: traditional and specialized publications, yearbooks, reference
directories, abstracting and data structuring services, computerized bibliographic databases, full
text and factual databases, or complete information systems. It is estimated that over 40 million
technical books are already in circulation and that their number is being increased at a rate of 400
new titles each day. Another indicator illustrating the prosperity of information industry is the
overall growth of the on-line accessible databases (Figure 1). In 1992, more than 5000 on-line
databases have been offered by approximately 730 hosts.
Figure 1: The growth of on-line accessible databases (From Kornhauser and Boh, 1992a)
6000
5000
4000-
Numiber of300,
databause
200   -   0              O       0%0
1000'        0
x% 0e  0°  0  0%  X% e%  0%  0%%0    0 fi
Years
In science, chemistry is often quoted as an example of a field with exponential growth of
information. The number of records in the Chemical Abstracts database increased from barely
half-a million in 1980 to over 10 million at the beginning of 1990s (Figure 2).
2



Figure 2: Growth of Chemical Abstracts database (From Komhauser and Boh, 1992a)
12
10
8
Number of
abstracts  6
(million)
4
2
0
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Years
Very often the same increasing pattern of new publications can be observed in specialized
scientific and technological disciplines, - both in non-patent and patent literature - as seen from an
example of the nicroencapsulation technology (Figure 3).
Figure3: Dymamnics of information growth in a specialized scientific field. number of records on
microencapsulation technology in the Chemical Abstracts Database (From Boh, 1993).
7000 ^
6000                             St
400W                                 I                   Patent&
t  3000 /                                          E_  >   *  ^  |  2Scientific papers and other
8  2000                                                  non-patent literature
o _  _  _ -__                                               __  ___ . .  _
1970-75   1976-80   1981-85   1986-90
Information-supported research and education approaches
The large amount of information alone does not necessary ensure a better quality of teaching and
research. On the contrary, scientists, researchers, teachers and students are faced with new
information challenges, such as:
(1) how to participate actively in the scientific communication and transfer of
information - as an user of information and as a producer of a new knowledge,
(2) how to improve the access to all sources of information and gather sufficient amount
of adequate information for a chosen research theme,
3



(3) how to process scientific and technological information from large amounts of
similar publications, when the data seem to be disorganized, fragmented and
dispersed over different scientific disciplines and over different types of publications,
(4) how to recognize and link the main parameters, establish their hierarchy, structure
them and recognize the pattems of knowledge,
(5) how to design information-based research hypotheses to bridge the information gaps
(the most important information may not be published in scientific papers or even in
patents),
(6) how to use the structured information in teaching, learning, research, recognition of
developmental trends, and for solving scientific and technological problems and
every day research dilemmas.
With a rapid growth of scientific and technological data, several methodologies were
developed to approach the above information challenges, such as structuring scientific information
into systems, design of knowledge maps, recognition of patterns, and problem solving in research
and education. These methods became even more powerful with the availability of large computer-
supported databases and with the introduction of microcomputers in research and education.
The combination of information-based methodology and computer-supported information
systems can contribute to a more effective acquisition and use of information, and to a more
efficient transfer of fundamental knowledge into education, applied research and production
practice. To achieve this, the following strategies can be used:
(1) To acquire more complete and adequate information, and to avoid delays in transfer:
- Design target-oriented search profiles for processing international bibliographic
databases
- Select the most relevant databases for retrospective searches
- Build a permanent updating mechanism in selected domains (SDI - Selective
Dissemination of Information)
- Establish a reliable mechanism for the acquisition of primary literature
(2) To store, process and retrieve large amounts of acquired data:
- Build small specialized bibliographic and factual databases on personal computers
for the needs of specific long-term research projects or educational programs
(3) To link fragmented infornation and recognize structures of knowledge:
- Perform in-depth information analyses of scientific literature to recognize the main
parameters, their relations and hierarchy
- Structure the information to recognize patterns of knowledge
(4) To process large, incomplete or vague sets of data:
- Apply the concept of information density
(5) To design information-based research hypotheses (or to develop well structured
educational materials):
4



- Combine results of the above phases
(6) To evaluate and optimize a research hypothesis (or an educational product):
- Test a research hypothesis with experimental research work
- Acquire and analyze additional infornation on missing/questionable fragments
- Solve the remaining problems by following the same steps
(7) To upgrade the research hypothesis (generation of new scientific and technological
knowledge):
- Creatively interlink the known (structured) information with fundamental scientific
knowledge, research intuition and experimental research work.
The following example of an information-supported research strategy (Table 1) combines
computer-supported information methods with experimental laboratory work for the development
of a new product or technological process. The flowchart is designed in phases, which successively
end up in higher levels of information processing, enabling a continual following and evaluation of
phase results in solving a given research problem. Each level consists of three blocks: (a)
preparatory work and/or introductory studies, (b) selection, study and application of appropriate
methodology, and (c) phase results as a target of one level and at the same time a start to a
progressively higher level.
Table 1: An example of an infornation-supported research strategy  introductory studies, main
methodological steps and the phase results (Adapted fiom Boh, 1991; Boh and Kornhauser, 1992).
Phases    PREPARATORY           METHODOLOGICAL                   PHASE RESULTS
WORK and/or                 STEPS!
INTRODUCTORY                  STEPS
STUDIES
Discussing a
research/developmental
I       problem: scientists,    PROBLEM DEFINMTION            Defined problem - draft
researchers, potential                               research plan with tasks,
industrial producers, users                             timelines and expected
of final products                                         outcomes
Optimized profiles for the
2       Consulting an S&T     DESIGN AND OPTIMIZATON    retrospective searches (RS) and
information specialist  OF A SEARCH PROFILE FOR     for the constant updating with
BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATABASE        new publications - Selective
PROCESSING             Dissemination of Infonnation
(SDI)
5 ~ ~     _



Cont. Table 1
Ph_    PREPARATORY                   METHODOLOGICAL                       PHASE RESULTS
WORK and/or                      STEPS
INTRODUCTORY
STUDIES                                .
Searches on on-line and/or CD-
3        Consulting an S&T        SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE    ROM databases: bibliographic
information specialist           DATABASES                  data, abstracts, definition of
developmental trends
ANALYSIS OF PRIMlARY
Collecting primary          LITERATURE WITH
documents (articles from  SIMULTANEOUS DEFINMTION             Specialized database on PC
4       scientific papers, books,       OF KEY WORDS;              containing bibliographic data on
patents, technical reports,  ENTERING DATA INTO A           all collected primary documents,
dissertations, conference    SPECIALIZED BIBLIOGRAPHIC   and precise, well structured key
proceedings, gray            DATABASE ON A                    words or abstracts
literature);             MICROCOMPUTER
STRUCTURTNG DATA INTO A    A tree (or modular) structure of
Methodology of             TREE- OR MODULAR             the research field: from general
5     structuring infornation for    STRUCTURE: DEFINITION OF        towards detailed branches,
recognition of parameters,    MAIN PARAMETERS, THEIR          leading to specific products,
their hierarchy, relations  HIERARCHICAL ORDER, AND         processes or properties. (Can
and pattems of knowledge    RELATIONS BETWEEN THEM           be used as a basis for a factual
database.)
6        In-depth analysis of        SELECTING A PRIORITY          A factual database (or a system
publications: gathering             BRANCHR                  of databases) on the chosen
and analyzing selected   BUILDINGAHIGHLY-SPECIFIC    narrow field , such as a specific
factual data           AND TARGET-ORENTED             technology, group of materials,
FACTUAL DATABASE ON PC                family of products.
Definition of main      PROCESSING OF A FACTUAL    Sorted printouts, such as lists of
7     parameters, their relations,   DATABASE: SORTING,              raw materials, their physical
and sorting keys for     ANALYSIS, STRUCTURING,           and/or chemical characteristics,
computer-supported     COMPARISONS, OVERLAPPING,             technological processes,
processing           CALCULATING DENSITY OF             process variables, market
INFORMATION                  products, producers and
suppliers, etc.
DESIGNING A RESEARCH            A basic skeleton of a research
Concept of information   HYPOTHESIS (e.g. for laboratory       hypothesis (e.g. process
8      density: applications for  work): LINKING FRAGMENTS          backbone, synthesis flowchart,
segments with large,      WITH IGH INFORMATION                  research procedure,
incomplete and vague           DENSITY INTO A                 composition of a product
information          HYPOTTICAL SKELETON                 formulation, structure of a
complex compound)
6



Cont. Table I      -                                                         . . .
Phases    PREPARATORY          METHODOLOGICAL                 PHASE RESULTS
WORK and/or
INTRODUCTORY                 STEPS
STUDIES
Technical knowledge and   TESTING AN INFORMATION-
9    experiences for setting-up  BASED RESEARCH         Verified and optimized research
the laboratory procedure  HYPOTHESIS WITH                hypothesis
(or another form of  LABORATORY (or FIELD)
experimental work)           WORK;
EXPERIMENTAL
OPTIMIZATION OF
PARAMETERS
Target-onented database   UJPGRADING INFORMATION    Upgraded/new material,
searches: obtaining  STRUCTURES WTH NEW         product, process or technology.
additional information on   KNOWLEDGE: WTERLiKING
10      missing fragments.  OF INFORMATION METHODS,   Publication of results in a form
Additional in-depth     TARGET-ORIENTED          of a scientific paper, patent or
studies of fumdamental   FUNDAMENTAL KNOWLEDGE,       technical report
concepts needed for  RESEARCH INTUITION AND
upgrading the research  EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
hypothesis                WORK
The importance of scientific and technological information
for the developing countries
The vast amount of information available presents both new opportunities and risks for
developing countries. The international competition in the development of new technologies (e.g.
information technologies, biotechnology, environmental technologies), and new products (e.g.
computers, chemicals, pesticides, phanmaccuticals, food products, ceramics, synthetic fibers),
strongly depend on the availability of scientific and technological information. In order to compete
in the international market and improve their quality of life, developing countries need to have
access to scientific and technological information, the abilities to process information and use
the results and knowledge for their development. The successful implementation of S&T
information systems and services is based on the convergence of a range of disciplines, including
fundamental science, computer science, informatics, library science, communications, publishing
and management.
Low- and Middle-income countries have to participate actively in the international exchange
of S&T information - not only as observers and users, but also as active contributors of new
knowledge. At present, developing countries contribute only about 5 percent of the new S&T
publications worldwide, which does not only illustrate the deepening information gap between the
two parts of the world, but also shows the extent to which low-income economies depend on
industrialized countries for information and technology transfer. The dependency is being
maintained by technology transfer firms in order to keep their leading position and increase the
7



profits, and by the developing countries themselves. A study on S&T information and technology
transfer (Lundu et al., 1989) demonstrates how the transfer of finished products, which appeal
more to third world consumers, usually overshadows the technological information and know-how.
Many third world decision makers see no direct use of S&T information, research and
development, and believe that there is no moral, economic or technical justification for developing
countries to "reinvent the wheel". The same authors see a serious danger in this phenomenon,
realizing that ignorance or lack of information are the major causes of underdevelopment. Import
of technology without a proper information source results in dependency and, consequently, in
underdevelopment and alienation. The only way out from dependency and underdevelopment seem
to be in attaching a greater value to S&T information as a strategic resource. However, the
acquisition of S&T information from industrialized.countries has to be carefully planned,
relevant to local needs and cost-effective in relation to the limited financial resources available in
low-income economies.
8



The widening gap between
industrial and developing countries
It has been a long-standing tradition to divide the world into two parts: industrialized
countries and developing countries. The differences between low-, middle- and high-income
economies are visible in their basic indicators, such as GNP (Figure 4), population (Figure 5),
and adult illiteracy (Figure 6), as well as in the characteristics of research and development
(R&D). Typically, developing countries allocate a much lower percentage of their nominally
smaller GNP to R&D - an average of 0.64% (1990) in comparison with 2.92% for developed
countries (Figure 7), - and have almost 6 times less scientists and engineers working in
research and development in total, or close to 20 times less per million of population (Figures
8 and 9). Geographically, North America has by far the highest concentration of science and
technology manpower, followed by Europe, Latin America, Asia and Africa (Figure 10).
Similarly, there are distinct differences in the communication profile (Table 2). In 1960,
85.8% of all books were published in the industrialized countries, which at that time
represented 41.6% of total world population. With the increase in population growth, the
developing countries reached a population share of 76.9% in 1990, and only 28.7% in the
book production (Figures 11 and 12). In regions with high adult illiteracy, dissemination of
information and informal education by radio broadcasting play an important role. However, in
the developing countries there is only one radio receiver per 5-6 persons, compared to over 1
radio set per person in the industrialized world (Figure 13).
Table 2: Communication profile: differences between industrial and developing countries (UNDP, 1993).
Daily                                               Average
newspaper  Book titles  Radios per  Televisions  Telephones  number of
circulation   published    1,000    per 1,000   per 1,000    people
per 1,000    per      people,    people,    peoplc.   served by
people,    100,000    1990      1990      1986-88   onc post
1988-90    people,                                   office,
1988-90  .   _                            1986-88
Industrial        348        61        1130       545       590       4,200
countries
Developing        50         6         180        55         28       16,330
countries
9



Figure 4: GNP per capita in US$, 1991 (Data source: The World Bank, 1993)
25000 -
20000  /
GNP per capita 15000 
(U), 1991   10000 /
5000 V   e-
Low-         Middle-         High-
income        income         income
economies     economies      economies
Figure 5: Share of population between low-, middle- and high-income economies, 1991 (Data source: The
World Bank, 1993)
High-income
economies
15%
Middle-income                              Low-income
economies                                 economies
26%.       , _             _              59%
Figure 6: Adult illiteraey rates in low-, middle- and high-income economies (Data source: The World
Bank, 1993)
_D1 Female illiteracy (%)
High-income economices
_  Total illiteracy (%)
Middle-income economies
Lowincome economies        _-i
0      10     20     30      40     50      60
Adhlt illiteracy rates (ff.)
10



Figure 7: Expenditure for research and development (Data source: Unesco, 1992)
3
Expenditre for  I.5                                                  Developing countries
19S0
Yesos            1990
Figure 8: Total number of scientists and engineers working on research and development (Data source:
Unesco, 1992)
Developed countries  *Developing countries
6000000.                
5000000       ,     EX
Number of R&D 4000000 
scientists and  3000000-
engineers    2000000
1980         1985          1990
Figure 9: Number of R&D scientists and engineers per million of population (Data source: Unesco, 1992)
ReD s==ntt t M d      X                          )~ ~~~~~~~ Devetoping countriEs
R&D scientists and  2500
engineers per million  2000                  -UDeveloped couritries
populaion                                199
11



Figure 10: The geographical differences in science and technology manpower density (From Thulstrup,
1992)
140000 /
S&T manpower  80000-/
per million
population    60000 , a._ ____-
40000 ,0 /                                        11
20000- /      ww                     1 
Africa    Asia    Latin   Europe Northern
America          America
Figure 11: Percentage distribution of population and book production between developed and developing
countries (Data source: Unesco, 1992)
90   --_                                        _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _
s0                                                   %flHookProdw,tion-
Dewlloped Coumri.
760                                                  S %BookPmduion-
1960 1965 1970 1975 l9S0        l990lopm
N b                                                  Couobok3
40                                         -U--   PopukLiDn-
inhabitants30 1lllllll Xl gll |                      Dcvelopod Countrics
Da-- -- %opk.iw
10                                                   Courirev          u
0~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~19
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1935 1990
Years
Figure 12:  Number of book titles per million inhabitants (Data source: Unesco, 1992)
soa
Nwanber of book  300
titles per million2
inha~bitants                                                         Developing Countries
UDeveloped Countries
1990
12



Figure 13: Number of radio receivers per 1,000 inhabitants (Data source: Unesco, 1992)
Number of radio
receivers per 1000   600UDvlpnCutrs
inhabitants     400                                                                 
200 ~~~~~~~~~~~WDeveloped Countries
1990
13



Why is the international communication
in science and technology so difficult?
The exchange of information, especially in the field of science and technology, is hindered by
several obstacles. The following issues have been identified by different authors, trying to analyze
and understand the main problems related to S&T information exchange, and to search for possible
constructive solutions:
The cultural, scientific and technological differences
There is a deep cultural, scientific and technological gap between industrialized and
developing countries, which results in several misconceptions and problems. The following
problems and complaints are most often discussed in literature:
From the viewpoint of industrialized countries:
(1) High illiteracy rates, poor education of indigenous people in developing countries, and
persuasiveness of traditional cultures and traditional values seem to make the introduction of
modem science and technology and the exchange of information very difficult.
(2)  Lack  or  incompatibility  of  basic  equipment  and  technologies  (computers,
teleconmunications, software), together with undertrained staff organizational problems and
long bureaucratic procedures, cause long delays and many difficulties in the implementation
of information projects.
(3)  Many developing nations lack the scientific and technological terminology to express the
scientific concepts and ideas in their mother tongue. In such cases, science and technology
represent an alien culture to indigenous people. Insufficient knowledge of English and/or
other languages used in the scientific literature sets another serious barrier in the transfer of
S&T information.
From the viewpoint of developing countries:
(1)  The scientific and technological information provided by donor countries is not adapted
enough to the needs and priorities of developing countries. Science and technology
publications sent to developing countries may sometimes be inappropriate (e.g. space
research has little relevance to a rural community; nuclear power issues are not the first
priority to village dwellers using cow dung as a fuel).
(2)  Scientists in industrial countries sometimes try to assist their colleagues from the developing
countries by contributing back issues of scientific journals and other publications. Some
publishers and scientific associations donate overrun copies of their journals and reports.
Such donation programs may result in relatively large quantities of inappropriate and
obsolete publications, which take up the library space and lead visitors and potential donors
14



to think that the library is well-stocked, while there is still a lack of current, high-value
target-oriented S&T publications.
(3)  Information aid programs are often carried out solely by consultants from industrialized
countries, without the involvement of local researchers, information specialists and
administrators. Because of such strategies, much of the local knowledge is disregarded or
lost.
(4)  Some of the bilateral programs are directing resources towards the individual goals of a few
researchers and their organizations in developing countries rather than towards the support
of national and regional research and development needs.
To reduce the existing information gap, scientists from developing countries propose the
following actions: (1) identification of the priorities and needs in developing countries, (2)
recognition of the interdependence of the developed and developing worlds, especially in the
production, utilization and transfer of technology and knowledge, (3) increasing the use of local
experts in information processing and use of all indigenous groups as a source of informnation and
knowledge, (4) education and training in S&T informatics - both for information providers and
users, (5) searching for most suitable media, such as radio, publications and video to disseminate
S&T inforrnation on most critical needs of developing countries (e.g. farming methods, health,
sanitation, environmental protection) to all recipients, including rural or distant communities, (6)
establishing effective information networks to capture and distribute the information and
knowledge produced locally by scientists, technologists, government officials and primary
producers, especially farmers, (7) supporting indigenous publishing programs and infornation
systems serving local communities, (8) supporting pilot projects that demonstrate the use and costs
of different information technologies and techniques (e.g. on-line and CD-ROM databases, desktop
publishing, electronic mail, computer conferencing), (9) supporting software development and
adaptation, designing, building and using specialized (local) databases.
High adult illiteracy rates
Illiteracy rates in several countries exceed 50 percent of adult population, and may in some
cases run as high as 90 percent, especially for the female population (Figure 14). Illiteracy does not
strictly correlate to the GNP of the country. However, the highest percentages of illiterates are
found in the lowest income economies, and the proportion of illiterate adults decreases with an
increase of GNP (Figure 15).
Some authors, addressing the problem of information isolation in rural areas of developing
countries, have suggested as a solution the establishment of a strong network of rural libraries. The
other group of information specialists, paying more attention to illiteracy issues, is skeptic about
the introduction of written materials. In cases where the majority of rural dwellers are illiterate,
they cannot directly benefit from publications in a foreign language. To overcome this problem,
radio broadcasting in the indigenous language has been proposed as a ftst and effective S&T
dissemination tool in high-illiteracy communities. Nowadays, most of the households or at least
villages in low-and middle-income economies own a radio set.
15



Figure 14: Examples of coumtries with high illiteracy rates (Data source: The World Bank, 1993)
Burkcina F1so            n            m                                             i D
Sudan_
Guine  a  _                                 m                                                                     g   _______
NqI  =
Benin  _                                                                                                               ____;m
Nigerj              III:        1 =                                          r =
Chad                                                                                           Yi          ,         Z;li:l'E.-R n  
Mozambique              _                     -=y= D
Mvuwanim  m.
Pakistan_                                                                                                      -.
Mali                                                                                                        1    I____
Oi -Bnis                *       mm                         mm                               u      m     mI                  _
Egympm m m     mm                                                                   .mm
Indiai                          i    i      -   i  :   i  : i   ii1i1:             i   :   .
Umnd. . mmm i m u m                                                                                  i
M         biqiP1puaN1w':1
Mauritania   m     m:AiiiiiiiiiiS.0iiiiSiiiiii:!i:P!it ! m m mii  m m  m i -: i i i ri!!:'ii iii-iii i t!i n_             T
Y4aNmimgmuemrm umam
Auiiie-i~a             7mmm                              mm          mm               m          m
1     1.I~~1
;   oiiEi........ !! m                                    m       m     m!iiEi-"'Ei!ii'giiii.i'S'ii: ...................Fi!.t!i!-i.iSiiiiii!.ii:i-if! m mF 'i i'i m m''ipi i i m'i! F Ei:i' ii i :.ii ]hi'
E S~  ~    ~   ~                         1              1,    i:iii!  i.  i.i    i -  jgiii  !i  ig. i    iiiwiii!iA.  iii f :ii      .ii.-!iii  ,rili       :.I i     xi.iii   !      iSi,
BJi'iUiSH:E.  E .    if    h       f:    r        'i    !     !:-Li '!Siiii i i! i i:' i :! : !ii N ..    i E: !iih::i::t.3  .E;i!'i!!sl\ m m:i: mi    : ! m'w. m   '.    m :ii ! :! !  m   m  m : m
U g l d l   i!!ii:Riiii!  iii   i :i   ii  iiiiii:iiSSi:,  .iSiLf!iii   :i'ii!:'i.-t'ii1   ' 1  1 7 iI:iiiii  Fi'iiii::ii!   i'S.iii   i E
Rwna_i: iHi S0emi:i!   E:Hi       - !                         0g             '" Sim    im   mm.:! m u m    mm  m. !: i i' iE:iiiEi,i ii;ii i: fEii iE:ii.i':iii    i-!. 
M orocco1 _ fi!i.!i.i'i.iii:i'i  ,i:   .i!   ii Si!!iR..'!ii'   !S..iiiii!iS  ti}iiiiiiii:i   :i'i  'ii!iii'fSi!!:!!i   m 
PapuNewOm                  me m"ci.i,  mz           m        mii  m       msi-i"-!isiE.!zi  m-<r^l  miii!iiii; gli-  ]iii           otlli
Ni  - iiiiiii.:'  gi-N!!Si    !i1 !ii'i:i.ii-i:S   i:.!i!iEi.iLi..ii'1!'!!!i: 1  1!.:!   g    S   !.!i!!!:i     i 'ii!i  ifi!!!  !!!!
Eudinm                       n           m            m                m!!'!.!!S.'iiiS(: mm!i!.!i!tiii!ii!i.:!!!!!.ii.i:ii!!R .! i3.!i!_.iii i'iiii,ii i_ __
Cote mdm                                               mie_              -          mii.ii  :iF-!E:!  !..:fi:iii!i.f:i  i ii.i iii.!.!:.  ]__.i i:  X! i!   ;_isT(.! .E   :!i
Ji~~~~~~~~~ 1                                        1'!iiii.:iiii!! iiA! t !:!!iIii'':ti'i':fii'!i.B:i :i!i!!!iiiii'EEii'F.,ii!!2-
4             10           20           30             10          5              07                          090
Rwanda~~~~~~~                            ~Pratg of mllitmatcmpopmlatmon
-~~~I        1         1 ~~~~16                          1



Figure 15:  The relationship between adult illiteracy and GNP per capita: examnples of countries with high
illiteracy rates (Data source: The World Bank, 1993)
GNP per capita
-U-- Total illiteracy (h)
GNP per capita (USS)
0        500        1000       1500      2000       2500       3000      3500       4000
Burkina Faso
Sierra Leone m_._.___
Benin .;-.1              
Guinea   - - *.
Nepal               _
Niger
Chad
Mali
Mozambique
Mauritania
Bangladesh                                    _         - '-1                            _
Pakistan
Guinea-Bissao m
Bhutan
Central Afican Rep.                        __         ___ ' -I                                   ___
Yemen
Seea                           ____.                         ' 
Togo
Uganda                _                                   . _
Indiat
Egypt    :::'':',-'=,U:    
Morocco               _ _
Burundi
Rwandat
Nigeria   -              _ 
Papua New Guinea
Cote dlvoire
Cameoon
..................~~~~.. ..   .i .  ........     
Ga o              .   . - .....
0        10       20        30        40       50        60        70        so       90
Adukillteacy (%)
17



The foreign language barrier
In young or small nations, anxious to establish their identity, the country policy often
emphasizes the use, spread and development of local languages in all fields, including education,
research and S&T publishing. The positive effects of these policies are the development of
scientific vocabularies in local languages, larger quantities of locally available S&T literature, and
easier/wider use of scientific publications by local researchers, students and general public.
However, a strong focus on local language may result in poorer foreign language skills, underuse
of foreign scientific literature, smaller participation of local scientists on the international S&T
information market, which all lead to an information isolation.
Although there is an undeniable pressure to publish scientific and technological findings in
English, the number of languages in which scientific research results are published is steadily
increasing and already exceeds sixty. This pressure may affect different languages unequally.
Statistics show an increasing trend of English articles in German scientific journals, while the trend
in Japanese journals is decreasing (Thorp, et al., 1988). Similarly, different scientific fields and
different document types show different trends. Findings of fundamental scientific research and
medical research are most often published in English. Exchange of fundamental S&T information
and writing in a lingua firanca are promoted by the research quality evaluation system, which is to
a large extent based on a number of scientific quotations. On the other hand, the results of
strategic fundamental and applied research, technological inventions and industrial
improvements are patented first, and may only later be published in another form. A priority
patent is normally applied in a domestic country and in a country official language. The invention
may therefore be additionally protected or hidden by the language barrier. The system of patent
equivalents (patent applications from same patent family, applied in different countries) breaks a
language barrier and provides patent literature in different languages. However, several firms,
especially Japanese, prefer to patent their inventions only in their homeland. This phenomenon of
re-introducing a language barrier is becoming more pronounced in highly competitive scientific and
technological fields, as illustrated on an example of microencapsulation. Among the applications of
this technology, pressure-sensitive carbonless copying papers represent the most successful
commercial product (Figure 16).
There are a number of ways in which language barrier problem may be improved. Several
international scientific databases provide English abstracts of non-English scientific literature (e.g.
JAPIO for patents and JICST-E for scientific papers published in Japan). However, for an in-depth
study abstracts are not sufficient. Strong industrial research groups often have information
specialists for the translation and analysis of patents, technical reports and strategic S&T papers in
Japanese, Chinese, Arabic, German, French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese languages.
18



Figure 16: ilustration of a language barrier: a large proportion of Japanese patents on mnicroencapsulation
technology (From Boh, 1993).
All other
US patents  Paet
9%       4
European                          Japanese
patents                           patents
23%                              56%
World patents
S%
Absence of an enabling technological environment
Because of the large amount and rapid growth of S&T infornation, the effective acquisition,
processing, dissemination and use of information cannot be achieved without the minimum
technological infrastructure. In this respect, the developing countries are icing severe problems,
such as (1) lack of computers and communication networks, (2) lack of easy to use and affordable
software, (3) incompatibility of systems, (4) lack of adequate environment for hi-tech equipment,
(5) lower life-time of equipment and materials because of the extreme climatic conditions, (6)
insufficient and/or improper maintenance, (7) difficulties in purchasing basic consumables and
spare parts for the acquired hardware. The introduction and/or improvement of technological
infrastructure for the development and use of S&T infonration systems requires (a) national
policies that encourage growth of the infbrnation sector, and (b) training programs for specialists
in technologies, computers and informatics, courses for technicians and maintenance personnel, as
weil as suitable education programs for managers and decision-makers.
Insufficient training in S&T informatics
Several developing countries have already made a considerable progress in acquiring new
information technologies, but did not pay sufficient attention to an adequate personnel and end-user
education. An organized training in S&T informatics is needed for different groups of
professionals, including S&T information specialists, librarians, researchers, university professors
and school teachers, students in different S&T fields, govemment officials and policy makers,
industrial nanagers, professional science journalists and science books writers. Unfortunately, the
existing educational systern in most cases does not pay sufficient attention to S&T information -
students are not trained to be aware of the value of information. Traditional teaching is still based
on memorizing facts from lectures and prescribed textbooks, and does not aim at the development
of skills for searching and collecting different information sources, analyzing, comparing and
structuring data, and using information in a creative way. The S&T informatics is
underrepresented even in the high-level informatics programs, which are usually focused around
librarian science, information technologies, management and administration, financing, economics,
investment, development, legislation and law, and only rarely include informatics for natural and
19



human resources, environmnental issues, science, research and technology. For an effective
participation in a S&T research team, the S&T information specialist need to acquire education in
both, specialized scientific field (e.g. chemistry, medicine, biology, physics, engineering) and in
information science, including statistics, information technologies, infonmation retrieval and
procurement, data analysis and processing, special information methodologies, applications
programming, S&T databases and information systems design and use. A good model to achieve a
profound science/informatics interdisciplinary knowledge seems to be a combination of
undergraduate studies in science and technology, followed by graduate information science Ms. or
Ph.D. programs.
Lack of information
Potential users of S&T information are not sufficiently informed on the available information
resources and different possibilities for data processing. There is a lack of information about:
(1) Where to find information. Which local and international institutions provide S&T
information, which are the available libraries, information centers, infornation exchange
networks, database hosts, and what are their activities and programs.
(2)  Which information sources (scientific periodicals, specialized literature, on-line and CD-
ROM databases) are available and most appropriate for the specific S&T fields.
(3)  How to obtain, process and use S&T information. What are the procedures for data
gathering and acquisition of publications, what are the most appropriate hardware and
software packages for infonnation processing, what are the methodologies and techniques for
data structuring, searching for patterns of knowledge and designing of research hypotheses.
High cost of S&T information, lack of funds
Several middle-income countries encounter lack of hard currency to upgrade and maintain
telecommunication systems, to buy modern equipment, especially hardware and software, and to
use information services, such as computerized international databases. In addition to these
problems, low-income economies report on an acute shortage of funds to procure and distribute the
basic sources of information, such as CD-ROM products, books, scientific journals, and even
paper, toners and ink.
20



Scientific literature:
a basic source of S&T information
Access to traditional sources of scientific and technological information is the basic
prerequisite for any information support to a research project or educational process. For an in-
depth information coverage of a specific scientific field, all available types of scientific
publications have to be acquired and analyzed, such as scientific journals, books, conference
proceedings, patents, standards, technical and research reports, dissertations, trade literature and
special maps. Limitations to only a few information sources may lead not only to gaps in acquired
information, but also to serious losses of the whole information sets, costly duplication/repetition of
research and unnecessary authorship/intellectual property conflicts.
The following chapter summarizes the basic characteristics, issues, trends and opportunities
for acquiring and using traditional sources of scientific and technological information.
Scientific journals
S&T journals bring the latest findings of fundamental scientific and medical research, results
of experiments and tests, descriptions of new research and technological procedures, new
methodological approaches, information on new materials and technologies, and overviews on
specific S&T topics and disciplines. Scientific joumals remain the major source of scientific
information. According to Altbach (1988), there are more than 100,000 scientific and scholarly
journals in the world, reflecting a substantial financial investment as well as the core of a
worldwide network comununications.
While the largest part of scientific journals is published for national academic communities
and with limited circulation within the country, there are relatively few top international scientific
publications which dominate the market and are of primary importance, have highest prestige and
greatest influence on research. English serves as a major international language for S&T
communication, therefore almost all of the top scientific publications with wide circulation are in
English. Using English as the main language in important scientific journals has an obvious
advantage - easier communication and a wider subscription base. However, it may result in several
consequences for non-English speaking nations. Authors whose native language is not English,
encounter problems with translation and editing of their manuscripts. Some authors from
developing countries feel that the major scientific journals are dominated by the research paradigms
of the major English-speaking academic communities, which only hardly accept contributions
written from other perspectives.
The strongest and most prestigious S&T journals come from the American and European
publishing houses. An examination of 40 important journals, equally balanced between life and
physical sciences (20 European and 20 American), has shown a different representation of authors
21



from industrialized countries, and an absence of top scientific contributions from the developing
countries (Figure 17).
Figure 17: Distribution of main contributors to scientific papers in selected American and European
scientific journals (From Stankus, 1990).
60 -
6  Contribtors of scientific papers in
American science journaI
40-                                            El Contributors of scientific papen in
l 0 1; ~European science journals
Percentage of papers 30-l
100 1K;  d .
USA   Canada  Japan  France   UK      FR    Sweden    al Switzerland
Germany
However, an analysis of scientific papers output, based on Science Citation Index (Stankus,
1990), shows a 3-5% growth rates for USA and the Western European countries, and a strong
break-through (33-45%) of Asian fast-developing countries: Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong and
S. Korea (Figure 18). Another study, based on the Science Citation Index, is comparing the
number of scientific papers per million of population and the number of citations per paper for the
selected industrialized countries (Thulstrup, 1992). The native English speaking countries (USA,
UK and Canada) are not directly compared with other countries, since the Science Citation Index is
slightly biased towards English language journals. In spite of this, some smaller European
countries have a higher productivity of scientific papers and higher citation rates per paper, which
reflects a productive research and a good quality of scientific publications.
Figure 18: Average annual growth rates of scientific papers output for USA, selected European and Asian
countries (From Stankus, 1990, based on the Science Citation Index)
30./^                                   *     H       |
Amil growth rat  25./
)  aesantific paper
output    20./                             1               H 
US    FR   Secdin  France Singorc Taiwan  Hong  S Kora
cemnany                            Kong
22



Figure 19: A comparison of research paper productivity and citations per paper for selected English speaking
and other industrialized countries (From Thulstrup, 1992, based on the Science Citation Index)
12000                                                                          S
s    _                              ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~7
10000-X.... .I                    _
I OOO' -_.....    
16000                                                                            4J
14000
2~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
2000 -||-.....u|L||.._|0.|
0                                                                           0
g  i . . . . W W | ffi . i                 '     ..       
X  M  g         Xji   X  J               
PIpa jMonpapilaimpq(19S1-90)  C- SSim pinpr l
As a competitive balance to numerous American S&T journals, the number of science
journals that focus explicitly on European research is increasing (Stankus, 1990). Almost all
Eurojournals are based in Western Europe and often have predecessors in single-nation journals.
This is an advantage over entirely new journals, which have to build an academic respectability
and develop a network of reviewers and subscribers. Some Eurojournals are endorsed by European
research societies, the others are based at European multinational research centers. Eurojoumals
are often affiliated with strong publishing houses such as Pergamon, Springer-Verlag, and Elsevier.
They cover different specialized scientific fields - especially life sciences - and seem not to be
competng among themselves.
Japan is publishing several quality scientific journals - some in Japanese and some in
English. However, the analysis of numerous articles and citations, performed by several firms and
universities, show that with a few exceptions, the Japanese themselves still place primary emphasis
on publishing in highly cited American and European scientific joumals. An examination of 4000
papers in 40 important natural science journals places the Japanese researchers as the third most
frequent contributors of scientific papers (see Figure 17).
Apart from Japan, a number of rapidly developing Asian countries are becoming serious
scientific and economic competitors of the United States and Western Europe. The international
publishing trends of Hong Kong, China, Singapore, Korea and Taiwan show very intensive growth
rates of scientific papers (see Figure 18). The effect is most pronounced in research and
development of new high technologies, such as electronics, computers and biotechnology.
Canadian scientific journals are of high quality and have a relatively wide subscription
base, therefore they are attractive for publishing. In comparison with American and Eurojoumals,
they do not achieve as high impact factors, but they seem to be a practical surpass between the
highest ranking and individual national society journals.
23



Another important group in the hierarchy of publications are regional scientific journals,
published in major non-English languages, such as Spanish for Latin American region, and French
in Francophone Africa, and scientific journals from larger developing countries using English as
the main language of scientific publishing, such as India, Kenya and Nigeria. Scientific journals
published in Chinese, Japanese, Russian and Gernan languages may have high quality standards
and a relatively large subscription base, but because of the language barrier they are limited almost
exclusively to the mother countries.
The number of national professional journals differs substantially from country to country
(Figure 20) reflecting the differences in GNP, status of S&T in a society, and the variety of
national languages. However, a high number of national scientific papers does not necessary mean
an advantage, especially if they appear infrequently, have long publication times, limited
circulation, weak editorial systems and if they use local languages, which may result in insufficient
exposure of the work elsewhere. In such cases, the possibility of transforning the smaU research
journals into a limited number of larger, subject specialized and better quality journals has to be
promoted (Thulstrup, 1990).
From the viewpoint of economics, scientific journals follow the pattem of small enterprises
w-hich collect funds from subscribers and other fees, and spend for editing, printing and
distribution. They require relatively little capital, are labor-intensive, and most often provide little
(if any) remuneration for editors and authors of articles. For most scientific journals, libraries
constitute the bulk of the buyers. Library subscriptions charges are typically much higher than
subscriptions for individuals (as the library copies are used by many readers), therefore libraries
provide a kind of subsidy to scientific journals.
The economics of publishing differs from country to country, depending on labor and
printing costs. Industrialized countries use several ways to finance joumals: in many cases
scientific journals are published by private publishers (large publishing houses), earning good
profits from them. Others may be sponsored/subsidized by strong scientific organizations and
academic institutions. Scientific joumals in developing countries are often sponsored by academic
and governmental institutions and sold at subsidized prices. Especially in the case of small
journals, the survival rates are fairly low.
New technological innovations have different impacts on S&T journals. The bibliographic
databases offer much better overview on publications, and enable quicker and better selection of
appropriate publications. However, the selection of sources they cover may be biased towards
English language publications and the literature from industrialized countries, omitting several
potentially important contributions from smaller nations and developing countries. Not being
included in international bibliographic databases in practice means remaining outside the main
stream of scientific communication. Computer assisted publishing can significantly reduce the
cost of production and shorten the lag time between the discovery or invention, and publishing.
Desktop publishing offers better survival chances for scientific journals with limited audiences.
Laser printers and photo-offset printing enable better quality inages. The introduction of
computers permits easier and more effective record keeping. On the other hand, the widespread
use of photocopying seems to be a serious threat to scientific publishing, especially to the
scientific journals with limited circulation, which depend on each subscriber. Legal protection by
copyright laws is in practice very often violated by unauthorized photocopying, which seem to be
24



attractive for individual researchers, particularly in the scientific communities which do not have
an easy access to international journals, but may in a long-tern run seriously damage the system of
scientific publishing.
Figure 20: Production of national professional journals in selected countries (Data source: Unesco, 1992)
FR Gnny I 
France
tly  *                    I           
Former Yugoslavi 
Hungary   1
Bulgana
Netherlands
-4m
Indonesia       
c
Czechoslovakia
c
Uruguay
,,         Spain   _
IranEVff
r         Baz711
Cuba t
s  Madagascam
-9)
Sri Lanka 
Nigeria 
Algeria .
Afgmistan
Zinbabwe                                                       f
0        200        400        600       800        1000       1200      1400       1600
Nwnber of professional journals
25



S&T journals published in developing countries are faced with several problems and
difficulties, such as: (1) entering the international scientific library market, dominated by the
publications in the industrialized nations, (2) attracting the recognized authors - even the best local
scientists prefer to publish in prestigious international journals, (3) getting a constant and
quantitatively sufficient input of new articles, (4) reaching and maintaining the international quality
standards in tenns of scientific contents and editing, (5) meeting the international standards
regarding quality of printing, paper and durability of journals, (6) establishing a stable income
base, printing facilities and distribution mechanisms to offer a regular supply of new issues
according to the planned timetable.
For the users, S&T joumals are among the most expensive serials, and most of them come
from strong-currency countries. Many small research and educational institutions feel that high
cost of science joumals represents a disproportionate part of the budget. In a study on scientific
journals, Stankus (1990) proves this thinking as inappropriate and short-sided, as the scientific
minority that use science journals may be critically important for the scientific, technological and
medical future of the majority. A comparative analysis of the reading habits of student population
has shown that access to a good assortment of science journals supports better education and
results in a better professional perfonnance of researchers and scientists.
Books
Different types of books relevant to S&T include (1) monographs covering very narrow
scientific topics, broader scientific and technological fields, or multidisciplinary issues, (2) S&T
encyclopedias, (3) technical manuals, (4) statistical yearbooks, (5) S&T textbooks for different
educational levels, and (6) S&T books for the general public.
Compared to scientific papers and patents, which usually compete for the priority on new
research and development, the books provide a few years older but more comprehensive and
better structured information. The amount of S&T books published in a country reflects the
status of S&T, productivity of research, information needs of the educational system, and a variety
of national languages (Figures 21 and 22). Most of the countries publish a larger proportion of
applied S&T than fundamental science books. However, in some countries, the ratio is strongly
shiftd towards the fundamental science books. This may reflect the isolation of science to a limited
group of scientists, low interest for applications of S&T, and lack of "science for all" approaches
in the education.
Proceedings from S&T events
Scientific and technological contributions from the international, regional or national S&T
events are usually published in a form of proceedings, containing abstracts and/or full text papers
of presented lectures and posters. S&T events include conferences, symposia, seminars, workshops
and regular meetings of S&T societies. Proceedings from a big international conference may be
published as a series of several volumes, and the time difference between the presentation and
publishing may take more than one year. However, the information in proceedings from smaller
events can be very new, especially with the desktop publishing or ready-to-copy written
26



contributions. Proceedings from S&T events may therefore be regarded as a valuable source of
new information.
Figure 21: The number of scientific book titles, published in the selected countries: most cases 1990 or the
last year data available (Data source: Unesco, 1992)
C hn
Frnc
Cil_WdIID~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I Iplt Icec bm111[11  Ta
e   nc    U11111n1                                                      FuIndamenI I l  cIeInIe
FR Gammy          _         111 III111mlfll r || §ff 
SwiNeland                                                                                    -
DenmarkIIIIIIII
tUraine111111I                                                   I     i     I    I     I     I    I
e baiiaind _
so^a o 0 0                                                                            I 0 8            I
II. Sot AfI IIIIa  
O    Mexico   ,    l    l    l                                   |    | .    l    l    l    l    l 
u    KuwahSD        I     l    I1                                      1             
t
r     Cuhba     "I        |                                            1    .     .        
*   111m111  1    1                           i    11 {DI~~~~~~~~~~~Applied scienc bookV I  ' l
1Afoaistan      n I      I                                       . 1
e omgalw   l    l    l                                       |    || " Fundamentalsu fesibooe b    t
S  Indonesiaqf  I    ]    I                                        1'    1    1    1    1-') 2
Coobiag    21                                :J                            L
K-ya_                                 "    "     0                8     8     0  
Ethiopia                                              _    _           _     _ 
Peru ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~Nme  fscec  oktilsprya
Zimbabwe~ ~ ~ ~~~2



Figure 22: The number of textbook titles, published in the selected countries: most cases 1990 or the last
year data available (Data source: Unesco, 1992)
KoreaM
Spain    E . ,E    iI1
Forma USSR   iii.
Czchoslowaia 
FRGetman
Malaysis  
igeri      I
Hungary      I             I
France~               
Bulgaria
Souh frica
Switailand               
Chile
atSuAfwiist-
Egyprus
Lulrugay= 
Gambia
CPerus          II
0      500      1000    1500    2000       2500    3000     3500     4000     4500     5000
Number of school textbook titles
28



Patents
The scientific discoveries, inventions and improvements in strategic fundamental research,
applied scientific disciplines, and technologies that are of high industrial importance, are patented
first and may only later be published in scientific journals. In such fields, the patent literature is
prevailing over scientific papers and other non-patent literature, as illustrated on the example of
interfacial polymerization microencapsulation, which is one of the specialized technologies in
chemical, pharmaceutical and paper industries (Figure 23). In such cases, a strong orientation
exclusively towards scientific papers and books, which is still present in many scientific
communities, obviously leaves out the most important source of information for a developmental
researcher.
Figure 23: Cunulative grow'th of patent and non-patent literature for an industrially important technology:
interfacial polymerization microencapsulation (From Boh and Kornhauser, 1992b).
160., 
140-          Patents
120-          Non-patent publications
Number of  ,0-                                              _
publications S0'_                      _ _
40- /                                      __
20 /      Zr
1965-69    1970-75    1976-S0    19S1-85    1986-90
Years
Analysis of trends in patents versus non-patent literature for a specific discipline is a good
indicator of research intensity and orientation. Absence or low number of patents usually
indicates a fundamental stage of research, still far from economically important applications.
Rapid growth in patents reflects an intensive research for development of new products and
technologies. In the last stage, when technologies are in use and products on the market, the
research aims primarily at industrial improvements, which are patented, while the number of
scientific papers drops. Figure 24 illustrates the dynamics of patent and non-patent literature
growth during the research and development cycle of monoclonal antibodies: from basic molecular
biology to biotechnology, pharmaceutical and medical applications.
29



Figure 24: Dynamics of patent and non-patent literature during the research and development cycle of
monoclonal antibodies (From Boh, Komhauser and Musar, 1992)
1000 =      -                         *Patcnts
goo    5      --            L    _E Non-patcnt pubolications
6001/1        i S        f    l~l~ 
Number of publications 400
1990
Patents can also be taken as an indicator of country research characteristics (Figures 25 -
29). Low-income countries with weak research base submit only a few patents per year (Figure
25). In middle- and high-income economies the number of patents additionally depends on the
osrientation of research: S&T research in Japan, which is the world leading country in a number of
patent applications per year, supports the transfer of S&T achievements into practice for the
development of new materials, technologies and products.
N5ot all the patent applications become granted patents, and not all of the patents are realJly
used in practice. Patents in S&T are written in a specific language and in a specific style to protect
the invention, but at the same time try to hide or mask the essential data. This makes patent
literature more difficult to read than books and scientific papers. In propulsive S&T fields with
large amounts of patents, each of them covers only a specialized segment. Information seem to be
disorganized, dispersed and fragmented, which renders more difficult the recognition of parameters
and relations between them. To be able to use patent literature, science and technology students
and researchers need to master specific information approaches, such as structuring data into
systems, concept mapping and recognizing patterns of knowledge. Patent information processing
and writing patents should become an integral part of university studies in science and
technology.
30



Figure 25: Examples of countries with less than 100 patent applications per year (Data source: United
Nations, 1992).
Rwanda
Bwundi.
Solomon Islands
BElize4.
Guayana
Maxuitius         ,..,.,,.-.,-.
Mfafla
Taianiay
_~~~~~~~
Guambia- ,- ........... 
Botswana                                       .... -. -- ---7
..... ',, ,. . - - -:    .  . . . .                . . . . . . . ......-- 
Costa Rica            _         _            __                          _            _
_,.H  . H,  .H.-.                                         - .           7    i.i ...-  iv Siiz  
Ugal.ttia ,,,- ~~~....... .i.i.-,,m ..       ..............
_   ,        ,-i   ........     ..  ....... i i i i   f z . . z     l.    i    i  -ili  i   -e
Uganda
Panama
El Salvador
Swaziland
Viet Na.n..iRi....
-                            z:-  .:i: .... .  : -:: -:-ii:i:. :::::. :. i ::: ::::-i vii2::::::i :i:::::::  ?::- ':ifi:i .ii::.::':::::::::::::.........  ..   .....  . .   .   . ................................................... 
Guatemala                                                                                                                                                   _
MongoliaM
Zambia                                                                                                         .   . R     . .                   ..... .   .. .
0               10               20               30               40               50               60               70               80                90              100
Number of patent applications
31



Figure 26:  Examples of countries with 100 to 1,000 patent applications per year (Data source: United
Nations, 1992).
Iceland
Ke-y
Bangladesh
Ecuador
Uruguay
Tunisia
Algeaia
Zimnbabwe
Morocco  
Cuiba     ......
Iraq
Egypt                          ... . .....
0  ::8   8     R  |       0    -t . .. .   .   l;t i.  - ... ..
Indonesia
Chile     - -
Singppore
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ E"  I
Hong_Kong                                                         ..- .. .
0        100        200       300       400        500       600        700        800       900       1000000.4507g90
Nupber of patent applications
32



Figure 27: Examples of countries withi 1,000 to I10,000 patent applications per year (Data source: United
Nations, 1992).
Turkey 
Venezuela 
Ibailand 
BMa     dosscr
Sud
bsyis 
sri Anka 
Monacoo
Former Yugoslavia  r-=           t    i
Portugal
Ncw ialm
Bul.
pna 
Co mbi
New . 7 d_
n__T  
H-po _W y
'a  e_
Bulgrea l = P. S u 
Chn
SouthmAfia 
_ - == I~~~~~~~~~~
0oan       100      200       300      400      500       600      70I00              90
_ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~Nme ofa_ aphafm
Hungaq w C I~~~~~3



Figure 28: Examples of countries with 10,000 to 100,000 patent applications per year (Data source: United
Nations, 1992).
Norway
Finland
Demaurk
Brazil
Former Garman DR
Grece
AuLstrlia
Spain
Canada                               I
Austria
Belgium
Switzerland
Netherlands l!
France                         __
0      10000    20000    30000    40000    50000    60000    70000    80000    90000   100000
Number of patent applications
34



Figure 29: The patent mega-powers with more than 100,000 patent applications per year (Data source:
United Nations, 1992).
Former FR Germany     
Former USSR 
United States .
Japan
0    50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 350000 400000
Number of patent applications
Standards
International and local standards describe the appropriate or acceptable characteristics of
scientific and technological innovations, products and technologies. They are an indispensable
information source for applied research and industrial development departments, both for
developing/exporting and for adopting/importing different products and technological know-how.
Technical and research reports
Among the most important gray literature documents (not officially published, but can
circulate in scientific and technical organizations) are the reports of scientific and technical
research groups from the universities, research institutes, industrial laboratories, large international
organizations and non-governmental organizations working on S&T fields. The on-line available
bibliographic database of the National Technical Information Service NIIS) covers scientific
research and engineering reports from the American government-sponsored projects.
Dissertations
One of the important sources of theses is University Microfilms International, which makes
available the majority of doctoral theses of American universities. Theses of British origin can be
obtained through the British Theses Service. Dissertations in chemistry are partly included in the
Chemical Abstracts database. Dissertations from local universities in most developing countries
are available on a title-to-title exchange basis.
Commercial publications (trade literature)
Marketing and advertising materials, market analyses, and know-how offers provide
technical and commercial information on products, equipment, and raw materials from specific
35



manufacturers. For a S&T researcher they can be a rich source of ideas for new applications, and
a valuable assistance in the recognition of scientific, applied, developmental and commercial
trends.
Maps
Maps are essential tools in several scientific disciplines, such as geography, geology,
biology, agriculture, forestry and environmental science. A modem altemative to classical maps
are the geographic information systems (GIS), using the computerized approaches to collect, store,
process, retrieve and display spatially the information that has been referenced to its geographic
location. The accessibility of GIS, special topographic maps and areal photographs for the public
depends on the country policy. In many cases, special permission has to be obtained for purchase
and store these materials.
Secondary literature sources
Secondary literature sources provide bibliographic data on the primary literature (ournals,
books, patents, standards, conference proceedings, dissertations, research reports, technical
studies), and often include an abstract of at least key words describing the main theme of a
documnent. In addition of abstract books, the publishers usually provide various cumulative
indexes, such as key words, authors, patent numbers and chemical compounds registry numbers.
However, the large-volume books of abstracts and indexes are being rapidly replaced by
bibilographic databases, available on-line or on CD-ROM.
Other traditional sources in S&T communication
Audiovisuals
Audiovisual communication is used for special purposes, especially in the research of natural
phenomena, human behavior, medical research, agriculture and forestry, environmental science,
introduction of new scientific and research methods, and in the technological improvements. On a
lower level, audiovisuals can be used to communicate basic S&T knowledge in the communities
with high illiteracy rates.
Verbal exchange of information
Formal verbal communication on S&T can be organized as intemational or national S&T
conferences, symposia, workshops, round tables, formal discussions, lectures and scientific radio
programs. Informal ways include internal meetings and discussions on research, presentations of
research results, S&T advising and consulting, and communication between individual scientists.
Direct data sources
New S&T data are obtained directly from observations, measurements, tests and
experiments under natural or controlled conditions.
36



Computer-supported databases
The database industry
In the middle of the century, many S&T disciplines have become overcrowded by
accumulating knowledge. Because of the rapid growth of S&T publications, the traditional
approaches of gathering information and its processing became too slow and inefficient. The
simultaneous development of computer industry (Figure 30) offered a suitable environment for the
development of large international computer-Supported databases.
Figure 30: Growth of computer and communication equipment industry in the USA (Data source: Electronic
Industries Association)
90000
80000-
70000
60000oo ,  -            0  A           0     Computer and industrialelectronics
US factory sales (in 50000     -   l  l         I    []Communications equipment and
millions ofdollars) 40000        I j                   systems
20000 -iI
30000 -1 1 1
10000 
175 DSO 1993 SB4 B5 19S6 SS7 D98 DS99
Years
Information on databases, their main coverage, vendors, media and availability is provided
by different directory producers. The first general directory of databases in North America
"Computer-Readable Databases" was published in 1976 by the American Society for Information
Science, followed by several similar publications in the next 15 years. Recently, the Gale Directory
of Databases became the most comprehensive database review. It was first published in January
1993 after the merger of three large database directories - CRD (A Directory and Data
Sourcebook), DOD (Directory of Online Databases), and DPD (Directory of Portable Databases).
The Gale Directory covers on-line, CD-ROM, diskette, magnetic tape, handheld and batch access
database products.
The growth of the database industry can be observed from the increase in the database
records (Figure 31), number of databases, database producers and vendors (hosts) - Figure 32.
According to a study by Williams (1993), between the years 1975-1991 the database industry has
grown enormously:
-    database records by a factor of 87 (from 52 million to 4.527 billion),
-    the number of databases by a factor of 26 (from 301 to 7907),
-    database producers by a factor of 15 (from 200 to 3007), and
-    the number of hosts by a factor of 13.7 (from 105 to 1438).
37



Figure 31: Growth of records in computer-supported databases (Data source: Gale Directory of Databases,
Williams, 1993)
5000
i3000   
Niumber of database--
records (millions)  2000
10000.0              PA
1992
Database producers (publishers) can offer their databases in an electronic and/or hard
copy form. Most of them are responsible for the database design, construction and updating, but
usually prefer to offer their databases for lease or licence to database vendors (hosts). Hosts
provide additional value-added processing (such as database loading, special search software, on-
line document ordering), distribute CD-ROM databases to the users, and offer on-line or batch
search services to the marketplace - on a fee basis. The number of vendors (hosts) has grown at
the slowest pace because they can offer services from several (up to several hundreds) databases.
The database industry is still growing in terms of number and types of databases, as well as in use
and revenues.
Figure 32: Growth of database industy: databases, producers and hosts (Data source: Gale Directoiy of
Databases, 1993)
6000._   * Number of databases
M Number of database produrers    ______________
El Number of hosts for on-line services
4000  -
3000-                                                        -          __  I_
2000 ____                                     J  - -
0
S79  S80 S81  S82 S83 S84 S85 S86 S87  988  S89 S90  S91 S92 S93
Years
38



The average size of databases is increasing. Ten of the most largest databases already have
more than 100 million records, and 288 other databases have already exceeded 1 million records,
each record having an average of 200 to 2000 words (Gale Directory of Databases, 1993).
According to a geographical survey by Williams (1993), the only regions with more than
1000 databases are the North America (4768 databases) and Western Europe (1838 databases).
The Asian and Middle East producers (25 databases) come from China, India and Israel. The Far
East database producing countries (171 databases) are Hong Kong, Philippines, Japan, Singapore
and Thailand. Australia contributed 161, East Europe 12 and Africa 7 databases (Figure 33) . On
the country level, the world largest database producer remains the USA, and its leading position (in
comparison with all other countries together) seems to be even stronger than ever before, as seen
from the growth of the database entries in Figure 34 (some entries represent families of databases
and sets of subfiles rather than single databases). The other strong database producers are UK
(652), Canada (455), France (315), Germany (280), Australia (168) and Japan (161). At present,
databases are produced in 18 different languages.
Figure 33: The geographical distribution of databases (Data source: Gale Directoxy of Databases, Williams,
1993)
North America
Wes Erwope                      P
Far Eastxl
Awtrafla l
Asia~
Sonth Amer'MO
East Europe.
Africa       ___=
0    500  1000  1500  2000  2500  3000  3500  4000  4500  5000
Figure 34: The growth of database entries in the USA and other countries (Data source: Gale Directoty of
Databases, Williams, 1993)
5000
4500 -
4000                                         f
E 3500 -
J 3000                                                         Other countries
2500US
2000
1500
1000                    100
500
0
1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992
Year$
39



At the beginning of database industry, the largest part of databases were produced by the
government (56% in 1977). The academic and industrial producers had an equal share (each 22%
in 1977). In 1992, already three quarters of all databases were commercial and/or industrial
(Figure 35).
Figure 35: The 1992 percentage distribution of databases by producer (Data source: Williams, 1993)
Not-for-profit
(Academia)   Mixed    Government
9%        1%          15%
Commerce/In dustry
75%
There are different possibilities to classify the databases. One of the most often used
methods is the classification by form  of data: words (textual databases), numbers (numeric
databases), images (video databases) or sounds (audio databases). In 1992, the word-oriented
databases represented 70% of all databases, followed by numeric (22%) and all others - image,
audio, electronic services and software databases (8%) - Figure 36.
Figure 36: Main classes of databases by form of data (Data source: Gale Directory of Databases, Williams,
1993).
Others
8%
Ntuneric _
22%
--   _     -    ~~~Textual
70%
Textual databases can be subdivided into bibliographic, patent/trademark, directory,
dictionary and full-text databases (Figure 37). The main sub-categories of numeric databases are
transactional, statistical, time series, and properties. Inage and audio databases are the newest
category, and become publicly accessible only after the mid-1980s. With the rapid expansion of
CD-ROM and hypertext systems, these databases are predicted to grow considerably in the next
decade.
40



Figure 37: The subtypes of textual databases (Data source: Gale Directory of Databases, Williams, 1993)
Dictionary
Directory          1 %           Bibliographic
25%                               26%
4.B  g. ...R.......
. ..*.. *............'.-., ,, ,; _,,
Patent &
trademark
1%
FuI text
47%
Another categorization is according to the subject area. According to Williams (1993),
business databases remain the most numerous and hold 33% of the total commercial databases. In
1992, the science, technology and engineering databases had a share of 19%, healthAife sciences
904 and the multidisciplinary academic databases 4%/, which totals at 32% and practically
reaches the business databases (Figure 38).
Figure 38: Distribution of databases according to the main subject areas (Data source: Williams, 1993)
Business                                  _ -
SciencelTechnology/Engmeering   _    ,      , 
Health/Life Science
General 
Social Sciences
Huxnanities
Multidisciplinary (Academic)       _ _ :_ _  ,_.-
0       500      1000      1500      2000      2500     3000
Number of databases by subject
The third categorization of databases is according to the medium for access or distribution.
According to the Gale statistics, there were 4519 On-line, 1088 CD-ROM, 320 batch, 557
diskette, 481 magnetic tape and 33 handheld databases offered by different vendors in 1992
(Figure 39).
41



Figure 39: Distribution of databases by different media (a database may be offered on several media) (Data
source: Williams, 1993).
600011'
5000_
4000 /
Nwnber of
database_ _
2000 -
1000 _
On-line    CD-    Diskette  Magnetic   Batch   Handlield
ROM                tape
For the field of Science, technology and medicine, the Gale Directory 1993 lists 157 new
databases in the last six months, of which 73% were totally new database products and 27% were
new publications of the existing databases in the same or new medium (Figure 40).
Figure 40: Distribution of new and newly implemented science, technology and medicine database products
by medium - the last six month period, Gale Directory of Databases, 1993 (Williams and Smith,
1993)
90.                                   Nevly implemented databaws
70 /|llll_*New databases
60
Nuanber of 50 /llllll_il  
databases 40.
30  
20.
10    1
CD-    On-line  Diskette  Magatic  Batch   Handheld
ROM                        tape
With the rapid growth of databases, there was a concern about the use of stored
information. Statistics show that the number of searches follows parallely the growth of databases
(Figure 41). No complete data are available for the whole world, but the on-line use for databases
on the major host systems in the USA increased from 750,000 searches in 1974 to 44.4 million
searches in 1992 - without taking into account the transactional databases and consumer service
systems, which would make the number of searches even larger (Williams, 1993).
42



Figure 41: The growth of on-line database searches in the USA in comparison with the increases in database
records (Data source: Gale Directory of Databases, Williams, 1993)
Nunber of on-line databasc searches in USA    *   Number of databae records
45                                                   4500
40                                                   4000
35                                                   3500
30                                                   3000
Million of database 25                                             2500 Mllion of dtabtae
serches in USA 20                                                 2000    records
15                                                   1500
1983 1984 1925 19S6 1987 19SS 1989 1990 1991
The database market is dynamic - it still grows every year and there are no signs of leveling
off. One of the most important changes in the database world during the last decade are the CD-
ROM databases, which are greatly increasing in production, sales and use. They are particularly
well accepted in academic research institutions and as a support to university teaching, where the
cost of on-line searches has often been a barrier to access. According to the new observations
(Williams, 1993), this has already resulted in a decrease of the on-line searching of those
databases, that are also distributed on CD-ROM, particularly on databases well used in academia,
such,as ERIC, PsycINFO, NTIS, and Medline.
On-line databases
Chemistry, as a scientific discipline with enormous amount of data on chemical compounds,
their synthesis and applications, was among the first scientific fields to introduce a comprehensive
computerized bibliographic on-line database. The Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS),
Columbus, Ohio, established by the American Chemical Society, has a reputation of the world
leading center of chemical information. The Chemical Abstracts (CA) database is available since
1967 and covers the important world literature from the fields of chemistry and chemical
engineering, including over 1200 chemical journals, patents from 27 countries and 2 international
organizations (European and World patents), numerous books, research reports, dissertations and
conference proceedings. At the end of 1990 the database reached 10 million records. Every two
weeks it is updated with 15 to 20 thousand new records. At the end of 1992 the CA register of
chemical compounds included data on 17 million chemical substances. Similar infonnation
processing institutions established on-line databases for other scientific disciplines, such as:
-    medical research (MEDLINE, 1966, 7 nillion records, and EMBASE, 1974, 4 million
records),
-    biological sciences (BIOSIS, 1969, 7.7 million records; Zoological Record Online, 1978,
1.3 million records),
-    physics, electronics and computer science (INSPEC, 1969, with 4 million records),
43



-    pharmaceutical research (International Phanmaceutical Abstracts, 1970, 0.17 million
records, and Pharmaceutical News Index, 1974, 0.3 million records),
-    agriculture (AGRICOLA, 1970, and AGRIS International, 1975, 1.3 million records, CAB
Abstracts, 1972, 2.8 million records),
-    food production and processing (FSTA - Food Science and Technology Abstracts, 1969,
0.4 million records),
-    technology and engineering in chemistry and life sciences (COMPENDEX PLUS, 1970,
2.5 million records, and CEA - Chemical Engineering Abstracts, 1971, 0.1 million records),
-    environment and pollution (Aqualine, 1960, 0.13 million records; Pollution Abstracts,
1970, 0.175 million records; ENVIROLINE, 1971, 0.15 million records; ENVIROBIB -
Environmental Bibliography, 1973, 0.4 million records; Toxline, 1981, 1.6 million records)
-    biotechnology (BIOTECHNOLOGY ABSTRACTS, Derwent Publications, 1982, 0.12
million records, and CBA - Current Biotechnology Abstracts, 1983).
In addition, some databases have been developed, covering broader field of science and
technology, such as SCISEARCH - Science Citation Index, 1974, 10.7 million records; PASCAL,
1973, 3.8 million records. Science Citation Index, which covers the majority of important scientific
journals, has been extensively used for bibliometric analyses (e.g. publication and citation counts),
such as readability of scientific journals (see Hatley et al., 1988; Todorov et al., 1988), aging of
scientific literature (Bottle et al., 1987; Stinson et al., 1987), tracing the scientific collaboration
between different research groups or countries (Luukkonen, et al., 1991), searching for most cited
scientists (Science Watch, 1992), and for evaluating the scientific quality and S&T research
performance (Coward, 1991, 1990; King, 1987, Narin et al., 1975, Thulstrup, 1990, 1992).
In the 1960s, two major patent databases were established, both covering a large spectrun
of patents, including those on S&T inventions: WORLD PATENTS INDEX (Derwent
Publications Ltd., 1963, 6 million records), and INPADOC (International Patent Documentation
Center, 1968, 18 million patent citations).
The first comprehensive business database PTS PROMT - Predicates Overview of Markets
and Technology, offered in 1972 (now 2 million records), was followed by several discipline-
specialized commercial databases in 1980s, such as BioComrnerce Abstracts and Directory
(established by BioCommerce Data Ltd. in 1981), AGRIBUSINESS USA (Agribusiness, 1985),
and BIOBUSINESS (Biosis Inc., 1985).
DIOGENES database, 1976, 0.5 million records, offers the information relating Food and
Drug Administration regulations about substances and devices, including chemicals,
pharmaceuticals and medical devices.
Data on manufacturers and suppliers of chemicals, reagents, equipment, machinery and
instruments in life sciences can be obtained from the permanently updated directory-type
databases, such as BIOQUIP (bio-chemicals and instruments), DEQUIP (technical equipment in
biotechnology and chemical engineering), and PESTMAN (pesticides and their suppliers). A
special sub-branch in this group represent databases on microbial, cell and tissue culture
collections, which are usually directly linked to depositories of microorganisms for scientific
research and industrial applications in dairy industry, breweries, pharmaceutical fermentations,
waste treatment and bioremediation, and for other biotechnologies (e.g. MSD - Microbial Strains
Database, MIRDAB - Microbial Resources Databank, MiCIS - Microbial Culture Information
Service, and MINE - Microbial Information Network Europe).
The last wave of factual databases in natural sciences are the narrow specialized data
collections with an advanced software support for graphic presentations, molecular structure
searches, comparisons of analytical data and recognition of macromolecular sequence similarities.
44



Examples include (1) molecular structure databases (PROTEIN DATABANK - crystallographic
data and macromolecular structures of proteins; CARB BANK - molecular structures of
carbohydrates), (2) protein and peptide sequences databases (PSD - Protein Sequence Database,
PIR - Protein Identification Resource, and Amino Acid Sequences of Proteins Database), (3)
nucleic acid sequences (GENBANK, Nucleic Acid Data Library, Nucleotide Sequence Bank,
Nucleic acid Sequence Database, DNA Databank of Japan), and (4) genetic maps (HGML -
Human Gene Mapping Library).
Figure 42: Examples of some largest on-line databases on science and technology (data from Konihauser and
Boh, 1992, Chavan, 1993, Komnhauser, 1993)
SCENCECWrATDNDNDEX
INSPEC *           *
CAB ALBSTRACTS
COMPENDEXPLLS
TOXINE
AGR INTERNATDNAL
ZOOLOGEALRECORDONIDNE
0    1   2   3   4    5   6   7    8   9   10  11
Nwnber of records (MiDion)
On-line abstracting and indexing databases relevant to S&T are accessible via different hosts
(vendors), such as BRS Information Technologies, CompuServe, DataStar, DIALOG Information
Services, DIMDI, ECHO, ESA-IRS, InfoMaster, Knowledge Index, MEAD, ORB1T Search
Service, QUESTEL, STN Intemational, and U.S. Library of Medicine. CAN/SND and STN
International host numeric scientific databases. Each vendor has a specific retrieval language,
including not only simple search commands and procedures, but also more sophisticated search
features, e.g. proximity operators, field index specification, multi-file searching features, and new
possibilities for statistical analysis, such as ranking by frequency or occurrence of terms in records.
Therefore, a close cooperation of an information specialist trained in on-line searching, and a
researcher from a specialized scientific discipline is essential for an effective on-line search.
The main problems related to the use of international on-line databases in developing
countries are: (1) insufficient technological base for on-line connections and searches (e.g. lack of
national telecommunications networks to link users to overseas databases, poor telephone lines),
and (2) the cost (charges for telephone line, host and database entrance, database
connecting/processing time, printing of hits). The regular use of international databases seem to be
very costly for most universities and academic research institutions in developing countries. One of
the potential solutions is the university-industry cooperation, where the industry, recognizing the
economic interest in a specific research project, covers or at least contributes to the expenses of
international database processing.
45



Databases on CD-ROM
As an alternative to on-line databases, many information centers offer databases in the form
of CD-ROM. They are appropriate especially for the monodisciplinary research groups, who
depend primarily on one or a few databases. The main advantages of CD-ROM are (1) local
availability of databases, (2) known fixed costs for hardware and a CD-ROM database, but no
additional costs for database processing - therefore they are of particular value for very frequent
users, and as a teaching tool for students, trainees and novice researchers, (3) CD-ROM can serve
multiple workstations, (3) potential use in conjunction with other infornation technologies
(incorporation of text, graphics, moving images and sound). With increased production and
competition resulting in lower prices, CD-ROM  is becoming affordable for the developing
countries.
According to Wright (1990) and White (1992), CD-ROM technology has grown in
developing countries in faster rates than in industrialized countries, mostly because it seems
custom-made for the problems faced by developing countries: (1) it can operate in harsh
environmental conditions, such as heat, humidity, dust and unstable power supply - the optical disc
do not deteriorate in the tropical environment, nor suffer from mold or mildew, it is robust and the
data is permanent, (2) it eliminates the need for difficult/costly telecommunication links, (3) it can
be portable or battery-operated, (4) has a relatively low capital cost for the equipment, (5) the discs
are small and light enough to be easily send via airmail. The main drawback of CD-ROM is the
need to update the master disk database at regular intervals, and the cost of remastering.
The CD-ROM database market still grows every year and there are no signs of leveling
off. The first edition of CD-ROM Directory in 1986 contained only 48 CD-ROM titles and 48
companies involved in the industry, while the 7th edition in 1992 listed 2012 CD-ROM products of
2601 companies and organizations from 67 countries (Figure 43). The majority of CD-ROM
products come from the USA, Europe and Japan. While there are only a few titles coniing from
Africa and Asia, the growing number of distribution networks indicates a much greater interest
within these areas in the CD-ROM technology itself.
Figure 43: The growth of CD-ROM products (Data sources: Finlay and Mitchell, 1991; Rega, 1993)
3000
2500 <
2000 i
Nwnberof CD- 15oo
ROM products 100
0~~~~~19
Years         1991
1992
46



The number of CD-ROM databases with high relevance to S&T in industrialized and
developing countries increases each year. Of particular interest to developing countries is the
appearance of full text S&T literature on CD-ROM (e.g. CD-ROM Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of
Chemical technology, Oxford Textbook of Medicine, Dictionary of Natural Products). CD-ROM
imaging is expected to replace the microfiche and microfilm technology in the future, providing
high quality reproductions and user-friendly searching of back issues of scientific journals, reports,
patents and legal documents.
Reflecting the developing technologies within the CD-ROM industry, the CD-ROM
directory at the beginning of 1992 contained a section devoted to multimedia CD titles, comprising
nearly 20% of all titles, showing a similar rate of growth to that of the CD-ROM industry in its
infancy. If this trend is maintained, the multimedia industry may soon become a major participant
on the CD-ROM consumer market (Finlay and, Mitchell, 1991).
According to market analysis by Williams (1993), the CD-ROM databases are increasing in
production, sales and use. They are particularly well accepted in academic research institutions
and as a support to university teaching, where the cost of on-line searches has often been a
barrier to access. This has already resulted in a decrease of the on-line searching of those
databases that are also distributed on CD-ROM, particularly on databases well used in academia,
such as ERIC, PsycINFO, NTIS, and Medline. Due to the economic decisions of database
producers, some of the important databases, such as Chemical Abstracts, are not likely to be
offered on CD-ROM, and will remain accessible only on-line or in a printed forn.
Specialized databases on personal computers
The third possibility of computerized information storage and retrieval are specialized
databases on mini or personal computers, built by the researchers or S&T information
specialists, who study and analyze primary documentation in their field of work. Several industrial
and some academic research groups build bibliographic and factual databases of their own.
Building and processing of these databases can greatly support research efficiency, contribute to
the sustainability of university-industry projects, and improve the quality of S&T education at a
high-school and university levels.
One of the efficient software packages for the design and processing of textual databases is
the Unesco CDS/ISIS. Its main advantages are: (1) flexible design of a database: optional number
and format of worksheets and printing formats, almost unlimited number of fields and optional
field length, possibility of introducing repeatable fields, division of fields into subfields; (2)
variable field length - occupying less disk space, (3) optional selection of fields and sub-fields for
searching (4) several searching possibilities: fast searching in an inverted file (possible techniques:
each word, strings of words, or only selected/marked words), full-text searching, searching and
counting frequency of empty/occupied fields and sub-fields (may be used for the determination of
information density), searching in one field or in several fields at the same time; (5) possibility for
preparing and storing complex search profiles, (6) automatic generation of search terms dictionary,
(7) sorting and indexing for the preparation of optional sorted printouts and indexes, (7) optional
printout formatting, (8) changing conditions for database processing in a premade database.
CDS/ISIS (last version 3.0) has been used for bibliographic and textual factographic databases by
47



academic and research institutions, libraries, and schools worldwide, especially in the developing
countries (for examples see Chaudhury and Shukla, 1988; Goyal and Kumar, 1990; Hopkinson,
1989-1992; Ngwira, 1991; NRC, 1989; Suraniranat et al., 1991; Wongkoltoot and Indee, 1992).
The following examples of records illustrate the possibilities of designing specialized S&T
databases on PC for the specific needs of long-tern research projects. Both examples are taken
from a university-industry project on microencapsulation technology and applications: University
of Ljubljana and Aero Graphic, Printing and Paper Industry, Slovenia.
Record 1: Examnple of a record for a patent description   from  specialized bibliographic database on
microencapsulation (Boh, 1991). The key words were determiined on the basis of patent analysis by
researchers themselves and therefore reflect the recognition of the main parameters (which are often
hidden in a patent), are more specific and better structured than the key words in less specialized
international on-line databases.
Record No.:     001622
Document type:    PATENT
Authors:        FUKUO, H.,
ONOGUCHL T.
Title:          MICROCAPSULE MANUFACTURE
Firm:           SAKURA COLOR PRODUCTS
Patent No.:     US 4753759, 880628
Patent applications:  US 892783, 860801
JP 137825, 850626
JP 236176, 851021
Patent classification: BOIJ13/02
Publication year.   1988
Language:       ENG
Inemal number    5294
Descriptors:    MICROCAPSULES
POLYMERIZATION IN SITU
UREA-MELAMINE-FORMALDEHYDE WALL
UREA-FORMALDEHYDE WALL
MELAMINE-FORMALDEHYDE WALL
MODIFYING AGENTS
ACRYLIC ACID-METHACRYLIC ACID COPOLYMERS
ACRYLIC ACID-ITACONIC ACID COPOLYMER
ENCAPSULATION ACCELERATING AGENTS
POLYHYDRIC PHENOLS
EMULSION STABILIZING AGENTS
POLYANIONIC MACROMOLECULES
SOLVENTS
ALCOHOLS
ESTERS
KETONES
ETHERS
FATTY ACIDS
ACID AMIDES
HYDROCARBONS
APPLICATION FIELDS
PRESSURE-SENSITVE COPYING PAPERS
LEUCO DYES
TEMPERATURE INDICATORS
THERMO-CHANGEABLE COLORS
PERFUMES
48



Record 2: Example of a record from a highly specialized factual database, containing qualitative and quantitative
data on interfacial polymerization microencapsulation procedures in water-in-oil emulsions (Boh, 1991).
The database was built as an information support for the design of a research hypothesis for the
development/upgrading of an industrially applicable technological process.
Record No.:                        000199
1. Wall polymer:                  AMINO ACID-ACID CHLORIDE
2. Solvent (hydrophilic):          WATER
4. Wall component (hydrophilic):   LLYSINE, 30 ml of 0.53 M in sodium carbonate solution
5. Additives (hydrophilic):        SODIUM CARBONATE, 0.67 M in water
6. Solvent (hydrophobic):          CYCLOHEXANE: CHLOROFORM 3:1, 100 ml
7. Emulsifier (hydrophobic):       SORBITAN TRIOLEATE, 10 percent (vlv) in 100 ml of
hydrophobic solvent mixture
S. Wall component (hydrophobic):  TEREPHTHALOYL DICHLORIDE, 100 ml of 0.S nl of
hydrophobic solvent mixture
10. Emulsification:               Emulsion W/O, stiming 20 mirL
11. Polymerization:               interfacial polymerization, 20 niim
13. Deactivation:                 dilution with 100 ml of hydrophobic solven mixture
14. Post-treatment:               washing 3 times with cyclohexane on a centrifuge, dispersion into
deionized water containing dispersing agent, washing with deionized
waler, dialysis against deionized water for 2 weeks
15. Microcapsule separation:      centrifugation
17. Properties of nicrocapsules:  negatively charged microcapsule wall
18. Application field.            MEDICINE AND PHARMACY
19. Annotation:                   adsorption of fibrinogen to macrocapsules, disintegration studies
20. Reference source:              Intenal No. in the bibliogaphic database: 5326 - Example pp. 133-4
Further examples of database and information processing with practical applications in
scientific research and development are given in PHREE Background Paper Series, PHREE/92/67:
Universit__ndu_r  Cooertion Under Constrints. Experience of the International Center for
Chemical Studies, Ljubljana, Slovenia (Kornhauser, A., 1992a). See also Kornhauser, 1992b; and
Boh, 1991, 1992.
49



Acquisition of S&T information
Users of S&T information
Since different users have different information needs, no single infonnation system can
serve a broad spectrum of users. Targeting the intended audience is an essential first step in the
acquisition of appropriate S&T information, its processing, distribution and use. Examnples of
different S&T user groups include: (1) professors and students at the universities, colleges,
specialized science schools, regular secondary and priaray schools, (2) researchers from
universities, industrial research units, private researchers, (3) professionals from S&T related
fields (medicine, health and nutrition, agriculture, forestry, food processing, environmental
protection, engineering), (4) government officials working in S&T related fields (5) professionals
in industrial and commercial enterprises, (6) joumalists, (7) farm extension workers, community
leaders and staff from non-governmental organizations, (8) farmers, industrial workers, (9)
consumers.
The infomation dissemination mechanisms have to be adapted to the charactristics of the
target groups. To succeed in the highly competitive research and development fields, industrial
researchers need fist and efficient technology-based approaches, such as computerized information
systems, relational databases, on-line and CD-ROM databases, powerful statistical and graphical
packages, and desktop publishing. At the community level of developing countries, less
sophisticated and less formal mechanisms of exchanging information are often much more effective
- such as scientific literature in indigenous languages, TV and radio programs, extension services
and demonstrations.
The main types of institutions involved in the acquisition of S&T information include: (1)
academnic information centers and university S&T libraries, (2) information centers and libraries at
research institutes, (3) technical, industrial and commercial libraries and information centers in the
industries, (4) libraries of international organizations working on S&T related disciplines, (5)
governmental libraries, (5) school libraries, (6) libraries and information centers of S&T related
non-govenmental organizations.
Acquisition methods
Direct purchase
The most common acquisition system for books and periodicals is the direct purchase from
local bookshops, local publishers, regional offices of overseas publishers or purchase from abroad.
Periodicals are received through membership programs (membership fees to professional
organizations) and by subscriptions. There are three main procurement channels for foreign S&T
literature: (1) direct import by individuals, libraries, information centers, research and educational
institutions, (2) import through local book dealers or subscription agents, and (3) import trough
50



government or semi-government agencies. In most cases, the governments of developing countries
are liberal with regard to import of literature and do not introduce any limitations, while in specific
cases there are different restrictions regarding the content and subjects (political, religious, moral
prohibitions), origin countries (economical, political, scientific and cultural embargo) or financial
limitations (amount of foreign exchange).
The practices of selecting S&T literature differ from country to country. The main sources
for the selection of S&T publications are (1) publishers announcements and catalogues, (2) book
reviews in journals, (3) bibliographic databases, (4) prescribed or recommended lists designed by
governmental or international bodies, (5) book exhibitions, (6) visits to bookstores, and (7) books
sent by booksellers on approval. The selection is done by scientists, researchers or teachers alone,
by librarians and information specialists, or by governmental committees, taking into account the
limitations of allocated funds and foreign exchange.
Donations
Some international and bilateral agencies, research groups or individual researchers donate
books and scientific journals to researchers and libraries in developing countries. In several low-
income countries with temporary or long-lasting financial problems, which usually result in severe
restrictions in the acquisition of S&T publications, such donation programs have become the major
source of new S&T reading materials. However, donation programs may have hidden limitations.
Donated publications may be out of date or out of relevance for the recipient country, therefore
donation is usually not the most satisfactory way of transferring S&T informnation and technology
to the developing countries.
Grants
Grants seemn to be a much more appropriate way of helping low-income economies. With
grants, the donor institution offers a specific amount of foreign exchange to be used exclusively for
the purchase of S&T literature. The selection and choice of the most appropriate and needed
publications within the identified research field is left to the recipient.
Legal deposit
The national reference libraries have a legal right to warehousing of all locally published
documents, including S&T publications. In additions, these institutions often deposit the reports
and other documents from the main international organizations and national governments.
Exchange and interlibrary lending
The sharing of library resources through various library cooperative programs can ensure
more economical acquisition, larger quantity and better utilization of scientific literature . Several
libraries in developing and industrialized countries have exchange arrangements with other libraries
and international organizations, especially for research and technical reports, proceedings from
local and international meetings, dissertations, technical publications, scientific papers and
newsletters. However, research and technical reports, dissertations and local newspapers are often
written in local languages, which may be a problem in offering publications for exchange. The
countrywide interlibrary lending facilities may include additional services, such as exchange of
books, patents and standards, circulation of scientific journals, and photocopying services. In some
51



cases, scientific libraries compile catalogues of science books and periodicals available in different
institutions of the countly.
Problems in acquisition of S&T information in developing countries.
Authors from developing countries report on different problems related to the acquisition of
scientific literature:
(1) Lack of national policies on (1) literature collection development, (2) national S&T
infonnation services, (3) scientific literature publishing, (4) acquisition and use of S&T
information materials.
(2)  Low budget and lack of foreign exchange for new S&T materials - several developing
countries report on a decrease in a number of journal subscriptions and scientific books
purchased each year, especially because of the steep rises in their prices and meager budgets
for their acquisition.
(3)  Lack of locally available publications - as a result of underdeveloped local publishing
industry and lack of scientific writers.
(4)  Restrictions in literature import intricate import and customs procedures.
(5)  Distribution problems - some experiences of developing countries show that it takes
between three and six months to receive book orders from local and foreign dealers, and that
up to 40 percent of journals are lost in transit due to postal misdelivery. Finding no
alternative, some institutions try to overcome this problem by appointing foreign agents to
collect and send the materials, for which they charge additional 10 percent plus postage
costs.
(6)  Unbalanced subject coverage - poor representation of newer subjects and disciplines such
as computer science, biotechnology, genetic engineenng, new materials and energy sources,
and environmental science.
(7)  Gaps in collections, particularly in periodicals.
(8)  Poor coverage or even absence of patent literature, standards, research and technical
reports, commercial publications and other specialized sources.
(9)  Low level S&T information services as a result of (a) insufficient knowledge about
literature acquisition possibilities and procedural details, (b) lack of cooperation among
libraries, (c) lack of reference and bibliographical sources, indexing and abstracting services,
(d) limited access to international databases, (e) insufficient/too slow development of local
bibliographic databases, (f) lack of computers, software and trained personnel.
52



Improving the access to and use of S&T information in
developing countries
Recommended actions
Reducing or bridging the information and communication gap between the industrialized and
developing countries is one of the most urgent priorities and one of the most difficult tasks in the
present programs and efforts for a more balanced world development.
The following actions and programs can support the development, improvement, promotion
and use of S&T literature and information services in developing countries:
(1)  Define the information needs of different regions, countries, nations, scientific and
technological institutions, and professional groups.
(2)  Introduce S&T informatics in regional and national information policies and development
plans.
(3)  Establish reliable technical environments for the introduction of S&T informnation services
(improve telecommunication systems, maintenance services, compatibility of equipment and
software).
(4)  Assure stable fundings for the acquisition and distribution of scientific literature and
databases of particular interest and relevance to the users.
(5)  Improve the coordination of activities between the local and national institutions,
international organizations, bilaterammultilateral foreign aid and donor programs, and S&T
research projects to (a) exclude unnecessary duplication of publications, databases, and
information technologies, (b) achieve a better coverage of different S&T disciplines and a
greater variety of information sources, (c) facilitate planning for a more efficient acquisition,
distribution and use of available resources, (d) provide adequate education and training of
personnel, and (e) ensure a more stable financing.
(6)  Include local scientists and information specialists in all S&T information projects and
programs for developing countries.
(7)  Promote the active participation of S&T specialists from developing countries in the
intemational S&T communication and exchange of knowledge: (a) provide training in
scientific writing, (2) advise/help in achieving high quality standards, (3) facilitate the
promotion of scientific articles from developing countries in internationally recognized S&T
journals.
53



(8)  Provide training and assistance in design, building and updating of user-oriented
information systems adapted to local needs.
(9)  Increase the sustainability  of information  systems by (a) promoting reliability,
professionalism, and efficiency of information services, (b) ensuring a stable income
generation (charging for services, grants, memberships), and (c) introducing adequate
marketing and promotion of information services.
(10) Organize S&T information networks among individuals and/or institutions in the fields of:
(a) S&T information services - for acquisition and processing of information, (b)
dissemination of information on available information services, technologies, software,
equipment, training opportunities and new S&T related projects, (c) technical assistance for
systems design, development and trouble-shooting, (d) education and training in building and
use of databases and information systems, data processing methodologies, new hardware and
software products.
(11) Provide specialized pre-service training and continuous in-service education in S&T
informnatics for different groups of (a) information professionals - librarians, computer
specialists, S&T infornatics specialists, and (b) end-users - scientists, researchers, industrial
engineers and technicians, managers, economists and lawyers in S&T finns, govenmmental
officials responsible for R&D, S&T journalists, teachers, students, and other professionals
involved in S&T related projects.
(12) Promote the use of S&T information services and methodologies in all areas of scientific
research, industrial development, transfer of technological know-how, planning, decision-
making and education in order to (a) acquire more complete and adequate information, (b)
enable fast and efficient processing of data, (c) facilitate the transfer of fundamental
knowledge into development and production practice.
(13) Avoid the import or adoption of technologies, processes and materials without a
simultaneous transfer of knowledge (know-how).
(14) Change the school teaching practices, which emphasize memorizing of data, to more
information-based teaching, aiming at the development of skills for searching, processing and
using S&T information.
(15) Introduce and/or strengthen efficient literacy programs in countries with high illiteracy
rates.
(16) Encourage the use of S&T terminology in local languages, provide assistance with native-
language information processing, and promote scientific publishing and scientific journalism
in indigenous languages.
(17) Provide basic training in English and/or other languages used in science communication
with special emphasis on S&T terminology.
(18) Support effective local production of basic consumables, such as paper, toners, inks,
cables, diskettes, and facilitate access to necessary spare-parts.
54



(19) Inprove the rigid bureaucratic procedures which hinder a more efficient S&T infonnation
planning and management, budgetary changes, efficient provision and maintenance of
equipment, acquisition and distribution of publications and databases, sharing of resources,
staff allocation, interaction with users, and education programs.
(20) Improve the social status of S&T information specialists.
55



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