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World
j   -T     Developmen
&1[a I ndicators



Copyright 1998 by the International Bark
for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK
1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.
All rights reserved
Manufactured in the United States of America
First printing March 1998
This volume is a product of the staff of the Development Data Group of the World Bank's Development Economics Vice
Presidency, and the judgments herein do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank's Board of Executive
Directors or the countries they represent.
The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility
whatsoever for any consequence of their use. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on
any map In this volume do not imply on the part of the World Bank any judgment on the legal status of any territory or
the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. The Eckert IV projection is used for all maps. It maintains correct
areas for all countries but to some extent distorts shape. distance. and direction.
The material in this publication is copyrghted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it should be sent to
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If you have questions and comments about this product, please contact:
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ISBN 0-8213-3701-4124-3



World
I j*il7  Development
I I M    Indicators
The World Bank



Foreword
In my 1997 address to the Annual Meetings of the Board of Governors of the World Bank Group
and the International Monetary Fund, I noted that our primary goal in development must be to
reduce the disparities across and within countries-to bring more people into the economic main-
stream and to promote equitable access to the fruits of development, regardless of nationality,
race, or gender. I said then, and I write here, that the key development challenge of our time is
the challenge of inclusion.
In the many international conferences of the 1990s, the world's leaders have committed them-
selves to reducing these disparities. And they have set clear targets for reducing poverty, improv-
ing child and maternal mortality, expanding education opportunities, closing the gender gap, and
reversing environmental degradation. In 1996 the members of the OECD's Development Assistance
Committee endorsed a set of related goals and committed themselves to supporting countries that
want to achieve them through more effective development cooperation efforts.
The World Bank is equally committed to helping countries fight the scourges of poverty, illiteracy,
disease, hunger, and environmental degradation. And together with our development partners we
are working hard to meet the challenge of inclusion. The World Development Indicators, the prod-
uct of a broad global knowledge partnership of national and international development institu-
tions, is one contribution to this effort. We believe that by reporting regularly and systematically
on progress toward the targets the international community has set for itself, we will focus atten-
tion on the task ahead and make those responsible for advancing the development agenda
accountable for results.
This year's World Development Indicators begins with the first of a series of annual reports we
plan to publish on progress toward the international development goals. The main-and not sur-
prising-message is that these goals are difficult to attain. Countries that have succeeded in
these areas have done so by sustaining economic growth, investing in their people, and imple-
menting the right policies. But as the recent difficulties in East Asia warn, good and open gover-
nance that builds a social consensus is equally important. Without it, success can prove brittle.
In closing, I want to thank those of you who took me at my word last year and provided comments
on the newly redesigned World Development Indicators. We have benefited greatly from your sug-
gestions, which are reflected in some of the many further improvements I hope you will notice in this
second edition. Please continue to review this product critically and to offer us your suggestions.
James D. Wolfensohn
President
The World Bank Group



c      n o Wv  e 'D   .i  _    C
This book and its companion volume, the World Bank Atlas, were prepared by a team led by K.
Sarwar Lateef. The team consisted of Mehdi Akhlaghi, Aelim Chi, David Cieslikowski, Demet Kaya,
Saeed Ordoubadi, Sulekha Patel, Eric Swanson, K. M. Vijayalakshmi, Amy Wilson, and Estela
Zamora, working closely with other teams in the Development Economics Vice Presidency's
Development Data Group. The CD-ROM development team included Mehdi Akhlaghi, Azita Amjadi,
Elizabeth Crayford, Reza Farivari, Vasantha Hevaganinge, Yusri Harun, Angelo Kostopoulos, Andre
Leger, Patricia McComas, and William Prince. The work was carried out under the management of
Shaida Badiee.
The choice of indicators and textual content was shaped through close consultation with and
substantial contributions from staff in the World Bank's four thematic networks-Environmentally
and Socially Sustainable Development; Finance, Private Sector, and Infrastructure; Human
Development; and Poverty Reduction and Economic Management-and staff of the International
Finance Corporation and the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency. Most important, we
received substantial help, guidance, and data from our external partners. For individual acknowl-
edgments of contributions to the book's content, please see the Credits section. For a listing of
our key partners, see the Partners section.
Bruce Ross-Larson was the principal editor, and Peter Grundy, the art director. The cover and
page design and the layout and desktopping were done by the American Writing Division of
Communications Development Incorporated, with Grundy & Northedge of London. The External
Affairs Vice Presidency oversaw publication and dissemination of the book.
vi 1998 World Development indicators



Preface
Now in its second year, the World Development Indicators continues to evolve. The response to last
year's book and CD-ROM was encouraging, and we learned much from the comments of our read-
ers and partners. This year's edition reflects many of your suggestions:
* The introductions to each section focus on key development issues and trends. The first section,
World View, reports on progress toward international development goals-goals that should be
achieved early in the 21st century. This report will become a standard feature of the World
Development Indicators. The introduction to the third section, Environment, reports on three big
issues for development and the environment: genuine saving, trade in goods from polluting indus-
tries, and demand for transport fuels.
* We have tried to provide more timely data. Coverage of most indicators extends through 1996,
and the introduction to the fourth section, Economy, includes preliminary estimates of macroeco-
nomic indicators for 1997 for 37 developing countries and projections of world economic growth
through 2000. The sixth section, Global Links, includes recent estimates of capital flows.
* Every section includes new indicators. World View contains two tables on long-term growth.
People has new tables on employment, unemployment, and reproductive health. Economy includes
the most recent data on relative prices from the International Comparison Programme. States and
Markets has added a table on military expenditures and trade in arms. Global Links provides new
coverage of interregional trade flows and tariff rates.
Although we have added new indicators and relocated some tables, we have maintained the book's
general plan. Most tables show indicators for both a recent and an earlier year or period, and cover
148 economies with populations of more than one million. For users who need time series of pri-
mary data, the World Development Indicators CD-ROM contains time series from the World
Development Indicators database, extended back to 1960 wherever data permits. And for those who
want a brief overview of the world economy, the World Bank Atlas presents maps, tables, and fig-
ures for 43 indicators in 210 economies. In addition, the Atlas has been expanded to include World
View and Global Links sections.
Producing the World Development Indicators has been stimulating. The process has strengthened
the World Bank's partnerships with other international organizations, statistical offices, nongovern-
mental organizations, and notably with private suppliers and users of data. With the new interna-
tional commitment to monitoring development progress, timely, accurate, and comprehensive
indicators have become even more important. This obliges us to work harder to bring you the best
information available. We hope we are succeeding in this, and we look forward to hearing from you.
Please write us or send us email at info@worldbank.org. We would also appreciate your completing
the user survey at the back of the book or at http://www.worldbank.org/wdi/.
Shaida Badiee
Director
Development Data Group
1998 World Development Indicators  vil



Contents
Wlorld 'Iiewhas been reorgarized :e e0.Z  -1.   C CVC  Ce' --        r
goals and has been expanded v!ith l-,er' LC--cs Si-CV,.i.C::-C:-7Cf
ii1 now includes rankeings at zeurZ-y 2< CrC-C                      7D.
capita. Data tor small ecrnomiese (poe:uL'C - C -V.C  lCr) P[C.
availability aea no,, shown ii 'Labl  '.0.
Foreword                                                             v           Introduction                                                 3
Acknowledgments                                                      VI          International development goals                             10
Preface                                                             Vii   11     Sz   f h  cnm                                              12
Partners                                                            xii   12     Qaiyolfe16
Users guide                                                        xxii   1.3    Development progress                                       20
1.4    Trends in long-term economic deveiopment                   24
1.5    Long-term structural change                                28
1.6    Key indicators for other economies                         32
Figures
la     Twelve countries accounted for 80% of the world's poor in 1993  5
lb     Gl1obal poverty targets will be met if China and India sustain their
recent growth                                                6
ic     Countries with high infant mortality in 1970 continue to have
high levels today                                            7
ld     As incomes increase, social indicators improve               9
1l1a   Population and GNP in selected countries, 1996              15
1.2a   Women tend to live longer than men                         19
1.4a   The world's 30 fastest-growing economies . ..              27
1.4b   ... include many of the fastest-growing service sectors    27
1.5a   Agriculture employs a large share of the workforce
in many developing countries                                31
Text tables
la     Population living on less than $1 a day in developing regions,
1987 and 1993                                                4
lb     Progress in social indicators                                4
lc     Required, actual, and projected regions growth in real
consumption                                                  6
ld    Infant mortality rates, 1970 and 1996                         7
ls     Performance gaps and distance to goals                       8
vill .1998 World Development Indicators



People has new tables on employment, unemployment, and reproductive health. The initro-  Environment inclades new tables an water pollution and sources of electricity generation.
duction features a special presentation oce thie worldwide HIV/AIDS epidemic, drawing on  Coverage of air pollution has been expanded. Because of the Importance of agricultare fojr rural
recent work by UNAIDS and the World Bank.                               welfare and environmental management, indicators on agricultural inputs and production have
been moved here. The introduction reports on three big issues for development and the envI-
ronmient: genuine saving, trade in goods from polluting Industries, and demand for trarnsport fuels.
Introduction                                               35           Introduction                                              109
Confronting AI DS                                          40           Energy and carbon dioxide emissions                       116
2.1    Population                                                42     3.1    Land use and deforestation                               118
2.2    Population dynamics                                       46     3.2    Agricultural inputs                                      122
2.3    Labor force structure                                     50     3.3    Agricultural output and productivity                     126
2.4    Employment by occupation                                  54     3.4    Biodiversity and protected areas                         130
2.5    Employment by economic activity                           58     3.5    Freshwater                                               134
2.6    Unemployment                                              62     3.6    Water pollution                                          138
2.7    Poverty                                                   64     3.7    Energy production and use                                142
2.8    Distribution of income or consumption                     68     3.8    Energy efficiency and emissions                          146
2.9    Education policy and infrastructure                       72     3.9    Sources of electricity                                   150
2.10   Access to education                                       76     3.10   Urbanization                                             154
2.11   Educational attainment                                    s0     3.11   Traffic and congestion                                   158
2.12   Gender and education                                      84     3.12   Air pollution                                            162
2.13   Health expenditure, services, and use                     88     3.13   Government commitment                                    164
2.14   Access to health services                                 92     Boxes
2.15   Reproductive health                                       96     3a     Environmentai indicators for the 21st century            110
2.16   Health: risk factors and future challenges               100     3.13a The Kyoto Protocol on climate change                      166
2.17   Mortality                                                104     Figures
Box                                                                     3a     Adjusting for environmental costs lowers Ecuador's savings and
2a     Social goals and indicators for the 21st century          36            investment rates                                         ill
Figures                                                                 3b     High-income countries generate more exports from the six most
2.la   Population growth rates are declining                     45            polluting industries                                     113
2.2a   Population momentum tends to be the biggest contributor to       3c     Trade of the six most polluting industries by region     113
population growth                                          49     3.Ia  Arable land per capita in selected countries, 1995        121
2.3a   Children work less as incomes rise                        53     3.2a   Arable land is no longer expanding                       125
2.5a   Women's labor force participation depends on how work is defined  61  3.2b  The distribution of fertilizer consumption has changed   125
2.6a   Unemployment continues to be high in transition economies  63    3.3a   Food production has outpaced population growth           129
2.10a Enrollments are improving, but the school-age population is growing 79  3.4a  Worldwide, the number and coverage of protected areas have
2.12a Gender disparities in education do not respond                           increased dramatically                                   133
to changes in GNP per capita                               67     3.5a  Annual renewable freshwater resources are coming under
2.13a Low-income countries devote relatively less public spending to           increasing strain                                        137
health . .. than do high-income countries                  91     3.5b  Agriculture drinks up a lot of the world's freshwater     137
2.17a Child mortality rates show gender discrimination          107     3.7a   Since 1980 low- and middle-income countries have seen rapid
Texitta"blle, s                                                                growth in commercial energy use                           145
2a     Coverage of poverty indicators by region, 1996            36      3.7b  Low-income countries are exporting less energy            145
2b     Coverage of net primary enrollment indicators by continent, 1995  37  3.8a .. Carbon dioxide emissions are increasing everywhere   149
3.8b   In 1995 high-income countries emitted the most carbon dioxide  149
3.9a   Sources of global electricity generation are shifting    153
3.1Oa Urban populations in developing countries are ballooning  157
3.l1a Global production of motor vehicles continues to rise     161
3.12a Most environmental costs of fossil fuel use result from small
sources........................                       162.........
3.13a Projects financed by the Global Environment Facility, February
1995-June 1997                                           165
3a     Genuine savings rates in selected countries              1:11
3b     Export-import ratios for selected countries, 1986 and 1995  112
Sc    Income elasticity of demand for motive fuels in selected Asian
economies, 1973-90                                       114
3.13a Status of national environmental action plans             164
199s World Development Indicators Ix



The introduction to Economy provides estimates of 1997 values for macroeconomic indicators for 37  The introduction to States and Markets includes ix',ormration on gevernmer- 7ediAil, and
developing countries. drawn) from the World Bank's operational database, and projections of regional  corruption adapted from the World Bank's Wioild Dlevalopmrent Report 155 97 Trs Siate in a
economic growth through 2000. The table on the structure of consumption measured in purchasing  Changing World. New this year are date on de Fense spending and trads, ii' r -s ar d updated
power parity (PPP) prices has been updated with data from the latest roond of PPP surveys by the  indicators for state-owseed enterprises.
lntemutional Comparison Programme, and a new table on relative prices has been odded. Indicators
for agricoltoral iniputs and production have heeni moved to Environment.
Introduction                                              169             Introduction                                              247
Performance and prospects, 1997-2000                      172             Investor perceptions of state credibility                 252
4.1    Growth of output                                          176      5.1    Credit, investment, and expenditure                       254
4.2    Structure of output                                       180      5.2    Stock markets                                             258
4.3    Stricture of manufacturing                                184      5.3    Portfolio investment regulation and risk                  262
4.4    Structure of merchandise exports                          188      5.4    Financial depth and efficiency                            266
4.5    Stricture of merchandise imports                          1912     5.5   Tax policies                                               270
4.6    Structure of service exports                              196      5.6    Relative prices and exchange rates                        274
4.7    Structure of service imports                              200      5.7    Defense expenditures and trade in arms                    278
4.8    structure of demand                                       204      5.8    State-owned enterprises                                   282
4.9    Growth of consumption and investment                      208      5.9   Transport infrastructure                                   286
4.10   Structure of consumption in PPP terms                     212      5.10   Power and communications                                  290
4.11   Relative prices in PPP terms                              215      5.11  The information age                                        294
4.12   Central government finances                               2-18     5.12   Science and technology                                    298
4.13   Central government expenditures                           222      Box
4.14   Central government revenues                               226      5a     A credible state promotes private sector development      248
4.15   Monetary indicators and prices                            230      Figures
4.16   Balance of payments current account                       234     5Sla    Foreign direct investment has retreated in East Asia      257
4.17   External debt                                             238      5.2a   Emrerging stock markets have been volatile                261
4.18   External debt management                                  242      5.4a   Interest rates spreads vary dramatically                  269
Figures                                                                   5.8a   State enterprises still play a sizabie role in mnany developing
4.3a   Manufacturing takes off in China                          187             economies                                                 285
4.4a   Manufactured exports dominate trade in goods              191     5SlOe Where are the telephones?                                   293
4.5a   Regional imports follow similar patterns                  19)5     SIls   Mobile telephones play a big role in countries with limited
4.6a   Service exports are incroassng                            199            traditional telephone services                             297
4.7a   The top 25 service importers in 199                       23       Text table
4.9a   Government consumption has risen steadily in moat regions  211     5e     Privatization of state-owned telecommunications companies in
4.11a Health care services are relatively expensive in high-incomne              1997, selected countries                                  249
economies . ..                                            216
4.11b -. but capital investment is far more expensive in low- and
middle-income economies                                   217
4.12a Prudent fiscal management is netsa guarantee against financial crisis 221
4.13a A large portion of government spending goes to transfers and
subsidies                                                 225
4.14a Direct taxes account for a large share of government revenue in
high-income economies                                     229
4.16a Current account balances for the three biggest traders     237
4.18a All regions except Asia have reduced their reliance on short-term debt 245
Text tables
4e     External environment for developing country growth        171
4b     Growth of world GDP, 1996-2000                            171
4c     Recent economic performance                               1-74
4d     Key macroeconomic indicators                              175
x   1998 World Development Indicators



Global Links includes Indicators on trade that appeared in Economy last year, and on global financial
flows that appeared in States anid Markets. New indicators include direction of world trade. exports by
regional trading blocs, and thle most recent data orn average tariff rates and travel and tourism. The
introduction looks at the prob~lems ot measuring global economic integratiton and includes estimates
of private financial flows in 1997.
Introduction                                              303      Statistical methods                                               361
Changing financial flows to developing countries, 1990-97  308     Pirimary data documentation                                       363
6.1   Integration with the global economy                        310     Acronyms and abbreviations                                         372
6.2    Growth of merchandise trade                               314     Credits                                                            374
6.3    Direction and growth of merchandise trade                 318      Bibliography                                                      376
6.4    OECD trade with low- and middle-income economies          321      Index of indicators                                               381
6.5    Primary commodity prices                                  324      Readers survey                                                    389
6.6    Regional trade blocs                                      326      Order form                                                        391
6.7    Tariff barriers                                           330
6.8    Global financial flows                                    334
6.9    Not financial flows from Development Assistance Committee
memnbers                                                  338
6.10   Aid flows from Development Assistance Committee members   340
6.11   Aid dependency                                            342
6.12 Distribution of net aid by Development Assistance Committee
members                                                   346
6.13   Net financial flows from multilateral institutions        350
6.14   Foreign labor and population in OECD countri'es           354
6.15   Travel and tourism                                        356
6a    In many countries collected tariffs run well below official rates  304
6b     OECD countries prefer to buy at home                      305
6c     Savings retention ratios have returned to 19th century levels  306
6.la Gross foreign direct investment is one indicator of global
integration                                               313
6.2a   Terms of trade have shifted since the 1970s               317
6.4a Manufactured goods dominate high-income OECD countries' trade
with low- and middle-income economies                     323
6.6a Regional trade blocs have captured an increasing share of their
members' trade ...                                        326
6.6b ... but have been less vigorous in expanding their trade with the
rest of the world                                         327
6.7a   Average tariffs are declining                             333
6.l0a Aid flows are falling                                      341
6.1la Twenty countries received more than half the official development
assistance and official aid provided in 1996              345
6.12a Aid patterns reflect geopolitical interests and historical
relationships                                             349
6.13a Maintaining financial flows from the World Banki to
developing countri'es                                     353
6.14a OECD countries attracted immigrants from disparate sources
in 1995                                                   355
6.15a Large, wealthy economies generated the most tourists in 1996  359
Text tables
6.9a   Official development assistance by non-DAC donors         339
1998 World Development Indicators      xi



Partners
Defining, gathering, and disseminating international statistics is a collective effort of many people
and organizations. The indicators presented in the World Development Indicators are the fruit of
decades of work at many levels, from the field workers who have administered censuses and house-
hold surveys in every part of the world to the committees and working parties of the national and
international statistical agencies that have developed the nomnenclature, classifications, and stan-
dards that are fundamental to an international statistical system. Nongovernmental organizations
and the private sector have also made important contributions, both in gathering primary data and
in organizing and publishing their results. And academic researchers have played a crucial role in
developing statistical methods and carrying on a continuing dialogue about the quality and inter-
pretation of statistical indicators. What all these contributors have in common is a strong belief
that accurate data, readily available, will improve the quality of public and private decisionmaking.
The organizations listed here have made the World Development Indicators possible by shar-
ing their data and their expertise with us. More important, their collaboration contnbutes to the
success of the World Bank's development efforts and to those of many others to improve the
quality of life of the world's people. These organizations, like the World Bank, draw on the efforts
and resources of national statistical offices and other agencies that gather and maintain primary
statistical databases but that are too numerous to name individually. Nevertheless, we acknowl-
edge our debt and gratitude to all those whose efforts have helped to build a base of compre-
hensive, quantitative information about the world and its people. For your convenience we have
included URLs (Web addresses) for organizations that maintain websites. The addresses shown
were active on 1 January 1998. For information about the World Bank, visit Its website at
www.worldbank.org.
International agencies
Food and Agriculture Organization
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), a speciaiized agency of the United Nations, was
founded in October 1945 with a mandate to raise nutrition levels and living standards, to
increase agricultural productivity, and to better the condition of rural populations. Since its
inception the FAO has worked to alleviate poverty and hunger by promoting agricultural devel-
opment, improved nutrition, and the pursuit of food security-the access of all people at all
times to the food they need for an active and heaithy life. The organization provides direct
development assistance: collects, analyzes, and disseminates information; offers policy and
planning advice to governments; and serves as an international forum for debate on food and
agricultural issues.
Statistical publications of the FAO include the Production Yearbook, Trade Yearbook, and
Fertilizer Yearbook. The FAO makes much of its data available on diskette through its Agrostat
PC system. FAO publications can be ordered from national sales agents or directly from the FAO
Distribution and Sales Section, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla. 00100 Rome, Italy: website:
www.fao.org/default.htm.
xii 1998 World Development indicators



International Civil Aviation Organization
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a specialized agency of the United Nations,
was founded on 7 December 1944. It is responsible for establishing international standards and
recommended practices and procedures for the technical, economic, and legal aspects of inter-
national civil aviation operations.
The ICAO promotes the adoption of safety measures, establishes visual and instrument flight
rules for pilots and crews, develops aeronautical charts, coordinates aircraft radio frequencies,
and sets uniform regulations for the operation of air services and customs procedures.
To obtain ICAO publications contact ICAO, Document Sales Unit, 999 University Street,
Montreal, Quebec H3C 5H7, Canada: telephone: (514) 954 8022; fax: (514) 954 6769; email:
sales_unit@icao.org; website: www.cam.org/-icao.
International Labour Organization
The International Labour Organization (ILO), a specialized agency of the United Nations, seeks the
promotion of social justice and internationally recognized human and labor rights. Founded in
1919. it is the only surviving major creation of the Treaty of Versailles, which brought the League
of Nations into being. It became the first specialized agency of the United Nations in 1946. The
ILO has a structure that is unique within the United Nations system, a tripartite structure that has
workers and employers participating as equal partners with governments in the work of its gov-
erning organs. As part of its mandate, the ILO maintains an extensive statistical publication pro-
gram. Yearbook of Labour Statistics is its most comprehensive collection of labor force data.
Publications can be ordered from the International Labour Office, 4 route des Morillons, CH-
1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland, or from sales agents and major booksellers throughout the world
and ILO offices in many countries. Fax: (41 22) 798 86 85; website: www.ilo.org.
International Monetary Fund
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was established at a conference in Bretton Woods, New
Hampshire, U.S.A.. on 1-22 July 1944. (The conference also established the World Bank.) The
IMF came into official existence on 27 December 1945, and commenced financial operations on
1 March 1947. It currently has 181 member countries.
The statutory purposes of the IMF are to promote international monetary cooperation, facili-
tate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade, promote exchange rate stability,
help establish a multilateral payments system, make the general resources of the IMF temporar-
ily available to its members under adequate safeguards, and shorten the duration and lessen the
degree of disequilibrium in the international balances of payments of members.
The IMF maintains an extensive program for the development and compilation of intemational
statistics, and is responsible for collecting and reporting statistics on international financial transac-
tions and the balance of payments. In April 1996 it undertook an important initiative aimed at improv-
ing the quality of international statistics, establishing the Special Data Dissemination Standard to
guide members that have or seek access to international capital markets in providing economic and
financial data to the public.
1998 World Development Indicators  xiii



The IMF's major statistical publications include Intemational Financial Statistics, Balance of
Payments Statistics Yearbook, Government Fnance Statistics Yearbook, and Direction of Trade
Statistics.
For more information on IMF statistical publications contact the International Monetary Fund,
Publications Services, Catalog Orders, 700 19th Street, N.W.. Washington, D.C. 20431, U.S.A.;
telephone: (202) 623 7430; fax: (202) 623 7201; telex: RCA 248331 IMF UR: email:
pubweb@imf.org; website: www.imf.org; SDDS bulletin board: dsbb.imf.org.
International Telecommunication Union
Founded in Paris in 1865 as the International Telegraph Union, the International Telecommunication
& 9     > \                 Union (ITU) took its current name in 1934 and became a specialized agency of the United Nations
( a| t -Irin 1947. The ITU is an intergovernmental organization within which the public and private sectors
cooperate for the development of telecommunications. The ITU adopts international regulations
and treaties governing all terrestrial and space uses of the frequency spectrum and the use of the
geostationary-satellite orbit. It also develops standards for the interconnection of telecommunica-
tions systems worldwide. The ITU fosters the development of telecommunications in developing
countries by establishing medium-term development policies and strategies in consultation with
other partners in the sector and providing specialized technical assistance in management,
telecommunications policy, human resource management, research and development, technology
choice and transfer, network installation and maintenance, and investment financing and resource
mobilization.
The Telecommunications Yearbook is the ITU's main statistical publication. Publications can be
ordered from ITU Sales and Marketing Service, Place des Nations, CH-1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland;
telephone: (41 22) 730 6141 (English), (41 22) 730 6142 (French), and (41 22) 730 6143 (Spanish);
fax: (41 22) 730 5194; email: sales.online @itu.ch; telex: 421 000 uit ch; telegram: ITU GENEVE;
website: www.itu.ch.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) was set up in 1948 as the
OECtDU                     Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC) to administer Marshall Plan funding in
j|j                        Europe. In 1960, when the Marshall Plan had completed its task, the OEEC's member countries
OCDE                       agreed to bring in Canada and the United States to form an organization to coordinate policy among
industrial countries.
The OECD is the international organization of the industrialized, market economy countries.
Representatives of member countries meet at the OECD to exchange information and harmonize pol-
icy with a view to maximizing economic growth in member countries and heloing nonmember coun-
tries develop more rapidly. The OECD has set up a number of specialized committees to further its
aims. One of these is the Development Assistance Committee (DAC), whose members have agreed
to coordinate their policies on assistance to developing and transition economies. Also associated
with the OECD are several agencies or bodies that have their own governing statutes, including the
International Energy Agency (IEA) and the Centre for Co-operation with Economies in Transition.
xlv  1998 Woric Development Indicators



The OECD's main statistical publications include Geographical Distribution of Financial Flows
to Developing Countries, National Accounts of OECD Countries, Labour Force Statistics, Revenue
Statistics of OECD Member Countries, Intemational Direct Investment Statistics Yearbook, Basic
Science and Technology Statistics, Industrial Structure Statistics, and Services: Statistics on
International Transactions.
For information on OECD publications contact OECD, 2, rue Andre-Pascal, 75775 Paris Cedex
16, France; telephone: (33 1) 45 24 82 00; fax: (33 1) 45 24 85 00; websites: www.oecd.org and
www.oecdwash.org.
United Nations
The United Nations and its specialized agencies maintain a number of programs for the collection
of intemational statistics, some of which are described elsewhere in this book. At United Nations
headquarters the Statistics Division of the Department of Economic and Social Information and Policy
Analysis provides a wide range of statistical outputs and services for producers and users of sta-
tistics worldwide. By increasing the global availability and use of of ficial statistics, the division's work
facilitates national and international policy formulation, implementation, and monitoring.
The Statistics Division publishes statistics on international trade, national accounts, demog-
raphy and population, gender, industry, energy, environment, human settlements, and disability.
Its major statistical publications include the Intemational Trade Statistics Yearbook, Yearbook of
National Accounts, and Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, along with general statistics compendiums
such as the Statistical Yearbook and World Statistics Pocketbook.
For publications contact the United Nations Sales Section, DC2-0853, New York, N.Y.
10017, U.S.A.; fax: (212) 963 3489; email: statistics@un.org; website: www.un.org.
United Nations Children's Fund
The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the only organization of the United Nations dedicated
exclusively to children, works with other United Nations bodies and with governments and non-
___f                     governmental organizations to improve children's lives in more than 140 developing countries through
community-based services in primary health care, basic education, and safe water and sanitation.
uniceF                         UNICEF's major publications include The State of the World's Children and The Progress of Nations.
For information on UNICEF publications contact UNICEF House, 3 United Nations Plaza, New
York, N.Y. 10017, U.S.A.; telephone: (212) 326 7000; fax: (212) 888 7465; telex: RCA-239521;
website: www.unicef.org.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) is the principal organ of the
United Nations General Assembly in the field of trade and development. It was established as a per-
manent intergovernmental body in 1964 in Geneva with a view to accelerating economic growth and
development, particularly in developing countries. UNCTAD discharges its mandate through policy
UNCTAD                     analysis; intergovernmental deliberations, consensus building, and negotiation; monitoring, imple-
mentation, and follow-up; and technical cooperation.
1998 World Development Indicators  xv



UNCTAD produces a number of publications containing trade and economic statistics, includ-
ing the Handbook of Intemational Trade and Development Statistics.
For information contact UNCTAD, Palais des Nations, CH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland; tele-
phone: (41 22) 907 12 34 or 917 12 34; fax: (41 22) 907 00 57; telex: 42962; website:
www.unicc.org/unctad.
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is a specialized
agency of the United Nations established in 1945 to promote "collaboration among nations
U ESCO 0through education, science, and culture in order to further universal respect for justice, for the
rule of law, and for the human rights and fundamental freedoms . . . for the peoples of the world,
without distinction of race, sex, language, or religion . . ."
UNESCO's principal statistical publications are the Statistical Yearbook, World Education
Report (biennial), and Basic Education and Literacy: World Statistical Indicators.
For publications contact UNESCO Publishing, Promotion, and Sales Division, 1, rue Miollis F,
75732 Paris Cedex 15, France; fax: (33 1) 45 68 57 41; email: c.laje@unesco.org; website:
www.unesco.org.
United Nations Environment Programme
The mandate of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is to provide leadership and
encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations
and people to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations. UNEP
publications include Global Environment Outlook and Our Planet (a bimonthly magazine). For infor-
mation contact UNEP, P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya: telephone: (254 2) 62 1234 or 3292: fax:
(254 2) 62 3927 or 3692; website: www.unep.org.
United Nations Industrial Development Organization
The United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) was established in 1966 to act
as the central coordinating body for industrial activities and to promote industrial development
UNIDO                      and cooperation at the global, regional, national, and sectoral levels. In 1985 UNIDO became
the sixteenth specialized agency of the United Nations, with a mandate to help develop scien-
tific and technological plans and programs for industrialization in the public, cooperative, and pri-
vate sectors.
UNIDO's databases and information services include the Industrial Statistics Database (IND-
STAT), Commodity Balance Statistics Database (COMBAL), Industrial Development Abstracts (IDA),
and the International Referral System on Sources of Information. Among its publications is the
Jnternational Yearbook of Industrial Statistics.
For information contact UNIDO Public Information Section, Vienna International Centre, P.O.
Box 300, A-1400 Vienna, Austria; telephone: (43 1) 211 31 5021 or 5022; fax: (43 1) 209 2669;
email: unido-pinfo@unido.org; website: www.unido.org
xvi 1998 World Development Indicators



World Health Organization
The constitution of the World Health Organization (WHO) was adopted on 22 July 1946 by the
International Health Conference, convened in New York by the Economic and Social Council. The
objective of the WHO, a specialized agency of the United Nations, is the attainment by all peo-
pie of the highest possible level of health. The WHO carries out a wide range of functions, includ-
ing coordinating international health work; helping governments strengthen health services;
providing technical assistance and emergency aid; working for the prevention and control of dis-
ease; promoting improved nutrition, housing, sanitation, recreation, and economic and working
conditions; promoting and coordinating biomedical and health services research; promoting
improved standards of teaching and training in health and medical professions; establishing
international standards for biological, pharmaceutical, and similar products; and standardizing
diagnostic procedures.
The WHO publishes the World Health Statistics Annual and many other technical and statis-
tical publications.
For publications contact Distribution and Sales, Division of Publishing, Language, and Library
Services, World Health Organization Headquarters, CH-1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland; telephone: (41
22) 791 2476 or 2477; fax: (41 22) 791 4857: email: publications@-who.ch; website: www.who.ch.
The World Intellectual Property Organization
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations
based in Geneva, Switzerland. The objectives of WIPO are to promote the protection of intellec-
tual property throughout the world through cooperation among states and, where appropriate, in
collaboration with other international organizations and to ensure administrative cooperation
among the intellectual property unions-that is, the "unions" created by the Paris and Berne
Conventions and several subtreaties concluded by members of the Paris Union. WIPO is respon-
sible for administering various multilateral treaties dealing with the legal and administrative
aspects of intellectual property. A substantial part of WIPO's activities and resources is devoted
to development cooperation with developing countries.
For information contact the World Intellectual Property Organization, 34, chemin des
Colombettes, Geneva, Switzerland; mailing address: P.O. Box 18, CH-1211 Geneva 20,
Switzerland; telephone: (41 22) 338 9111; fax: (41 22) 733 5428; telex: 412912 ompi ch; web-
site: http://www.wipo.int.
World Trade Organization
The World Trade Organization (WTO), established on 1 January 1995, is the successor to the
WV ORL D                  General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO provides the legal and institutional foun-
T  RADE                   dation of the multilateral trading system and embodies the results of the Uruguay Round of trade
0  RGAtNIZATION           negotiations, which ended with the Marrakesh Declaration of 15 April 1994. The WTO is mandated
to administer and implement multilateral trade agreements, serving as a forum for multilateral trade
negotiations, seeking to resolve trade disputes, overseeing national trade policies, and cooperat-
ing with other international institutions involved in global economic policymaking.
1998 World Development Indicators  xvii



The WTO's Statistics and Information Systems Divisions compile statistics on world trade and
maintain the Integrated Database, which contains the basic records of the outcome of the Uruguay
Round. The WTO Annual Report includes a statistical appendix.
For publications contact World Trade Organization, Publicatons Services, Centre William
Rappard, 154 rue de Lausanne, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland; telephone: (41 22i 739 5208 or
5308; fax: (41 22) 739 5458; email: publicatons@wto.org; website: www.wto.org.
04majd rzzrnL e>al Ca@tvrc=
Currency Data & Intelligence, Inc.
Currency Data & Intelligence. Inc. is a research and publishingfirrm that produces currency-reiated
products and undertakes research for international agencies and universities worldwide. Its flag-
ship product. the World Currency Yearbook, is the most comprehensive source of information on
Currency Data
& Intelligence,i-           currency. It includes official and unofficial exchange rates and discussions of economic, social,
and political issues that affect the value of currencies in world markets. A second publication, the
monthly Global Currency Report, covers devaluations and other critical developments in exchange
rate restrictions and valuations and provides parallel market exchange rates.
For information contact Currency Data & Intelligence. Inc., 328 Flatbush Avenue, Suite 344,
Brooklyn, N.Y. 11238, U.S.A.; telephone: (718) 230 7176; fax: (718) 230 1992: email: curncy-
data@aol.comn.
Euromoney Publications PLC
Euromoney Publications PLC provides a wide range of financial, legal, and general business infor-
~TJhI      L                   mation. The monthly Euromoney magazine carries a semiannual rating of country creditworthiness.
For information contact Euromoney Publications PLC, Nestor House, Playhouse Yard, London EC4V
5EX, U.K.; telephone: (44 171) 779 8999: fax: (44 1711 779 8407: website: Ww.euromoney.com.
Institutional Investor, Inc.
Institutional Investor magazine is published monthly by Institutional Investor. Inc., which develops
country credit ratings every six months based on information provided by leading international banks.
For information contact Institutional Investor, Inc., 488 Madison Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10022,
U.S.A.; telephone: (212) 224 3300.
International Road Federation
The International Road Federation (RF) is a not-for-profit, nonpolitical service organization represent-
n                      ing the views and interests of road-related industries around the world. The IRF has more than 600
corporate and institutional members in approximately 100 countries-companies, associations,
research institutes, and administrations concerned with developing and modernizing road infrastruc-
ture. To encourage better road and transport systems worldwide. the IRF assists in tne transfer and
application of technology and management practices tnat will produce maximum economic and social
xviii 1998 World Development Indicators



returns from national road investments, through its consultative status with the United Nations and
the OECD and its advisory capacity with the European Union.
The IRF publishes World Road Statistics.
For information contact International Road Federation, 63 rue de Lausanne, CH-1202 Geneva,
Switzerland; telephone: (41 22) 731 7150; fax: (41 22) 731 7158; email: IRD@dial.eunet.ch; web-
site: http://is.eunet.ch/geneva-intl/gi/egi/egil49.html
Moody's Investor Service
Moody's Investors Service is a global credit analysis and financial opinion firm. It provides the
J Moodys Investors Service           international investment community with globally consistent credit ratings on debt and other
securities issued by North American state and regional government entities, by corporations
worldwide, and by some sovereign issuers. It also publishes extensive financial data in both
print and electronic form. Clients of Moody's Investors Service include investment banks, bro-
kerage firms, insurance companies, public utilities, research libraries, manufacturers, and gov-
ernment agencies and departments.
Moody's publishes Sovereign, Subnational and Sovereign-Guaranteed Issuers.
For information contact Moody's Investors Service, 99 Church Street, New York, N.Y. 10007,
U.S.A.; website: www.moodys.com.
Political Risk Services
Political Risk Services is a global leader in political and economic risk forecasting and market analy-
sis and has served international companies large and small for nearly 20 years. The data it con-
tributed to this year's World Development Indicators come from the Intemational Country Risk
MIZIIIVUS                  Guide, a monthly publication that monitors and rates political, financial, and economic risk in 130
countries. The guide's data series and commitment to independent and unbiased analysis make
it the standard for any organization practicing effective risk management.
For information contact Political Risk Services, 6320 Fly Road, Suite 102, P.O. Box 248,
East Syracuse, N.Y. 13057, U.S.A.; telephone: (315) 431 0511; fax: (315) 431 0200; email:
custserv@polrisk.com; website: www.prsgroup.com
Price Waterhouse
Price Waterhouse is one of the world's largest international organizations of accountants and con-
sultants. Founded in 1849, it now consists of a network of 27 individual practice firms in 119
countries and territories. Staffed with professionals committed to client service, it is equipped to
advise on matters relating to international operations, not only in individual countries but also on
a regional or global basis.
For information contact Price Waterhouse World Firm Services BV, Inc., 1251 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, N.Y. 10020, U.S.A.; telephone: (212) 819 5000; fax: (212) 790 6620; telex:
362196; website: www.pricewaterhouse.com.
1998 World Development Indlcators  xix



Standard and Poor's Rating Services
Standard and Poor's Sovereign Ratings provides issuer and local and foreign currency debt
ratings for sovereign governments and for sovereign-supported and supranational issuers
worldwide. Standard & Poor's Rating Services monitors the credit quality of $1.5 trillion worth
of bonds and other financial instruments and offers investors global coverage of debt issuers.
Standard & Poor's also has ratings on commercial paper, mutual funds, and the financial con-
dition of insurance companies worldwide.
For information contact The McGraw-Hill Companies. Inc.. Executive Offices, 1221 Avenue of
the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10020, U.S.A.; subscriber services: (212) 208 1146: website:
www.ratings.standardpoor.com.
World Conservation Monitoring Centre
The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) provides information on the conservation and
sustainable use of the world's living resources and helps others to develop information systems of
their own. It works in close collaboration with a wide range of organizations and people to increase
access to the information needed for wise management of the world's living resources. Committed
WORLD CONSERVATION             to the principle of data exchange with other centers and noncommercial users, the WCMC, when-
MONITORING CENTRE
ever possible, places the data it manages in the public domain.
For information contact World Conservation Monitoring Centre. 219 Huntingdon Road,
Cambridge CB3 ODL, U.K.; telephone: (44 12) 2327 7314; fax: (44 12) 2327 7136: website:
www.wcmc.org.uk.
World Resources Institute
The World Resources Institute is an independent center for policy research and technical assistance
on global environmental and development issues. The institute provides-and helps other institu-
r ' _  <   <                tions provide-objective information and practical proposals for policy and institutional change that
F L               will foster environmentally sound, socially equitable development. The institute's current areas of
work include trade, forests, energy, economics, technology. biodiversity, human health, climate
change, sustainable agriculture, resource and environmental information, and national strategies for
environmental and resource management.
For information contact World Resources Institute, 1709 New York Avenue, N.W.. Washington,
D.C. 20006, U.S.A.; telephone: (202) 638 6300; fax: (202) 638 0036; telex 64414 WRIWASH: web-
site: www.wri.org.
xx  1998 World Development Indicators



The World Bank Group
The World Bank Group is made up of five organizations: the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development (IBRD), the International Development Association (IDA), the International Finance
Corporation (IFC), the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and the International Centre
for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID).
Established in 1944 at a conference of world leaders in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, the
World Bank is a lending institution whose aim is to help integrate developing and transition countries
with the global economy, and reduce poverty by promoting economic growth. The Bank lends for pol-
icy reforms and development projects and provides policy advice, technical assistance, and non-
lending services to its 181 member countries.
1998 World Development Indicators  xxi



Esers >'iU 
Principal sections
Are signposted by these icons:
-  F 9      3.1   Land use and deforestation
Section 1 World view        ,,
Section 2 People                                                                       0    2    2                                  2622 6,''21,
912274a         2.    3 36216633163            2 I0 2          3 24 
Algena   2,332  16s   3   3~~~~~1  21  13  11   11   73    23  1 
312612          1.226  223  3     3    33    43   53    61   222   2.320  17 
366962n        2,707  47   40    00    62   22    0     32   639   292   073
Section 3 Environment s1                                                                            46    2         0               443  -40    0
34Al2074a        67   202   20   10 25 24536            67    33     0 2  `
34252126         67   406   .    23          25         SI    10     0    02
32014422         33    34   23   23    3     21    2     2 56  2     0   0.0
Section 4 Economy b a l link                                                              -    1     2    I          I"        3I3     -16 4.2
6026,22and 6,6240772  61  516    43          23         61    26     0   0.2
_  62,2          11    67 07     301   46    76   13   10     0     -34  06 
i,:g,.                    gL3s,a           274~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3  22 S~ 1                          I3 2  3 63 4  2 
Section 5 States and markets       .0-jg-                                     csma             273   0002T40e t a bl e0                         .634 1°2
1 2676100e       466  023   5    45     3    . 71       0 1  406   1.492  0I
126262          6.441  16 5         5        3    04    0 2  2332S -1004  -04l
c1a60,21 656226 022.11  643  0 00  305     5       i     42 20442.4I2    0 4
Section 6       Global links    j                                     ED%2.  9h3na         04    11    10    6    *        33 62  6      4
076666. 17-62        6100   1  ~  7    1     21  II     3-
__0n4.0C m.0Ra  2.27  126   3           v     7         2              -  I
0econ.oRe 3w2         766   0 o        2t   24    77    00   145   416   04 
002267426610     7  6  24         2                                       I2  5  46  -2  0
Tables are numbered by section and display the identi by-2 016.0                                     00   21   26    39    44   23   46                2     1
fying icons of each section. Countries end economies                               w2062.;be       266  0013 21 20             20    10 36      1o     44  23.
are listed alphabetically (except for Hong Kong, China, i n                                         101   7          5          2-  3       45          I   °.
whichtappears.afterChina).Data aretshown forl48                                    O2. °02             470        12          5           64         100   .
economies with populations of, more than                                                                                        I million  6 20 0  I0 7 3  2  23s  466  01
betweonomie en222                                                                               666   40ml3       3 m3 le e2             46 066 -f 100  -41
people and for which data are regularly reported by                             94362072         10 -2                  09   20                0     6    0
9 22,4,          70   060        11          07         57    00       0  7O
the relevant authority, as well as Taiwan, Chine, in ca l6                                      466         3    00   14    40         07            0 20
selected tables. Selected indicators for 62 other ities                                        121   72   90   27    01    37    a     02   66  -0.96  -43
economies small economies with populations                                                                     Indiat 23r3 72  24  44  62  62  02  632  14
between 30,0C0 and 1 million, smaller economies if                          j     41              40dms2  363  32  243   44    13   061   44    0l  4.3    423
they are members of the World Bank. and larger
economies for which data are                                        not regularly reported-                                  an1 .,  022
are shown in table 1.6. The term country, used inter--__________ey                       r     d      -     d    r     l
changeably with economy, does not imply political
independence or of ficial recognition by the World
Bank, but refers to any territory for which authorities
report separate social or economic statistics. When                             .......Indicators
available, aggregate measures for income and                            Indicators are shown for the most recent year or period
regional groups appear at the end of each table.                         for which data are available and, In most tables, for an
earlier year or period. Time-series data are available in3
the World Development Indicators CD-ROM.
xxii   1998 World Development Indicators



__ _  _  _  _  _  _Data are shown whenever possible for the individual
countres formed from the former Czechoslovakia-the
Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.
3.1         v                                      Data are shown for Eritrea whenever possible, but in
most cases before 1992 Eritrea is included in the data
for Ethiopia.
Data for Germany refer to the unified Germany
unless otherwise noted.
1,,,,7  .  ,  ,,  ,  93 ,,,, 0993  0939sb 3909,         Data for Jordan refer to the East Bank only unless
-.444247        02   TO   10   ST    14  12  00      04  10     -0  -40
I.dl,         2T70  -10   ST    ST    4    I    TO   00   171   -02  00                                  otherwise noted.
4.9234233p    0,000  000   8   11   44    40    4    61   15   204  20                                     In 1991 the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
'20            407    0   012  13    0     0   7     7    I      0,  0  00
2e,7>   63  OTT  20  20  37  7.  1O T 6           1                                      (U.S.S.R.) was dissolved into 15 countries (Armenia,
, ge,      2~~~~1 17  20  11    I     I    4    7 
2'40  0    42   00     03       TO    0-             -43                                 Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan,
m6   10  2  40  ,     7     0        0'                                  Kyrgyz Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russian
2400    n 4 71 -2 .012  .   070       IT 100   -:0    -0.0                                Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and
22   2    0      77        3     73   00   0                                   Uzbekistan). Whenever possible, data are shown for the
04194   c       1  2  00 05     0     3    7    00   00    0       0  00                                 individual countries.
176,1313        123  003        0         40         30    7     0   00
La9v.           10   00    .    00        10         00   00   -400 -00                                     Data for the Republic of Yemen refer to that country
LIlItnI         00               .   70   6@               0     0   00                                 from 1990 onward; data for previous years refer to
.. 73          1.030  40   0    0     0    0    00   00    1     0   00D 
. 0  1    2    -112  06                                 aggregated data of the former People's Democratic
3030909949,                0    0 5  01   44   02    10   151  1.000  0.0                                Republic of Yemen and the former Yemen Arab Republic
-        :     0     2   30    01  13a  0.042  20                                  unless otherwise noted.
* 5 26 ~~~7700310061,04010
*   .   I  00  91  14  0    0  00                                     Whenever possible, data are shown for the individ-
003,44                      20   40   42    4  00  1  .00   0 0
MWICO,3          -0- 3S                      43      42   654  4.0  0 o                                  ual countries formed from the former Yugoslavia-
M boia                       11         2~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2  1 0  0 
004014,32oli   1067 7      011007        3 7S 02     20   04    01 40                                    Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the former Yugoslav
040  411  05    04   53     0    4 00  :   12 03                                         Republic of Macedonia, Slovenia, and the Federal
034034         040  300   26    1    00   40 T2      '0                                                  Republic4of Yugoslavia. Allreferences tothe Federal
.03          140  110    132 1    004401           10   03   400   ±3                                  Republic           Al         to
19403440743                44   40   40    44   01    02  09     0   0.0Republic                                of Yugoslavia  in   the  tables  are   to  the  Federal
091034300          00~~~~~ 31  00  00          0    00   -0   0.                                   euli.nt
3,1343042       120   3001    20     40   40    30   00    13  10 5 09  5
09.342,400           040   .   .      1    4               43    o   04                                  Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia/Montenegro).
00343  011  224  00  01    00   40~~1  00  40   10   134  0.0
301.330        000        350  35     D 0  D 0  00    0    31  -300  02                                     Additional information about the data is provided in
0403,           21200,070  4    0     0    0    01   95    0     0   0 0
31,913,        071   400  21   40     0    3    607   01 742         40 2                                Primary data documentation. That section summarizes
r                ,]   .         0    44    20000 1         2    700  246
*  .   !  I  O  0    00 T9    3,000  0                                   national and international efforts to improve basic data
,346433        060   61   20   00                     .        ..21  1                                   collection and gives information on primary sources,
0443lL742l    3040   3    40   40   10    40        67    26  -240  0.9                                 census years, fiscal years, and other background infor-
01uoemtnNR,CO  7  032  20 43  d   -  --  24  0.3                           mation. Statistical methods provides technical informa-
tion on some of the general calculations and formulas
used throughout the book.
Discrepancies in data presented in different editions
of the World Development Indicators reflect updates by
countries as well as revisions to historical series and
changes in methodology. Thus readers are advised not
Statistics                                                               to compare data series between editions of the World
Data are snown for economies as they were constituted                    Development Indicators or between different World Bank
in 1996, and historical data are revised to reflect cur-                 publications. Consistent time-series data for 1960-96
rent political arrangements. Exceptions are noted                        are available on the World Development Indicators CD-
throughout the tables.                                                    ROM. Except where noted, growth rates are in real
On 1 July 1997 China resumed its exercise of sover-                   terms. (See Statistical methods for information on the
eignty over Hong Kong. Data for China do not include                     methods used to calculate growth rates.) Data for some
data for Hong Kong, China, or Taiwan, China, unless oth-                  economic indicators for some economies are presented
erwise noted.                                                             in fiscal years rather than calendar years; see Primary
Data for the Democratic Republic of Congo (Congo,                     data documentation. All dollar figures are current U.S.
Dem. Rep. in the table listings) refer to the former                     dollars unless otherwise stated. The methods used for
Zaire. For clarity, this edition also uses the formal                     converting national currences are described in
name of the Republic of Congo (Congo, Rep. in the                        Statistical methods.
table listings).
1998 World Development Indicators      xxiri



The World Bank's classification of economies
For operational and analytical purposes the World
Bank's main criterion for classifying economies isc
gross national product (GNP) per capita. Every econ-                                  3      3.1
omy is classified as low income, middle income (subdi-
vided into lower middle and upper middle), or high                                             L4-4  4:41              L,44,44              64,4,d4,3,6,4'
income. For ncome classifications see the map on the
inside front cover and the list on the front cover flap.
Note that classification by income does not necessarily                                                   114442444        44   1           1494 1945        4444Q45
reflect development status. Because GNP per capita                     Se                n       4452         1   4'     4104 3                           04
164442  ~ ~ ~ 44  12    1    12    40   744                    44    0
changes overtime, the country composition of income                                4444r44or        724                         2    4 7         41   426   30
groups may change from one World Development                                  s2o,s.44b                                                     4     -24  -1
Indicators to the next. Once the classification is fixed                            4441"I                         "     65               '     85   450  44
for an edition, all historical data presented are based                           14Lar2           , 0   -45  2                                       20     
on the same country grouping using the most recent      e         w         e         0-n                     so 3       2O
year for which GNP per capita data are available (1996                              1l   l          l4    3     1    32         4,          4 22  2     52 24
in this edition). Low-income economies are those with                             4,448                  73         4     41 16                       1 -4
a GNP per capita of $785 or less in 1996.                                                 4 9  14   43    2        4 2             17'3 12  4    1.4
Middle-income economies are those with GNP per                                 --194               44    1'                                 Is
capita of more than $785 but less than $9,636.                                U11 2°                           44     1                     I 33   544  40
Lower-middleincome and upper-middle-income                                                        14   3     4     2                     4      0   44
4-44544444  -4 12      44    24    47                    24    446-2
economies are separated at GNP per capita of $3,115.                                "I44441440      11       04  44 I  _,               2        :2  -6.4     I -0
High-income economies are those with a GNP per                                                  -47                   2 0        75
capita of $9,636 or more.                                 West                 4      42    1     1            7        40 -4 152  14
044044444444441444, 442  4   42  3    31 3C                         0   40 
Aggregate measures for income groups                                     4   a4464       444   II     4                               3414  2.642  44
The aggregate measures for income groups include 210
economies (economies presented in the main tables                                                            1                           I   600405.54   06
plus the economies listed in table 1.6) wherever data                            64  44l"4      59.841  4l    0    :4    5 69                164S54458    0.4
LouermatdAmwme  3e310  te2  L0  ~11  21  1 is  71 12e4      378 - .
are available. To maintain consistency in the aggregate                             a             045'4  17    4     9    34   w2   64     5   7.100  36710  05
measures over time and between tables, missing data                                               145    644  44    3 44     34           4_     5044.32340
are imputed where possible. Most aggregates are totals                                        o       2 -0^4 0     5       .324                 46 5e.765    II
(designated by a t if the aggregates incljde gap-filed                                          6     056   3          44                   05 °0        06
estimates for missing data; otherwise totals are desig-                                          30                                            6  115        2
nated by an s for simple totals), median values (m). or
weighted averages (M. Gap filling of amounts not allo-
cated to countries may result in discrepancies between
subgroup aggregates and overall totals. See Statistical                                __|     __--        -    D______m_r_                n_      _____
methods for further discussion of aggregaton methods.
Aggregate measures for regions                                                        Footnotes
The aggregate measures for regions include only low-                                                 Known deviations from standard definitions or breaks
and middle-income economies (note that these mea-                                                   in comparability over time or across countries are
sures include developing economies with populations of                                                 either footnoted in the tables or noted in About the
less than 1 million, including those listed in table 1.6).                                            data. When available data are deemed to be too
The country composition of regions is based on the                                                 weak to provide rehlable measures of evels and
World Bank's analytical regions and may differ from                                                trends or do not adequately adhere to nternational
common geographic usage. For regional classifications                                                 standards, the data are not shown.
see the map on the inside back cover and the list on
the back cover flap. See Statistical methods for further
discussion of aggregation methods.
xxiv   1998 World Development Ind cators



Notes about data
About the data provides a general discussion of inter-
fl ^national data standards, data collection methods, and
. - 1 3.1                                        sources of potential errors and inconsistencies.
Readers are urged to read these notes to gain an
understanding of the reliability and limitations of the
Thaedahe.bbt h ythalaatetelamdtheaetthatste  s-ateo  omttttaae,,i dee Rmtsed Fdl,t,aa esat  aL ma1saa,a  ee tt bbttlaea. ateleedet
teattat Theethee ndb .teatewwo dt,ease5 aI eeati-aeeatht,s . ale bedo eh,ettV aeaatatese etl tdateteed aslhete I tstsedatdtet  data presented. For a full discussion of data collecton
-ateuas at.eng eddetes tests taate weaprd at -etetatItea ate  atanesnetedemltee                 methods and definitions readers should consult the
hT,pdeeyhaablittleaei 9 ted bmeX Yaa  e ttoaant tnhat. tot apeotee  atettseS tat mt be aeaetae to  aI  atasd attaadan atas -S the teal teP   thebn
dtetnta sta=-- t t-h-eI ant the a' ttttateaf teats Of 5950 atd 1995- 9RItasaame1aa. hdalae eelattela e    technical documentation provided by the original com-
dat teethe,  er tamtlts nuthesusesa  ttlatt  ThlS eddsptSt  want sD  n ea s aett fatateat  dl,  dttetetmbtaleatedtestubesplthonsmdaeeta f
desteeds  eat betast pr  atey ther I  b e ta -  -eetlme   .teateataebla,  -,.ludtlg  fhdea-nee e CwM nd leda r
dat.tetee m a edoa t .dU tS  det t anh on s,o ad us b teapatletetbasde ate tetath  m ea' feast tees,  hmPTaete pmmeat eatataht,es.t waen y a eaaees.s
Pteaeta d att seeat - re-a-eseFTas- - - data  a da raaetdatthate- the-ht.me ,tea grd -s.atela,td mmp matytad
b acaa toe d a reSh eeatgas a data taeeg  enattot ddttgh tae tee eteae t-. the mt .m .at bhOam-ha dO n eth bm  Definitions
attetalahs  19 L   ,ta ttataeetoh eate h.  the teeet m e=estcaytette I99Gth Fetasteseeettee  etetn tha t daeretthaesPm..utte.aee,..........D fnton  rvd   s otd scito softe m i
appamobezEdbemeretedw9ougaCn  be nputSosbeef heWhid^onsbl997w YbW wwbTrMTsDefinitionsfqLpefinitinssprovdedshortdescripions ofthemmai
i,y ge  - wladtasdaeltTm eaeinhat  f atalegeetaete.atetes.  agf.steadltdeeaeteeelstde                    indicators in each table.
U  =eeteaeeatatewealdes a - e  tha t Wdd tatta dtetest eden, se an tl  SP aeell tet  ass a lefladeT mn= 99 a teteetd  t  bea teat
utedata nteeteeeeetheethdlsea e anm   thetalella3tlt  thaleelteeeat e  teaTO t95eN  h.-I,   Ml  I -elutda ttet ls d ateesle
tdeaatehaeeaaaeteletdat hatt W9pplE e st  tstdtcatehfco  et tbm 0990 tstittteee  tav ltetst  tteaete,eaM e  ta,e lanle,d.taetat.  t endIts-
aa set e  atepp ala at sweamwlo s, a that'h  .teattttt t,sat,tt ese lenwamd tt' 9olhea  d, e  aaaaa ttel p tataeaP ate ree tfi   Data  sour   s ind
etatesadeestttettteheea.eeaeatsdatee.slldn eacteea. eta  Itlte,  elteatesaslfolloetingnteacheatable,etendteady atublicatieoasedSource
Idadd ee data aeceet he a  tees w ydeelWe t ed tea ICe dlt, th  leto1s.  a o  ltas aalta                 Partners  are   i ntfi n the  Da ta   s ue s  s o
DfD w forssl ares mGY b =rbwlady uhellDle EGbne Thenew Gformabondescriptionlofaour partner's and information on=their
eetnatataseisledaesadeta,hatnaled.tasttset. tts.etlttgaaneF 'atle ehsoeatedeenla           description of our partners and information on their
t-ea Tasaee e   batas taglbttoa[                    data publications see the Partners section.
Figures
1    When appropriate, tables are accompanied by fig-
u ares highlighting particular trends or issues.
.._ .    ..... =__ . _   _  .D_  P  l             ........>*._  _  eest..d eaaeeeeahle_.e _ _
Data presentation conventions and symbols
The cutoff date for data is 1 February 1998. The sym-
bol .. means that data are not available or that aggre-
gates cannot be calculated because of missing data in
the year shown. A blank means not applicable or that
an aggregate is not analytically meaningful. The num-
bers 0 and 0.0 mean zero or less than half the unit
shown. Billion is 1,000 million. Trillion is 1,000 billion.
The symbol / in dates, as in 1990/91, means that the
period of time, usually 12 months, straddles two calen-
dar years and refers to a crop year, a survey year, or a
fiscal year. Figures in italics indicate data that are for
years or perods other than those specified. Data for
years that are more than three years from the range
shown are footnoted. Dollars are current U.S. dollars
unless otherwise noted.
1998 World Development Indicators      xxv



".. .1 I."w
A
w
NW,
9
I I
I



On the verge of the 21st century, dramatic political, social, and economic
changes have overtaken the world. On this stage a new international dialogue
on the future of development has begun. The focal point has been a succes-
sion of conferences sponsored by the United Nations, with governments com-
ing together to chart development strategies for the next century-for
children, for education, for environment, for population, for women, for social
development. The debates, often heated, have renewed commitments to the
eradication of poverty, the sustainability of the environment, the reduction of
infant, child, and maternal mortality, and the elimination of gender differences
in access to education, starting with universal primary education.
But such commitments are too often received with cynicism. After all, the
world's poor are testament to the past lack of political will to achieve such goals.
Can we make it different this time?
Perhaps, because new forces are at work. First, there is a new consensus on
development. Gone with the Cold War are the sterile, ideological debates over
the roles of the state and the market. In their place is a more pragmatic
approach to effective and broad-based development strategies. Second, the suc-
cess of some developing countries shows that the worst forms of poverty can be
eradicated, and that investments in human capital and the poor can have high
economic returns.
Advancing social development
Living standards have risen dramatically over the past 25 years. Despite an
increase in population from 2.9 billion people in 1970 to 4.8 billion in 1996,
per capita income growth in developing countries has averaged about 1.3 per-
cent a year. While the number of people living in poverty continues to grow,
hundreds of millions have had lifted from them the yoke of poverty and despair.
As a result the proportion of the poor is holding steady at less than a third of
the developing world's population (table la).
This global picture conceals large regional differences. The proportion in
poverty is declining in Asia, where most of the poor live. But it is rising rapidly
in Europe and Central Asia, and continuing to rise in Latin America and Sub-
Saharan Africa. More than 4 in 10 households (over 500 million people)
remain in poverty in South Asia, and the financial crisis in East Asia will slow
the pace of poverty reduction there.



Substantial improvements in social indicators have accompa-    social conditions in East Asia that weree responsible tor its subse-
nied growth in average incomes. Infant mortality rates have fallen  quent strong economic perfor mance. And Sub-Sahar an Africa's
from 104 per 1,000 live births in 1970-75 to 59 in 1996. On aver-  infant mortality rates are wiell abovc those in East Asia some 25
age, life expectancy has risen by four months each year since      years ago. On average. 147 of ever-v 1,000 African children die
1970. Growth in food production has substantially outpaced that    before the age of 5, and 91I in 1.001 before the age of 1. Ten
of population. Governments report rapid progress in primary        African countries have under-five mnortality rates in excess of 200
school enrollment. Adult literacy has also risen, from 46 to 70 per-  (Angola, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau. Malawi, Mali, Mozamnbique,
cent. And gender disparities have narrowed, with the average       Niger, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, and Zambia).
ratio of girls to boysin secondary schools rising from 70 to 100 in    Grossprimary school enrolliienit rates have riseni in all regionis.
1980 to 82 to 100 in 1993. The developing world today is health-   ButSub-SaharanAfrica's rates, having risen from 50 percenat of the
ier, wealthier, better fed, and better educated. (For a spirited   eligible population to 80 percenit by 1980, fell back to 7 2 in 1993,
accounting of development progress, see Fox 1995.)                 reflecting larger problems. Again, averages disguise wide country
But progress has been far from even (table lb). Take mor-      disparities. Six countries in Africa have feover than half their chil-
tality. All developing regions have seen infant and child mortal-  dren enrolled in primarv school (Burkina Faso, Ethiopia.. (.uinea,
ity rates decline sharply. But South Asia's infant mortality rates  Mali, Niger, and Sierra Leone).
today are about the same as EastAsia's in the early 1970s, reflect-    Reducing gender disparities in education, as measured by
ing both poor progress in South Asia and the favorable initial     female enrollment in seconcdarv schools, is one area where Sub-
Saharan Africa is doing relatively well. Progress is slower in South
Asia, where the ratio of 66 girls to 101) hoys is wvell below the devel-
oping world average.
Population living on less than S1 a day in developing regions,
1987 and 1993                                                  Progress toward the 2.1st centu -
Number            Share of          The uneven progress of development is worrying. The free flows
(millions)      population (%)       of trade and capital that integrate the global economy may
Region                 1987     1993     1987     1993
E;:l R ,. ;|z ll-., t>. .:  Jr.l  12O          bring benefits to millions, but poverty and suffer-ing persist. In
Europe and Central Asia  2.2     14.5     0.6      3.5        an integrated world, disease, enviro-nmental degradation, civil
L         ,v,n.' .. r,I n.lr::           :,,-    23.5        strife, criminal activities, and illicit drugs are also global con-
Middle East and North Africa  10.3  10.7  4.7      4.1         cerns. In response, international development agencies have
17         I -       .i-    4:          begun to reexamine the wav they do business. Thev are looking
Sub-Saharan Africa    179.6     218.6    38.5     39.1         at impacts more than inputs by establishing perforrnance tar-
gets. And thev are seeking ways to enhance their accountability
and transparency bh measuring progress toward those targcts.
Source: World Bank 1996e.                                         In May 1996 the Development Assistanice Committee of the
OECD    published  s .   . the 21st Ceo turT. This policy paper,
known as Strategy 21, spotlights the substantial achievements of
Progress in social indicators
Gross primary           Gross secondary
Under-five            school enrollment       school enrollment
Infant mortality            mortality            (% of relevant            (fe.ale as %
per 1,000 live births        per 1,000               age group)               of male)
Region                      1970         1996        1980        1996        1980         1995        1980        1993
t _,, -    -,.. I .,.         79          39          75          47           88         115          73          84
Europe and Central Asia       ..          24          ..          30           ..         100          96          101
84          33           82          41          ..          111          95
Middle East and North Africa  134         50         141          63           68          97          63           85
139          73          I9 93                    67           99          50          66
Sub-Saharan Africa          137           91         193         147           80           75          50          82
i  ; lli   *   ,            ,           ,                                     ,           r I 
Note; Numbers in italics are for 1994.
Source: World Bank staff estimates.
4   1998 World Development Indicators



'k'LSJ ;k 4 g'm F'IAL'
the past 50 years as well as the large unfinished agenda. and calls  ability, and the World Bank will systematically monitor them in
for a global partnership to pursue a new development strategy  the countries it assists.
that focuses on six key goals (distilled from the many set by vari-
ous international conferences) for the start of the 21st century.  Reducing poverty
For economic well being                                    The common international poverty line of $1 a day suggests that
*   Reducing by half the proportion of people in extreme       some 60 percent of the world's poor live in India and China-
poverty by 2015.                                           and that 12 countries, each with more than 10 million in poverty,
For social development                                     account for 80 percent of the world's poor (figure la). These
*  Achieving universal primary education in all countries by 2015.  countries require special attention. But this should not be at the
*   Demonstrating progress toward gender equality and the      expense of smaller, less populous countries where grinding
empowerment of women by eliminating gender disparities in  poverty persists and governments are motivated to implement
primary and secondary education by 2005.                   effective poverty reduction strategies.
*   Reducing by two-thirds the mortality rates for infants and    The poverty goal calls for reducing by half the proportion of
children under 5 and by three-fourths the mortality rates for  people in poverty by 2015. If nothing is done and the proportion
mothers by 2015.                                           in poverty stays at 30 percent, the number of people in poverty
*   Providing access to reproductive health services for all indi-  would rise from  1.3 billion to 1.9 billion by 2015, given the
viduals of appropriate age no later than 2015.             expected increase in population. A reduction to 15 percent by
For environmental sustainability and regeneration          2015 would reduce the number of people living in poverty to 900
*   Implementing national strategies for sustainable develop-  million. (See the spread showing goals for 2015 that follows).
ment by 2005 to ensure that the current loss of environmen-  Thus the goals for the 21st century call for lifting nearly 1 billion
tal resources is reversed globally and nationally by 2015.  people out of poverty over the next two decades.
Is this feasible? A recent World Bank study (Demery and
The goals are expressed in global terms but "must be pursued  Walton 1997) explores the question. Income poverty is a function
country by country through individual approaches that reflect  of growth and the extent to which the poor participate in growth.
local conditions and locally owned development strategies."    So, to answer the question, one must form a view of the prospects
Achieving them will also require building capacity for effective,  for growth and for inequality. Consider the growth in average real
democratic, and accountable govcrnance, protection of human    consumption pcr person required to halve the incidence of
rights, and respect for the rule of law. Strategy 21 commits OECD  poverty using a $1 a day international poverty line and assuming
countries to help countries that want to make a serious effort to  no change in income distribution. Then compare these growth
attain these development goals.                                rates with past experience.
The strong consensus emerging around this new develop-         Plotting the growth in private consumption per capita
ment strategy provides an opportunity for the development com-  required to reduce poverty based on the $1 poverty line against
munity to galvanize support and political commitment for a set  actual growth in 1990-95 shows that many countries have
of people-centered goals that ordinary people in rich and poor  achieved the required rate of growth (figure lb). Those countries
countries can understand. The goals also emphasize account-    above the diagonal experienced faster growth than required,
Twelve countries accounted for 80% of the world's poor in 1993
% in poverty
36       62      66       68       70       71      73       74      75       76       77       78
100
80
60 '"'TTTT
India   China    ern_l   Nigeria  i,.:, ,, F'"ot.i,  Ethiopia  Pakistan  Mexico  Kenya  Peru   Nepal
Note:r.     -:.   .       .e'c-v-, 1'.'': L- :1- .1 ..  andforwhich comparable data are available. Datafor Bangladesh andthe Democratic
Source: World Bank staff estimates.
International comparisons of extreme poverty are ba;ed or, a common internationar posert' line cl SI a person a daV. espressed in 1985 international prices and
adjusted to local currencies using purchasing power p3riik exchange rates. Most cohnmrie na.e their o0n povert~ lines baied on local views of minimum socially
acceptable living standards (see About the data In table 2.7).
i998 World Development Indicators  5



those below slower. Although manv countries are not growing fast
enough, the global poverty targets will be met if China and India
Global poverty targets will be met if China and India sustain  sustain their recent growth.
their recent growth                                              Past trends may not be a good predictor of growth. Some
Actual annual change in private consLmption per capita, 1990-95 (%)  regions may not be able to sustain rapid growth, and others are
10            v4hina                                        likely to improve their policies and performance. Table I c com-
pares the growth rates required to achieve a decline in poverty
by one half against recent and projected growth scenarios for
8                            Fastergrowth than required     each developing region. Most regions should reach the goals by
2015-except Sub-Saharan Africa, where growth will fall short.
6                                                              Forecasts tend to assume current policy choices and strategies.
^-             Demery and Walton show that policy changes that contribute to
growth could make a big difference. Drawing on the work of Barro
.;:..  -                           (1991) and Sachs and Warner (1995) to classify 36 developing
-  . -              ~countries by good and poor policies, they base their illustrative
2       .    -      -                                       predictions of growth on the 1990 policy stance. If policies do not
change, only half the countries are projected to achieve the
5             .                  ,:,,|r.C-h.-:n'J      growth required to meet the poverty target. If all 36 countries
improve their policies, 28 should meet the poverty target.
Income distribution also matters. A highly unequal income
-2  v  ':n.tn   distribution makes it harder to reduce poverty. Inequality is lower
in South Asia and Eastern Europe and higher in Sub-Saharan
-4                                                          Africa (particularly South Africa) and Latin America. While the
Slower growth than required    distribution of income tends to be stable over time, there is some
evidence of worsening inequality in East Asia. Reducing inequal-
-6                                                          ity will increase the numbers who benefit from the same average
rate of growth. Conversely, higher inequality will increase the rate
-8                                                          of growth needed to yield the same reduction in poverty. (See
0        1       2        3       4        5        6      table 1.3 for estimates of the distribution-adjusted rate of growth
Required annual change in private consumpton per capita. 1990-95 (%)  in private consumption.)
Source: World Bank staff estimates.                              Policies that promote growth are reasonably well understood.
Policies that promote better income distribution are not. Policy
areas deserving special attention from researchers and policy-
makers in this regard include giving priority to rural develop-
ment, assets redistribution, inclusive education systems, rapid
Required, actual, and projected regional growth in           growth in labor demand, and pro-poor tax and spending policies.
real consumption
Reducing mortality ra-:s LEO. :a;:ii      [     _   :;:
%                                    Real consumption       And what of the social targets? If infant mortality rates were to
Annual growth         per capion          remain at 1990 levels, the number of infant deaths would total some
required to          annual              8.8 million in 2015. Reaching the target of 35 deaths per 1.000 births
reduce poverty       growth rate          would cause infant deaths to fall about 5.8 million a vear, to slighdy
by half by    actual       projected
Region                2015        1991-95      1997-2000     over 3 million. Similarly, attaining the primary school enrollment
East Asia and the Pacific  1.2      6.9          2.7         goal would require enrolling some 200 million more children in pri-
Europe and Central Asia  0.8        0.7          2.4         mary school in 2015 than are there today, an increase of 41 percent
Latin America and the Caribbean 1.8  2.0         1.9         over current levels. These are ambitious targets.
Middle East and North Africa  0.3   1.1          1.3            How far are low- and lower-middle-income countries from
South Asia             1.3          1.9          3.5
Sub-Saharan Africa     1.9         -1.3          1.1        these goals?
*   27 countries will need to reduce under-five mortality rates by
Source: Demery and Walton 1997; projections as of January 1998.  more than 50 per 1,000 live births between now and 2015,
with as many as 12 needing to reduce under-five mortality
rates by 100 per 1,000.
*   18 of 26 countries reporting net primary enrollment data will
need to increase net primary enrollment by more than 25
percentage points.
6  1998 World Development Indicators



Countries with high infant mortality in 1970 continue to have  Infant mortality rates, 1970 and 1996
high levels today
Ranking
Infant mortality rate, 1996                                                                          progress
Infant mortality        from
per 1,000 live births  level in  1970 to
Country             1970    1996    1996    1996
*5.  1I~~fl~~  -           r,:-3L.-e ,r 
..n     ~ *I
- ,; l ; r.-     rl-  E 
I,        t.1    ,   ,          - -                        ;r.-..niL
--   1-                         Tn|;|, 11*.rh;rd  .;ieu  I _ rn  E ur - 3C H 4I.  Ii  - c   -i
. r,.;;  i  - Eabr r  ,   ~     : Ar ._r. ., r1              fi !    . r-;
-                                      T*;>rrv> s^ts;,n~~~~~~~-  e rl-, rr-.r  F _..  i . ; ' * 
,,  . . . ~ --~- 5-SrLm>;                       - j        1- l    1 l -    -      -;
Sourr,e: World Bank staff estimates.                        .r!  5              'l;-'_                  2
formance can provide some guidance for the future. Table Id    Guyana               80      59      9      33
shows data on infant mortality rates in 1970 and 1996 for 37 low-  H;,,            '        -       I 
and lower-middle-income countries. Aturupane, Glewwe, and      Honduras            110      44      4       3
Isenman (1994) used similar data for a larger set of developing  fJ i;
countries to look at progress over time on infant mortality and  Kenya             102      57      8      16
primary school enrollment. Following their approach, the       r                 -:,.
regression of the log of infant mortality in 1996 on the log of  , ;,              I         ,:            -
infant mortality in 1970 estimates the average reduction in infant                 : .J    v ,      4
mortality over the past 26 years. The slope of the regression line  - ;ra 13                                J :  : -  -
(0.58), shown in figure Ic, implies that the average reduction  Nepal              166     85      20      13
was 42 percent. The dashed lines represent reductions by one-    l0i.i             II J.             3
third and two-thirds in infant mortality rates. Note that only one  Niger         170     :L8      33      29
country-Sri Lanka-achieved    a reduction  of two-thirds.      X    I,. ,,         lt
Countries with high levels of infant mortality a quarter century  F                142     1_9     :i
earlier continue to have high levels today (except Egypt, which  - - -               -       :      I l
has almost matched Sri Lanka's improvement). One other coun-  .     L.- re   1;                             4
try, China. has achieved an infant mortality rate below the target  .r. L;          =       1-      1
level of 35.                                                   l-                  1-               2
Social indicators are closely related to GNP. Figure Id shows                    - I ,     l    .,
the relationship between GNP per capita and under-five mortal-
ity and primary enrollment. As incomes increase, social indica-  Source: World Bank staff estimates.
tors improve. Table le shows the ratio of the actual values of
three social indicators to expected values based on GNP per
capita for 43 low- and lower-middle-income countries. The  conclude that even with rapid growth, child mortality will be, on
United Nations Children's Fund calls the difference between  average, some 60 percent above the target for 2015. This is as much
these two values the "national performance gap" (UNICEF    a comment on the past neglect of social development as on the
1997). The results show that large differences persist even after  magnitude of the task facing the international community.
accounting for income differences. The third column for each  This is not to say that the past must determine the future.
indicator shows the difference between the country's 1996 level  With sufficient political will, improvements in female education,
and the development goal. Although some countries have been  health programs, and incomes of the poor could bring the infant
relatively successful-given the resources available to them-  mortality target within reach. Otherwise, the cost in lost lives
they remain far from the goals.                           would be enormous:
Demery and Walton (1997) provide a projection of child mor-  *  If infant mortality follows its current trend and declines by
tality rates, assuming past trends in mortality reduction and pro-  2015 to 37 per 1,000 births, some 4.4 million infants will die
jected increases in per capita income and female education. They  each year.
1999 World Development Indicators  7



GNP             Under-five mortality                      Net                              Gross
per                 per 1,000                       primary school                    female primary
Capita                                                 enrollment                      school enrollment
predicted                          predicted                          predicted
on the basis  ratio of   distance  on the besis  ratio of   distance  on the basis ~atio of    distance
of GNP     actual to    from       of GNP     actual to    fro m      of GNP     actual to    from
$       per cepita  predicted  1996 value  per capita  predicted  1996 value  per capi'ta  predicted  1996 value
.1996       1.996      1996       to goal,    1.996       1996       to goal1    1996        1996       to goal
630        100         0.20          8                                            45         1.11          0
Bangladesh                  260        152         0.74         74         61         1.14         30         42         1.06          5
Ber.nr                      350        135         1.04         95         63         0.84         47         43         0.77         16
Bolivia                     830         53         1.94         67         70         1.30          9         47         1.00          3
j3ur~ra F-.c;:~230              155         1.02        1 13        61         0.52         68         42         0.92         11
Burundi                     170        166         1.06        131         60         .84          49         42         1.08          5
Cameroon                    610         91         1.12         67           ...                    .46                  1.02          3
Central African Republic    310        142         1.16       .119           ...                    .43                  0.89         11
C n.c.'                     160        167         1.13        144           ...                    .42                  0.78         18
China                       750         87         0.45         2 6        66         1.46          4         45         1.04          3
Con,g:.-, Oh-m REP          130        167         0.86         99         60         0.90         46         42         1.02          7
Congo, Rep.                 670         80         1.80        100           ...                    .46                  1.05          2
cote d1 %O.re-              660         82         1.83        105         68         0.76         48         46         0.93          7
Egypt, Arab Rep.           1,080          8        8.12         44         73         1.22         11         49         0.93          4
Er--r,-ca                   100        176         1.01        132         59         0.35         79
Gambia, The                                           .. b.                63         0.88         45         43         0.96          9
Gtorg,3             ~~850        49         0.39           7        71         1.15         18         46         1.02          2
Haiti                       310        150         0.87         86         62         0.42         74         43         1.13          2
Hordurat,                   660         80         0.62         33         68         1.32         10         46         1.07          0
India                       380        130         0.66         56           ...                    .43                  0.99          7
P.~~n, ~i            320        140         0.64         59          ...                     .43                  1.15          1
Lesotho                     660         82         1.38         75         68         0.96         35         46         1.15         -3
P I                 ~~~250      154         0.88         90           ..
Malawi                      180        167         1.30        172         60         1.53          8         42         1.13          3
Mia"                        240        152         1.45        175         62         0.37         77         43         0.92         11
Mozambique                   80        179         1.19        169         59         0.69         59         41         1.02          8
Nepal               ~~210       159         0.73         77          ...                     .42                  0.92         11
Nicaragua                   380        130         0.44         40         63         1.24         21         44         1.15          0
t Ige r                     200           ...                     .        61         0.41         75         42         0.89         12
Nigeria                     240        154         0.85         86          ...                     .42                  1.04          6
Pakistan                    480        113         1.09         81          ...                     .44                  0.69         19
Rwanda                      190        162         1.26        160         61         1.17         29         42         1.18          0
4;eregal                    570         99         0.89         58         66         0.76         50         45         0.95          7
Sierra Leone                200        159         1.79        239          -....                             42         0.98          9
Sr, L,hrk.pa                740         68         0.28          7          ...                     .46                  1.04          2
Tajiktistan                 340        138         0.27         25           ...                    .43                  1.12          1
r.qrCan, s.1701                        166         0.87         99           ..
Togo                        300        143         0.96         93         62         1.11         31         43         0.93         10
ugar,ri 3            300        143         0.98         96          ...                     .43                  1.03          6
Vietnam                     290        145         0.33         32...
).hner' PeLr,               380        130         1.00         86          ...                     .44                  0.64         22
Zambia                      360        131         1.54        157         63         1.09         31         43         1.10          2
rmab~~~~~~~~ ~610                90         0.95         57           ..
a. The goai for under-five mortality was determined to be the iesser of ane-third of the 1996 level or 45. For countries where under-five mortality was iess than 45 ir 1996, the eon wav
assumed to be 12. b. Estimated to be low income (average per capita income of $785 or less). c. Refers to mainland Tanzania only.
8   1998 World Development indicators



*C=E l_bIi                                *   Accelerating social development. Social indicators will benefit
from improvements in economic growth and income and
As incomes increase, social indicators improve               wealth distribution, but there is still room for policies that
target interventions that appear to have a large impact on
Under-five mortality per 1,000 live births                   health and educational outcomes. At the top of the list are
360
350 - i-e-  . . --  - .  .   ,                     female education, safe water and sanitation, and child
300     -
:-: :-K   immunization.
250       *4                          .                         . + ~ :- 5Second, donors and intcrnational development agencies
200                                                       must support countries that show a determination to take up
150   -      *                        ~                   the challenges of the goals for the 21st century. These goals are
100                         *4:      4              -     shared, and ownership of these goals must also be shared. This
50                4 e        ..                          implies extending this dialogue to major international forums
0        200              -           - anP'enl-o       in the United Nations and Bretton Woods systems, and to the
0      200     400      600     800     1,000   1.200  consultative groups and round tables that meet regularly to
GNP per capita                     support development strategies in individual countries.
Net primary enrollment nate (%)                           Donors and their developing country partners need to sur-
100                                                       mount the obstacles to ownership and implementation of
v0     ~_    *   *sound strategies in support of these international goals. The
v .                                             decline in aid flows will need to be reversed, particularly for
60                                                       countries committed to an accelerated development strategy
4       ¼            SLet.JhC.                    and appropriate policies in support of these goals-and par-
40          *                                             ticularly for the current strong donor support for Strategy 21
2  tn.oe;   '                                      to be seen as credible.
20     el.r
Third, international agencies must take the lead in strength-
°0       200     400     600     800     1,000   1200    ening the capacity of developing countries to monitor their
GNP per capita                     progress on outcomes. This will involve ensuring that the sta-
tistical infrastructure in key countries is adequate to mount
Source: World Bank staff estimates.
periodic surveys-and to collect and analyze data on the main
outcome indicators and on the leading indicators that predict
*  An average two-thirds reduction to 20 per 1,000 for develop-  those outcomes. Data quality, a serious issue in many develop-
ing countries would reduce the number of infant deaths to  ing countries, will need to be urgently addressed if policy-mak-
2.4 million-2 million fewer infant deaths each year.      ers are to take the monitoring of these goals seriously.
It will not be easy. But we must move forward. And as Strategy
The challenges                                                21 notes, meeting goals as ambitious and important as these will
How do we move forward? First, developing countries must      take a significant effort by the world community. It calls for a sub-
embark on strategies that help them attain these goals. In the  stantial and serious commitment by developing nations-by
areas of poverty and social development, this implies particular  their governments, their private sectors, and their civil societies.
attention by policymakers to:                                 It calls for a renewed effort by international development agen-
*  Accelerating economic growth. Growth is the most powerful  cies, both bilateral and multilateral, to be responsive to these
weapon in the fight for higher living standards. If Sub-   development efforts in a coordinated partnership. And it calls
Saharan Africa is to make a serious dent in its rising num-  for a new effort by advanced countries to achieve coherence in
ber of poor, it must improve its growth performance over  their aid and other policies that affect developing countries. As
the early 1990s by as much as 3 percentage points. Latin  World Bank PresidentJames Wolfensohn (1997) told the World
America and Europe and Central Asia require a more mod-    Bank Group's Board of Governors:
est acceleration. Faster growth will require policies that
encourage macroeconomic stability, shift resources to more     Without equity, we will not have global stability. Without a
efficient sectors, and accelerate integration with the global  better sense of socialjustice, our cities will not be safe, and our
economy.                                                       societies will not be stable. Without inclusion, too many of us
*   Improving the distribution of income and wealth. The benefits of  will be condemned to live separate, armed, frightened lives.
growth for the poor may be eroded if the distribution of       Whether you broach it from the social or the economic or the
income worsens, which might also undermine the incentives      moral perspective, this is a challenge that we cannot afford to
for growth-inducing economic reforms. Understanding what      ignore. There are not two worlds, there is one world. We share
policies improve the distribution of income and wealth in a    the same world, and we share the same challenge. The fight
wvay that fosters incentives for growth should be high on the  against poverty is the fight for peace, ..' .', and growth for
agenda of policymakers and researchers.                        all of us.
1998 World Development Indicators  9



.60                                   Gender equality
in education
NO)y5 koDemonstrating progress
O1V                                            toward gender equality and
the empowerment of women by
Primary education      eliminating gender disparities in primary
Achieving universal     and secondary education by 2005
primary education in
all countries by 2015 -
_~t                                                                      - r^ 
Infant, child, and maternal mortality
Reducing by two-thirds the mortality rates for
infants and children under five and by three-fourths
the mortality rates for mothers by 2015
Infant and child          Maternal                      Reproductive health
mortality           mortality                     Providing access to reproductive health
services for all individuals of appropriate
2                   3                         age by no later than 2015
_i~~~~~~~                                     - 
L0 | 19911 World Development.Indicators
10  1996 World Developmen ld a a rs



Goals for                                                              "We commit ourselves to the goal
e¢O-                                                      of eradicating poverty in the world
°0                                                     through decisive national actions
4                                                  and international cooperation, as an
;Ot                                              ethical, social, political, and
*                     tS                                              economic imperative of humankind"
-World Summit for Social Develop-
ment, Copenhagen, March 1995
Poverty
Reducing by half
the proportion of
people in extreme
poverty by 2015
1l +2
Meeting goals as ambitious and important as these will
require significant efforts by the global community
Goal: reduce number in           Goal: reduce infant deaths
poverty by half                    by two-thirds
Growth of poverty at                  .e  riar,' a. vr,-
L          _ j ~                          current rates                      ,     Tc
r     _                        °     ~   ~~~~                            ~    ~~~~~~~3 !J.t:..1
o  t.::   001';            ~~~~~~~~~8.38.
AdomkC6                                         2               2015
1.2         ~~~~2015
0    Environment
Implementing                           Goal for 2015                      G l
0' 20     national strategies
2   s  for sustainable
development by
2005 to ensure that             Goal: reduce under-five deaths       Goal: achieve universal
*,vo ? s       the current loss of                   by two-thirds                    primary education
_~~ ,>     ~environmental
resources is
reversed globally                                                   A
and nationally                          . ,rs I  i.~  Je.Lr               Goal for 2015
by 2015
688
10.5     _                         .I
1990      2015
Current enrollment level
1998 World Development Indicators |i



C               ~1.1 Size of the economy
Population  Land  Population            GNP                       GNP per                    GNP PPPI
area    density                                        capita
average                     average
annua,                      anneal              per
thousand  people                      growth                      grownh             raepro
ml lions  sq. km  per sq. km  $ billions  rank  8$                rank       XI    $ bil, errs  $      rare
1996     1995      1996     199S6    1996    1995-96    1996'    1996    1995-96    1996     1996     1996
Albania                        3        27      120       2.7      105       ..      820       80         .
Algeria                       29      2,382      10      43.7       48      4.1     1~520      63       1.8      132.7    4,620'     56
Angola                        11      1,247       9       3 .0     104      1.3      270      113      -1.7       11.4    1.030     113
Argentina                     35      2,737      10    295.1        18      4.0     8,380      27       2.7      335.6    9,530      32
Armenia                        4        28      130       2.4      110      7.8      630       87       7 4        8.2    2,160      86
Australia                     18      7,882        2   387.8        13      4.0    20,090      15       2.6      363.9   19,870      16
Austria                        8        83      100     226.5       21      1.2    28,110        7      1.0      174.5   21,650       9
Azerbaijan                     8        87       90       3.6       99     -0.4      480       94      -1.3       11.3    1,490     103
Bangladesh                   122       130      930     31.2        51      5.5      260      114       3.8      122.9    1 010     116
Belarus                       10       207       50     22.5        54      2.6     2,070      55       2.9       45.1    4,380      62
Belgium                       10        33      310    268.6        19      1.6    26,440       9       2.4      227.5   22,390       7
Benin                          6       111       50      2.0       112      6.2      350      104       3.2        6.9    1,230     109
Bolivia                        8      1,084       7      6.3        79      5.0      830       79       2.6       21.7    2,860      77
Bosnia and Herzegovina        ..        51
Botswana                       1       567        3        ..        .        ..                          .       10.9    7.390      40
Brazil                       161      8.457      20    709.6         8      8.2     4,400      31       6.7    1,023.1    6,340      46
Bulgaria                       8       I11       80      9.9        68     -9.2     1,190      69      --8.8      35.8    4,280      84
Burkina Faso                  11       274       40       2.4      109      6.2      230      119       3.3       10.1 C   950C     117
Burundi                        6        26      250       1.1      125     -8.9      170      125     -11.1        3.8     590      129
Cambodia                      10       177       60       3.1      103      6.5      300      109       3.9
Cameroon                      14       465       30       8.4       75      7.6      610       88       4.5       24.1    1.760      94
Canada                        30      9,221       3    569.9         9      1.7    19,020      18       0.5      640.6   21,380      11
Central African Republic       3       623        5       1.0      127     -3.0      310      107      -5.0        4.8    1,430~    ics
Chad                           7      1,259       5       1.0      126      3.0      160      127       0.5        5.6     880      121
Chile                         14       749       20     70.1        38     10.1     4,860      29       8.5      168.7   11,700      28
China                       1.215     9,326     130    906.1         7     10.0      750       61       8 9    4.047.3    3,330      72
Hong Kong, China'             6         1     6.370   163.3        26      4.7    24.290      13       2.2      153.1   24,260       4
Colombi'a                     37      1,039      40      80.2       37      1.2     2,140      54      -0 5      251.7    6,720      43
Congo, Dem. Rep.              45      2.267      20       5.7       85      3.1      130      128      -0.1       35.7 C   790      124
Congo, Rep.                    3       342        8       1.8      118      7.6      670       83       4.7        3.8    1.410     106
Costa Rica                     3        51       70       9.1       72     -0.1     2,640      48      -2.0       22.3    6,470      45
CMe dIlvoire                  14       318       50       9.4       70      7.3      660       84       4.6       22.7    1.580     100
Croatia                        5        56       90     18.1        60      4.6     3.800      36       4.7       20.5    4,290      63
Cuba                          11       110      100        ..        .e
Coach Republic                10        77      130     48.9        46      4.4     4,740      30       4.6      112.1   10,870      29
Denmark                        5        42      120    166.9        25      2.5    32,100       4       1.8      116.4   22.120       8
Dominican Republic             8        48      160     12.8        66      7.6     1,600O     60       5.7       35.0    4.390      60
Ecuador                       12       277       40     17.5        62      3.3     1,500      64       1.2       55 3    4,730      54
Egypt, Arab Rep.              59       995       60     64.3        40      5.4     1,080      73       3.5      169.5    2,860      78
El Salvador                    6        21      280      9.9        69      2.6     1.700      58       0.0       18.2    2,790      80
Eritrea                        4       101       40       d.         .        .                  .       .
Estonia                        1        42       30      4.5       92       4.0     3,080      42       5.2        6.8    4.660      55
Ethiopia                      58      1.000      60      6.0        81     10.7      100      129       7.2       29.1     500      131
F8nland                        5       305       20    119.1       31       3.8    23,240      14       3.5       93 6   18.260      18
France                        58       550      110   1,533.6        4      1.4    26,270      10       1.0    1,255.6   21.510      10
Gabon                          1       258        4      4.4        93      1.2     3,950      34      -1.2        7.1    6,300      47
Gambia, The                    L        10      110       -...                ,          a                         1.5    1.280'    107
Georgia                        5        70       80      4.6        91       ..      850       78        ..        9.8    1.610      91
Germany                       82       349      230   2,364.6  ,     3   ,1.3      28,870       6       0.9    1,729.2   21,110      12
Ghana                         18       228       80      6.2        80      5.0      360      101-      2.3       31.4 C  1,790C     93
Greece                        10       129       80    120.0        30      2.4    11,460      23       2.2      133.3   12.730      26
Guatemala                     11       108      100      16.0       64     11.7     1,470      65       8.6       41.7    3.820      66
Guinea                         7       246       30       3.8       98      4.4      560       92       1.8       11.6    1.720      96
Guinea-Bissau                  1        28       40      0.3       130      6.1      250      11S       3.7        1.1    1.030     114
Haiti                          7        28      270      2.3       I11      2.4      310       108      0.0        8.3:   1,130-    110
Honduras                       6       112       50      4.0        97      2.7      660       65      -0.3       13.0    2,130      87
12   1998 World Denetopment ~ndicators



Population  Land    Population              GNP                          GNP per                       GNP PPPa
area     density                                             capita
average                        average
annual                         annual                per
thousand    people                        growth                         growth               capita
millions  sq. km   per sq. km  $ billions  rank      %          $        rank       %       $ billions   $        rank
1996      1995       1996     19960      1996     1995-96    1996b      1996     1995-96     1996      1996      1996
Hungary.10.                                 92       110       44.3        47       2.2     4,340        33        2.6       68.6      6,730       42
India                           945      2,973       320      357.8        14       6.9       380        98       5.1     1,493.3      1,580     101
Indonesia                       197      1,812       110      213.4        22       7.5     1,80         74       5.8.      652.3   .3310          74
Iran, Islamic Rep                63      1622         40                            2.80                           0.6      335.0      5,360       53
Iraq                             21        437        50         *.                                                                           ....  .
Ireland                           4         69        50       62.0        42       9.9    17,110        19       8.7        60.7    16,7'50      21
Israel                            6         21       280       90.3        34         .    15,870        20                 103.0    18,100       19
Italy                            57        294       29 ... 20 171409.5     6   .   170    129,80        1        907.1,141~.13      19890     .. 15
Jamaica                           3         11       240        4.1        96      -1.0     1,600        61      -1.9         8.8      3,450       71
Japan                           126        377       330    5,149.2         2       3.9    40,940         2        3.6    2,945.3    23,420         5
Jordan                            4         89        50        7.1        77       5.7      1,650       59        2.8       15.4      3,570       68
Kazakhstan                       16       2,671        6       22.2        55       0.9     1,350        66       1.8_ ... 53.2        3,230      75
Kenya                            27        569        50        8.7        73       5.7       320       106       3.1        30.9      1,130     III
Korea, Dem. Rep.       .         22        120       19          .          ..                                          ... . ..........
Koea Re.                         46         99       460      483.1        11       6.9    10,610        24       5.6       597      13,080       2
Kuwait                            2         18        90                                                                           ..........a
Kyrgyz Republic5                           192        20,       2.5      107        5.5      _550        93       4.1.       .9.0      1,970      89
Lao PDR                           5        231        20        1.9       115       6.8       400        97      .4.0         5.9     1,250      108
Latvia                            2         62        40        5.7        84       2.4     2,300.       51       3.5         9.1     3,650       67
Lebanon                           4         10       400       12.1        67       2.4     2,970        45       0.6        24.7     6,060        49
Lesothto2                                   30        70        1.3       121       9.0       660        86.      6.7         4.80    2,3800       82
Libya                             5       1,760        3          .         .         . 
Lithuania                         4         65        60        8.5        74       2.6     2,280       .52 ...2.7           16.3     4,390       61
Macedonia, FYR                    2         25        80        2.0       114       1.3       990 ...    76   ..  0.6      ....
Madagascar                       14        582        20        3.4.      101       3.5       250.      116        0.5.      12.3       900       119
Malawi                           10         94       110        1.8       117      16.0       180   ..  124..    130.0       ..6.9      690      127
Malaysia         ...       ..... 21       .329        60       89.8.       35.      8.3     4,370        32       5Z.8      213.7    10,390        30
Mali                             10.      1,220         8       .24.4.    106       4.3       240..     117.       1.2        7.1       710      126
Mauritania                        2       1,25         .2       1.1   1..4.4                   70        96    .    8    .     .2   .1810     .    92.
Mauritius                         1           2      560        4.2        95       5.6     3,710        37       4.5        10.2      9,000       33
Mexico                           93       1,909       50      341.7        16       6.6     3,670        38       4.7       713.8      7,660       37
Moldova                           4.        33..     130.     . 2.5       106     -100.0.     590       .90     .-9.7         6.2      1,440     104
Mongolia                          3       1,567         2       0.9       129       20.0 .    360       102      -0O.1        4.6     1820    .    90~
Morocco                          27    ..  446.       60       34.9        50      12.4     1,290        67      10.4        89.7      3,320      73
Mozambique                       18        784        20        1.5       120       8.7        80       130       5.0         9.0C      5000     132
Myanmar                          46.       658        70          '..                             0 .......-
Namibia                .........2..        823   ..     2       3.6       100       2.8      2,250..     53        0~3.3 ..... 8.5 C  5,39Q0       52
Nepal                            22        143       150        4.7        90       4.6       210       120        1.8..... 24.0       1,090     112
Netherlands           .... . . 16          .. 34     460.     402.6        12       4.2    25,940        II        3.9      323.5    20,850        13
New Zealand      .........        4        268        10       57.1        45       0:6    15,720        21       -06.6      60.0.   16,500        22
Nicaragua                         5        121        40        1.7       119       7.3       380        99        4.2        7,90     1,7600      95
Niger                             9       1,267       .7        1.9  .    116       3.3       200   .   121      --0.1        8.60      9200      118
Nigeria                         115        911       130       27.6        52       5:.0      240       11.  . i8 .......1.9 .....99.7  870       122
Norway                            4        307.       10.    .151.2        27       5.1    34,510 ......3         4.6       17017.7  23,2206
Oman                              2        212        10         h.         .         .5                   .         .       18.9      8.680       34
Pakistan                        134        771       170       63.6        41       3.1       480        95       0.3       213.6      1600        99
Panama                            3         74        40        8.2        76       5.8     3,080        43       4.1        18.9      7,060       41
Papua New.Guiea.                           453        10        5.0        87      -0.1     1,150        72      -2.4        12.40    2,820~       79
Paraguay5                                  397        10        9.2        71       1.1      1,850       57      -15.5       17.2      3,480       70
Peru                             24       1,280       20       58.7        44       2.0      2,420       49       0.0       107.1      4,410       59
Philippines                      72        298       240       83.3        36       6.9     1,160        70       4.5       255.2      3,550       69
Poland                           39        304       130      124.7        29       6.3     3,230        41       6.2       231.7      6,000       51
Portugal                         10         92       110.     100.9        32       2.4    10,160        25        2.4      133.6     13.450       24
Puert   Rico ..        ..    4....           9  .   430                                         ...I...   ...     . I-.. . .. ... ... ...
Romania                          23        230       100       36.2        49       4.4      1,600       62        4.7      103.5      4,580       57
Russian Federation              148     16,889          9     356.0        15      -5.3      2,410       50       -5.0      619.0      4,190       65
1998 World Development Indicators 13



Population  Land   Population            GNP                        GNP per                     GNP PPPI
area     density                                         capita
avorage                      average
annual               ~~~~~~~~~~~annual    per
thousand   people                      growth                       growth              capita
millions  sqt.km  per sq. km  $ billions  rank    %         $       rank       3      $ bililons  $        rank
1996     1995      1.996    19961     1996     1995--96  1996"    .1996    1L995-96 j1996       1996      1996
Rwanda                          7         25      270      1.3       123     13.3      190       123       7.8       4.2       630      128
Saudi Arabia                   19      2,150        9        ..        .                   h                       188.3      9,700      31
Senegal                         9        193       40      4.9        89       5.9      570       91       3.2      14.1      18650      97
Sierra Leone                    5         72       60      0.9       128      10.4     200       122       7.6       2.4       510      130
Singapore                       3          1    4,990     93.0        33       7.6   30,550         5      5.6      81.9     26,910       2
Slovak Republic                 5         48      110     18.2        59       6.6    3,410       4C       6.3      39.9      7,460      38
Slovenia                        2         20      100     18.4        58       3.2    9,240       26       3.2      24.1     12,110      27
South Africa                   38      1,221       30    132.5        28       2.9    3,520       39       1.0     280.4      7,450'     39
Spain                          39        499       80    563.2        10       1.7   14,350       22       1.6     600.3     15,290      23
Sri Lanka                      18         65      280     13.5        65       1.6      740       82       0.5      41.9      2,290      83
Sudan                          27      2.376       10       -.         .                   d
Sweden                          9       412        20    227.3        20       1.0   25,710       12       0.8     166.0     18,770      17
Switzerland                     7         40      180    313.7        17     -0.8    44.350         1     -1.2     186.3     26.340       3
Syrian Arab Republic           15        184       80     16.8        63       3.4    1,160        71      0.6      43.8      3,020      76
Tajikistan                      6        141       40,     2.0.      113      -7.0     340       105      --8.4      6.3       900      120
Tanzania                      .30        884       30      5.2        86       4.6.     170      126       1.7-
Thailand                       60        511      120    177.5        24       5.4    2.960        46      4.4     402.0      6,700      44
Togo                            4         54       80      1.3       122       7.4      300     110        4.3       7.0      1.650      98
Trinidad and Tobago             1          5      250      5.0        88       3.8    3,870       35       3.0       7.9      6,100      48
Tunisia                         9        155       60     17.6        61       1.3    1,930       56      -0.4      41.5      4,550      58
Turkey                         63        770       80    177.5        23       6.8    2,830       47       5.0     379.9      6.060      50
Turkmenistan                    5        470       10      4.3        94      -2.4      940        77     -4.3       9.2      2,010      88
Uganda                         20        200      100      5.8        83      9.       300       111       6 2      20.3 C    1,0300    115
Ukrai'ne                       51       579        90     60.9        43     -9.9     1.200       68      -8.5     113.1      2,230      84
United Arab Emirates            3         84       30       ..         .        ..                           .      43.0 1   17.0000     20
United Kingdom                 59        242      240  1,152.1         5       2.6   19,600       17       2.3   1,173.3     19,960      14
United States                 265      9,159       30  7,433.5         1       2.3   28,020        8       1.4   7,433.3     28,020       1
Uruguay                         3       175        20     18.5        57       7.5    5.760       28       6.8      24.9      7,760      36
Uzbekistan                     23       414        60     23.5        53      1.1     1,010       75      -0.8      56.9      2.450      81
Venezuela                      22        882       30     67.3        39      -1.6    3,020    .  44      -3.7     181.4      6,130      35
Vietnam                        75        325      230     21.9        56       9.3      290       112      7,3     118.3      1,570     102
West Bank and Gaza,             .2                                                         e--
Yemen, Rep.                    16        528       30      6.0        82      -4.7     380       100      -7.8      12.5       790      125
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)   11        102      100        ...                ... 
Zambia                          9        743       10      3.4       102       6.1     360       103       3,4       7.9       860      123
Zimbabwe                       11        387       30      6.8        78       8.1     610        89       5.8      24.7      2,200      85
Low Income                  3,236     39,294       82    1,597                8.    40                      62     6.0        2,0
Exci. China & India  1,076  26,994  40  333              5.1      jO~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3  2.5  1,268      1.180
Middle income               1,599     59,884       27   4,141                 3.7     2.5~90               .4      8.0        5,200)
Lowerr ..m middle  income.............. 1,1255  39,310.39   2910 .........2   1,963.. ,   1.9...............  .....   1,740....  0.6  4,699 ...............0.. 6   .......69-  ... 4.180  ''   '"
Low mi d'd"lei n'c"ome ............4",8'35 ......9'9",178 ........4'9'.... 5',7"3"8   5.2  1.190        3.6    15,114      3,130
Ebur'o"pe & Central Asia      478     23,84        20......~ ... 1,050        -0...............  4  2,200... ~o-0.4  2.059    4,310
Latin  America.. &.. & r Carib. ............ 486 486 .... 20 20,064........ 24 24 ... 1,804 ........5.8......3,710 ..8.....4.1......3.174.......   6,530 74 6,3
MiddleEast &N. Afica      276     10,972       25     572                   ..    2,070                  ..    1,251      4,530
South Asia           ~~~~~~~1,266  4,781   265     478                 6.3      3804.                       1,2        150
High incorme                                              -7-:. 
a. Purhaeaang pamer parity; see Definitions. b. calculatea asing tho World Bank Atlas method. a. The estimate as based an regression; others are extrapalated froam the latest [n:,ersat,aea Camper -a P ogra-me
benchmark estimnates. di. Estimated to be loot cnnine l$785 or less), e. Estimated to be lower middle income ($785 to $3,1151. t. GNP data ame GDP. g. Estlmated to be high nconie ~$9C6 38 no mae. h, Estimated
to be upper middle income l$3.116 to s9pe35i. i. Data refer to mainland Tanzania anly.
14   1998 World Development Indicators



Population, land area, and output are important mea-  and to determine borrowing eligibility. See the Users  * Population is based on the de facto definition of
surements of economy size. They also provide a  guide for definitions of the income groups used in this  population, which counts all residents regardless of
broad indication of actual and potential resources.  book. Also see About the data for tables 4.1 and 4.2  legal status or citizenship-except for refugees not
Therefore, population, land area, and output-as  for further discussion of the usefulness of national  permanentlysettled inthe countryof asylum, who are
measured by gross national product (GNP) or gross  income as a measure of productivity or welfare.  generally considered part of the population of the
domestic product (GDP)-are used throughout the    When calculating GNP in U.S. dollars from GNP  country of origin. The values shown are midyear esti-
WorldDevelopment Indicatorsto normalizeotherindi-  reported in national currencies, the World Bank fol-  mates for 1996. See also table 2.1. * Land area is a
cators.                                        lows its Atlas conversion method. This involves using  country's total area, excluding areas under inland
Population estimates are generally based on  a three-year average of exchange rates to smooth the  bodies of water. * Population density is midyear pop-
extrapolations from the most recent national census.  effects of transitory exchange rate fluctuations. See  ulation divided by land area in square kilometers.
See About the data for tables 2.1 and 2.2 for further  Statistical methods for further discussion ofthe Atlas  * Gross national product (GNP) is the sum of value
discussion on the measurement of population and  method. Note that growth rates are calculated from  added by all resident producers plus any taxes (less
population growth.                             data in constant prices and national currency units,  subsidies)that are not included in the valuation of out-
Land area is particularly important for under-  not from the Atlas estimates,                put plus net receipts of primary income (employee
standing the agricultural capacity of an economy and  Because exchange rates do not always reflect  compensation and propertyincome)from nonresident
the effects ofhuman activityontheenvironment. See  international differences in relative prices, this table  sources. Data are in current U.S. dollars converted
tables 3.1-3.4 for other measures of land area, rural  also shows GNP and GNP per capita estimates that  using the World Bank Atlas method (see Statistical
population density, land use, and productivity. Land  are converted into international dollars using pur-  methods). Growth is calculated from constant price
area differs from other measures of geographic size  chasing power parities (PPPs). PPPs provide a stan-  GNP in national currency units. * GNP per capita is
such as surface area, which includes inland bodies  dard measure of real price levels between countries,  gross national product divided by midyear population.
of water and some coastal waterways, and gross  just as conventional price indexes calculate real val-  GNP per capita in U.S. dollars is converted using the
area which may include offshore territorial waters.  ues over time. The PPP conversion factors used here  World Bank Atlas method. Growth is calculated from
Recent innovations in satellite mapping techniques  are derived from the most recent round of price sur-  constant price GNP per capita in national currency
and computer databases have resulted in more pre-  veys-covering 118 countries-conducted by the  units. * GNP PPP is gross national product converted
cise measurements of land and water areas.     International Comparison Programme (ICP). The sur-  to international dollars using purchasing power parity
GNP, the broadest measure of national income,  veys, completed in 1996, are based on a 1993 refer-  rates. An international dollar has the same purchas-
measures the total domestic and foreign value added  ence year. Estimates for countries not included in the  ing power over GNP as the U.S. dollar in the United
claimed by residents. GNP comprises GDP plus net  survey are derived from statistical models using avail-  States. All ranks are calculated for economies report-
receipts of primary income from   nonresident   able data. See About the data for tables 4.10 and  ing data.
sources. The World Bank uses GNP per capita in U.S.  4.11 for more information on the ICP and the calcu-
dollars to classify countries for analytical purposes  lation of PPPs.                          Data sources
_ a r-,7=S                                                                                     Population estimates are prepared by World Bank
staff from a variety of sources (see Data sources for
Population and GNP in selected countries, 1996                                             table 2.1). Data on land area are from the Food and
Agriculture Organization (see Data sources for table
3.1). GNP per capita is estimated by World Bank staff
ip3rm _                                    J3r,       _                      based on national accounts data collected by World
,sx"                                       Aueula I                          Bank staff during economic missions or reported by
Un,redJ St ite .L_arlteo Siate_
5e5urnr                                     8 .eagle um.                       national statistical offices to other international orga-
Frar,-e *Franc                                     _
S.eoi' *                           nizations such as the OECD. Data for high-income
rJi ner In,a ; rur                              " iet,.rlz X
I",r.a i                                    ausUe13 i                           OECD economies come from the OECD. Purchasing
united ,ngom                                ir,2e.Ji n&                              power parity conversion factors are estimates by
Sp. a,- u-rP-.                                                                World Bank staff based on data collected by the
Nr:.es necr.. .                             V.re; Fgp                             International Comparison Programme.
5ttelll,r, I                                AregEnuna 5
8,-mi _                                     Br:,i1 m
Rus ;, n Fe-.-r 3w,on _                     R9u}rin Feoeerbt,r U
Chna                                        Crr,na 
In].ei  _                       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ind, a e
-Note:  !......  -  5,   I ar.,   y 1
Sob,cF: E .,r 5;|i  Frestimates.
1998 World Development indicators    1S



S             I~~.2 ~Quality of life
Life expectancy     Prevalence  Sanitation  Safe water          Adult           Commercial
atxbirth          of child                                illiteracy rate     enemrgy use
malnutrition
% of        % of        7 of      7crf ceople  7Of peop e   kg of oi[
Male        Femeale    c[iridren   popuiatr-   peysiet on  15 eod 0bove  15  nclO aeyoc  eqourva.ent
years       years       under S   with access  a to eccess   Male       'emnale     Der capita
1996       ±1996       1990-96      ±995        1995        1995        1996         1995
Albania                  69          75          ...                                               .314
Algeria                  68          72          10           .           .26                    51          866
Angola                   45          48          35           16         32                                   89
Argentina                69          77           2           89         64           4           4         1,525
Armenia                  69          76           .......444
Australia,               75          61           ..90                   95           ...5,215
Austria                  74          60          ..100                                ...3.279
Azerbaijan               65          74          10           ...                                  .1.735
Bangladesh               57          59          68           35         79          51          74           67
Belarus                  63          74          ..100                    ....2.305
Belgium                  73          60          ..100                   ...                      .5,167
Benin                    52          57          24           20         50          51          74           20
Bolivia                  59          63         1-6          44          60          10          24          396
B.osnia and Herzegovina                                                                                      364
Botswana                 50          53          27           55         70          20          40          363
Brazil                   63          71           7          41          72          17          17          772
Bulgaria                 67          75          ..99                                                       2,724
Burkina Face             45          47          33           18         76          71          91           16
Burundi                  45          48          38            -          .51                    78           23
Cambodia                 52          55          368.                    13          20          47           52
Cameroon                 55          56          15           40         41          25          46          117
Canada                   76          62          ..           5         100           .            .7,679
Central African Republic  46         51          23           ..16                   32          46           29
Chad                     47          50          ..21                    24          36          65           16
Chile                    72          76           1           83         ..5                      5         1,065
China                    66          71          16           21         90          10          27          707
*Hong Kong, China       76          61           ...                      .4                     12        2,212
Colombia                 67          73           6           63         76           9           9          655
Congo, Demn. Rep.        51          54          34            ...13                             32           47
Congo, Rep.              49          54          24            9         47          17          33          139
Costa Rica               75          79           2            ...5                               5          564
Obte dIlvoire            53          55          24           54         72          50          70           97
Croatia                  66          77          ..68                    96                                 1,435
Cuba                     74          76           6           66         9.3          4           5          049
Czech Republic           70          77           1            ......3.776
Denimark                 73          768.                    100        100           ...3,916
Dominican Republic       69          73           6           78         71          16          16          4866
Ecuador                  67          73          17           64         70           6          12          553
Egypt, Arab Rep.         64          67           9          11          64          36          61          596
El Salvador              66          72          11           68         55,         27          30          410
Eritrea                  54          56          41                       .
Estonia                  63          76           ......3,454
Ethiopi'a                46          51          46          .10         27          55          75           21
Finland                  73          61          ,.100                  100           ...5,613
France                   74          62          ..96                   100           ...4,150
Gabon                    53          57          15           76         67          26          47          587
Gambia. The              51          55          17           37         76          47          75           55
Georgia                  69          77          ...                      ..                       .342
Germany                  73          60           .          100         ...                       .4,156
Ghana                    57          61          27           27         56          24          47           92
Greece                   75          61          ..96                    ...                       .2,266
Guatemala                64          69          33          66          60          36          51          206
Guinea                   46          47          24           70         62          50          76           64
Guinea-Bissau            42          45          23           20         23          32          56           37
Haiti                    54          57          26           24         28          52          56           50
Honduras                 65          69          16           62         65          27          27          236
16  1989 World Deeelopmnent Indicators



1.20
Life expectancy       Prevalence   Sanitation   Safe water            Adult             Commercial
at birth            of child                                   illiteracy rate      energy use
malnutrition
% of         % of         % of       % of people  % of people   kg of oil
Male        Femnale      children     population   population  15 and above  15 and above  equivalent
years        years       under 5      with access  with access    Male        Female       per capita
1996         1996        1990-96        1995    1    1995         1995         ±995         1995
Hungary6 57 5                                         ..94                                                           2,454
India                      62           63           66            29          81            35           62          260
Indonesia                  63           67           40            51           62           10           22          442
Iran, Islamic Rep.         69           70           16                                      22           34         1,374
iraq                       60           63           12            67           44           29           5 51,206
Ireland             ....   .  74        79..            ...       100                         ' ..  I......... .     3,196
Israel                     75           79            .            70          99                                    3,003
Ital                       75           81            .           100                                                2,821
Jamaica                    72           77           10            74           70           19           11         1,191
Japan             ...      7 7..83         ....3                   85    ........ .~3,964
Jordan                     69           72           10           100          89             721                    1,031
Kazakhstan                 60           70            1             ....3,337
Kenya                      57           60           23            77          53            14           30          109
Korea. Dem. Rep.           6            6 .             .......    0                          10...  ..    3         1,113
Korea,Rp                   69           76                        100           89            13                     3,225
Kuwait                     74           79            6           100                        18           25         9,381
K~yrgyz  Republic . . ....  62 .        .71  ........      . ....  53 .         .75  .  . . .....           .......   513
Lao PDR                    52           54           40            19           39           31           56           40
Latvia                     63           76...                                                                        1,471
Lebanon                    68           71            9                                      10           201120
Lesotho                    57           60           21             652                      19           38
Libya                      66           70            5                        90            12           37         3,129
Lithuania                  65           76...                                                                        2,291
Macedonia, FYR             70.          .74  ....             ..  ... .:....                                    ....  11,308
Madagascar                              60           32             329                                                36
Malawi                     43           43           28            53          45            28           58           38
Malaysia                   70           74           23            91          88            11           22         1,655
Mali                       48           52           31            31          37            61           77           21
Mauritania                 52           55           48                                      50           74          102
Mauritius                  68           75           15           100           98           13           21          388
Mexico                     69           75           14            66           83            813               .    1,456
Moldova                    64           71                         50.                                                963
Mongolia                   64           67           12                                                              1,045
Morocco                    64           68           10            40           52           43           69          311
Mozambique                 44           46           47          - 21           32           42           7 738
Myanmar                    58           61           31            41           38           11           2 250
Namibia                    55           5 7          26            34
Nepal                      57           57           49            20          48            59           86            33
Netherlands                75           80                        100          100                                   4,741
New Zealand                73           79....                                                                       4,290
Nicaragua                  65           70           24            31           61           35           33           265
Niger                      44           49           43            15           53           79           93            37
Norway                     75           81                        100                                                5,439
Oman                       69           73           14            79                                                 ,8
Pakistan                   62           65           40            30           60           50           7 6243
Panama                     72           76            7            87           83            910                      678
Papua New Guinea           57           58           30            22           28           19           37           232
Paraguay                   68           74         .  430                                     7            9308
Peru                       66           71           11            44           60            617                      421
Philippines                64           68           30             ..5                                    6           307
Poland                     68           77             71 00                                                         2,448
Portuga                    72           79            ..          10                                                 1,939
Puerto Rico                7180                       ...1,993
Romania                    65  ......   73            6   ..      .49      .   .   ..  ..    ...                     1,941
Russian  Federation.       60       ....73            3    ...   ..   .    ..     ...4.079
1998 World Development Indicators 17



01.21.
Life expectancy     Prevalence  Sanitation  Safe water          Adult           Commercial
at birth          of child                                Illiteracy rate     energy use
malnutrition
% of        % of         ocf      % of people  %of peoip.e  kg ofoil
Male       Female      ch Idren    population  population  15 and above  15 and above  equivalent
years       years       Loder 5   with access  with access   Male       Femnale    per capita
1996        1996       1990-96      1995        1995        1995        1995         1995
Rwanda                   39          42          29                      ..30                    48           33
Saudi Arabia             69          71                       86         93          29          510        4,360
Senegal                  49          52          22           58         50          57          77          104
Sierra Leone             35          38          29           11         34          55          82           72
Singapore                74          79          14           97        100           4          14         7,162
Slovak Republic          69          77          ..51                                 ...3,272
Slovenia                 71          78           .           90         ...                       .2,806
South Africa             62          68           9           46         70          18          18         2.405
Spain                    73          81          ..100                   99           ...2,639
Sri Lanka                71          75          38            ...7                              13          136
Sudan                    53          56          34           22         50          42          65           65
Sweden                   76          82                      100         ..5...3736
Switzerland              75          82          ..100                  100           ...3,571
Syrian Arab Republic     66          71          ..78                    85          14          44        1.001
Tajikistan               66          72           ..62                    ....563
Tanzania                 49          52          29           86         49          21          43           32
Thailand                 67          72          13           70         81           4           8          878
Togo                     49          52          25           22          ..33                   63           45
Trinidad and Tobago      70          75           7           56         82           1           3         5,381
Tunisia                  69          71           9            ...21                             45          591
Turkey                   66          71          10           94         92           8          281,0
Turkmenistan             62          69          ..60                    85           ,..3.047
Uganda.43                            43          26           57         34          26          50           22
Ukraine                  62          73          ..49                    97           ...3.136
United Arab Emirates     74          76           7           95         98          21          20        11,567
United Kingdom           74          80          ..96                   100                                3.786
UJnited States           74          80          ..85                    90           ...7,905
Uruguay                  70          77           4           82         83           3           2          639
Uzbekistan               66          72           4           18         ...                       .2,043
Venezuela                70          76           5           58         79           8          10         2,158
Vietnam                  66          70          45           21         36           4           9          104
West Bank and Gaza...
Yemen, Rep.              64          54          30           51         52                                  192
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)  70     75          ..100                   ...                       .1.125
Zambia                   44          45          29           23         43          14          29          145
Zimbabwe                 55          57          16           58         74          10          20          424
Low income               62          64          ..28                    76          24          45          393
Exci. China & India      55          58          ..36                    51          36          55          132
Middle income            65          71          ..60                    ..14                    22         1.488
Lower middle income      64          70          ..58                    ..14                    25         1,426
Upper middle income      66          73          ..64                    76          13          16         1,633
Low & middle income      63          67          ..37                    76          21          39          762
East Asia & Pacific      67          70          ..29                    84           9          24          657
Europe & Central Asia    64          73          ...                                               .2,690
Latin America & Carib.   66          73                      57          73          12          15          969
Middle East & N. Africa  66          68                        ...28                             50         1,178
South Asi'a              61          63          ..30                    78          38          64          231
Sub-Saharan Africa       51          54          ..37                    45          34          53          236
High income              74          81          ..92                    ..,v5,123
a. UNESCO estimates iliteracy to be lees than 5 percent.
18  1998 World Developwnent Indicators



1.2
The indicators in this table provide an overview of  (access to safe water and sanitation), 2.16 (child  * Life expectancy at birth is the number of years a
the conditions in which more than 5 billion of the  malnutrition), 2.17 (life expectancy), and 3.7 (corn-  newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of mor-
world's people live. Although not perfectly correlated  mercial energy use).                     tality at the time of its birth were to stay the same
with income or consumption per capita, they tend to  Literacy is difficult to define and to measure. The  throughout its life. * Prevalence of child malnutri-
tell a common story: on average, the residents of  definition here is based on the concept of functional  tion is the percentage of children under 5 whose
poor countries enjoy fewer amenities, lack basic  literacy-the ability to use reading and writing skills  weight by age is less than minus two standard devia-
skills, and suffer higher rates of illness and, conse-  effectively in the context of the society. To measure  tions from the median of the reference population.
quently, live shorter lives. These indicators comple-  literacy using such a definition requires census or  * Access to sanitation is the percentage of the pop-
ment those in table 1.3, which measure progress  sample survey measurements under controlled con-  ulation with excreta disposal facilities that can effec-
toward international goals for social and economic  ditions. In practice, many countries estimate the  tively prevent human, animal, and insect contact with
development.                                    number of illiterate adults from self-reported data or  excreta. Suitable facilities range from simple but pro-
Except for the adult illiteracy rate, all of the indi-  from estimates of school completion. Because of  tected pit latrines to flush toilets with sewerage. To be
cators shown here appear elsewhere in the World  these problems, comparisons across countries-   effective, all facilities must be correctly constructed
Development Indicators. For more information    and even over time within countries-should be    and properly maintained. * Access to safe water is
about them, see About the data for tables 2.14  made with caution.                               the percentage of the population with reasonable
access to an adequate amount of safe water (includ-
h3! ~ i                                                                  ing treated surface water and untreated but unconta-
minated water, such as from springs, sanitary wells,
Women tend to live longer than men
and protected boreholes). In urban areas the source
Mv- r.- ,*r.-r.n-:  , [,,r,, rfl  I l                                                       may be a public fountain or standpipe located not
more than 200 meters away. In rural areas the defin-
ition implies that members of the household do not
have to spend a disproportionate part of the day fetch-
ing water. An adequate amount of safe water is that
needed to satisfy metabolic, hygienic, and domestic
< ^ ^   J3pan           requirements-usually about 20 liters a person a day.
The definition of safe water has changed over time.
l  Adult illiteracy rate is the percentage of adults aged
15 and above who cannot, with understanding, read
F,,F i-an Feaerd3l.an            and write a short, simple statement about their every-
-41                                                       day life. * Commercial energy use is measured by
indigenous energy production (from all commercial
sources) plus imports and stock changes less
exports and international marine bunkers, stated in
kilograms of oil equivalents per capita.
" -'                                   ''                   '"                  1., '     Data sources
Source: Li rl.] ,,,>  1;, - 1.; -1                                                          The indicators here and throughout the rest of the
Tnis figure plots male against femle lile expeclarnc lID 148 econorrne  Mosb obsersations lie below the 45  book have been compiled byWorld Bank stafffrom pri-
degree line. reflecting women s longer Ire ekpectaric.es Obiersalmons near the line maw ind,cale bhat women in  mary and secondary sources. For most of the indica-
Tnese countriles lack access to adequate healin care or receuse less than an equmtaule snare ci other esaolCr S.
In the Russ,an Federation and otler states of The tormer Soiler Unon. howe-er. the large ,gap between men and  tors shown in the tables in this section, the sources
women Is the result of a recent drop in male llte expecirancs.                              are cited in the notes to the tables referred to in About
the data. Data on illiteracy are supplied by the United
Nations  Educational.  Scientific,  and  Cultural
Organization and published in its Statistical Yearbook
(see Data sources for table 2.9).
19Ss World Development Indicators      19



a,             ~1.3 Development progress
Private           Net primary enrollment         Infant           Under-5      MaternalI  Health
consumption                ratio                 mortality rate   mortality rate  mortality  care
per capita                                                                       ratio
annual average growth  %of relevant  % of relevant                                     pe:     %of
1980-96         age group         age group       per 1,000                      10M0,00  population
distribution   Male            Female          no births        per 1,000    ven oirtns with access
uncerrected corrected  1980  1999   1980     1999    19710   1996     1970     1896   1990-96   1993
Albania                    ..        .       .       95      ..      97       06       37       ..      40       28
Algeri'a                  -1.9    -1.2      91       99      71       91     139       32     192       39      140
Angola                   -7.4       ...                                .     178      124       ..     209    1.500      24
Argentina                   .        ..52                                              22      71       25      100
Armenia                   -5.4       .       ...              .....                    16       ..      20       21
Australia                  1.6     1.1     100      98      100      98       18        6       ..       7        9     3100
Austria                    2.0     1.5      99      100      98      100      26        5       .        6       10     100
Azerbaijan                  ..       .        .       .        .       .        .      20       ..      23       44
Bangladesh                0.0      0.0       ~      66       ..      58      140       7 7    237      112      850   ~74
Belarus                  -4.5     -3.5      ..      97       ..      94        ..      13       .       17       22     100
Belgium                    1. 7    1.3      97       98      98      98       21        7       ..       7       10     100
Benin                     -0.8       .       ..     74       ..      43      148       87     256      140      500      42
Bolivia                  -0.7     -0.4      84      .95      7 4     8 7     153       67     243      102      370
Bosnia anc Herzegovina                                                        59       19
Botswana                  5. 9       ..     69      94       82      99       9 5      5 6    146       85      250      86
Brazil                     0.0     0.0              ......   ..       ..      95       36     135       42      160
Bulgaria                  -0.7    -0.5      96      98       96      96       27       16      ..       20       20     100
Burkina Faso               0.0      ..      18      37       1        4      11        98     278      158      930
Burundi                   -0.8      ..      23      56       16      48      138       97     233      176    1,300      80
Cambodia                    .        ..      .        ..      .        ..    161      105       ..     170      900
Cameroon                  -2.5      ..       .        .       .        .     126       54     215      102      550      15
Canada                     1.3     0.9               96      ..       94      19        6       ..       7        6      99
Central African Republic  -2.4      ..      73       65      41      43      139       96     238      164      700      13
Chad                     -0.4       ..       .        .       .        .     171      115       ..     189      900      26
Chile                     3.2      1.4      ..      87       ..      85       77       12      97       13      180      95
China                      7.7     4.5               99              98       69       33     115       39      115
Hong Kong, China          5.3      ..      95      90       96.     92       19        4      23        6        7
Colombia                   1.3     0.6                                        74       25     113       31      100      87
Congo, Dem. Rep.         -4.2       ..71                             50      131       90     245      144        ..     59
Congo, Rep.               -0.4      ..      99       ..      93       ..     101       90       ..     145      890
Costa Rica                 0.7     0.4      89      86       90      87       62       12      85       15       55      97
C6te d Ivoire             -2.6    -1.6       .        ..      .        ..    135       84     237      150      600      60
Croatia                    ..        .       .       83       .      82        ..       9       .       10       12
Cuba                       ..        ..     95     .99       95      99       39        8      43       10       36     100
Czech Republic                                      9..              98       21        6       ..       7        7
Denmark                   1.6      1.2      96      98       95       99      14        6                6        9     100
Dominican Republic        0.6      0.3      ..       79      ..      83       98       40     127       47      110
Ecuador                   -0.2    -0.1      ..      91       ..      92      100       34     140       40      150      80
Egypt, Arab Rep.          2.0      1.3      ..      95       ..      82      158       53     235       66      170      99
El Salvador               2.8      1.4      ..      78       ..      80      103       34     161       40      300
Eritrea                    ..        .       .      33       ..      30        ..      64       ..     120    1,400
Estoni'a                  7.8      4.7      ..      93       ..      94       20       10       ..      16       52
Ethiopia                 -1.7        .       ..     28       ..      19     .158      109     239      177    1,400      55
Finland                    1.4     1.1      ..      99                99      13        4       ..       5       11     100
France                    1.7      1.1      ..      99               99       18        5        .       6       1
Gabon                    -4.9       ..138                                              87       ..     145      500      87
Gambia, The                0.5      ..      66       64      34      46      185       79       ..     107    1, 100
Georgia                                     ..      81        .      82        ..      17       .       19       19
Germany                    ..        .       .     100       ..     100       23        5       ..       6       22
Ghana                     0.1      0.1       .       ..       .       ..     111       71     187      110      740      25
Greece                    1.9       ..     103      98      103      98       30        8       ..       9       10
Guatemala                 -0.4    -0.1       .        ..      .        ..    106       41     168       56      190      60
Guinea                    0.9      0.5       .        ..      .        ..    181      122       ..     210      880      45
Guinea-Bissau             -1.0    -0.4      63       ..      31       ..     185      134       ..     223   ~910
Haiti                    -0.8       ..      38      25       37      26      141       72     221      130      600      45
Honduras                  -0.3    -0.1      78      89       78       91     110       44     170       50      220      62
20  1998 World Development Indicators



1.30
Private             Net primary enrollment               Infant             Under-5       Maternal   Health
consumption                    ratio                    mortality rate      mortality rate   mortality   care
per capita                                                                                   ratio
annual average growth  % of relevant      5 of relevant                                             per      % of
1980-96            age group           age group          per 1,000                          100,000  population
distribution     Male               Female            live births         per 1,000      live births with access
uncorrected corrected  1980    1.995      1980     1995      1970      1 996     1970     1996     1990-96    1993
Hungary                       1.4       1.0       94        92        95        94        36        11         .       1314
India                         2.3       1.6         ....  .. .   ..              ....    137..    .65 ....  202        85..     4378
Indonesia                     4.3       2.8       93        99        83        95       118        49      172        60        390       43
Iran, Islamic  Rep            0'0         -....... .. ::...................    ..    ..  131.       36  ..... 191  .. ..  37.    120  .... 73
Iraq                                             100        83        94        74       102       101      123       136        310  ..... 98
Ireland                      .28.8      1:.8     100       100       100       100        20         5                  7         10
Israel                        3.3       2.1.                           .         ..       25         6        897                        10
Ital                          2.2       1.5                                               30         67                           12
Jamaica                       3.8       2.2        95      100        97       100        43        12        64       14        120
Jap29                                            100       100       100       100        13 ......4     ........      .6 *.....8         100
Jordan                       -1.2      -0:7        94 ...I .89 ....9 1          89     ....         30      107        35.       150       90
Kazakhstan                                          .         .        .         .         .        25         .       30         53
Kenya                 ~~~0.9    0.4        92         .       89                 102        57 .... 156        90.....g   650...    ....
Korea, Dem. Rep.                .         ..        .        ..         .51                         5..                45                100
Korea, Rep.                   7.1         .      100        98       100        99        46         9..... 55         11 ..      30     100
Kuwait                       -5.5         .       89        65        80        6 5       48        1 1      54        14         18     100
Kyrgyz Republic                                    ..       99                  9..                 26                 36...32
Lao PDR          .......O...P.                        ..... 75     .            61       146       101    ..          140.       650
Latvia                                                      86                  82        21        16         .       18         15
Lebanon                         .         ..                                              50        31        ..       36       30
Lesotho                      -2.8      -12        54        60        78        71       14         7        90       13        60         80
Libya..                                   .      100        98       100        96       122        25                 30        220      100
Lithuani'a..                              .         ..        .        ..        .        24        10                 13         13
Macedonia, FYR                       .    .     ..     ......  86      .        84                       ..1618                   22
Madagascar            ..     .. -2.7   -0.2                                              181        8                 135 ..... 660        65
Malawi                       -0.6         .       48      .100        38       100       193   13           347       217        620       80
Malaysia                      3.3       1.7 ..       .......  91                92.       45.       11 ...... ..       14.        34.      88
Mali                         -1.1         ..        .       30                  19       204       120         .      220        580
Mauritania               .... -0.4     -.792    .   .       6 455                        148        94         .      155       800
Mauritius                     5.4                 So 8      96        79        96        60        17       83        20        112       99
Mexico                       -0.3      -.           .        .                            72        3        1         36        110       9
Moldova                                                                                    .        20         .       24         33
Mongolia                                            .       78         .        81       102        53         .       71         6        0
Morocco                       1.7       1:.0       75       81        47.       62 ...   128        53.     187        67.       372       62
Mozambique                   -1.7         .       39        45        33        35       171       123      281       214      1,500       30
Myanmar                                                                                  128        80      19        19         50
Namibia                      -0.6                                      ..        .       118        61                 92        220
Nepal                         5 2       3:3.......        ........ .            ....  ......  166   85.     232       116      1,500
Netherlands                   1.5       1.1        91       99        94        99        13         5                  6         12      100
New Zealand                   0 9                100       100       100       100        17         6                  7         25      100
Nicaragua                    -2.7      -1.3        96       82       100        85       106        44      165        57        160
Niger                        -6.3      -4.0    .. ...2. ..........3             18       170       118...                        593       30
Nigeria                      -3.0      -17                                               139        78         .      130      1,000       67
Norway                        1.5       1.1        98       99        98        99        13         4         ..       6          6      100
Oman..                                    .       54        72        31        70       119        18         .       20          .       89
Pakistan                      1.5       1:.1 ..      ... ....           .....            142        88..    183       123.       340       85
Panama                        1.9       0.8        88       91        89        92        47        22        68       2 555               82
Papua New Guinea             -0.4      -0.2                            .         .       112        62         .       85        930       96
Paraguay                      2.0       0.8        90       89        88        89        55        24        76       45        190
,Peru                        -0.9      -0.5         .       91         .        90       108.       42       178       58        280
Philippines                   0.8       0.4        95                 92         .        66        3         82       44        208
Poland                        0.6       0.4        98       97        98        96        33        12         .       15         10      100
Portugal                      2.9         .       97       100       100       100        56         7         .         8        15
Puerto Rico                   2-1         .         .         .         .        .        29        1         34       14
Romania                       0.0       0.0         .       92         .        92        49        22                 28 .. 28 . 41
Russian Federation                                 ..      100                 100.                 17         .        55
l998 World Development Indicators      21



1.3
Private          Net primary enrollment        Infant         Under-5     Maternal  He.al.th
consumption               ratio               mortality rate  mortality rate  mortality  cr
per capita                                                                   ratio
annua average growth  % of relevant  % of re evant                                Der     % of
1980-96        age group       age group       Der 1,000                    100 000  Population
distribution  Male           Femnale        lve births       pe, 1.000   [ive b rths  w th access
uncorrected corrected  1980  1.995  .1980  1995   1.970   1996    1970    1996   1990-96  1993
Rwanda                  -1.8    -1.3     62       76      57      76     142     129     209     205    1,300
Saudi Arabia               .       ..     60      63      37      61     119      22      ..      28       18     98
Senegal                 -1.0    -0.5     44       60      30    48       135      60     279      88      510     40
Sierra Leone            -2.4    -0.9       .       ..      .       ..    197     174     360     284    1,800
Singapore                4.9    - .      100      ..      99      ..      20       4      25       5       10    100
Slovak Republic         -3.2    -2.5       .       ...             ..     25      11       ..     13        8
Sloveni'a                 ..       .       .     100       ..     99      24       5       ..6              5
South Africa            -0. 1    0.0      ..      95      ..      96      79      49      ..      66      230
Spain                    2.3     1.6    100      100     100     100      28       5       ..      6        7
Sri Lanka                2.6     1.8      .        ..      .       ..     53      15     100      19       30     90
Sudan                   -1.9      ..       .       .       .       .     118      74     176     116      370     70
Sweden                   0.7     0.5      ..     100      ..     100      11       4       ..      5        7    100
Switzerland              0.6     0.4      ..     100      ..     100      15       5       ..      6        6    100
Syrian Arab Republic     0.4      ..     99       95      80      87      96      31     128      36      179     99
Tajikistan                                 ..      .       ..              .      32       ..     38       74
Tan,zania..                                       47      ..      48     129      86  ~218       144      530     93
Thailand                 5.6     3.0       .       ..      .       ..     73      34    .102      38      200     59
Togo                    -0.9       .       ..     98      ..      72     134      87      ..     138      640
Trinidad and Tobagn     -1.2      ..     89       83      91      94     5,2      13      55      15      90      99
Tunisia                  0.8     0.5     92       98      72      95     121      30     201      35       ..     90
Turkey                  -1.3       .       ..     98      ..      94     144      42     201      47      180    100
Turkmenistan              ..       .       .       .       .       .       .      41       ..     50       44
Uiganda.1.7                      1.0      .        ..      .       ..    109      99      ..     141      550     71
Ukraine                   .       ..      .       ...              ..     22      14      ..      17       30    100
United Aralb Emirates   -0.6       .     72       84      75      82      87      15      83      17       ..     90
United Kingdom           2.6     1.7    100      100     100     100      19       6       ..      7       9
United States            1.8     1.1     95       96      96      97      20       7       ..      8       12
Uruguay                  3.1       .      ..      95      ..     95       46      18      56      22      85
Uzbekistan                 ..      .       .       .       .       .       .      24       ..     35       24
Venezuela               -0.7    -0.4      ..      87      ..      90      53      22      62      28      200
Vietnam                           .6104                                           40      ..      48      105
West Bank and Gaza
Yemen. Rep.                                                              186      98      ..     130    1,400
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)  .    ..      .      69      ..      70      54      14      ..      19       12
Zambia                  -4.0    -2.1     81       78      73      76     106     112     181     202      230     75
Zi mbabwe                0.6      ..     100       .     100      ..      96      56     137      86      280
Low income               3.6     2.6       .       ..      .       ..    113      68      ..      94
Excl. China & India     -0.8      ..      .        .       .       .     139      88       ..    131
Middle income            1.2      ..94                                            37              45
Lower middle income      1.6      ..102                                           40      ..      49
Upper middle income      0.3     0.1                                      76      30      ..      36
Low & middle income      2.9     2.1      -.       .       .       .     107      59      ..      80
East Asia & Pacific      6.8     4.0      ..     99       ..      98      79      39              47
Europe & Central Asia                     ..      97      ..      96       .      24      ..      30
Latin America & Carib.   0.1     0.0                                      84      33      ..      41
Middle East & N. Africa  0.6      ..134                                           50       .      63
South Asia               2.1     1.5                                     139      73      ..      93
Sub-Saharan Africa      -1.6       .       ..      .                     137      91      ..     147
High income              2.4      ..     98       98      98      98      22       6       ..      7
22  1998 World Development Indicators



l~ ~   ~  ~   k~. --    a     a
1.3
The indicators in this table are intended to measure  * Growth of private consumption per capita is the
progress toward the development goals for the 21st  average annual rate of change in private consumption
century proposed by the OECD's Development     divided by the midyear population. See the definition
Assistance Committee and discussed in the intro-  of private consumption in table 4.9. * Distribution-
duction to this section. The net enrollment ratio,  corrected growth of private consumption per capita
infant and child mortality rates, and the maternal  is 1 minus the Gini index multiplied by the annual rate
mortality rate are included in the set of monitoring  of growth in private consumption. * Net enrollment
indicators identified in Strategy 21. For further dis-  ratio is the ratio of the number of children of official
cussion of the monitoring indicators, see the intro-  school age enrolled in school tothe numberofchildren
duction to section 2 and About the data for the tables  of official school age in the population. * Infant mor-
in which the indicators appear.               tality rate is the number of deaths of infants under one
Estimates of the number of people living in poverty  year of age during the indicated year per 1,000 live
appear in table 2.7. The growth of private consump-  births inthesameyear. * Under-5mortalityrate isthe
tion per capita is included here as an indicator of the  probability of a child born in the indicated year dying
effect of economic development has on the welfare  before reaching the age of 5, if subject to current age-
of individuals. Positive growth rates are generally  specific mortality rates. The probability is expressed
associated with a reduction in poverty, but where the  as a rate per 1000. * Maternal mortality ratio is the
distribution of income or consumption is highly  number of women who die during pregnancy and child-
unequal, the poor may not share in the improvement.  birth, per 100,000 live births.
The relationship between the rate of poverty reduc-
tion and the distribution of income or consumption,  Data sources
as measured by an index such as the Gini index, is
complicated. But Ravallion (1997) has found thatthe  The indicators here andthroughoutthe restofthe book
rate of poverty reduction is directly proportional to  have been compiled by World Bank staff from primary
the "distribution-corrected rate of growth' of private  and secondary sources. More information about the
consumption. The distribution-corrected  rate of  indicators and their sources can be found in the About
growth is calculated as (1-G)r, where G is the Gini  the data, Definitions, and Data sources entries that
index (0 = perfect equality, 1 = perfect inequality) and  accompany each table in subsequent sections.
r is the rate of growth in mean private consumption.
In empirical tests covering 23 developing countries,
Ravallion estimated that factor of proportionality to
be 4.4, implying a growth elasticity of poverty reduc-
tion of between 3.3 for a low Gini index of 0.25 and
1.8 for a high Gini index of 0.60.
199S World Development Indicators    23



1.4 Trends in long-term economic development
Gross national           Population                  Value added               Private     Gross      Exports
product        lconsumption                                                            domestic   of goods
fixed       and
investment   services
average annual         average annual[
% growth               % growth        average annua average annual average vacnua  average  average  average
per                    Labor      % growth   % growth   % growth     annual     annu.al     annua[
Tonal      capita      Tonal      force      Agricu[ture  Induatry  Services     % grownh   8 growth   % growth
1965-96     1965-96    1965-96     1965--96    1965-96    1965--96    1965-96     1965-96    1965-96     1965-96
Alban ia                                   ..         1.8       .2.2         2.9       -6.1        -1.5
Algeria                        3.9        0.9         2.7        3.5         5.0        2.6         5.0         5.5        2.7         2.2
Angola                                     ..         2.4        1.9           .           ..
Argentina                      1.2       -0.3         1.4        1.13                   1024.                                .4.
Armeni'a                       2.0        0.3         1.7        2.3           .           ..
Australia                      3.2        1.6         1.5        2.1         1.7        2.2         3.5         3.4        2.5         5.6
Austria                        2.9        2.7        0.3         0.4         0.8        2.0         2.6         3.0        2.9         6.3
Azerbaijan          ....1.6..2.1...._..6                         2.
Bangladesh                    3.5         1.0        2.3         3.7         1.9        4.1         5.2         2.9        4.4         7.2
Belarus                                    ..        0.6 ..      0.7           .          ..
Belgium                       2.5         2.3        0.2         0.5         2.7          ...                   2.6        1.7         5.2
Benin                          3.1        0.1        2.8         2.2         37.7       3.1         3.1         2.6         ..3.7
Bolivia                       1.8       -0.5         22.32.6                            0.0         3.0         2.6       -3.1         0.8
Bosnia and Herzegovina.                              0.7         1.1
Botswana                     13.0         9.2        3.1         2.8         3.6       14.9        10.8
Brazil                        4.6         2.4        2.0         3.1         3.5        4.6         5.4         4.6        1.7         8.6
Bulgaria                     -0.3         0..1        0.1       -0.1        -2.1       -0.4         1.5        -1.1       -4.9      -12.1
Burkina Faso                  3.9         1.5        2.3         1.8         2.6        2.4         6.3         3.0        5.5         3.5
Burundi                       4.0         1.6        2.2         2 .0        2.9        5.2         4.0         3.3        2.6         2.6
Cambodia                                   ..         1.6        1.5           .          ..
Cameroon                      4.3         1.4        2.7         2.2         3.2         7.2        3.8         3.4        1.0         7.1
Canada                         3.3        2.0         1.3        2.3         1.2         2.4        4.1         3.5        4.3         6.0
Central African Republic       1.5       -0.8        2.2         1.5         1.7         2.3        1.0         1.7        2.1         1.0
Chad                           1.6       -0.6        2.1         2 .0        1.3         1.4        2.9          ...1.4
Chile                          3.3        1.6         1.6        2.2         3.7         2.9        4.3         2.8        3.8         8.0
China                         85.5        6.7         1.7        2.0         4.3       11.0        11.1         7.6       10.5        11.1
Hong Kong, China             i:51   .   5.6e        1.7         2.7          ...                     .        7.6         8.2       11.3
Colombia                       4.4        2.1         2.2        3.2         3.4        4.5         4.9         4.1        4.8         5.7
Congo, Dem. Rep.      .      -0.5    .          .35    .0   .    2.5    .    1.9       -2.3        -1.4         0.2        0.1         2.9
Congo, Rep.                   4.9         1.9         2.8        2.5         2.6        7.4         5.0         3.8         ..6.5
Costa Rica                     4.0        1.2         2.6        3.4         3.2         4.8        4.1         3.2        4.8         6.9
C6te dIlvoire                  3.9        0.0        3.6         3.0         2.2        6.3         3.3         2.8       -0.4         5.3
Croatia                         ...                  0.3         0.3           .           ..
Cuba                            ...                  1.1         2.1           .          ..
Czech Republic                  ...                  0.2         0.4           .          ..
Denmark                       2.1         1.8        0 .3        0.8         2.3        1.9         2.3         1.7        0.4         4.5
Dominican Republic            4.7         2.3        2.3         3.2         3.1        5.8         5.2         4.7        6.5         5.9
Ecuador                       4.9         2.2        2.6         3.0         3.5        6.5         4.9         4.4        3.2         7.4
Eypt, Arab Rep.    .         6.4         4.0        2.2         3.0         2.8        6.8         9.2         5.3        6.2         5.5
El Salvador                    1.3      -0.6         2.1         2.6         0.7        0.5         2.0         1.7        2.3         0.7
Estonia                         ....                 04          0.5           .          ..
Ethiopia                        ...                  2 .6        2.4           .          ..
Finland                       2.8         2.4        0.4         0.6         0.3        3.0         3.3         2.8        1.1         4.8
France                        2.7         2.1        0.6         0.7         1.9        0.9         2.7         2.9        2.0         5.6
Gabon                         3.0         0.0        2.6         2.0         0.3        1.8         0.2         2.8       -3.1         5.7
Gambia, The                   3.9         0.4        3.3         2.9         2.2        4.2         4.2         1.2         ..3.6
Georgia                         ...                  0.6         0.8           .          ..
Germany                         ...                  0.2         0.,4                     ..
Ghana                         1.7       -0.9         2.5         2.5         1.2        0.4         3.6         1.3        0.6        -1.5
Greece                        3.2         2.5        0.6         0.8         1.3        3.3         3.8         3.5        1.4         7.8
Guatemala                     3.2         0.4        2.7         3.1          ...                     .3.3                 2.2         2.1
Guinea                          ...                  2.0         1.6......
Gui-nea-Bi'ssau               2.8         0.0        2.3         1.9         1.2        2.5         9.2         0.8         ..2.2
Haiti . . . . .0.9                       -.1.1......1.7                                                                      ..3.6
Honduras                      3.8         0.5        3.1         3.6         2.5        4.5         4.3         3.8        3.8         2.7
24   1998 World Development Indicators



40
1. 4
Gross national          Population                Value added              Private    Gross      Exports
product                                                               consumption  domestic  of goods
fixed      and
Investment services
average annual        average annual
% growth              % growth       average annual average annual average annual  average  average  average
per                   Labor     % growt   % growth    % growth   annual     anneal     annual
Total     capita      Total      force    Agricultere  Industry  Services     growth   % growth   % growth
1965-9e    1965-96    1965-96    1965-96     1.965-96  1965-96    1965-96     1965-96   1965-96    1965-96
Hungary                      0.9        1.1        0.0       -0.3         2.6 ......1.8.2.6                                    .3.9
India                      ..4.5       2.3         2~.1 .     2.1  .. ...  28.8     54.4       55.5 ....  4.0 ....... 5.4 ...   6.1
Indonesia                    67.7 .    4.6.        2~.0 ...   2..5       3.9        9~.1 ..  ... 7.5... _.. 7:.1 ....  8.9      5.6
Iran, Ialamic Rep.           1.1      -2.0      ... 2.9       3.0  .......4:6 . 6   ..-02      0.3        3:6.... ... -14.4   ....  -2.2
Iraq~~~~~~...      ..   -0.3      -.3..5      3.1        3 .1
Ireland                      3.6       2.7         0.7  ..    0.8  ....3..                                .1   ....  .2.7       8.4
I....srael ..   ...   .. .  3.8.      1.3..59.....5.31.7
Italy                        2.8       2.6         0.3        0.6        0 9                     .        3:4'.      1.6 .......5.5
Jamaica             0.7      -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. 0.5 .. 1.2 .. 20..  09.  -0.2..... 2.2 2..... .0      -2.7.1.7
Japan                        4.5        3.6        0.8        1.0       -0 1        4.6__    ...4~8.8     4.2,       4.7_       7.7
Jordan                       4.0       -0.3        4.2        4.3        7.0        59         4.35.2                5.4        8.6
Kazakhstan                                        .1.0       116
Kenya                        5.0       1.5         3.2  .. ....3.1       3.6.       5.8.       5.7  .   .... 4:2.2 ... . 1.0    3.0
Korea, Dem. Rep..                        .         1.9-       24          7. 
Korea  Rep.                  8.9       7.3         1.5        2.5        2:0... .... 13.8  ..  9!.0    ... 7:5....... 12-.1....... 16.1
KuwaitI....               ... ..0:.7  .... .-3 4.4 ..   .. 3.8 ... ... 47 .  .9.8  . ....-4~2   1.2  . .... 78  8... . ...8 5  ......-3.0
Kyrgyz Republic...                                 1.8        2.1
Lao PDR                       ...2.1                  ....  ..1.8 
Latvia                       2.1        1. 1       0.3 0. .4            -3 6       -5.6        0.3.........-
Lebanon                        ...                 1.8        2.4 
Lesotho                      5.9       3.3         2.3        2.0       -1:7       1 .. . 3.2  6.9        3:8.8.. ... 11.2      5.5
Libya                        1.2      -2.9         3.6        3.6
Lithuania                                          0.7        0.8
Macedonia, FYR                                                                                   !          :
Madagascar                   0 7'     -20 ...      2.6 ..     2.4.       1.5       -0.3        0.2 ......0.1 ..    ..          -0.7
Malawi                       3.5       0.4         2.9        2.6.       2.5        3.8        4.6        2.7       -2.7        3.6
Malaysia                     6.8       4.1         2.4  ...   2.9        3:7.7 .... . 8.5      7.0        6:.1 ...  ... 9.9..  .9.5
Mali                         2.9        0.5        2.3        2.0      .. 3.2  .. ....2.9'     2.2 . ...  2.6 . .... 62.2  ...  7.1
Mauritania                   1.9      -0.6         2.4        2.0        0.9        2.1        2.4        3.4        1.2        2.8
Mauritius                    5.2       3.9         1.3        2.4       -0 .3       7 6        70         5.0 .......4.1 ........5.6
Mexico                       4.1        1.5        2.4        3.3        23.3.      46.6       4.2        3.7 ...    3.8        7.9
Moldova..                                 .        0.8        0.8...
Mongolia........                                   2.6        2.7 .
Morocco                      4.4       2.1         2.2        3.3        2.8        4.1        5.7        4!0~.      4:6 .......5.0
Mozambique                    ...2.4                          2.0....                                     04 4  ......       ....
Myanmar                                            2.0        2.0
.Namibia.. 3.3                          0.5        2.5        2.1        1.0        1.2        14.4       2:1_       1.6.       2.3
Nepa                         3.6       1.0         2.4        2.0        2.2
Netherlands                  2.6        1.9        0.7        1.5        4.1        1.3 ..     2.5 ...    2.7 .. ... 1.3 ...... .~5 0
New  Zealand                 1.7       0.7        .1.0  ... ...1.8 ... ... 3.5 ..... 1.0  1.. .  8.   1 815          2 3        4.0
Nicaragua                   -1.3      -4.2         2.9        3.4        0.2        0.1       -0.7 ...   -1-.0 .. 0.. 2...... -0.4
Niger  .... ...      ....    02.2     -2.8         29.9       2.7       -0.1        5~.0 ..   -0.4        0.3 ...  .. ..       -0.6
Nigeria            ..       -3.1       0.1         2.8        2.6        1.4   4.43            6.0        3.4       -2 . .5.    2.2
Norway                       3.5       3.0         0.5        1.2        1.2        3.6        2.52.8                1.9...     5.3
Oman                         9.5        5.0        3.9        3.6          .          ..
Pakistan                     5.9.      27.7   .  .. 2.9 ..    3.4        4.0  .. ....68.8 .    6.3        5.2 . ...... 4.5.   .. 6 4
Panama                       3.1        0.8        2.2        2.8        2.2        2.1        2.2        3.9        2.8.       2.6
Papua New Guinea             2.9        0.6        2.2        2.0        2.7        6.3...     24.4       3.0 .......1.3~ ..    7.4
Paraguay                     5.1        2.1        2.8        3.3        4.5        5.5        5.8        5.9        4.9        8.6
Peru                         2.1      -0.4         2.3        2.9         ..19                                       2.0        1.7
Philippines                  3.5        0.9        2.5        2.8        2.4        3.6        3.93.7                4.5        6.3
Poland                       1.2        0.7        0.6        0.7          .          ..                  1.1        1.5        6.0
Portugal                     3.5       3.1        -0.3        1.1     .                 ....    ...       3.4.       29.9       5.4
Puerto Rio2.5                           1.2        1.2        2.0        1.7        4.3        3.2        2.8        1.4        4.4
Romania                      0.3        0.0        0.5        0.0......
Russian Federation           3.3       1.7         0.5        0.8
1998 World Development Indicators 25



o ~1.4
Gross national          Population                 Value added               Private    Gross     Exports
product                                                                consumption  domestic   of'goods
fixed       and
investment  services
average annual        average annual
ft growth             ft growth      average annual average annual average annual  average  average  average
per                   Labor     % growth  ft grovqn   % growth    anrnua      arnou      annual
Total      capita     Total       force    Agriculture  Industry  Serv ces    % growth   % growtn  hk growth
1.965-96   1965--96   1965--96   1.965--96   1965-96    1,965-96   1965-96     1.965-96   1965-96    1965-96
Rwanda                       2.9        0.1         2.3        2.7        2.7         2.1        4.4        3.2        6.9        3.5
Saudi Arabia                 2.0       -3.0         4.4        4.9         7.6        3.4        4.9
Senegal                      2.3       -0.5         2.7        2.4        1.3        3.9         2.4        2.2        3.0        3.2
Sierra Leone                 0.7       -1.4         2.0        1.6        3.2       -0.7       -0.2        -0.2       -7.5       -5.0
Singapore                    8.3        6.3         1.8        3.0       -1.4        8.6         8.3        6.6        9.6       12.2
Slovak Republic               ..          .         0.6        1.3          .           .
Slovenia                       .                    0 .6       0.8          .           ..
South Africa                 2.4        0.2         2.1        2.2        2.2        1.7         3.1        3.2        1.6        1.4
Spai'n                       3.0        2.4         0.6        1.1         ..2.9                                       2.7        7.2
Sri Lanka                    4.7        3.1         1.5        2.1        2.8         4.8        5.3        4.0        7.9
Sudan                        2.4       -0.4         2.5        2.7        2.4         2.4        3.1        4.2         ..       -3.0
Sweden                       1.8        1.4         0.4        0.9        0.7        1.4         1.8        1.4        1.0        4.4
Switzerland                  1.7        1.3         0.6        1.0         ...                     .        1.8        2.3        3.8
Syrian Arab Republic         5.8        2.4         3.1J       3.3        4.4         8.4        6.7        3.8       -2.2        2.1
Tajikistan                     .                    2.7        2.6          .           ..
Tanzania                       ...                  3.0        2.8          .          ..
Thailand                      7.3       5.0         2.1        2.6        4.1         9.7        7.4        6.3        9.1       11.2
Togo                         2.3       -0.7         3 .0       2.4        3.1         2.9        1.5        2.8       -0.4        3.8
Trinidad and Tobago           1.5       0.3         1.2        1.8       -2.3         0.1        1.7        3.8         ..3.3
Tunisia                      5.1        2.7         2.,1       3.1        3.9        6.2         5.0        5.9        4.5        6.9
Turkey                       3.8        1.5         2.2        2.0        1.3         5.6        4.9        4.5         ..       11.0
Turkmenistan                   ...                  2.8        3.0
Ugatnda..                                 .         2.8        2.5
Ukraine                        .                    0.3        0.3
United rbEiae                3.8       -4.0         9.5        9.9       1.           .
United Kingdom               2.1J       1.9         0.2        0.5         ..2.5                                       1.7        4.0
United States                2.4        1.4         1 .0       1.6        4.0         1.7        2.5        3.0        2.3        5.5
Uruguay                      0.8        0.2         0.5        0.9        1.4        1.2         2.2        1.7        0.2        5.6
Uzbekistan                     ...                  2.5        2.8          .          ..
Venezuela                     2.2      -0.8         2.8        3.6        2.8         1.4        2.7        2.6        1.8        1.2
West Bank and Gaza             .          ..                     ..                     ..
Yemen. Rep.                                         3.1        3.4
Yugoslavia, FR (Sr.Mn..                       .    0.7         0.7                     ..
Zambia                        1.0      -2.0         2.9        2.6        1.7         1.0        0.9        0.3       -7.4       -1.0
Zimbabwe                     3.5        0.4         3.0        2.9        1.5         1.3        4.3        7.1        0.7        4.4
Low income                   5.3        3.1         2.0        2.2        3.1        7.5         6.1        A.6        6.9        5.9
Excl. China.& India.         3.1        0.4         2.5        2.6          ......                                                3.0
Middle income                3.3        0.9         1.8        2.0
Lower mniddle income         3.4        0.8        -1.7        2.0
Upper middle income          3.2        1.2         1.8        2.3        2.8        3.2         4.1         ..1.2                6.1
Low & middle income.         3.8       .1.6         1.9        2.1        3.1         ..        3.9
East Asia & Pacific          7.4        5.5         1.8        2.1        4.1        9.7        8.3         6.7        9.4        8.8
Europe & Central Asia       -0.6       -1.3         0.8        0.9
Latin America & Carib.       3.3        1.1         2 .1       2.8        2.7        3.3         4.0        4.0        2.0        5.2
Middle East & N. Africa      1.1       --1.8       2 .7        3.2        4.4        0.0         2.0         .
South Asi'a                  4.6        2.2        .2.2        2.4        2.8        5.5         5.6        4.1        5.3        6.2
Sub-Saharan Africa           2.7       -0.2         2.7        2.5        1.7        2.6         3.3        2.9       -1.1        2.1
High income                  3.0        2.2         0.8        1.2        2.0        2.6         3.0        3.3        2.9        5.9
a. Oats are for GOP.
26   1998 World Development Indicators



1.4
The long-term trends shown in this table provide a view  All the indicators shown here appear elsewhere in the  * Average annual growth rates of gross national prod-
of the relative rates of change of key social and eco-  World Development Indicators. For more information  uct, value added, private consumption, gross domes-
nomic indicators over the past 31 years. Like all aver-  about them, see About the data for tables 1.1 (gross  tic fixed investment, and exports of goods and
ages, they reflectthe general tendencybutmay disguise  national product and GNP per capita), 2.1 (population),  services are calculated from data in 1987 constant
considerable year-to-year variation, especially in eco-  2.3 (labor force), 4.1 (value added by industrial origin),  prices using the least-squares method. See Statistical
nomic indicators. In viewing these growth rates, it may  4.8 (exports of goods and services), and 4.9 (private  methods for more information on the calculation of
be helpful to keep in mind that a quantity growing at 2.3  consumption).                          growth rates. * Gross national product is the sum of
percent a year will double in 30 years, while a quantity                                          value added by all resident producers plus any taxes
growing at 7 percent a year will double in 10 years.                                              (less subsidies) that are not included in the valuation
of output plus net receipts of primary income (employee
lb  ~-,,                           compensation and property income) from nonresident
sources. Growth is calculated from constant price GNP
The world's 30 fastest-growing                   ... include many of the fastest-growing
economies ...                                    service sectors                              in national currency units. * GNP per capita is gross
national product divided by midyear population.
Average annual % growth of GNP per capita,  s                      r.  f value added in       * Average annual growth of total population and labor
1965-96
force is calculated using the exponential endpoint
Beiv.-na _ f                                                                         method. * Labor force comprises all people who meet
-irea. ReD          _
c r-- a                                        rab r;        _                    the International Labour Organization's definition of the
Si.-rg--5re   _U                                                                     economically active population. * Value added is the
hor,2 v,,;ng, Cnna                                   ,..rne3 F-o      -
iha- .   m    m _ir,ngar, ,                                                         net output of a sector after adding up all outputs and
urnan       m                                  rdo'-5                             subtracting intermediate inputs. It is calculated without
rev 3 a   _    rT 31 ,                                     _      _
Mel ay'.a m                                      r.,ai     ,i 5_                     making deductions for depreciation of fabricated
E5pr -Aoo Rer,                                         KI3iu    _     _                   assets or depletion and degradation of natural
Japan   _,r. jr, rAb P030121i                           _                         resources. The industrial origin of value added is deter-
Le otr,u                                         F3 iv.rs 3                         mined  by the  International Standard  Industrial
Sr, LanT a *_                                  BS ,n u i Fr 
Putrum -   _                                      n   -,  _    _                    Classification (ISIC), revision 2. * Agriculture is the
Nor hi,                                         Pa- 3tu3 _                         value added of SIC majordivisions 1-5. * Industry is
Tur,,T,a                                          vr,3_
1,-Iar1 *                                                                          the value added of [SIC division 10-15. * Services is
P.,i1js3r * _                                 tauCAl Ar :I , 3_                     the value added in SIC divisions 15-37. * Private con-
AN,sin3 *inm                                       N%3.3
fI.al, *E,                                                                       sumption is the marketvalue of all goods and services,
Grrcce m*                                      Sr L       mro.3 _                 including durable products, purchased or received as
Friand *_ u! Er wigi ae irm
S.7-3r, raPFtupl, 0c.,mrr,p.                                        m                        income in kind by households and nonprofit institu-
oraaf _                                         r.,,,, *., i  _ *                 tions. It excludes purchases of dwellings but includes
Spa,n                                          E E.o:    m
eici6urn -                                    ,            m                        imputed rent for owner-occupied dwellings. * Exports
1.am^-,n,n Permrwr. *-                                   s nran2c,3  _                       of goods and services isthe value of all goods and mar-
ino,, *                                                  m-
Eruyic,  m.ii;.                                    Ja .r.                           ket services provided to the rest of the world.
-      :                      *                  loo0 2 4 6 8  10  12      Data sources
Source: Worid Bank staff estimates.              Source: World Bank staff estimates.
The indicators here and throughout the rest of the
book have been compiled by World Bank staff from
primary and secondary sources. More information
about the indicators and their sources can be found
in the About the data, Definitions, and Data sources
entries that accompany each table in subsequent
sections.
1998 World Development Indicators      27



O                ~1.5 Long-term structural change
Agriculture         Labor force In           Urban                Trade               Central              Money
value added           agriculture          population                               government            and quasi
revenue               money
%of total            % of total
% of GDP             labor force          population           % of GDP             % of GDP             % of GDP
1970      ±.996      1970      1990       1970       1996      1970       1996      1970      1996       1970      1996
Albania                                      55        66        55         32         38                   52                  21                   47
Algeria                           11        13         47        26         40         56        51         56                             51        22
Angola                                        7        78        75         15         32                  118
Argentina                         10          6        16        12         78         88        10         19         0        13         21        19
Armenia                           ..        44         27        18         59         69                   86                                        6
Australia                          6          4         8          6        85         85        29         42        21        25         44        63
Austria                                       2        15                    5         6          07                  28        36         53        91
Azerbaijan                                  23         35        31         50         5662                                                           9
Bangladesh                        55        30         81        65          8         19        21         38                                       36
Belarus                                     16         35        20         44         72                   96         .1
Belgi'um                           3          1         5         3         94        97        101        140        35        45        44         82
Benin                             36        38         81        64         17        39         50         57                             10        23
Bolivia                           20         ..        55        47         41        61         49         47                  18        15         45
Bosnia and Herzegovina                                 50        11         27        42
Botswana                          28          4        82        46          8        63         71         84        20        43                   25
Brazil                            12        14         45        23         56         79        14         15         0                   17        26
Bulgari'a                                   10         35        13         52        69          ..       127                  34                   54
Burkina Faso                      35        35         92        92          6        16         23         41         ...8                          22
Burundi                           71        57         94        92          2          8        22         19         ..       13          9        18
Cambodia        ....                        51         79        74         12         21        14         69         ..10
Cameroon                          31        40         85        70         20        46         51         32                  13         14        13
Canada                                                  8         3         76         77        43         73        19        21         37        62
Central African Republic          35        56         89        80         30         40        74         41         ..15                          23
Chad                              47        46         92        83         12         23        54         72        11                    9        18
Chile                              7          ..       24        19         75        84         29         55        29        22         12        36
China                             34        21         78        72         17        31          5         40                   6                  101
Hong Kong, China                  ..        0          4         1        88         95       181        285                                      166
Colombia                          25        16         41        27         57         73        30         37        11        16         18        20
Congo, Dem. Rep.                  15        64         75        68         30         29        35         68        11         5          8         2
Congo, Rep.                       18        10         66        49         33         59        93        164        22                   17        14
Costa Rica                        23        16         43        26         40        50         63         91        15        26         19        36
C6te dIlvoire                     32        28         76        60         27        44         65         83                             25        27
Croatia                            ..       12         50        16         40        56          ..        95         ..       45          -        29
Cuba                               .          ..       30        18         60         76
Czech Republic                                6        17        11         52         66         ..       117         ..       36                   75
Denmark                            .          ..       11         6          0        8           9         6 5                 41        45         59
Dominican Republic                23        13         48        25         40        63         42         63        18        16         17        24
Ecuador                           24        12         51        33         40        60         33         57                  16        20         28
Egypt, Arab Rep.                  29        17         52        40         42        45         33         46                  37         34        75
El Salvador                       40        13         57        36         39        45         49         54        10        11        20         37
Eritrea                            ..       10.        86        80         ..         17         ..       117
Estonia                           ..          7        18        14         65        73          ..       159                  33                   23
Ethiopia'                          .        55         91        86          9         16         ..        41                                       40
Finland                                       ..       20         8         50        64         53         68        26        33        40         55
France                            ..     ~    2        14         5         71        75         31         45        33        41        41         67
Gabon                             19          7        79        52         25        51         88         96         ..15                          13
Gambia, The                       33        28         87        82         15        30         66        132        16                   16        25
Georgia                           ..        35         37        26         48        59                    44
Germany                           ..          1         9         4         80        87                    46                  31                   64
Ghana                             47        44         60        59         29        36         44         65        15                  18         15
Greece                            ..42                           23         53        59         23         43        22        22        34         45
Guatemala                          .7       24         62        52         36        39         36         40         9         8         17        24
Guinea                            ..        26         92        87         14        30                    41                                        9
Guinea-Bissau                     47        54         89        85         15        22         34         42                                        0
Haiti                             ..        42         74        68         20         32        31         35                             12        35
Honduras                          32        22         65        41         29         44        62        100        12                   19        27
28 1998 World Development Indicators



1.50
Agriculture  Labor force In  Urban        Trade        Central       Money
value added   agficulture  population                government     and quasi
revenue       money
% of total    % of total
% of GDP    labor force   population    % of GDP      % of GDP     % of GOP
1.970  1996  1.970  ±.990  1.970  1996  1.970  1.996  ±.970  1996  1970   1996
Hungary  ....  ....... .   ... .   ....7  25 .  15   49 .  65 ..  _ 63  ... .. ..79  .. . .. . ... ..:....... ....  39
India.....          ... 45   .   ...  28  ....  71 .... .. 64  ....  20 .. .. ..  27  827....... 14   22  .   ....  45
Iran, Islamic Rep.          25    44     3      42     60     .      36     ..    24           35
Iraq                              47 . ... . .. .. .. ... I .. ... . .. .. .. . ..   . . . .   . .   .  16 .  ~.. .. 56 . 75....... .7 5  22  .... ...
Ireland.                           26    14     52     58    79     134    30    37     54     50
Israel                             10            470                 69   31      39    44     67
Italy                 8      3     19     9     64     67    33      51     .    44     73     60
Jamaica               7      8     33     2 5   42     54     7 1   123     ..     .    30     45
Japa6                        2     20  .....   7....... 71.  78  .......20  ..... 17   11   1:.. ...69   ill
Jordan               12      5     28    15     51     7 2125               .     29    54     93
Kenya                33     29     86    80     10     30    60      70    17    24     27     41
Korea, Dem. Rep    ..              55    38     54     62.
Korea, Rep.          25      6     49    18     41     82    37      69    15    21     29     43
Kyryz Republic              52     36     32    37   .. .39  .......:   .   ....  86  ..... ... ..... ................. ...
Lao PDR                     52     81    78     10     21           65..                       1
Latvia..                     9     19     16    62     73      .    102     .     30     .     22
Lebanon               .     12     2             9     8             9      .     17    82    127
Les  ...ho .35.11.43                  409   9..     25....  85..136..20...I.....32
Libya                 2      ..    29    11     45     86     89            ..    ..    20
Lithuania             .     13     31    18     50     73      .    115           23           18
Madagascar           24     35     84    78     14     27    41      42    14     8     17     17
Malaysia             29     13     54    27     34     54    80     183    20    25     30     85
Mauritania           29     25     84    55     14     53    74     115     .     .      9     17
Mauritius            16     10     34     17    42     41    85     126     .     19    35     73
Mexico               12      5     44    28     59     74    15      42    10    15     14     25
Moldova                     50     54    33     32     52      .    18      .      .     .     16
Mongolia              .     31     48    32     45     61      .     89     .     24     ..    21
Morocco              20     20     58    45     35     53    39      55    19           28     60
M ozambique      37     86     83~~~~ ......  .... 6 _  35...   - _.. _..-..  84. ..   .... ..   ......32-...
Namibia                     14     6      9     19      7107                .     .      .     3
Nepal.67                    42     94    94      4     11    13      60     5     12    11     36
Netherlands.                 3      7                            586 9 89 104           55     83
New Zealand          12            12    10     81     86    48      59    28    36     20     79
Nicaragua            25.    34...  50..  28     47     63  ......55 106    12...... 25  14...... .. 35
Niger                65     39     93    90      9     19    29      3 7           .     5     13
Nigeria              41     43     71    43     20     40    20      28    10      .     9     17
Norway.                      2     12     6     65     73    74      72    32    41     49     53
Pakistan             3 7    26     5 9   52     25     35    22      3 7          19    41     41
Panama        .     8     ~~~42  26     8     56185                 .    26    22     65
Papua New Guinea     37     26     86    79     10     16    72     101           22     .     32
Paraguay             32     24     53    39     37     53    31      46    11     .     17     2
Peru                 19      7     48     36    57     71    34      29    14    16     18     20
Philippines          30     21     58    46     33     55    43      94    1 3    18    23     49
Poland ....11......  6....   . . ... . _39   27   52  ...  .. 64   49  .... .. ..........  40   33
Portugal...         ..    32~~~~~~~.  18....I....  26...   36.50......   74....   .....   36I....... 76........81....
Romania       ..   21     49     24~~..   42.. .56. ....    60.....  ....... 30............. 22........
Russian Federation..         7     19     1      3     7             2      .     18           14
1998 World Development Indicatora 29



Agficulture  Labor force in   Urban          Trade        Central        Money
value added   agriculture    population                  gerent         adqa
revenue        money
% of total  ~% of total
% of GDP     l'aboor tfotr'ce  population  S/ of GDP     % of GDP      % of GDP
1970   1996   1970   1990   1970   1996   1970    1996  i970    1996   1970   1996
Rwanda                 66     40     94     92      3       6     27     28      .      ..    11     17
Sudi Arabia            4            64     19      49     83     89      7      ..     .     13     5
Senegal                21     18     83     77     33      44     59     67     16     ..     14     20
Sierra Leone           30     44     76     67      18     34     62     43     ..      8     13      9
Singapore               2      0      3      0     100    100    232    356     21     26     62     81
Slovak Republic                5     17     12     41      59           126                   ..     66
Slovenia               ..      5     50      6i752                 .    11l..                        35
South Africa            8      5     31     14     48      50     48     52     21     28     60     54
Spain                  ..      3     26     12     66      77     27     47     18     31     69     78
Sri Lanka              28     22     55     48     22      22     54     79     20     19     22     31
Sudan                  43            77     69     16      32     31     .-     18     -.     17     20
Sweden                  -.                   0     81      83     48     73     29     42
Switzerland            -.      .      8      6     55      61     67     68     15     23    104    133
Syrian Arab Republic   20     ..     50     33     43      53     39     ..     25     23     35     51
Tajikistan                           46     41      37     32     ..    228
Tanzania               ..     48b    90     84      7      25      ..    581     ...                 23
Thailand               26     11     80     64      13     20     34     83     12     19     27     75
Togo                   34     35     74     66      13     31     88     69                   17     27
Trinidad and Tobago     5      2     19     11      63     72     84     95     ..     28     27     40
Tunisia                17     14     42     28      45     63     47     66     23     30     32     44
Turkey                 40     17     71     53      38     70     10     49     14     18     20     27
Turkmenistan            .      ..    38     37      48     45      ....                 ...7
Uganda                 54     46     90     85      8      13    43      34     14      .     17     10
Ukraine                 ..    13     31     20     55      71     ..     93      .             .     10
United Arab Emirates    .      ..     9      8     57      84     ..    139      ..     2      .     54
United Kingdom                        3      2     89      89    45      58     37     36
United States           .      ..     4      3     74      76     11     24     18     21     63     60
Uruguay.20                     9     19     14     82      91    40      38     23     31     21     36
Uzbekistan             ..     26     44     35     37      41     ..     69      ..     -
Venezuela               5      4     26     12      72     86     38     61     17     21     19     17
Vietnam                 ,.    27     77     71      18     19      ..    97      ...           .     18
West Bank and Gaza      ..     .      .      0      .       .     .       .
Yemen, Rep.            ..     18     70     61      13     34      ..    91      ..    20      ..    39
Yugoslavia. FR (Serb./Mont.l  . .    50     30     39      57     .       .      .
Zamnbi'a               11     18     79     75     30      43     90     84     22     18     25     16
Zimbabwe               15     14     77     68      17     33     ..     82     ..      .      .     26
Low income             41     27     78     69     17      29     16     43            10
..c . Ch'ina ..&.. I'n"dia . ..............4'2 .........34'....... 7,9-..  67   15 ..9 39  57
Middle income          ..    11.48.32.43.1..
Lower middle income                  36 6......... ' ...... '             6. . . . .'20
Upper middleincoe61 9                4   .      .   26.           5.452.         7
E'as-t As'ia' & Pacific  39   20     79     69     18      32     17      81
Europe & Central Asia ...  .....               . 1  9 2'_''48  66425
Latin America &Cib10                 4      26     5       74     4      33      6
MideEsN . Africa                5       5      3       75
So-u'th Asia ................. 44  28  73 .     .4 18   .     .      .14 30  .   ..    14
Hihincome             .      .     16      6      68.76.24.            40      .20   28.
a. Oats p,cor to 1992 inciude Eritrea. b. GNIP ad *ts components refer to mainlsnd Tanzanias only.
30 1998 Worid Developmnent indicators



1.5
* =  l
Over a period of 25 years or longer, cumulative      .3h_                                    * Agriculture value added is the sum of outputs of
processes of change reshape an economy and the                                               the  agricultural sector (International Standard
social order built on that economy. This table high-  Agriculture employs a large share      Industrial Classification majordivisions 1-5) less the
lights some of the notable trends that have been at  of the workforce in many                cost of intermediate inputs measured as a share of
work for much of the 20th century: the shift of pro-                                         gross domestic product (GDP). * Labor force in agri-
duction from agriculture to manufacturing and ser-  .:.,, -,, iw.-.. _                      culture is the percentage of the total labor force
vices; the reduction of the agricultural labor force and        u .oal                       recorded as working in agriculture, hunting, forestry,
the growth of urban centers; the expansion of trade;       Burina u as; .                    and fishing (ISIC major divisions 1-5). * Urban pop-
the increasing size of the central government in most          R. r%ja                       ulation is the share of the total population living in
countries-and the reversal of this trend in some;              ;uwl_ .                       areas defined as urban in each country. * Trade is
and the monetization of economies that have                    rur.                          the sum of exports and imports of goods and ser-
achieved stable macroeconomic management.                     NMiaa"                         vices measured as a share of GDP. * Central gov-
All the indicators shown here appear elsewhere in           Erhaor-;  '                    emment revenue includes all revenue to the central
the World Development Indicators. For more infor-               kMal,                        government from taxes and nonrepayable receipts
mation about them, see tables 2.5 (labor force in          uinea8,s5au                       (other than grants) measured as a share of GDR
agriculture), 3.10 (urban population), 4.2 (agriculture       Tan:.bn,a                      * Money and quasi money is the sum of currency
value added), 4.12 (central government revenues),                Chad                        outsidebanksanddemanddepositsotherthanthose
4.15 (money and quasi money), and 6.1 (trade).              arJ'Arnrquw  -     -             of the central government, plus the time, savings,
Ga3r,D The                        and foreign currency deposits of resident sectors
Er ______________       other than the central government. This measure of
Ceri,rsl ln.cbr. RCDa o0,.
k'enya                       the money supply is commonly called M2.
Pap.ja !Jew Guu,n-a
Mciagasr a                         Data sources
LaC. POr
Cerca    -
* 3rnc,.s                    The indicators here and throughout the rest of the book
4ngEota                       have been compiled by World Bank staff from primary
' amit,a a                      and secondary sources. More information about the
,.,   mindicators and their sources can be found in the About
* Iv         my ,                fmo   the data, Definitions, and Data sources entries that
Sorace: ir.- - .:.,-  , ;: -       ,       accompany each table in subsequent sections.
1998 World Development Indicators    31



O              ~1.6 Key indicators for other economies
Population  Land  Population                 Gross national product                   Ufe      AdulIt   Carbon
area    density                                                         expectancy illiteracy  dioxide
at      rate   emissions
birth
Per capita
average            average             PPP               % of
thousand  people          annualI growth     aninual growth  PPP  our capita       ovple 15  thou.sand
thousands  sq. km  per sq. km  $ millions  %      $        %     $ min' cns   $       yearn  and ab3ove  tons
1996     1.995     1996     19961   1995-96   1996,    1995-96   1996,    1996'     1996   pe1995     1995
Afghanistan                 24,167    652.1      40         .                                              ..    45        69      1.238
American Samoa                  60      0.2     300         . 
Andorra                         71      0.2     160e
Antigua and Barbuda             66      0.4     150       462      6.5     7,330     5.5       569     8,660     75
Aruba                           77      0.2     400         . 
Bahamas, The                  284      10.0      30        ..e2,891                                   10,180     73         2      1,707
Bahrain                       599       0.7     870        d.                                8,368    13,970     73        15    14,832
Barbados                      264       0.4     610        d.       *                        2.778    10.510     76         3       824
Belize                        222      22.8      10       600      4.4     2,700     1.9       927     4.170     75         ..      414
Bermuda                        62       0.1   1.240                             e75
Bhutan                        715      47.0      20       282      7.3      390      2.6         ...             53       58        238
Brunei                        290       5.3      50         .                                              ..    75       12      8,233
Cape Verde                    389       4.0     100       393      3.1     1,010      1.0    1,028 f   2,64-0    66        28       114
Cayman Islands                  32      0.3     130         . 
Channel Islands                148                                              e ..78
Comoros                        505      2.2     230       228     -4.7      450     -8.2       893 ~   1,770 f   59       43         66
Cyprus                         740      9.2      80        ..        .                 .    15,163 f20,490       77         ..    5,177
Djibouti                      619      23.2      30        ..       .                  .         .         .     50       54        370
Dominica                       74       0.8     100       228      3.3     3.090     2.3       323     4,390     74
Equatorial Guinea             410      28.1      10       217     24.1      530     20.5     1.104     2,690     50         ..      132
Faeroe Islands                 47       1.4      30e
Fiji                          803      18.3      40     1,983      6.8     2.470     5.6     3,268     4.070     72         8       737
French Guiana                 153      88.2       2                             e      ,                   .       .        .       872
French Polynesia              220       3.7      60         .        ,C                *..                       72
Greenland                      58    341.7        0         ..  ~                                          .     68
Grenada                         99      0.3     290       285      5.2     2,880     1.1       430     4,340
Guadeloupe                    422       1.7     250                             d                                75
Guam                          153       0.6     280                             e74
Guyana                        839     196.9       4       582     13.5      690     11.3     1,912     2,280     64         2       934
Iceland                       270    100.3        3     7,175      7.9   26,580      7.1     5,862    21,710     79         ..    1,803
Isle of Ma                     72       0.6     120        d.       , 
..........~~~F 
This table shows data for 62 economies-smnall  *Population is based on the de facto definition of
economies with populations between 30,000 and 1  population, which counts all residents regardJess of
million, smaller economies if they are members of  legal status or citizenship. Refugees not permanently
the World Bank, and larger economies for which data  settled in the country of asylum are generally con-
are not regularly reported. Where data on GNP per  sidered part of the population of the country of ori-
capita are not available, the estimated range is given,  gin. The values shown are midyear estimates for
1996. See asac table 2.1. * Land area a a country's
total area, exclud ng areas uncur inland bodies of
water. * Population density as midyear population
divided by lanc area in square kilometers. * Gross
national product (GNP) is the sum of value added by
all resident producers plus any taxes (less subsidies)
that are net inciuded in the valuation of output plus
net -eceipts of primary income (employee compen-
sation and property income) from nonresident
32 1e98 World Development Indicators



40
1.6
Population  Land   Population                  Gross national product                     Ufe      Aduft    Carbon
area     density                                                           expectancy Illiteracy  dioxide
at      rate    emissions
birth
Per capita
average             average              PPP                % of
thousand   people          annual growth       annual growth  PPP   per capita         people 15  thousand
thousands  sq. kmn  per aq. km  $mill ions  %       $         %     $ mill ions  $        yearn  and above   tons
±996      ±.995    1996      19961    1.995-96  1996,    1995-96    1L996b    1996b     1996     1995      1995
Kiribati                        -82.   0..   7    110  ....  75       6.0       920      4.5 . ..  ...          .....  60
Liberia                       2,810     96.3       30          *                                                      49        62        319
Liechtenstein                    31      0.2_     190.         .     ....
Luxembourg                      416       2.6     160    18,850       9.3    45,360      7.7    14,328    34,480      77                9,263
Macno                          461       0.0   23,070          .a7 7                                                             ..     1.231
Maldives                        256      0.3      850       277     10.4     -1,080.     6:9.9..... 802     3,140     64         7        183
Malta                           373      0.3    1,170du                                           5,174    13,870     77         .      1,726
Marshall Islands                 57      0l.2     290       108       4.3     1,890      2.7    ...-......
Martinique                     384       j1.1     360                               e                           ..    77                2,037
Mayotte.108                              .0.3     340'.
Micronesia, Fed. Sts.          .109 0....O.7.    .160 . .   225       4.3     2,070     .2:5 '         .              66   .....
Monaco                           32      0.0   16,840 
Netherlands Antilles ....       202.     0.8      250e.                                                                76
New Caledonia                   197     18.6       10          ..       ,                                             74.               1,715
Northern Mariana Islands         63      0.5      110          .
Palau                            17      0.5       40          . 
Qatar658                                11.        60                                           10,745    16,330      72        21     29,019
Reunion                         664       2.5     270                               a.                                7 5               1,554
Samoa                           172       2.8      60       200       6.9     1,170      6~4 ...................... 69             .......132
S5o Tom6 and Principe           135       1.0     140         45      6.9       330.     3.1...                       64   ......25 ....   77
Seychelles                      .77      0.5      170 .  .  .  526    3.33..... 6.850.   1.3.           .......        71       21       ........
Solomon Islands                 389      28.0      10       349       2.2       900      0.0       876 1    2,250 1    63        .        161
Somalia                       9,805    627.3       20                               c                 ,-              49                   11
St. Kitts and Nevis .....41               0..4   .110 . ..240         8.0     5,870.     8.3       299      7,310. .70 ...
St. Lucia                       158       0.6     260       653       4.6     3.500      3.2       777      4,920      70
St. Vincent and the Grenadines  112       0.4     290       264       4.7     2,370... .4.4       .465      4,160..    73..............
Suriname                        432    156.0        3       433      20.5     1,000     19.0      1,136     2,630     71         7      2,151
Swaziland                       926     17.2        0      112        14      110       -6       3,075      3,320.    57   .    2 3       454
Tornga                           97      0.7.     140 .     175       3.4     1,790      2.9...                       72
Vanuatu                         173      12.2      10       224       8.7     1,290      5.7       522 1    3,020 f    64        .         62
Virgin Islands (U.S.)            98      0.3      290          .        ,e                                      .      76
a. Calculated using the World aank Atlas method. b. Purchasing poser parity, See the notes following these tables. c. Estimated to he low income l$785 or less). d. Estimated to be upper mid-
dle income $3,11e to $9,6351. e. Estimated to be high income ($9,636 or more). f. The estimate is based on regression; others are extrapolated from the latest International comparison
Programme benchmark estimates. g.Estimated to be lower middle income ($786 to $3,115).
Data sources
sources. Data are in current U.S. dollars converted  economies reporting data. * Life expectancy at  The indicators here and throughout the rest of the
using the World Bank Atlas method (see Statistical  birth is the number of years a newborn infant mould  book have been compiled by World Bank staff from
methodis). Rank is calculated for economies report-  live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of  primary and secondary sources. More information
ing data. Growth is calculated from constant price  its birth mere to stay the same throughout its life,  about the indicators and their sources can be found
GNP in national currency units. * GNP per capita is  * Adult illiteracy rate is the percentage of adults  in the About the data, Definitions, and Data sources
gross national product divided by midyear population,  aged 15 and above who cannot, with understanding,  entries that accompany each table in subsequent
GNP per capita in U.S. dollars is converted using the  read and write a short, simple statement about their  sections.
World Dank Atlas method. Rank is calculated for  everyday life. * Carbon dioxide emissions are those
economies reporting data. Growth is calculated from  stemming from the burning of fossil fuels and the
constant price GNP per capita in national currency  manufacture of cement. They include carbon dioxide
units. * GNP in PPP terms is gross national product  produced during consumption of solid fuels, liquid
converted to international dollars using purchasing  fuels, gas fuels, end gas flaring.
power parit rates. An international dollar has the
same purchasing power over GNP as the U.S. dollar
in the United States. Rank is calculated for
1998 World Development Indicators 33



--Nq~~~l-



Development is about people and their well-being-about people develop-
S     ing their capabilities to provide for their families, to act as stewards of the envi-
ronment, to form civil societies that are just and orderly. The international
consensus emerging around a set of development goals for the 21st century
(see the introduction to the first section, World View) captures many parts of
well-being: current and future health status, educational attainment, and free-
dom from extreme deprivation. Here we look at the social indicators identified
by a recent OECD-United Nations-World Bank conference (box 2a) and at
the statistical systems that produce them. Are the indicators reliable? Do they
accurately and adequately measure the outcomes they intend to track? Can
good decisions be made based on the indicators? Too often the answer is no,
but the alternative is to know nothing and do nothing.
Poverty
The 21st century goals call for reducing poverty by half by 2015. Inadequate
income and consumption levels are not only undesirable in themselves, they
can lead to such other problems as crime and violence, and the reduced
capacity to enjoy the full benefits and opportunities offered by the commu-
nity. But poverty is easier to define than to measure, and in many countries
there is more than one definition of poverty and more than one way to mea-
sure it. The three indicators selected to measure progress in reducing
poverty-the headcount index, the poverty gap index (see table 2.7 for def-
initions), and either the income or consumption share of the lowest quin-
tile-reflect income (or consumption) poverty. The headcount index and
the poverty gap are based on an international poverty line of $1 a day
defined in constant prices and measured in purchasing power parity dollars.
The advantage of a common poverty line is that it permits comparisons
based explicitly on equivalent real baskets of goods and services. It also
allows aggregations across countries to track regional poverty. The disad-
vantage is that it is not based on local development circumstances (and thus
might not be adopted by a country) and that it varies widely from measures
based on national poverty lines (see table 2.7). Not all countries will be able
meet the poverty reduction goal, but poverty for large regions or even for
developing countries as a group could be cut in half by 2015 through con-
certed effort.



All three indicators measure the economic dimensions of         measurestheextentto whichtheppoorsharein economicgrowth.
poverty. The headcount index provides a count of the people in      But being poor means nmuch more than being poor in income. It
poverty. The poverty gap measures the amount of additional          means being poor in health, educatioin, and access to goods and
income per capita, expressed as a proportion of the poverty line.   services and involves other sources of vulnerability. The three
that, if available to the poor, would lift them  out of extreme     poverty indicators do not capture these noneconomic dimen-
poverty. The income consumption share of the lowest 20 percent      sions. Child malnutrition has been proposed as a cross-check on
income povertv because the prevalence of malnourished chil-
dren is an indication of poverty. It should be noted, however, that
the absence of malnourished members does not mean that a
Social goals and indicators for the 21st century                household is not poor.
A recent OECD-United Nations-World Bank conference (held in Paris on  The reliability of the income poverty indicators depends on
February 16-17, 1998) identified 6 social goals and 16 complementary  the quality of the income and conisumption data, which are usu-
indicators to be monitored by the development community as part of a  ally obtained from household surveys. In poor countries house-
new international development strategy. (The table numbers in
parentheses show where these indicators appear in the World    hold income is difficult to measure because a number of
Development Indicators.)                                       activities, products, and   services go unrecorded. In      these
Reduce poverty by half                                         instances calculations may be based on consumption (which
* Headcount index (table 2.7)                                  tends to understate inequalitv and household income differen-
* Poverty gap index (table 2.7)
* Income inequality: share of income accruing to poorest 20 percent  tals). Many rural transactions are not conducted i cash and a
(table 2.8)                                                  part of rural household consumption is obtained from what are
* Child malnutrition (table 2.16)                              called 'common property resources" not usually recorded in
Provide universal primary education                             household consumption aggregates. All this implies that esti-
* Net primary enrollment rate (table 2.10)                     mates of household income and consumption have a high vari-
* Progression to grade 5 (table 2.11)
e Literacy rate of 15-24 year olds (table 1.2)1                ance   and  may   be understated. Estimates of icome         and
consumption are also affected by the limitations of sample sur-
Improve gender equality in education                           veys: recall errors, short reference periods, and the exclusion
* Gender differences in education and literacy (tables 1.3 and 2.12)
from the sampling frame of people in remote areas and other
Reduce infant and child mortality                               marginal groups who are most likely to be poor.
* infant mortality rate (table 2.17)
* Under-5 mortality rate (table 2.17)                              The gathermg of household mcome and consumption data
therefore presents problems, particttlarlv in subsistence societies.
Reduce maternal mortality                                       Somc of the problems, particularly the practical ones rclating to
* Maternal mortality ratio (table 2.1 5)
* Births attended by health staff (table 2.15)                 respondents' inability to remember, can be overcome bv carefully
questioning individual household members, paving frequent vis-
EpContraceptive prevalence rate (table 2.15)                   its to the household, or applying consistency checks. But the
* Total fertility rate (table 2.15)                            sheer size of the task makes frequent survey's of this kind imprac-
* HIV prevalence in pregnant 15-24 year olds (table 2.16)1     tical for poor countries that lack sound statstical systems. This
1. These data are not yet available, but the referenced tables show  difficulty is reflected in coverage rates for country poverty indi-
comparable indicators.                                          cators, which are well below 50 percent (table 2a). A concerted
effort will have to be made to motivate and equip governments
Coverage of poverty indicators by region, 1996
Number of
Number of low-            countries for                %                    Number of
and middle-income           which data              of population         countries with two
Region                               countfies              are available             represented           or more data sets
'il 1 .~IIc,- sKI                   ...   .    .    .   .6..              r5                                   5
Europe and Central Asia                27                       18                       72                      18
| jl.ll s.-,,r,.: ;n,] Ir:: ;r.l.t34                  15                       84                       10
Middle East and North Africa           15                        5                       47                       3
. S1"; - . i                           8                        5                        98                       3
Sub-Saharan Africa                     49                       19                       66                       3
Source: World Bank.
36   1998 World Development Indicators



to undertake household surveys on a regular basis to monitor  school censuses organized by the ministry of education at the
progress and aid policymaking.                             beginning of each school year. Low enrollment rates signal
The World Bank's program for improving the collection of  inadequacies in providing universal access to primary education
data on poverty involves twvo main steps. First, an in-house  and may in turn identify factors that prevent children from
review is being conducted to take stock of existing databases  enrolling or remaining in school. They do not, however, fully
in all client countries. Second, based on the review results,  capture participation in the process, because participation rates
strategies will be developed to increase awareness of the need  require data on daily attendance by age, grade, and gender.
to collect such information at the country level. Because the  Some statistical offices collect data on school attendance
surveys needed for poverty data are the responsibility of client  through household and sample surveys, but such periodic
governments, capacity building at the country level will be key  assessments serve more as a check on official enrollment statis-
to a continued flow of reliable poverty data in developing  tics. In addition, coverage of net enrollment data is extremely
countries.                                                 limited (table 2b), and the rates themselves have been criticized
for their unreliability (UNRISD 1993).
Universal primary education                                    Progression to grade 5 is concerned with the retention of chil-
The formal education system is the principal means by which peo-  dren in school and their eventual acquisition of basic literacy and
ple acquire knowledge, skills, and shared values. The 21st century  numeracy. It has, as its starting point, the number of children
goals call for universal primary education by 2015. Through  enrolled. But again, enrollment does not mean attendance, and
schooling, individual (and ultimately societal) ideas, aspirations,  in the absence of detailed individual pupil records, which are
and behaviors change. Female autonomy, through reduced fer-  costly to build and maintain, assumptions have to made about
tility and the ability to take advantage of opportunities that are  promotion, repetition, and attrition. So progression estimates are
an alternative to childbearing, is powerfully linked to education.  likely to be biased upward. More fundamentally, retention does
And primary education is important because literacy and numer-  not translate to acquisition of basic skills. Thus there is a need to
acy expand personal horizons and potential. It is also the entry  identify actual learning outcomes through the formal (and non-
point for future education. Universal primary education is a com-  formal) educational system that are universally accepted and can
posite of three dimensions, each measured by a different indica-  be applied by all countries.
tor: access and participation are measured by net primary      The literacy rate of 15-24 year olds is an outcome measure
enrollment, retention by progression to grade 5, and achieve-  that reflects skills acquired through both formal and nonformal
ment of basic literacy by the literacy rate of 15-24 year olds.  training. Methods of measuring literacy vary within countries,
Net primary enrollment measures the percentage of the   and standards have changed over time. So changes in recorded
official primary school-age population that is enrolled in pri- literacy rates may not be a reliable measure of the success or fail-
mary education. Data are typically collected during national  ure of the education system. Still, levels of literacy are important
ends in themselves because they represent a key element in the
I Mr                                      quality of life.
Literacy rates are usually derived from data on self-declared
Coverage of net primary enrollment indicators by continent, 1995  literacy in censuses or from updating census or survey estimates
neral data     Data by gender                   with current estimates of school enrollment, not criteria-based lit-
Toaw  Number of  %of   Number of  % of     eracy tests. And although the United Nations Educational,
number o0 reporting  countries reporting countries  Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has issued
Continent  countries counries represented countries represented
1l,,:,  -.  4i   -.,.  l:   ..    guidelines for estimating literacy levels, international compara-
Americas     50      20       40     18       36        bility is affected by differences in methods (some countries test
4 ,,- I,,,z,,. 1,.:. 12  :i.  42      '       J.       literacyintheofficiallanguage,othersinthemothertongue) and
completeness of coverage.
UNESCO has implemented several initiatives to improve
Source: UNESCO.                                         the quality and coverage of statistics, including an end of the
decade education-for-all assessment, strengthening of national
education statistical systems in Sub-Saharan Africa, and similar
initiatives in other regions. It is also promoting the increased
use of household and sample surveys to supplement national
administrative files in order to monitor and test literacy status.
Such surveys and the expansion of coverage of statistical infor-
mation systems should also be used to providc process indica-
tors to monitor the additional dimensions of universal primary
education, such as the net intake of students at grade one,
school attendance rates, and learning achievements.
1998 World Development Indicators  37



Mortality reduction                                       care and thereby reducing maternal mortality is essential to
The 21st century goals call for a two-thirds reduction in child  improving women's health status. Improving womein's social
mortality by 2015. Beyond its obvious relevance as a measure of  status and ensuring gender equity in health care ar-c important
health conditions, child mortality is one of the best indicators  strategies for achieving these goals. The importance of this goal
of overall socioeconomic development in a community. The  for society cannot be emphasized enough. Providing repro-
two indicators selected to measure progress are the infant mor-  ductive health services to women-and men-will have a sig-
tality rate and the under-five mortality rate. Both capture the  nificant effect on their health and well-being, on the size of the
threat to children, but each focuses on a different mix of risks:  future world population, and on the quality of life of future
the infant mortality rate captures risks at the earliest stage of  generations.
life closely related to the health of the mother and the socioe-  Measuring progress in providing access to reproductive
conomic circumstances of the family. The under-five mortality  health is a major challenge because the area broadly encom-
rate captures a range of influences on health that reflect com-  passes many health needs and behaviors. cultural and religious
munal development, and are most amenable to change.        attitudes, and supply-side factors. The indicators cover several
For monitoring this goal in high-mortality countries, the  dimensions of reproductive health, and most are available in
infant mortality rate is less desirable than the under-five mor-  the majority of developing countries: contraceptive prevalence
tality rate (which includes infant mortality) for two reasons.  rate, total fertility rate, maternal mortality ratio, and births
First, less than 20 percent of under-five deaths are infant  attended by trained and skilled health staff. TIgether, they
deaths. A large portion of these infant deaths are neonatal  indicate the degree to which reproductive health services are
(occurring in the first month) and are more difficult to affect  accessible and used. Ibe use of contraceptioni and lower fer-
through policy interventions after the event. While it is possi- tility reduce the risk of dying during pregnancy and childbirth.
ble to distinguish neonatal from post-neonatal deaths, such  Prenatal care and delivery attended by skilled personnel are
data are not easy to come by in the many countries where civil  essential for prompt identification, referral, and treatment of
registration of deaths is incomplete and where infants dying  complications. An additional indicator, HIV prevalence in
during the first weeks of life, especially in remote rural areas,  pregnant women age 15-24, has been proposed by the Joint
may not even have been recorded as being born.             United  Nations Programme    on   HIV/AIDS    (UNAIDS),
Second, in low- and middle-income countries mortality  although the methodology is still being finalized. Having this
between the ages of 1 and 5 can be quite high (in contrast to  information is considered importanit. particularls where HIV
high-income countries, where less than 20 percent of under-  prevalence is high (WHO 19971)).
five deaths are child deaths), reflecting the effects of malnu-  A well-functioning referral system for emergency obstetric
trition, incomplete immunization, the lack of adequate     complications is an important dimension of access to repro-
sanitation and safe water, and other basic preventive public  ductive health care and is essential to reducing maternal mor-
health measures. For monitoring the effects of targeted inter-  tality. Key elements of referral systems include skilled birth
ventions, the under-five mortality rate is therefore preferable.  attendants, emergency transport, and appropriately cquipped
All governments are committed to measuring these indica-  and staffed referral centers. MIeasuring the quality accessibil-
tors, and the expertise to measure them exists in almost all ity, and use of referral systems is difficult and should be aug-
countries. The principal sources are vital registration systems  mented by maternal death audits, verbal autopsies, and
(covering at least 90 percent of the population) and direct or  documentation of the social and logistical factors related to
indirect estimates based on sample surveys and censuses.   referral, numbers of women referred, medical condcition lead-
Unfortunately, effective vital registration systems are not comn-  ing to referral and upon arrival at referral facilitn, and out-
mon in developing counitries. But most countries now have at  comes.
least one estimate of infant or under-five mortality based on  There has been much debate about the feasibility of using
empirical data. Because building reliable vital registration sys- the maternal mortality ratio as a measure of the quality of care.
tems is a lengthy process, the United Nations Children's Fund  Unless there is an excellent vital registration system in the
(UNICEF) recommends that countries use international sur-  country and medical attribution of cause of death, conducting
vey programs such as the Demographic and Health Surveys    a survey is the most practical way of getting estimates. But sur-
(DHS) that contain questions to measure these indicators. It vey methods differ in several attributes, producing estimates
further recommends that survey measurements be done every  that can be imprecise. Observed differences in the maternal
three to five years.                                      mortality ratio may not reflect improved maternal health sta-
tus. Instead they mav be due to changes in the repor-ting sys-
Maternal mortality and access to reproductive health      tem or to wide random fluctuation from a small nuimber of
The objective of reducing maternal mortality by three-fourths  events. The World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF
should be viewed il Lthe cointext Of the imiore comprehlcnsive  have derived maternal mortality ratio estimates using a clcmo-
goal of providing access, through the primary health care sys-  graphic model. But surveys cannot detect significant changes
tem, to reproductive health servicesforallwho need them. The  in maternal mortality over time. And model-based estimates
two are interrelated: providing access to reproductive health  cannot monitor trends in maternal rmortality either.
38  1998 World Development Indicators



Despite the problems with reliable data collection, mater-
nal mortality ratio is now widely used. It may be combined with
fertility to calculate a lifetime risk of dying during pregnancy
and childbirth. According to WHO (1997b), any alternative
outcome indicators for maternal health will have similar prob-
lems with reliable data collection.
Data issues are also likely to weaken the monitoring capa-
bility of the remaining indicators. Survey measures of total fer-
tility and contraceptive prevalence are affected by recall errors
and nonspecific reference periods. For contraceptive preva-
lence derived from program statistics, the accuracy of the
assumptions is difficult to assess. International comparisons of
births attended by health staff are limited by differing defini-
tions of what constitutes trained and skilled. Nor does the mea-
sure reflect the content and quality of care provided, so that
countries with similar levels could have large discrepancies in
actual care provided. While there are no proposals to improve
coverage of these indicators, international survey programs
such as the DHS provide the most rcliablc information for their
estimation.
The need for better data
Establishing a reliable system for monitoring living standards
at disaggregated levels requires a well-functioning sample sur-
vey apparatus. Many countries already conduct excellent
household surveys that generate sufficiently disaggregated
information to facilitate planning, and international survey
programs such as the DHS have helped to improve the quality
and comparability of basic indicators of living standards. For
other countries, however, the state of the data does not even
allow an accurate estimate of basic indicators. For these coun-
tries the World Bank's Living Standards Measurement and
Social Dimensions of Adjustment surveys, with bilateral and
multilateral support, provide one way to build local capacity.
Beyond data generation, however, the organizational struc-
ture in which statistical work takes place is also important,
including cultivation of demand for good data by governments.
Development institutions such as the United Nations
Development Programme and the World Bank can help nur-
ture this demand within countries by emphasizing the need for
well-informed policy decisions, based on reliable and timely
information on economic and social progress.
1998 World Development Indicators 39



Lire r.e:FjnC, r.e E.rv;  .e                    I    rrw,-r.r          *  'n  l :.r AIDr 
Buri,na F     C.:.re ,t Fi.:re  Sutr  rr,,:a  .,nr.ab..e   Er.y,i       Tr,,3,Iar,,J
Eastern Europe and
Western Europe    Central As.a
East Asia and the Pacific  
North  999999ff                      ttt               i                ; 9   JO a
America  t99999it a
t                         Middle East            9itt9tttt9ttttttttttttt South and Southeast Asia      a)
9tttCarribean      and North Alrica ittt  cttffttttttttttttttttttt   :.:
f99 3ic.ci:ic,    1,: .:,:,:            Nttt999ff9ff*ttitttttttt
Latin~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i
Latin 999t9ttt      99999999ff 999999ff 9999199999999 9999999ttttt9rr
America t9tt              999999999999999999999fft99 tt9ft*9999
Australia and             .°
t  Nevr Zealand
l .r,g Yw[h HIul AIS 193rd            I 99919999999999tf9t9999i999|99999*9999  Sub-Saharan
h Hit           99999999999999999999999ffff9ff9999999999 ~~~~~Africa                         in
f-o
Zr
HIIi ..i :: s , a Ii d.-- rr,: ,r, lie,. r,:I,,; .1 r3e  HIi,   j   :1  ;i,Ii Ic ;'1- I :   ri-c :, a,  i e 
1990                  2020
SO~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
40     32                                                              #                         /             N
20  g1F  ff  t8  *  HIV   Q TB        Other 
S.r, r3rr,,   A.     Lii3;nr Ar,;,,.:  U.Ii  le East  All
ar.j rnd            developing   Source: World Bank,
r.t. ; r,  1J,:, T Africa  countries  Confronting AIDS: Public
ai. Global
40 ~  ~         ~        ~        ~         ; .-. 9  jI.



AIDS Is a large and growing problem that has already taken a terrible toll on people and their communities. Many
countries still have an opportunity to avert a full-scale AIDS epidemic, but others-mostly in the developing
world-are being forced to deal with the consequences of widespread HIV infection. In these countries, until
prevention programs become more effective, life expectancy will fall, the number of orphans will increase, poverty
will worsen, and health care systems will come under increasing strain.
U   new HIV infections wil cO
Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia have seen the fastest growth in new adult HIV infections
4.0                   LO                C)                L              o
0c                co                cc               cc 
Sub-
Saharan
Africa
3.0
2.0
South and
Southeast Asia
1.0                                                                              East Asia
and the Pacific
Latin America
OS.#0°        W.     ,   _  . ,.O,        * F-         I
E 0  6-                     * --.                    -
Source: UNAIDS.                              Established market economies
Note: UNAIDS analytical regions differ from
those used elsewhere in the World Development Indicators.
1998 World Development Indicators  41



2.1 Population
Total            Average aninual populati'on  Age dependency  Population age  Women
population               growth rate            ratio        60 and above   age 60 and above
sepeneen's as
prpo,.rt onofworking-
millions                   %                age population    7 of -:otal     oe, 100 men
1980    1996    2010  I   1980-96    1996-2010    1980    199e    199e    2010    1996     2010
Albania                    3       3       4         1.3         0.9        0.7     0.6      9.3    11.6    118      114
Algeria                   19      29      37         2.7         1.9        1.0     0.7      6.8     6.5    112      113
Angola                     7      11      16         2.9         2.7        0.9     1.0      4.6     4.3    121      119
Argentina                 28      35      41         1.4         1.0        0.6     0.6    1-3.2    14.1    134      134
Armenia                    3       4       4         1.2         0.4        0.6     0.5     11.7    14.0    136      143
Australia                 15      18      20         1.4         0.7        0.5     0.5     15.6    19 2    122      116
Austria                    8       8       B         0.4         0.0        0.6     0.5     19.4    23.3    154      129
Azerbaijan                 6       8.      8         1.3         0.5        0.7     0.6      9.5   '10.2    145      154
Bangladesh                87     122     150         2.1         1.5        1.0     0.8      5.0     6.0     82       95
Belarus                   10      10      10         0.4        -0.3        0.5     0.5     18.1    19.0    180      172
Belgium                   10      10      10         0.2         0.0        0.5     0.5     21.2    23.9    137      130
Basin                      3       6       8         3.0         2.7        1.0     1.0      44      4.6    124      126
Bolivia                    5       8      10         2.2         2.1        0.9     0.8      6.0     6.4    120      123
Bosnia and Herzegovina     4       ..0.5
Botswana                   1       1       2         3.1         1.4        1.0     0.8      3.7     3.8    189      152
Brazil                   121     161     190         1.8         1.2        0.7     0.6      7.2     9.0    122      131
Bulgaria                   9       8       7        -0,.4       -0.9        0.5     0.5     20.7    24.4    127      138
Burkina Faso               7      11      15         2.7         2.4        1.0     1.0      4.7     3.8    111      140
Burundi                    4       6       9         2.8         2.4        0.9     1.0      4.3     3.4    151      147
Cambodia                   6      10      13         2.9         1.8        0.7     0.8      4.8     5.8    174      159
Cameroon                   9      14      19         2.8        .2.4        0.9     01.9     5.5     4.9    117      114
Canada                    25      30      33         1.2         0.6        0.5     0.5     18.2    20.4    127      118
Central African Republic   2       3       4         2.3         1.9        2.8     0.9     4.1      5.2    132      134
Chao                       4       7       9         2.4         2.3        0.8     0.9      5.7     5.2    123      121
Chile                     11      14      17         1.6         1.1        0.6     0.6      9.7    12.6    134      130
China                    981   1,215   1,349         1.3         0.7        3.7     0.5      9.8    11.9    101      100
Hong Kong, China          5       6       7         1.4         0.5        2.5     0.4     14.1    17.7    103       98
Colombia                  28      37      45         1.8         1.3        0.8     0.6      7.8     9.2    109      125
Congo, Bem. Re p.         27      45      69         3.2         3.0        1.0     1.0      4.5     4.3    130      123
Congo, Rep.                2       3       4         3.0         2.4        0.9     1.0      5.6     4.1    145      144
Costa Rica                 2       3       4         2.6         1.4        0.7     0.6      7.1     9.5    114      114
C6te dIlvoire              8      14      19         3.5         2.1        1.0     0.9      4.6     4.8     94       90
Croatia                    5       5       5         0.2        -0.3        0.5     0.5     21.3    23.3    155      143
Cuba                      10      11I     1 2        0.8         0.4        0.7     0.5     12.6    17.2    107      114
Czech Republic            10      10      10         0.1        -0.2        0.6     0.5     17.4    22.8    145      133
Denmark                    5       5       5         0.2         0.0        0.5     0.5     19.5    23.0    132      121
Dominican Republic         6       8      10         2.1         1.4        0.8     0.6      8.3     7.9    102      106
Ecuador                    8      12      15         2.4         1.6        0.9     0.7      6.5     7.6    113      119
Egyt, Arab Rep.           41      59      74    ~    2.3         1. 6       9.8 .   0.7      8.6     7.7    116      114
El Salvador                5       6       8         1.5         2.0        1.0     0.7      8.5     6.7    120      133
Eritrea                    .       4       6           ..3.0                 ..     0.9      4.8     4.7    114      110
Estonia                    1       I       1        -0.1        -1.0        0.5     0.5     18.6    23.9    187      191
Ethiopia                  38      58      89         2.7         3.0        1.0     1.0      4.5     4.3    122      111
Finland                    5       5       5         0.4         0.2        0.5     0.5     19.0    24.3    151      131
France                    54      58      60         0.5         0.2        0.8     0.5     20.2    22.5    139      133
Gabon                      1       1       2         3.0         2.1        0.7     0.       8.9     8.0    118      122
Gambia, The                1       1       2         3.6         2.3        0.8     0.8      4.8     5.7    112      112
Georgia                    5       5       5         0.4         0.0        0.5     0.5     18 7    18.7    155      157
Germany                   78      82      81         0.3        -0.1        0.8     0.5     21.0    25.1    152      128
Ghana                     11      18      24         3.1         2.3        0.9     0.9      4.8     5.1    118      118
Greece                    10      10      11         0.5         0.1        0.6     0.5     22.4    25.5    121      125
Guatermala                 7      11      15         2.9         2.3        1.0     0.       5.3     5.3    108      117
Guinea                     4       7      10         2.6         2.8        0.9     1.0      4.2     4.1    109      106
Guinea-Bissau              1       1       1         1.9         2.2        0.8     0.9      6.4     5.7    115      115
Haiti                      5       7       9         2.0         1.6        0.8     0.8      5.9     5.8    119      129
Honduras                   4       6       9         3.2         2.4        1.0     0.9      4.9     4.9    113      116
42  iass World Development Indicators



2.1
Total               Average annual population    Age dependency     Population age         Women
population                   growth rate                ratio          60 and above      age 60 and above
dependents as
proportion of working-
millions%                                          age population       % of total        per 100 men
19B0     1996     2010        1980-96      1996-2010      1980      1996     1996      2010     1996      2010
Hungary           ~11                   1010       0        _-0.3 ........-0.4'     ~   0.5_   _ 0.5      19.3.     21.59.    153       152
India                         687      945     1,129          2.0           1.3         0.7       0.6       7.3      8.6      106       106
Indonesia                     148     .197      236           1.8          .1.3         0.8       0.6       6.7      8.4      114       117
Iran, Islamic Rep.             39       63       81           2.9           1.9         0.9_      0.8       6.4      6.5       79.       84
Iraq                           13       21       31           3.1          2.8          0.9       0.8       4.7      5.6      112       I1l
Ireland                         3        4         40.4                     0.5         0.7       0.5      15.1     17.4      126       120
Israel                          4        6         72.4                     1.7         0.7       0.6     10.9      11.7      122       116
Italy   .........56             57        55          0.1         .-0.3          0.5 0..   -.5     22. 1    26.1      136       132
Jamaica                         2        3         31.1                     0.8         0.9       0.6       8.8      9.3      121       122
Japan                  I..... 117      126       127          0.5    ...... 0:.1         05.5. . 0.4       21.0     29.8      131       123
Jordan                          2        4         64.3                    .2:6.6   .... 1.1      0.8       4.6      5.6       78       .96
Kazakhstan                     15       16        17.         0.6 ....I....0.1          0.6      0..6 . ...10.2    .118.8.    174  ..159
Kenya                          17       27       36          .3.1           2.0         1.1.      0.9       4.2     .3~8      114       114
Korea, Dem. Rp .....           18       22    ~  26.          1.5.          09          0.8       0.5       7.4      9.6     _168       119
Korea,Rep.                     38       46       50           1.1           0.7         0.6       0.4       9.2     13.6      146       130
Kuwait                          1        2         2          0.9           2.3         0.7       0.6       3.1      6.9       62        74
Kyrgy Republic                  4..      5         51.4                     1.1         0.8       0.7       8.5      7.8      156       146
Lao PDR                         3        5         7          2.4           2.4         0.8       0.9       5.6      57 .0.....109, .   125
Latvia              ...........3         2         2         -0.1          -0.7         0.5       0.5      19.1     233.3 1.. 94 .     .191
Lebanon                         3        4         51.9                     1.4         0.8       0.6       8.3      83.3     115       125
Lesotho                         1        2         32.4                     2.0         0.9       0.8       6.0      66.6     126       119
Libya                           3        5         7          3.3           2.3         1.0       0.8       4.9      6.3       83        87
Lithuania             3.. ...            4.        4          0.5         -0.2          0.5       0.5      17.6     20.0      175..     176
Macedonia, FYR                  2        .2.       2 ..       0.3 .. .      0j.7        0.6       0.5      12.7    .15.5      118       119
Madag asa                       9       14        20          2.8           2.8         0,9       0.9  ~    4.7      4.8      119       118
Malawi                          6       10        14          3.1           2.3         1:.0       1.0      4 .2     4:0     .118       107
Malaysia                       14       21        26          2.5           1.6         0.8       0.7       6 0      7.9      117       114
Mali                            7       10        15          2.6           2.8         1.0       1.0       4.2      3.9~     131       140
Mauritania                     .2        2.        3          26.6         .23.3       .0.9       0.8       5.1      5.2 ..   124.      117
Mauritius                       1        1         11.0                     1.0         0.6       0.5       8.5     11.0      130       131
Mexico                         67       93      115           2.1           1.5         1.0       0.6       6.2      8.1      120       125
Moldova                         4        4         40.5                     0.0         0.5       0.5      13.6     148.8     157.      152
Mongolia                        2        3         32.6                     1.9         0.9       0.7       5.8      5.9      123       Ill
Morocco                        19       27        34          2.1           1.6         0.9       0.7       6.3      7.1      114       127
Mozambique                     12       18        25          2.5           2.4         0.9      .0.9       4.1      4.2      126       120
Myanmar               ~~34      46        55          1.9           1.3          0.8      0.7       6.8       7.2     116       118
Namibia                         1        2         2          2.7           2.1         0.9       0.8       5.7      5.5      120       115
Nepal                          14       22        31          2.6           2.3         0.8       0.9       5.5      5.7       97       101
Netherlands                    14       16        16          0.6           0.3         0.5       0). 5    17.9     22.3      136       119
New Zealand                     3        4         41.0                     0.7         0.6       0.5      15.4     17.9      123       120
Nicaragua           3...                 5    .    6          3.0           2.4         1.0       0.9       45_.5 .  5:1.1.. . 117.     116
Niger                           6        9        14          3.3           3.0         1.0       1.0       3.9      3.7      123       130
Nigeria                        71      115      166           3.0           2.60.            0.9            4.1      43.3     130     ..127
Norway                          4        4         50.4                    0.3          0.6       0.5      20.1     22.0      130       119
Oman                            1        2         44.2                     3.8         0.9       1.0       3.9      4.8       99         7
Pakistan                       83      134       190          3.0           25.5       .0.9       0.9       4.9      5.5       96.       97
Panama                          2        3         32.0                     1.3         0.8       0.6       7.6      9.6      103       105
Papua New Guinea                3        4         62.2                     2.0         0.8       0.7 ..    4.9 . ...58.8     103       109
ParagUay                        3        5         7          2.9           22.2         0.9      0.8       5.2      60.0     132       117
Peru                           17       24        302.1                     1.5         0.8       0.7       6.7      7:8.8.   114 .... 116
Philippines                    48       72        92          2.5           1.8         0.8       0.7       5.4      6.8      115       116
Poland                         36       39        40          0.5           0.2         0.5       0.5      15.8     18.2      151       149
Portugal                       10       10        10          0.1          -.           0.6       0.5      21.0     21.2      149       147
Puerto Rico                     3        4         41.0                     0.7         0.7       0 5      13.7     16.6      125       152
Romania                        22       23       22           0.1-0.3                   0.6       0.5      17.4    -19.2      130       138
Russian Federation            139     148       143           0.4         -0.2          0.5       0.5      17.1     18.3      198       181
1998 World Development indicators 43



Total             Average annual population  Age dependency   Population age       Women
population                growth rate              ratio         60 and above    age 60 and above
dependents as
millions                                       age populatior      of total       per 100 men
1980    1.996    2010      1.980-96    1996-2010    ,1,908,o"0, 19,9"6g  1996  2010    1996      2010
Rwanda                       5       7       11          1.7         3.5         1.0     1.0      3.6      3.1     122      125
Saudi Arabia                 9      19       31         4.6          3.3        0.9      0.6      4.4      5.6      92
Senegal                      6       9       12         2.7          2.3         0.9     0.9      4.6      3.9     I11      il1
Sierra Leone                 3       5        6         2.2          2.2        0.9      1.0      4.4      4.2     130      131
Singapore                    2       3        3          1.8         0.9        0.5      0.4      9.5     14.5     117      113
Slovak Republic              5       5        6         0.4          0.2        0.6      0.5     15.0     17.6     148      146
Slovenia                     2       2        2         0.3         -0.1l        0.5     0.4     17.8     22.3     160      138
South Afri'ca               27      36       46         2.0          1.4        0.5      0.5      6.5      7.3     142      140
Spain                       37      39       38         0.3         -0.1        0.6      0.5     20.5     22.8     134      141
Sri Lanka                   15      18       21          1.4         1.0         0.7     0.5      6.9     11.6     106      120
Sudan                       19      27       37         2.4          2.2        0.9      0.6      4,9      5.7     116      110
Sweden                       6       9        9         0.4          0.0        0.6      0.6     21.9     26.0     129      119
Switzerland                  6       7        7         0).7         0.3        0.5      0.5     19.3     23.6     137      126
Syrian Arab Republic         9      15       20         3.2          2.3        1.1      0.9      4.6      4.9     108      120
Tajikistan                   4        6       7          2.5         1.3         0.9     0.8      6.5      6.4     131      124
Tanzania                    19      30       42         3.1          2.2         1.0     0.9      4.1      3.9     120      114
Thailand                   .47      60       66          1.6         0.65        0.8     0,5      7.8      9.8     123      121
Togo.3                               4        6          3.0         2.5         0.9     1.0      4.9      4.4     121      117
Trinidad and Tobao .         1        1        1         1.1         0.9         0.7     0.6      9.0     11.1     102      101
Tunisia                      6       9       II         2.2          1.4         0.8     0.6      7.1      7.8     102      117
Turkey                      44      63       76         2.1          1.3         0.6     0.6      6.2      9.7     113      119
Turkmenistan                 3       5        6         3.0          1.5         0.8     0.8      6.3      6.2     143      133
Uganda                      13      20       27         2.7          2.4        1.0      1.0      3.6      2.5     116       99
Ukraine                     50      51       47         0.1         -0.6        0.5      0.5     19.4     20.9     184      170
United Arab Emirates         1       3        3          5.5         1.9        0.4      0.4      3.2     10.2      45-
United Kingdom              56      59       59         0.3          0.1        0.6      0.5     20.7     23.3     131      121
United States-             227     265      294         1.0          0.7        0.5      0.5     16.4     18.6     134      126
Uruguay                      3       3        3         0.6          0.6        0.6      0.6     17.0     17.2     133      141
Uzbekistan                  16      23       29         2.3          1.6        0.9      0.6      6.6      6.5     141      130
Venezuela                   15      22       28         2.5          1.6         0.6     0.7      6.2      8.4     116      116
Vietnam                     54      75       94         2.1          1.6         0.9     0.7      7.2      6.8     136      142
West Bank and Gaza           1       2        4         4.0          3.5         0.9     0.9      4.4      4.3     103      119
Yemen, Rep.                  9      16       25         3.8          3.3         1.1     1.0      3.9      3.4     126      146
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.l  10    1-1      11         0.5          0.2         0.5     0.5     18.0     19.1     122     -123
Zambia                       6       9       12         3.0          1.9         1.1     1.0      3.7      3.3     101      106
Zimbabwe                     7      11       14          3.0         1.5         1.0     0.6      4.7      4.3     112      103
Low income                2.375   3,236    3,948        1.9          1.4         0.8     0.7      7.4     8.5      105      105
Etx"cl... Ch'i'na ..&.. I"n'dia ..............70' .6.... 1,07..6..... 1',4-7-1.......... 2".6 ..   .   .......2'.2 .......... 0.'9   0.95.  5.2   114  1 .5
Middle Income            1,227   1,599    1,875        1.7          1.1         0.7     0.6      9.1     10.1.13      .    132.
L'owe"r ..m i'dd'le  i'n"co"me ............8-6..7.... 1",1"2..5..... 1",3"13 1..... .6   1  1......... 0.. 7..  0.6  9.2 10. . 1"   13
Upper ..m idde- -i-n-c-o-m..e.... 360  473  562         1.7          1.2        0.7      0.6      8.6    103        13 .   130
Lo-w ..&.. miJd"dle In'co m"e ... 3.602  4,835  5,624......... 1.8.. I3 1.3 ........ 0.'8 0. .6   8.0      9.0.116          114
East- Asias &a.. &...PPacific ....... 1...... 9..I 1.732  1,975 .. 1  1.5  0.9.....  0.7  0.5.............8.7 ...10.6.....0'9   0. 104.06 10
Etu"ro p"e '&.. C'en-t'ral A'sia ... 426  478  490      0.7          020.6               0.5     14.6     16.0    1    .   16
La't'in ..Am ..er'ic"a.. & C.. arilb.,  358  486  588   1.9          1.4         0.8     0.6      7.5      9.1    120       1.7
Midl.Est&.. N. A'f"ric'a ....... 1-......2--........-1...........2".9 ..... 2.1  0.9  0.8     5.8     6.3.101.         10
So,u'th ..A's i-a ........... 902  1,266  .1552.1                    1.5         0.6     0.7      6.7      7.9.103.         10.
'a'i.S ahra-n' . Afinca 8............. --,.   ...  .  '......  44~  2.8..   2.5  0.9   0.9      4.6     4.5     123      12
High income   825  919     964         0.7         ~~~~        ~~~~    ~~~~    ~~~~~~~0.3  0.5  05.5  .18.0  21.8.134 2.1
44 1998 World Development rindicators



2.1
Knowing the size of a country's population, its  and the independence of census agencies from  * Total population of an economy includes all resi-
growth rate, and its age distribution is important for  undue political influence.            dents regardless of legal status or citizenship-
evaluating the welfare of its citizens, assessing the  Population projections are made using the cohort  except for refugees not permanently settled in the
productive capacity of its economy, and estimating  component method. This method compiles separate  country of asylum, who are generally considered part
the quantity of goods and services that will be  projections of future fertility, mortality, and net migra-  of the population of their country of origin. The indi-
needed to meet future needs. Thus governments,  tion levels by age and gender, then applies them to  cators shown are midyear estimates for 1980 and
businesses, and anyone interested in analyzing eco-  the 1995 base year age and gender structure. Future  1996 and projections for 2010. * Average annual
nomic performance must have accurate population  fertility, mortality, and net migration levels are deter-  population growth rate is the exponential change for
estimates.                                     minedfromdemographicmodelsthatusecurrentlev-  the period indicated. See Statistical methods for
Population estimates are usually based on   elsandtrendsasinputs.Countrieswherefertilityhas  more information. * Age dependency ratio is the
national censuses, but the frequency and quality of  been falling are assumed to have further declines at  ratio of dependents-people younger than 15 and
these censuses vary by country. Most countries con-  the rate of the previous 10 years until fertility reaches  older than 65-to the working-age population-those
duct a complete enumeration no more than once a  the replacement level of about two children. In coun-  age 15-64. * Population age 60 and above is the
decade. Precensus and posteensus estimates are  tries where fertility has remained high, the transition  percentage of the total population that is 60 or older.
interpolations or extrapolations based on demo-  to smaller families is assumed to occur at the aver-  * Women age 60 and above is the ratio of women
graphic models. Errors and undercounting occur even  age rate of decline of countries that are currently  to men in that age group.
in high-income countries; in developingcountries such  making this transition. Countries where fertility is
errors may be substantial because of limits on trans-  below two children per woman are assumed to  Data sources
portation, communication, and resources required to  remain at this level for another decade. after which
conduct a full census. Moreover, the international  fertility rates will gradually return to replacement         The World Bank's population
comparability of population indicators is limited by dif-  level. Similarly, mortality changes are modeled by    estimates are produced by the
ferences in the concepts, definitions, data collection  assuming that the rate of change in the previous   __    Human Development Network
procedures, and estimation methods used by national  decade will continue in the near future. Future mor-        and the Development Data
statistical agencies and other organizations that col-  tality in countries with high levels of HIV infection is  Group in consultation with the
lect population data.                          adjusted to reflect the lagged impact of the disease  h   .       Bank's  operational  staff.
Of the 148 economies listed in the table, 129 con-  on mortality.                                             Important inputs to the World
ducted a census between 1987 and 1997. The cur-                                                                  Bank's  demographic  work
rentness of a census, along with the availability of                                         come from the following sources: census reports and
complementary data from surveys or registration sys-                                         other statistical publications and electronic bulletins
Population growrth rates are declining
tems, is one of many objective ways to judge the qual-                                       from country statistical offices; demographic and health
ity of demographic data. In some European countries  %                                       surveys conducted by national sources; United Nations
registration systems offer complete information on                                            Department of Economic and Social Information and
population in the absence of a census. See Primary  ' -                                      Policy Analysis, Statistics Division, Population and Vttal
data documentation for the most recent census or                                             Statistics Report (quarterly), and Population Division,
survey year and for registration completeness.                                                World Population Prospects: The  1996 Edition;
Current population estimates for developing coun-                                          Eurostat, Demographic Statistics (various years);
tries that lack recent census-based population data,   j '        I                           Council of Europe, Recent Demographic Developments
and precensus and postoensus estimates for coun-   ,-,                                       in Europe and North Amenica 1996; South Pacific
tries with census data, are provided by national sta-         |                     |         Commission, Pacific Island Populations Data Sheet
tistical offices or by the United Nations Population   rt' Ec*-  . *  MNA SAS SSA  .: 1997; Centro Latinoamericano de Demografia, Boletin
Division. The estimation methods require fertility,    *   .--   - v.      * I--L_r1,,       Demogratico (various years); Economic and Social
mortality, and netmigration data, which are often col-  Source. P. E; v ,.,-l                Commission for Western Asia, Demographic and
lected from sample surveys, some of which may be                                             Related Socio-Economic Data Sheets 1995; and U.S.
small or have limited coverage. These estimates are  Tne worl,'s population Is e'ipecled to Inciebse ')  Bureau of the Census. World Population Profile 1996.
more than 1 billon people over the neet 14 veamh.
the product of demographic modeling and so are also  Of thli Increase. 9 out of 10 people will be adoled  Projections are based on the methods discussed in Bos
susceptible to biases and errors due to shortcom-  In' oe%eloping countrias While the highest growth  and others, World Population Projections 1994-95.
ratei will continue to be In Sto-Saharan Ahica and
ings of the model, as well as the data.           the MKdo,e Eas7 and North Africa. the war'ar.on Irr
The quality and reliability of official demographic  gro.lh rdie. dille.s Irom ite partlem o absomne
Increase In popLlation. Th6 largesl popaLlation In-
data are also affected by public trust in the govern-  creases are expected In South Asla. Ease Asl3. and
ment, the government's commitment to full and accu-  Sub-Saharan tica.
rate enumeration, the confidentiality of and
protection against misuse accorded to census data,
1998 World Development Indicators    45



2.2 Population dynamics
Crude death      Crude birth   Projected [ Population [ Future population growth     Average annual
rate             rate      additional  momentum              due to                 population
population                                              growtl irates
from 2000
Above-             Age   Age    Age
per 1,000       per 1.000                                    replaceme nt Mortality  0-14 15-64  65±
people          people                              Momentum  fertiliy improvements  %  A/     A
1980     1996     1980   1996    mnillions  I 1996       millions  millions  millions  ±990-96 1990-96 ±990-96
Albenia                      6        6      29      20        2          1.4         1.2     0.1      0 .5    -0.8    0.1   2.6
Algeria                     12        5      42      26       31          1.6        18.4     4.8      8.1      0.4    3.5   3.3
Angola                      23       19      50      48       37          1.5         6.4    23.7      6.5      3.3    2.8   2.7
Argentina                    9        8      24      19       20          1.4        13.5     0.8      5.9      0.2    1.7   2.3
Armenia6                              7      23      13        1          1.2         0.9    -1.0      0.6     -0.5    1.1   6.4
Australia                    7        7      15      14        2          1.2         3.2    -1.6      0.8      0.7    1.1   2,1
Austria                     12       10      12      11       -2          1.0         0.0    -2.0      0.2      0.6    0.7   0.5
Azerbaijan                   7        6      .25     17        3          1.3         2.6    -1.8      1.7      0.0    1.0   4.6
Bangladesh                  18       10      44      28      127          1.5        69.3     7.8     49.6      0.5    2.6   1.0
Belarus                     10       13      16       9       -2          1.0         0.0    -3.2      1.7     -.1.5   0.0   3.0
Belgium                     12       11      13      11       -2          1.0         0.0    -1.9      0.4     -0.1    0.2   1.2
Benin                       19       13      49      42       13          1.6         3.9     6.9      2.6      2.2   3.7    0.3
Bolivia                     15        9      39      34       12          1.8         4.6     4.3      2.9      2.0    2.6   3.3
Bosnia and Herzegovina       7        ..     19
Botswana                    14       13      48      33        2          1.4         0.6     0.4      0.9      1.7    3.1  2.1
Brazil                       9        7      31      21      107          1.4        61.6     0.3     44.6     -0.4    2.3   3.2
Bulgaria                    11       14      15       9       -3          0.9        -0.6    -2.9      1.0     -2.9  -0 6    1.5
Burkina Faso                20       18      47      45       31          1.4         4.8    19.3      6.6      2.5    2.9   4.0
Burundi                     16       17      46      43       18          1.4         3.1    11.1      3.8      3.0    2.4   0.7
Camrbodia                   27       13      40      34       14          1.4         5.0     5.1      4.3      3.7    2.0   3.2
Cameroon                    15       11      47      40       29          1.5         8.0    12.6      8.1      2.7    3.1   2.7
Canada                       7        7      15      13        1          1.1         3.7    -3.8      0.8      0.6    1.2   2.6
Central African Republic    19       17      43      38        6          1.4         1.5     2.4      1.7      2.0    2.4   1.9
Chad                        22       17      44      42       15          1.5         3.4     8.5      3.0      2.6    2.5   2.2
Chile                        7        5      24      19        6          1.4         6.2     0.0      1.5      1.0    1.6   3.1
China                        6        7      18      17      348          1.2       278.7  -184.5    255.2      0.1    1.3   3.8
*Hong Kong, China            5        5      17     10        -1          1.0        0.3    -2.1      0.5     -0.8    1.8   4.7
Colombia                     7        6      30      23       28          1.4        17.5     0.4      9.8      0.8    2.1   5.0
Congo, Dem. Rep.            17       14      48      45      156          1.6        29.8   100.9     25.7      3.3    3.0   2.8
Congo, Rep.                 16       15      46      43        8          1.5         1.5     4.5      1.4      3.1    2.6   3.8
Costa Rica                   4        4      30      23        3          1.6         2.2     0).1     0.4      1.1    2.5   4.2
C6te dIlvoi re              16       12      51      37       24          1.5         8.4     9.1      6.9      2.2    3.6   3.8
Croatia                      .        1       .      11       -1          0.9        -0.3    -1.0      0.6     -2.2  -0.4    4.9
Cuba                         6        7      14      14        0          1.2         2.0    -3.0      1.0     -0.1   0.7    1.9
Czech Republic              13       11      15       9       -2          1.0         0.1    -36       1.1     -.      .     .
Denmark                     11       12      11      13        0          1.0        -0.1    -0.5      0.4      0.9    0.3  -0.4
Dominican Republic           7        5      33      26        7          1.5         4.6     0.4      1.8      0.8   2.4    4.5
Ecuador                      9        6      36      26       11          1.6         7.0     1.0      3.0      0.8    2.9   3.2
Egypt, Arab Rep.            13        8      39      26       58          1.5        31.3     9.0     17.7      0.9   2.6    3.3
El Salvador                 11        6      39      31        7          1.6         4.1     1.2      1.7      0.5   3.6    4.2
Eritrea                      -.      13       ..     40       11          1.5         2.1     6.1      2.3      2.8    2.6   3.3
Estoniea1                            13      15       9        0          0.9        -0.1    -.5       0.2     -31    1.     09
Ethiopia                    20       17      47      48      216          1.5        34.8   148.5     33.0      2.5    1.9   1.8
Finland                      9       10      13      12        0          0.9        -0.7    -0.4      1.0      0.1    0.3   1.5
France                      10        9      15      13       -1          1.1         6.3    -8.0      0.8     -0,4   0.4    2.0
Gabon                       18       14      33      36        2          1.4         0.5     1.0      0.4      3.3    2.2   2.5
Gambia. The                 24       14      48      40        2          1.4         0.5     1.1      0.6      3.3   3.8    3.7
Georgia                      9        7      18      11        0          1.1         0.6    -1.5      0.7     -1.2   -0.4   3.6
Germany                     12       11      11       9      -723         0.9        -5.5   -19.9      2.8      0.4    0.4   1.0
Ghana                       15       10      45      36       33          1.6        12.0    14.3      7.0      2.4    2,9   3.7
Greece                       9       10      15      10       -2          1.0         0.2    -2.7      0.3     -2.0   0.6    3.4
Guatemala                   11        7      43      35       20          1.7         8.2     7.5      4.0      2.3    3.2   4.3
Guinea                      24       18      46      43       17          1.5         3.5    10.2      3.4      2.5    2.8   2.9
.Guilnee-Biessau            25       22      43     .44        2          140.4               1.4      0.6      2.4    1.8   1.7
Haiti                       15       12      37      32        9          1.4         3.3     2.1      3.5      2.0    2.1  1.1
Honduras                    10        6      43      35       11          1.7         4.8     4.0      2.1      2.4    3.6   4.1
46   1998 World Development Indicators



2.2
Crude death      Crude birth  Projected   Population    Future population growth    Average annual
rate            rate       additional  momentum             due to                population
population                                             growth rates
from 2000
Above-             Age   Age   Age
per 1,000       per 1.000                                   replacement Mortality  0-14 15-64  65÷
people          people                              Momentum  fertility improvements  %  %   %
1980     1996    ±960    1996    m0llions    1996       millions  millions  millions  1990-96 1990-96 1990-96
Hungary                    .14      14.      14     10       -2          1.0       -0.4    -2.5.     1.5     -2.3   0.1   0.6
India                      13        9      35      25      724          14.4     391.9    53.5    278.9..    0.9   2.2   3.1
Indonesia                  12        8      34      23      .144         1.4       81.0      1.9. .61.0     0.2..  2..3.  3... .8I....
Iran, Islamic Rep.          11       5      44      26       66          1.6       37.1    13.1     16.1      0.6    3.8  5.3
Iraq                        9        9      41      37       51          1.7       17.2    27.6      5.9      2.1   3.3   3.5
Ireland                     10       9      22      14        1          1.3        0.9     0-05 ......0:.3  7-21-   1.4  .0:.5.
Israel                       7       6       24     21        4          1.4        2.7      0.5     0.7      2.0    4.2  1.5
Italy                       10      10       11      9      -18          0.9       -3.0   -15.9      1.1     -1.8    0.1  2.2
Jamaica                      7       6       2 8    21        2          _1.5_      1.3_   _-0.3_   _0.5      0.3    1.4  0.0
Japan                        6       7       14     10      -30.         08.8     -210.0  -28.~8    194.4    -2.3   0.2 .4.0
Jordan                       .       5        .     31        7          1.7         3.4     2-.3    1.3      4.0    60.0. .5.7
Kazakrhstan                  8      10       24     15        6          1.2        3.3    -17       4.3     -1.5    0.0  2.7
Kenya                       13       9       51     34.      42          16.6      1-82     103.3   13.4      1.4    3-8  1.3
Korea, Dem. Rep..            6       .9     .22     22       10          1.2        5.0    -0.9      6.1      16.6  1.4... 35.5
Korea. Rep.                  6       6      22      15        6          1.2        75.5   -94.4     8.3     -1.0    1.4  3.5
Kumait                       4       2       37     22        1          1.5        0.9      0.3     0.2     -4.5  -5.2   1.4
Kyrgyz Republic              9       8      30.     24        4       ..'1.5        2.2      0.2     1.4      0.1.  0.7   3.1.
Lao PDR                     20      14      45      40       10         -1.5        2.7     4.7      22.2     2.7   2.3   8.2
Latvia                     13       14       15      8       -1          1.0       -0. i    -0.9     0.3     -2.3  -1.2   0.8
Lebanon- 9                           7.     30      24        3          1.5        2.1.    0.1      1.0     -1.4   2.1. 3.2
Lesotho         ... .... 15.        11      41.     32        3          1.5        1. i     1.0     0.8      1.2   28.8  -I 19
Libya                       12       5      46      28        9          1.6        3.6      2.9     1.9      1.1    3.6  5.8
Lithuania                  .10      12       16     11        0       ..1.0         0.1   --10.0    . 05.5  -.14.1.. -0,.1 ..2.0
Macedonia, FYR               7       8       21     16        1          1.2        0.4.     0.0     0.3     -0.7    M09  3.5
Madagascar                  16      11       46     41       38          1.6        9.9     21.6     6.8      2.1    3.1  4.7
Malawi          ~23                 20       57     46       24         .1.4        4.6     13.7     5.6      25.5 ..2.9  1.8
Malaysia                     6       5       31     27       20          1.5       12.3      2.2     5.2      2.0    2.4   3.2
Mali                        22      16       49     49       30          1.6        65.5.   175.5    5.9      3.0    2.5. 3.2
Mauritania                  19      14       43     38        4          1.5        1.3      2.0     1.0      2.0    3.0   2.2
Mauritius                    6       7       24     18        1          1.3        0.3      0.0     0.2     -0.3    1.6   3.1
Mexico                       7       5       33     26       82          1.6       60.2      2.9    19.1      0.3    2.8  2.3
Moldova                     10      12       20     12        1          1.1        0.5    -0.9      0.9     -1.4    0.2   1.9
Mongolia                    11       7       38     28        3          1.6        16.6    0.4      08'.8    0.7    3.1  1.5
Morocco                     12,      7      '38    _25       25         1.5    ~   _151.1   2.2     "7.7      0.4.   2.7_ _3.9
Mozambique          ....- 20.       18~      46     44       47          1.5        9.1     27.9     9.9      4.4    3.8. -0.9
Myanmar                     14      10       36     27       39          1.4       21.1      2.7    15.3      0.8   2.2    2.7
Namibia                     14      12       41     36        3          1.5        0.8      1 .3    0.8      2.3    2.8   3.0
Nepal                       17      11       43     37       421.                  12.6     20.4     9.3      2.6    2.7   2.5
Netherlands                  8        9      13     12       -2          1.0        0.7     -28.8    0.-6     0.8    0.5   1.3
New Zealand                  9       8      .16     16        1          1.2        0.8    -0.1      0.3      0.8   1. 2.70
Nicaragua                   11.      63      45     33        7          1~.7       3.7      I1.9.   1.5..    19.9  3.9    4.6
Niger                       23      18       51     51       33          1.5        5.6     21.7     5.7      3.5    30.0  2.9
Nigeria                     18      13       50     41      280          1.5       68.3    152.7    59.0      2.8    3.1   1.4
Norway                      10      10       12     14        0          1.0        0.1     -0.3     0.4      0.9    0.5  0.1
Oman                        10       4       45     42       10          1.8        2.0      7.3      1.0.    5.4    4.9   5.6
Pakistan                    15       8      47      37      260          1.7      105.1    121.1    34.0.     2.9    2.8.. 3.9
Panama                       6       5       29     22        2          1.5        1.5      0.0     0:4      0.6    2.4. .2.9
Papua Nem Guinea            14... 10         37     32        7          1.4        2.0      2.7    .2.0      1.8    2.4   5.6
Paraguay                     7       5       36     30        7          1.7        3.6      1.8     1.3      2.3    3.0   2.0
Peru                        11       6       35     25       22          1.5       130.0     1.5     71.1     0.7    27.7. 3.8
Philippines                  9        7      35     29       80          1.5       41.0     14.7..  24.7      1.6    2.7   3.0
Poland                      10      10       19     11        1          1.1        3.7    -8.6      5:.5    -.      0.7   2.0
Portugal                    10      11       16     11       -2          1.0         0.2    -2.7     0.9     -1.9    0.0   2.8
Puerto Rico                  6       8       23     17        1          1.3         1.1    -0.3     0.5     -0.5    1.6.. 1.8
Romania                    10       13       18     10       74          1.0        0.3     -7.8     3.7     -32     0.0,. 2.0
Russian Federation          11      14       16      9      -20          1.0       -4.1   -42.6     26.      -1.8    0.0   3.2
1998 World Development Indicators 47



O ~2.2
Crude death      Crude birth   Projectedl  Population    Future population growth      Average annual
rate             rate       additional  momentum              due to                 population
popiulation                                              gotraes
from 2000                                                got a
Above-              Age   Age   Age
per 1,000        per 1.000                                    replacement Mortalit  0-14 15-64  65+-
people           people                              Momentum  fertjl,t mprvmet     %    %      %
1980     1998     1980   1996    rmillions     1996       millions  millions  millions  1990-96 1990--96 1990-96
Rwanda                       19       21      51      40       18          1.4         3.5      9.3      4.8     -0.3  -0.5  -3.4
Saudi Arabia                  9        5      43      35       69          1.6        14.2     46.5      8.0      3.4    3.7   4.7
Senegal                      20       14      46      40       1S          1.4         3.8      8.9      5.2      2.2   2.8    2.6
Sierra Leone                 29       27      49      48       10          1.4         1.8      5.1      2.7      3.3    1.8  -0. 5
Singapore                     5        5      17.     16        0          1.1         0.4    -0.~4      0.3      2.5   1.5    4.3
Slovek Republic              10       10      19      11        0          1.1         0.6    -1.5       0.8     -2.0   0.8    1.1
Slovenia                     10        9      15      10       -1          0.9        -0.1     -0.6      0.3     -2.8   0.3    1.8
South Africa                 12        8      36      27       32           1.5       18.5      1.5     12.3      0.0    2.8   1.1
Spain                         8        9      15       9      -~10         1.0         0.7   -12.9       1.8     -3.0   0.5    2.3
Sri Lanka                     6        6      28      19       10          1.4         6.8    -0.4       3.5     -0.9   1.8    3.6
Sudan                        17       12      45      34       48          1.5        13.8     21.6     13.0      0.9   3.0    3.0
Sweden                       11       11      12      11       -10.9                  -0.9    -1.4       1.4      1.3   0).4   0.1
Switzerland                   9        9      12.     12.      -1          1.0         0.1     -1.1      0.1      1.5   0.7    1.0
Syrian Arab Republic          9        5      46      30       23          1.7        11.6      6.2      5.0      1.5    4.1   4.5
Tajikistan  .....             8        5      37      22        6           1.6        3.9      0.0      1.8      1.0    2.3   4.1.
Tanzania                     15       14      47      41       66           1.5       16.3     32.8     17.2      2.7    3.1   3.2
Thailand                      8        7      28      17       17           1.3       18.1    -14.8     13.2     -1.3    2.2   4.0
Togo                         16       15      45      42       12           1.5        2.2      7.6      2.3      3.1    2.9   2.7
Trinidad and Tobago .         7        7      29      16        1          1.3         0.4      0.0      0.2     -1.3    1.8   1.2
Tunisia                       9        6      35      2 3       7          1.5         4.7      0.1      2.4      0.4    2.6   3.9
Turk.ey-10                             7      32      22       43          1.4        27.5      0.7     14.8     -0.4   2.7    5.3
Turkmenistan                  8        7      34      24        4          1.5         2.6      0.3      1.5      3.0   41     5.5
Uganda                       18       19      49      49       50          1.4         8.4     27.2     14.2      3.3   3.0    1.7
Ukraine              .....   11       15      15 ...9         -10          0..9       -2.6   -15.1       8.1     -1.7  -0.3    2.1
United Arab Emirates          5        3      30      19        2          1.2         0.6      0.6      0.3      3.8   5.8    6.8
United Kingdom               12       11      13      12       -3          1.1         3.5     -7.8      1.8      0.4   0.3    0.4
United States                 9        8      16      15       70          1.2        49.1     11.4      9.9      1.1   1.0    1.2
Uruguay.10                            10      19      17        1          1.2         0.7      0.0      0.4     -0.4   0.8    1.6
Uzbekistan                    8        6      34      27       24          1.6        14.9      1.9      6.8      1.4   2.4    3.7
Venezuela                     6        5      33      25       20          1.5        13.2      1.7      5.1      1.1   2.8    4.3
Vietnam                       8        7      36      25       70          1.5        42.8      5.2     22.0      1.2   2.8    2.1
West Bank and Gaza           ..        5        .     44                    .          2.0      4.5      1.1      4.6   3.9    4.3
Yemen, Rep.                  19       13      53      4(       66          1.6        11.1     45.7      9.2      4.3    b.2 ~3.8
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb/Mont.)  9  ~~11  18      13        1          1.0         0.4    -11        18      -1.4  -0.1   4.3
Zambi'a                      15       18      50      43       15           1.4        4.0      5.4      5.7      1.9    3.6   1.8
Zimbabwe                     13       10      49      31       13          1.5         5.6      1.5      5.6      1.6    2.9   4.2
Low Income                   11        9      31      26    3,129          1.5      1,278.8   857.8    992.1      1.2    2.0  3.2
Exci. China & Inda       16       1         5     3       ,5             .        61.      8.      458.0       2.1   2.7  2.5
Middle income                10        8   .29        21    1,078          1.4       616.7     63.8   397.7       0.2    1.9  3.
L~o'w-er ..m i'd"dl e in"co"m..e.... 10  9    29   .      .   7 21         1.4       418.0     16.5    286.7      0.2   1.9   3.4
U~p-p-er ..m i'd"dl ei"n'c'o"m..e...9  7      28      22      357          1.4       198.7     47.3    111.0      0.1   2.1   2.4
Low' . .. mr'iiidle Ino m"e ...11      9      30      24    4,207          1.4      1,895.5   921.6  1,389.8      0.9    1.9  3.2
E~a-s t A's ia, . & ..P"ac'i'fic ......8  7   22      19      761          1.3       509.3  -160.6    412.0       0.    16    36
E'uro"pe ..& ...Ce'nt'r"al"A"s ia  10  11     19      13       50          1.1        578     -97.6     89.7     -1.2    0.5  2.8
'La't'in ..Am ..e'r'ica ..&.. Ca-rib.....8  7  31     23      385          1.4       238.3     283    183         04     2.4  3.0
South Asia  14   9      37      27    1,163          1.4       585.7   202.4    375.3       1.1   2.3  3.0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:2024  33.3 1.1 2.3 3.
..uAbfrSahar .....n..A...rica....18  14.....47...41    1,416.......1.57..330.6..4-1776.8...1      308.1 ..   12.40 632.9 .4 2 2.1.
Hihincome                  9         9      15      12       -8          1.1        50.7  -114.2     55.8       0.4   1.1   2.1.
48   1998 World Development Indicators



2.2
The vital rates shown in the table are based on data  more births than deaths (momentum greater than  * Crude death rate and crude birth rate are the
derived from registration systems, censuses, and  one); mortality will keep falling (the situation in most  number of deaths and the number of live births occur-
sample surveys conducted by national statistical  countries), with the greatest effect on population  ring during the year, per 1,000 midyear population.
offices. As with the basic demographic data in table  growth in countries where infant and child mortality  The difference between the crude birth rate and
2.1, estimates for 1996 are based on projections  are currently high; and net migration will be positive.  crude death rate is the rate of natural increase.
from censuses or surveys from earlier years, and  Thetable showsthecontributionthateachofthese  * Projected additional population from 2000 is the
hence international comparisons are limited by dif-  components makes to future population growth (mor-  projected increase in population between 2000 and
ferences in definitions and data collection and esti-  tality and migration are combined). For example,  the projected stationary population that is reached
mation methods.                                Algeria's population is projected to grow to 62 million  after fertility has been at replacement level for many
Vital registers are the preferred source of these  before it stabilizes. Of the 31 million increase, about  decades. A negative number indicates a projected
data, but in many developing countries systems for  18 million is the result of population momentum, 5  decline in population. * Population momentum is the
registering births and deaths do not exist or are  million is due to excess fertility, and 8 million is due  ratio of the population when zero growth has been
incomplete because of deficiencies in geographic cov-  to projected mortality decline. A negative value for any  achieved to the population in year t(in this case the year
erage or population coverage. For these countries,  component indicates that current conditions are such  2000), given the assumption that fertility remains at
vital rates are estimated by applying various demo-  that they would lead to population decline. A momen-  replacement level from year tonward. * Future popula-
graphic methods to incomplete vital registration data  tum indicator of less than one indicates that even a  tion growth due to momentum is the projected increase
or to data from surveys and censuses. The United  recovery to replacement-level fertility by 2000 will not  in population from 2000 onward that would occur if fer-
Nations  Department of Economic and    Social   prevent a decline in population.              tility were at replacement level. A negabve number indi-
Information and Policy Analysis has monitored vital  X F_                                      cates that negative momentum has built up in the age
registration systems for many years. Its quarterly pub-                                        structure as the result of fertility being below replace-
lication, Population and Vital Statistics Report, shows                                        ment level for several decades. * Future population
Population momontum tends to be the.
that the proportion of countries with at least 90 per-  biggest contributor to population      growth due to above-replacement fertlifty is the pro-
cent complete vital registration increased from 46 per-  growth                               jected change in population from 2000 onward that
cent in 1990 to 52 percent in 1997. Still, some of the                                         would occur if fertility were not at replacement level.
most populous developing countries-China, India,   .;,,,                                       * Future population growth due to mortality Improve-
Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan, Nigeria, Bangladesh-do  1                                         ments is the projected increase in population from 2000
not have complete vital registration systems. As a  i         I                                onward due to projected changes in mortality and net
result less than 25 percent of vital events worldwide  ,  .   j I                              migration. * Average annual population growth rates
are thought to be recorded.                           .   I     I  I    I *      I             are calculated using the exponential end-point method
In many countries fertility rates have fallen to near                                       (see Statistical methods for more information).
the two-child replacement level, and in some coun-  -lo;,
tries they have fallen well below that. But almost all  -IfO                                    Data sources
these countries will continue to have growing popu-  -O,
lations over the next several decades as large                    13P 4f ,5'   1   45'                             The World Bank's population
cohorts born in previous years move through the        * Population                                                estimates are produced by the
reproductive ages, generating more births than are        momentum                                                 Human Development Network
0 Above-replacement
offset by deaths in the smaller, older cohorts. The      fertilty                                                 and the Development Data
reverse may happen in countries with aging popula-     * Mortality                                                 Group in consultation with the
tions and a history of low fertility rates. This phe-                                                           s  Bank's  operational  staff.
Source: World Bank statff estimates.          V
nomenon,   called  population  momentum,  is                                   S Bs                       t    e   Important inputs to the World
measured here as the ratio of the population when   Between 2000 and when stationarV population Is                 Bank's  demographic  work
zero growth has been achieved to the population in  reached. tis wsorilos populatiorn will increase bE  come from the following sources: United Nations
about 4.2 blillion people. This figure showks The
2000, assumingthatfertility remains at replacement  contributions that population momentum, high  Department of Economic and Social Information and
level from 2000 onward. A momentum ratio greater    fertility, and nortallty Improvements will make to  Policy Analysis Statistics Division Population and Vital
future population growth. Population momentum is
than one indicates that population will continue to  likely to be a major source of population growth In  Statistics Report (quarterly), and Population Division,
grow even after replacement-level fertility has been  all regions except SubSaharan Afdca. In Sub-  World Population Prospects: The 1996 Edition; census
Saharan Africa the persistence of fertility well
achieved; a ratio of less than one indicates that pop-  above repiacement level will account for more than  reports and other statistical publications from country
ulation will decline.                               half of the region's tluture populatlon growth. In  statistical offices; demographic and health surveys
contrast. low fertllity In Europe and Ceniral A-la
Population will continue to grow in most countries  andEastAslaw llreduceoverallpopulationgrowth.  conducted  by national sources; and  Eurostat,
for several reasons: fertility will remain above replace-                                      Demographic Statistics (various years). Projections are
ment level, increasing the size of each generation;                                            based on the methods discussed in Bos and others,
population momentum in the age structure will lead to                                          World Population Projections 1994-95.
1998 World Development Indicators     49



t)           ~2.3 Labor force structure
Population age                                         Labor force
15-64
Average annua
Toat                  growth rate          Feote e       Chiloren 10-14
millons                      milJlers                                IL of labor force  I, of age group
1980            1996        1980    1996     2010     1980-96  1996-2010    1980    1996     1980    1996
Albania                        2              2           1        2        2        LB         1         39      41       4        1
Algeria                        9             17           5        9      15         3.7      3.6         21      25       7        1
Angola                         4              5           3        5        8        2.3      2.7         47      46      30       27
Argentina                     1 7            22          1 1      14       18        1.5      1.9         28      3 1      8        4
Armenia                        2              2           1        2        2        1.2      0.9         48      48       0        C
Australia                     10             12           7        9      10         1.8      0.7         37      43       0        0
Austria                        5              5           3        4        4        0.5     -0. 1        4 0     4 1      0        0
Azerbaijan                     4              5           3        3        4        1.1      1.4         47      44       0        0
Bangladesh                    44             66          41       61      81         2.4      1.9        42       42      35       30
Belarus                        6              7           5        5       5         0.2      0.0        50       49       0        0
Belgium                        6              7           4        4       4         0.3     -0.2        34      40        0        0
Benin                          2              3           2        3       4         2.5      2.5        47      48       30      27
Bolivia                        3              4           2        3       4         2.4      2.4        33       37      19       14
Bosnia and Herzegovina         3              ..2                                                        33        ..      1
Botswana                       0              1           0        1       1         2.9      1.7        50       46      26       16
Brazil                        70            103          46       72      87         2.4      1.2        28      35       19      16
Bulgsaria6                                    6           6        4       4        -0.5     -0.8        4 5      48       0        0
Burkina Faso                   3              5           4        6       7         1.9      1.9        48       47      71      50
Burundi                        2              3           2        3       5         2.5      2.6        50       49      50      49
Cambodia                       4              6           3        5        7        2.5      2.3         56      53      27       24
Cameroon                       5              7           4        6       6         2.5      2.5        37       38      34       25
Canada                        17             20          12       16      17         1.5      0.5         40      45       0        0
Central African Republic       1              2           1        2        2        1.6      1.7         48      47      39       31
Chad                           2              3           2        3        5        2.1      2.3         43      44      42       38
Chile                          7              9           4        6        7        2.3      1.9         26      32       a        0
China                        566            821         539      718     804         1.7      0.7         43      45      30       11
Hong Kong, China              3              4           2        3       4         1.6      0.7        34      37        8        0
Colombia                      16             23           9       16      22         3.2      2.0         26      38      12        8
Congo, Dern. Rep.    .        14      .      22    .        .2    19      29         2.7      2.6         45      44      33       29
Congo, Rep.                    1              1           1        1        2        2.7      2.4         43      43      27       28
Costa Rica                     1              2           1        1        2        3.1      1.9         21      30      10        5
Cdte dIlvoire                  4              7           3        5        7        2.6      2.0         32      33      28       20
Croatia                        3              3           2        2        2        0.2     -0.3         40      44           0    0
Cuba                           6              6           4        5       6         L.9      0.7         31      36       0        0
Czech Republic                 6              7           5        6        5        0.3     -0.3         47      47       0 
Denmark                        3              4           3        3       3         0.4     -0.3        44       48       0        0
Dominican Republic             3              5           2        3       5         2.8      2.2        25       29      25       18
Ecuador                        4              7           3        4       6         3.2      2.5        20       27       9        5
.Egy.pt,Arab Rep.    .        23             35          14       22      32         2.4      2.5         26      29      18       11
El Salvador                    2              3           2        2       4         2.3      2.9        27       35      17       15
Eritrea                        .              2           ..       2       3          ..      2.9        47      47       44      39
Estonia                        1              1           1        1       1        -0.2     -027        51      49        0        0
Ethiopia                      19             30          17       26      39         2.6      2.7        42      41       48      42
Finland                        3              3           2        3       2         0.4     -0.3        46      48        0        0
France                        34             38          24       26      27         0.5      0.3        40      44        0        0
Gab on                         0              10                   1       1         2.0      1.6        45       44      29       18
Gambia. The                    0              1           0        1       1         3.1      2.4        45      45       44      36
Georgia                        3              4           3        3       3         0.2      0.1        49       46       0        0
Germany                       52             56          37       41      40         0.5      0.0         40      42       0        0
Ghana                          6              9           5        6      12         2.8      2.4         51      51      16       13
Greece                         6              7           4        4        5        1.0      0.3         28      37       5        0
Guatemala                      4              6           2        4        6        2.9      3.1         22      27      19       16
Guinea                         2              3           2        3        5        2.0      2.4         47      47      41       33
Guinea-Bissau                  0              1           0        1        1        1.5      2.0         40      40      43       38
Haiti                          3              4           3        3       4         L.4      L.5         45      43      33       25
Honduras                       2              3           1        2       4         3.5      3.4         25      30      14        8
50   1996 Warld Developmernt Indicators



2.3
Population age                         Labor force
15-64
Average annual
Total           growth rate    Femnale   Children 10-14
millions            millions           S         S of labor force  S of age gtoup
1.980      1996     1980  1996  2010  1.980-96  1.996-2010  1.980  1.996  1980  1.996
Hungar7                          7       5      5     4    -0.4   -0.4.   43    44.    0     0
India          ~~~~~~~~           ~~395  574  300  408  519 1.  1.6  34    32    21    14
Indonesia            83        124      59     9 1  124     2.6   2.0     35    40    13     9
Iran, Islamic Rep.   20         35       12    19    31     2.8   3.3     20    25.   14     4
iraq                  7         12       4     6      9     2.8   3.3      17   18    11     3
Ireland               2          2       1      1     2     0.8   1.0     28    33     1     0
Israe 12                         4       1     2      3     2.8   2.5     34    40     0..   0
Italy                36         39       23    25    24.    0.6   -0.2    33    38 .... 20
Jamaica               1          2       1      1     2     1.9   1.3     46    46     0     0
Japan79                         87       5 7   66    6 6    0:9   0.0     38.   41     0  .  0
Jordan                1          2       1      1     2     417   3..8    15.   22     4..   1
Kazakhatan            9         11       7     8      8     0.6   0.5     48    47     0     0
Kenya8                          14       8     13    18     3.1   2.2     46    46    45    41
Korea, Dam. Rep.1018                           .      3.2.        141     45    4 5    3     9..
Korea, Rep.          24         32       16    22    26     2.1   1.2     39    41.    0     0
Kuwait                1          1       0      1     1     2:6   1.7     13    29     0     0
Kyrgyz Republi2.   ...     3        .2   .2     3     1.4    117     48    47    0      0
Lao PDR               2          .2      2      2     3     1.9 .   2'5   45   .47    31    27
Latvia                2          2       1      1     -1   -0.3   -0.6    5 1   50     0     0
Lebanon               2          2       1      1     2     2.7   2.5     23    28     5     0
LesothoI1                        1       1.     1     1.    .22.2  2.1    38.   37    28    22
Libya        ..2                .3  .. ... ..1  . 1  .2     .2:6   2.4     19   21     9     0
Lithuania             2          2       2     2... .. 2.   0.3   -0.-1   50    48 .....0    0
Macedonia, FYRI1                 1       1      1     1     07.7  0.8      36   41  1..0
Madagascar   I....    4   .      7  . ... .4    7 ... 10.   25.5   .28    45    45    40    35
Malawi                3          5       3     5      7     2.6   2.1.    51..  49    45    34
Malaysia              8         12       5      8    12     2.6   2.4     34    37     8     3
Mali                  3          5       3     5      7     2.2   2.6     47    46    61    54
Mauritania1                      1       1      1     2     2.1   2.3 ... 45.   44.   30    24
MauritiusI1                      1       0     0      1     1.9   1'2     26    32     5     3
Mexico               34         57       22    37    52     30.0  2.3     27    31     9  ~ .. 6
Moldova               3          3       2     2      2     0.1   0.2     50    49     3     0
MongoliaI1                       1       1      1     2     2:8   2.348         4E5 .. 42
Morocco              10         16       7     11    15     2.4   2.4     34    35    21     5
Mozambique            6          9       7     9     13     1.8   2.5     49    48    39    34
Myanmar              19         28      17     23    29     1.8   1.5     44    43    28    24
Namibia               1          1       0      1     1     2:3   21..     40   41 ....34   21
Neapl8                          12       7     10    15     2.3   2.4     39    40    56    45
Netherlands           9         11       6      7     7     14.4  0.0      31   40     0     0
New Zealand           2          2       1      2     2     17.7  0.9     34    44     0     0
Nicaragua             1          2       1     2      3     3.1   3.4     28.   36    19    14
Niger .  .   ..35..                .    3     4     7     2.8    2.8     45    44.   48    45
Nigeria              38         60       30    45    68     25.5  2.6      36.  36    29.   25
Norway                3          3       2      2     2     0.8   0.3     40    46     0     0
OmanI1                           1       0      1     1     3.6   4.1      7    15     6     0
Pakistan             44         72      29     48    78     2.9   3.1     23    27    23    17
Panama                1          2       1      1     1     2.7   1.9     30    34     6     3
Papua New Guinea      23                 2      2     3     2.0   2.1     42    42    28    19
Paraguay~~2                3        1     2     3      2.7   2.7     27    29    15     7
Peru                  9         15       5      9    13     2.9   2.4     24    29     4     2
Philippines          27         42      19     30    42     2.7   2.3     35    37    14     8
Poland               23         26      19     19    20     0.3   0.3     45    46     0     0
Portugal              6          7       5      5     5     0.4   0.0      39   43     8     2
Puerto Rico           2          2       1      1     2     1.7   1.3      32   36     0     0
Romania              14         15      11     11    10    -0.1  -0.1     46    44     0     0
Russian Federation   95         99      76     78    78     0.1   0.0     49    49     0     0
1998 World Developmnent Indicators 51



32.32.
Population age                                           Labor force
I.5-64
Average annual
Total                  growth rate           Female        Ch dren 10-14
millions                      millions                    %% of labor force                % of age group
1980            1996         1980     1996     2010      1980-96  1996-2010     1980     1996    1980     1996
Rwanda                          3               3           3         4        6         2.7       2.5         49      49       43       42
Saudi Arabia                    5              11            3        6       10         5.0       3.2          8      14        5        0
Senegal                ~   ~3           4            3        4        5         2.4       2.3         42      43       43       31
Sierra Leone                    2               2            1        2        2         1.9       2.3         36      36       19       15
Singapore                       2               2            1        1        2         2.0       0.8         3 5     38        2        0
Slovak Republic                 3               4            2        3        3         0.8       0.2         45      48        0        0
Slovenia                        1               1            1        1        1         0.2     -41.2         46      46        0        0
South Africa                   15              23           10       15       19         2.2       1.6         35      37        1        0
Spain                          23              27          14        17       17         1.1       0.2         28      36        0        0
Sri Lanka                       9              12            5        8       10         2.0       1.6         27      35        4        2
Sudan                          10              15            7       10       15         2.3       2.4         27      29       33       29
Sweden                          5               6            4        5        5         0.6     -0.2          44      48        0        0
Switzerland                     4               5            3        4        4         1.2       0.2         37'     40        0        0
Syrian Arab Republic            4               8            2        4        7         2.9       3.1         23      26       14        5
Tajikistan                      2               3            2        2        3         2.0       2.3         47      44        0        0
Tanzania                        9              16           10       16       22         2.9       2.2         50      49       43       39
Thailand                       26              40           24       35       39         2.1       0.8         47      46       25       15
Togo                            1               2            1        2        3         2.5       2.6         39      40       36       26
Trinidad and Tobago             1               1            0        1        1         1.3       1.8         32      37        1        0
Tunisia                         3               6            2        3        5         2.7       2.4         2 9     31-       6        0
Turkey                         2 5             40           19       29       38         2.5       1.6         35      36       2 1      2 3
Turkmenistan                    2               3            1        2        3         2.6       2.5         4 7     4 5       0        0
Uganda                          6              10            7       10       14         2.3       2.4         48      48       49       45
Ukraine                        33              34          26        25       24        -0.2     --0.4         50      49        0        0
United Arab Emirates            1               2            1        1        2         4.3       1.8          5      14        0        0
United Kingdom                 36              38          27        29       29         0.5       0.1         39      43        0        0
United States                151              174         110      134       150         1.2       0.7         42      46        0        0
Uruguay                         2               2            1        1        2         1.3       0.9         31      41        4        2
Uzbekistani                     9              13            6        9       14         2.3       2.4         48      46        0        0
Venezuela                       8              13            5        9       13         3.2       2.4         27      33        4        1
Vietnam                        28              44          26        38       48         2.3       1.6         48      49       22        8
West Bank and Gaza              .                ..                   .        .           .        .
Yemen, Rep.                     4               8            2        5        9         3.9       3.8         33      29       26       20
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)    6               7            4        5        5         0.7       0.2         38      42        0        0
Zambia                          3               5            2        4        5         2.8       2.3         45      45       19       16
Zimbabwe                        3               6            3        5        7         2.9       1.8         44      44       37       29
Low Income                  1,352           1,973       1,153     1,604    2,000    1.....I9- 1...I.5.. ...40 .... 40 ....28             16
Exci. COma & ................India......371...  ........ 315.i  47.....   676....    2... 4    2.3        '40      40    .   1 .i
Middle income                715             997         509       695      877         1.6       1.6        .37      36.1 
Lower middle income  ~~~~~506         700          367      49         26   .     1.7  .   1.6    .        .9   39   .   11        7
'Low .. mi..nid-dle .. in"co..m"e .........2...0,6'7'...  2,970  1,663  2,299'  2, .878 ... 1.9...i~6.....T  . 1.... . 3.23          .   14.
Eta"st A's i'a ..& ..P"a"c'ific ....796     1,140         704       966.1127       .     L         1.0   .        .2   44    .      .7   11
Europe &.. &... Central AAssia .............. 276  313..........215.  234    250..       0.55      0.4......23.        46........ -50  3 .404  7 
'Latiin"m Am.erifca ..&.. C"a'r'ib  200       300         130      201       266         2.6       1.9         28      33       19
South Asia                   50838..........                96 .......       716.....  ......  2.0  1.8                 j    ~
'g l  . '-e...................5-28....  6   .6     372      440       466         1.0      0.4        .         4330
52   1998 World Development Indicators



2.3
The labor force is the supply of labor in an economy. It  The population age 15-64 isoften usedto provide a  *Populationagel5-64isthenumberofpeoplewhocould
includes people who are currently employed and people  rough estimate of the potential labor force. But in many  potentially be economically actve, excluding children.
who are unemployed but seekingwork. Not everyone who  developing countries children under 15 work full or part  e Total labor force comprises people who meet the ILO
works is included, however. Unpaid workers, family work-  time. And in some high-income countries many workers  definition of the economically active population: all people
ers, and students are usually omitted, and in some coun-  postpone retirement past age 65. As a result labor force  who supply labor for the production of goods and services
tries members of the military are also not counted. The  participation rates may systematically over- or underes-  duringa specified period. It includes both the employed and
size of the labor force tends to vary during the year as  timate actual rates.                         the unemployed. While national practices vary in the treat-
seasonal workers enter and leave the labor force.     The labor force estimates in the table were calcu-  ment of such groups as the armed forces and seasonal or
Data on the labor force are compiled by the      lated by applying gender-specific activity rates from  part-time workers, in general the labor force includes the
International Labour Organization (ILO) from census or  the ILO database to create a labor force series con-  armed forces, the unemployed, and first-time job-seekers,
labor force surveys. Despite the ILO's efforts to encour-  sistent with the World Bank's population estimates.  butexcludes homemakers and other unpaid caregivers and
age the use of international standards, labor force data  This procedure sometimes results in estimates of the  workers in the informal sector. * Average annual growth
are not fully comparable because of differences among  absolute size of the labor force that differ slightly from  rate of the labor force is calculated using the exponential
countries, and sometimes within countries, in definitions  those published in the ILO's Yearbook of Labour  end-point method (see Statistical methods for more infor-
and methods of collection, classification, and tabulation.  Statistics.                                 mation). * Females as a percentage of the labor force
In some countries data on the labor force refer to people  Estimates of women in the labor force are not com-  shows the extent to which women are active in the labor
above a specific age, while in others there is no specific  parable internationally because in many countries large  force. * Children 0-14 in the labor force is the share of
age provision. The reference period of the census or sur-  numbers of women assist on farms or in other family  that age group that is active in the labor force.
vey is another important source of differences: in some  enterprises without pay, and countries differ in the crite-
countries data refer to a person's status on the day of the  ria used to determine the extent to which such workers  Data sources
census or survey or during a specific period before the  are to be counted as part of the labor force.
inquiry date, while in others the data are recorded with-  Reliable estimates of child labor are hard to obtain.  :- '  :  ,  Population estimates are from
out reference to any period. In developing countries,  In many countries child labor is officially presumed not  --9-        the World Bank's population
where the household is often the basic unit of production  to exist, and so is not included in surveys or covered in         database. Labor force activity
and all members contribute to output, but some at low  official data. Data are also subject to underreporting                rates are from the ILO database,
intensity or irregular intervals, the estimated labor force  because they do not include children engaged in agricul-        Estimates and Projections of the
may significantly underestimate the numbers actually  tural or household activities with their families.                     Economically Active Population,
working (ILO 199Da, Yearbook ofLabourStatistics 1996).                                                      - i              1950-2010. The ILO publishes
estimartes of the economically
_   _                                                                          active population in its Yearbook of Labour Statistics.
Children work loSS as ineomes rise
% of children who work, 1995
12
1':
GNP per capita
(1987 $1
Source: ILO and World Bank estimates.
Child labor Is a poverty Issue. Children who work rather than attend school cannot fully develop their skills. And
premature and extensive engagement In work can damage a child's health and soclal development, leading to lower
earning power and reduced productivity over the longer term. Thus the cycle of poverty continues.
The Incidence of child labor declines as per capita Income rises. In countries where annual per capita Income Is
$500 or less, the proportlon of children age i0-14 who work Is extremely high, at 30-50 percent (see table). But
the rate falls to 10-30 percent In countries with annual Incomes between $500 and $1,000. Many factors affect the
prevalence of child labor, Including culture and the structure of producton. For Instance, child labor tends to be more
common In countriLes where agriculture accounts for a large share of GDP.
1998 World Development Indicators        53



2.4 Employment by occupation
Employers and own-account             Employees                 Contributing family workers
Male  wresFemale                Male         Female            Male          Female
% of      ~~% of            % of          % of             % of            % of
economically active  economical.y active  economrically active  economically active  economnically active  econrnomcally active
male popuilation  female popalation  male popalation  femrale population  maJe population  femrale population
1980  1994    1980   1.994     1980   1994   1980   1994      1980   1994    1980    1994
Angola.
Argentina                                                 .     .      .       ..
Australia               15.8  16.6   1-1.2  10.5       78.0   73.2   79.1   79.4       0.3   0.7      0.5     1.3
Austria                15 .6  10.9   19.1    8 .0      84.4   87. 7  80.9   86.9       1.4    1.4     9.1     5.1
Azerbaijan                .     ..             ..               .      .       ..
Bangladesh                ..  39.2     ..    6.4        ..    15.6    ..     5.2        ..   22.3      ..    83.3
Belarus..                       ..            ...               ..     ....
Belgium                14.0  16.1     8.1    8.2       79.5   74.6  70.2    69.5       0.8    0.9     6.9     7.0
Bolivia                  ..   31.2     ..   42.0        ..    5.       .    43.6        ..   3.9       ..    8.4
Bosnia and Herz egovina
Brazil                   ..  287.7.         21.9        ..    61.2    ..    64.4        ..   6.4      ..    10.2
Burkina Faso              .     .       .      ..               .      .      ..
Cambodia                  .     ..             ..               .      .       ..
Cameroon                61.2   ..    58.7      .       2-1.3   ..    3.5      .9.2            ..     32.7
Canada                 10.1  11.1     6.4    7.7       89.3   87.9  90.7    90.3       0.3   0.2      1.9    0.9
Central African Republic  .     .       .      ..                              ..
Chile                  24.4  29.3    16.5   20.4       46.1  63.0   53.8    67.8       9.3    2.3    11.4    5.0
Hong Kong, China      12.6  14.5     4.1    3.2       83.0   83.4  88.5    92.9       0.6   0.2      3.8    2.0
Colombia                     32.9           24.1              66.3    ..    62.2        ..   0.6       ..    2.2
Congo, Dam. Rep..                 ..                                           ..
Congo, Rep..
Costa Rica             22.6  26.1    10.9   19.1       70.9  70.3   82.8    76.4       5.0   3.2      3.2    3.5
CSte d ivoi're                                                         .       ..
Czech Republic            .     .       .      ..                              ..
Denmark                17.2  12.7     3.0    3.2       81.1   86'8  89.1    93.1       0.1   0.2      5.5    3.4
Dominican Republic
Ecuador                   .     ..             ..               .      .      ..
Egypt, Arab Rep.       29.7  28.6    12.0   12.2       52.8  54.7   66.0    35.0      13.6   10.2     2.7   35.8
El Salvador            24.5  30.6    35.3   38.1       62.1  54.5   53.6    40.6      12.6   11.6     7.7    8.9
Finland                11.2  16.2     9.0    8.8       85.3  79.9   86.3    87.0       1.6   0.8      2.4    0.4
France                    .     ..             ..               .      .       ..
Gambia, The               .     .       .      ..
Germnany                  .     ..             ..               .      .       ..
Greece                 44.6  41.5_   18.7   1 7.3      48.4  51.7   41.4    51.3       3.7    4.4    34.2    22.4
Guatemala              34.5  23.6    49.9   26.4       52.0   72.6  40.4    68.0G     11.5    3.4     7.6     4.7
Guinea-Bissau..                 ...            ...              .      .....                   .
Haiti                  61.1  60.7    56.9   56.7       15.5   15.4  18.2    18.3      11.0   10.9     9.8     9.7
Hondur as
54  1998 World Developmnent Indicators



2.4
Employers and own-account                   Employees                       Contributing family workers
workers
Male            Female                Male            Femnale              Male             Female
% of             % of                % of             % of                % of               % of
economically active  ecornomically active  economically active  economically active  economically active  economically active
male population  female population    male population  female population  male population   female population
1.980  1994     1980    1994         1980    1994     1980    ±994        1980    1994      ±980     1994
Hungary                      2.9   13.5      1.4     81.1        80.6.   85.3    78.9     88.3         0.3     1.2       5.7      3.6
Indoneaia                   21.3   522.2 . 19.4     287.7.       63.3    31.5    37.1     24~.0 .... .12.6    14.1      39.9     44.7
Iran, Islamic Rep.
Iraq ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~~~ .   ...                               ......   .....  .....   .....                  ..  . :~..  .  .....
Ireland                     23.5   23.6.     6.3      6.8        68. 7   72.7    84.4     88.6         2.2    .12        4.7      1.7
Israel                      23.7   19.0     11..6    8.7.     .. 71.2    74.4    78.1     79..9        0.9     0 .3      4.3      1.5
Italy                       24.4. 25.9.     13.9.   13.8         685.5   62.3    635.5    63.7.        2.4     2.5       9.7      6.5
Jam aica                      ........                     . ... . ...      .... ...
Japan                       19.0   14.1     13.4     8.9      ... 755.5. .81.0   62.0     75..5        32.     1 8 .....22.5     12.4
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Korea. Dem. Rp
Korea, Rep.       .        ~36.0   33.7     22.4    18.4         49.0    61.2    38.0     563.3        6 8     2 0      36.1    .23.0
Kuwait
Kyrgyz Republic  ..:.7
Lao   PD R....                                              ... . .............                                                       ..
Latvia
Lebanon                                                                                                                   :
Libya
Lithuania
Madagascar                                                                                                                          ....
Malawi
Malaysia                          -250.... 13.7 ...                      71.4.      .     7.1.5                3.6.              .14.8
Mali..                                                                 ..
Mauritania
M auritiua                            :                             !                        !                  ...... .   ...... I.....  .
Mexico                             33.2 .23-1                            525 ..56~6                           12.0         .     17.1
M oldova .                                                     ...                                          . ..              .....
Mongolia
M orocco                                          .... . .. - ..   .   . . . . ..     .     .. .. .   ...                     ....
Mozambique 
I.. ..yan m ar                .    .. !  . . ..   .  ...        . .  . . .. . . .... . ...     . . .      . . . .. . .. . . .. . . ... .....   .
Namibia..                             ...                                   .
Nepal                          .      ..
Netherlands                 11.8   12.0      4-9      7.5        81.6    81.7     78.7    82.0          0.4    0.4       5.4      2.4
New Zealand           ~66.3                          77.7           .    23.1      ..     12.0                 0.6                1.5
Nicaragua                     ..                       ...  ............
Niger                          .      ..                                    .       .
Nigeria                     51.6      .     65'3                 33.7 ...        15.7        .          7.6             11.7
Norway                      13.6   11.0      4.2     4.8         83.5    82.1.   87 6     89 1         1.4.    0.7       5.5      1.2
Pakistan                      ..   45 .8       .    13.0            .    34.0             22.6          ..    15.6         .     47.6
Panama                      33.6   33.9     12.1    11.2         57.7    58.5     788  8   0 1          6.2    4.4       2.7      2.0
Papua New Guinea               ..     ..
Paraguay.... 33~3                                    34:8                64.2             60~4..               2.1..              4.2
Peru                          ..   33.1        ..   3.1             .    6.4.. 442                                     ..3.   ..  75
Philippines                 40.7   39.5     24.7    30.4         405.5   42.3    38.9     40.8        15.4    10.4      28.0     19.3
Poland                         ..  24.6        ..   1.              .    6.          .    69.7           .     4.7                7.5
Portugal                    20.9   24.6      8.5    21.2         71.7    73.3    58.5     75'3         4.6     1.4.     25.2      2.2
Puerto Rico                 17.9   19.2      4.4      5.9        80.2    79.7    91.1     90.9         0.5     0.3       2.4      1.3
Romania..                             .        ..      .
Russian Federation             .      .        .
19o8 World Deveiopment Indicators    55



2.4
Employers and own-account                     Employees                       Contributing family workers
workers
Male            Female                 Male            Fenale                Male              Female
% of             % of                  % of             % of                 %iof               %o
economnically active  economnically active  economnically active  economically active  economically active  economica ly active
mnale population  female population    male population  female population    maie population   female population
1990   1994      1980    1994         ±.980    1L994   1990     ±L994        1980    1.994     1.980    1.994
Rwanda
Saudi.Arabia
Senega.
Sierra Leone
Singapore                    15.9   1 7.2      5.1      5.1        79.6     80.0    874.4    90.3          1.7     0.2       4.0       1.8
Siovak Republic                ..   87.9        ..    92.5                   8'3              2.6           ..     0.1        ..       0.2
Slovenia                        .      .         -
South Africa                    .
Spain                        21.7   20.1      14.1    12.0         71.8     72 9    80!7     67.8          3.2     2.2      17.5       6.0
Sri Lanka                    28.2   29.1      11.8    14.9         54. 7    56..4   53.7     51.8          6.4     4.6      13.6     12.0
Sweden                       10.1   13.8       3.9     5.3         86.0   ..76.6    92.9     87.4          0.2     0.4       0.9       0.5
Switzerland                     ..  15.4               9.4           ..     83.3      ..     85.7           ..     1.3        ..      4.9
Syrian Arab Republic         37.1   36.5       9.9     5 7         56.0     50.1    48.1     45.7          5.3     8.3      37.1     34.5
Tajikistan.                            ...               ...                   ......
T a za i ............  .........
Thailand                     43.5   38.1      17.3    22.6         25.9     44.2    16.9     35.4         29.6    11.5      65.1     29.4
To.o
Trindad nd Tbago14.6         21.5       9.7    12.8         81:3     75'2    80.8     81.1          2.8     1. 7      6.4      5.4
Tunisia
Turkey                          ..  36.0               8.6                  49.2      ..     24.1           ..    12.1        ..     62.9
Turkmenistan
Uganda.
Ukraine
United.Arab Emirates
United Kingdom                 ..   14.9               6.5            .     71.0      ..     84.1           ..     0.3        ..      0.9
United States                10.2    9.8       5.1     6.6         88.9     89.7    92.7     92.6          0.3     0.1       1.2      0.2
Uruguay                        ..   26.4        ..    19.4           ..     70.8       .     73.8            .     11..               3.5
Uzbekistan                      .                .       .            .       .        ..                    .      .
Venezuela                    29.9   37.1      17.3    25.1         60.2     53.0    74.4     65.0          3.0     1.6       3.3       1.1
West Bank and Gaza              .      .         .       ..                    .       .        ..                   ..
Yem.n,Re.
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)
Zambia                          .
Zimbabwe                        .
56   1998 World Deveeloyment Indicators



2.4
I.M           =_
This table shows the distribution of employment clas-  Countries also take very different approaches to the  * Employers operate, alone or with one or more part-
sified by occupational status according to the  treatment of unemployed people. In most countries  ners, their own economic enterprise, or engage inde-
International Classification of Status in Employment  unemployed people with previous job experience are  pendently in a profession or trade, and hire one or
(ICSE). ICSE classifications are based on the explicit  classified accordingtotheir lastjob. In some countries,  more employees on a continuous basis. The defini-
or implicit employment contract workers have with  however,theyandpeopleseekingtheirfirstjobareclas-  tion of "a continuous basis" is determined by
other people or organizations. The basic criteria for  sified as persons not classifiable by status, and so are  national circumstances. Partners may or may not be
defining classification groups are the type of eco-  not included in the table.                members of the same family or household. * Own-
nomic risk and the type of authority over establish-                                           account workers operate, alone or with one or more
ments and other workers that the job incumbent has                                             partners, their own economic enterprise, or engage
or will have. Until 1993 the main ICSE groups were                                             independently in a profession or trade, and hire no
employers, own-account workers, employees, mem-                                                employees on a continuous basis. As with employers,
bers of producers cooperatives, and unpaid family                                              partners may or may not be members of the same
workers. In 1993the group unpaid familyworkers was                                             family or household. * Employees are people who
changed to contributing family workers and the group                                           workfor a public or private employer and receive remu-
own-account workers was expanded to include people                                             neration in the form of wages, salaries, commissions,
working in a family enterprise with the same degree of                                         tips, piece rates, or in-kind payments. * Contributing
commitment as the head of the enterprise. These peo-                                           family workers (previously referred to as unpaid fam-
ple, usually women, were formerly considered unpaid                                           ily workers) work without pay in an economic enter-
family workers.                                                                                prise operated by a related person living in the same
Data on employment are drawn from labor force sur-                                           household and cannot be regarded as a partner
veys, enterprise censuses and surveys, administrative                                          because their commitment in terms of working time
records of social insurance schemes, and official                                              or other factors is not at a level comparable to that
national estimates. The concept of employment gener-                                           of the head of the enterprise. In countries where it
ally refers to people above a certain age who worked or                                        is customary for young people to work without pay
who held a job during a reference period. Shares of                                            in an enterprise operated by a related person, the
occupational employment in the labor force are calcu-                                          requirement of living in the same household is often
lated using the International Labour Organization's                                            eliminated.
(ILO) laborforce estimates, which maydifferfrom those
based on the World Bank's population estimates as                                               Data sources
shown in table 2.3. Occupational categories should add
up to :100 percent. Where they do not, the difference                                                              Employment data are com-
arises from people who are not classifiable by status.                                                             piled by the World Bank's
Employment data include both full-time and part-                                                                Development  Data   Group
time workers. There are, however, many differences in                                                              using an ILO database corre-
how countries define and measure employment sta-                                                                   sponding to table 2a in its
tus, particularly for part-time workers, students, mem-                                        '              X    Yearbook of Labour Statistics.
bers of the armed forces, and household workers.
Because of these differences, the content of ICSE
groups is not easily comparable across countries (ILO,
Yearbook of Labour Statistics 1996, p. 64). In most
countries managers and directors of incorporated
enterprises are classified as employees, but in some
they are classified as employers. Similarly, in most
countries family members who receive regular remu-
neration in the form of wages, salaries, commissions,
piece rates, or in-kind payments are classified as
employees, but in some they are classified as con-
tributing family workers. Some countries cannot accu-
rately measure the number of contributing family
workers. And many cannot distinguish between own-
accountworkers and employers, so onlythe sum of the
two groups is available.
19sa World Development Indicators     57



O              ~2.5 Employment by economic activity
Agriculture                           Industry                            Services
Male             Female              Ma e             Fema e             Ma[e              Fe-pale
% of              % of               % of              " of              % of               % of
economically active  economically active  economically active  economica ly active  economically active  econom cali active
male population  female popuJation   male population  female .. at on    ma e populat on   female populat[on
1.980    1.994     1980     1994     1980     1994      1980     1994     1980     1994    .1980     1,994
Albania                       54       51       62       60        28       26       17       19       16       23       21        20
Algeria                       27       18       69        57   ~   33   ~   38        6        7       40       44       25        36
Angola                        67       65       87       86        13       14        1        2       20       21       11        13
Argentine                     17       1 6       3         3       40       39       18       1 7      44       46       7 9       80
Armeni'a                      21       24       21        11       48       47       38       39       31       29       41        51
Australia                      7        6        4        3        34       32       15       11       44       58       67        so
Austria                        9        6       13         8       51       48       24       19       41       45       62        72
Azerbaijan                    28       27       42       36        36       35       20       21       36       38       38        43
Bangladesh                   6 7       59       8 1       74        5       1 4      1 4      1 9      2 9      26        5         7
Belarus                      29        26       23       13        44       45       33       36       28       29       44        51
Belgium                       4         3        2        1        40       34       15       11       50       54       68        72
Benin                        66        62       69       65        10       12        4        4       24       27       27        30
Bolivia                      53        48       53       45        21       22       11       10       26       30       36       45
Bosnia and Herzegovina       26         9       37       16        45       54       24       37       30       37       39       48
Botswana                      53       39       74       55        18       30        2        9       28       31       24        36
Brazil                        41       28       26       14        28       28       14       13       31       43       60        74
Bulgaria                       ...              22       13         .        ..                ..
Burkina Faso                 92        9�1      93       94         3        2        2        2        5        7        5         5
Burundi                      88        86       98       98         4        4        1        1        9       10        1         I
Cambodia                      70       69       80        78        7        7        7        8       23       24       14        14
Cameroon                      65       62       87       83        11       12        2        3       23       26       11        14
Canada                         6        4        3         3       34       32       14       11       52       63       74        85
Central African Republic      79       74       90       87         5        6        1        0       15       20        9        13
Chad                          82       77       95       91         6        7        0        1       12       16        4         8
Chile                         20       20        2        5        25       30       13       14       52       45       79        74
China                         71       69       79        76       16       17       12       13       14       14       10        11
H-ong Kong, China            1         I        1        1       46        39       56       33       52       60       43       66
Colombi'a                     ..        2        ..        1                36        ..      24        .       63                 75
Congo, Dem. Rep.              62       58       84       81        18       20        4        5       20       23       12        14
Congo,Rep.                   42        33       81       69        20       23        2        4       38       44       17        27
Costa Rica                    43       34        5         6       23       27       20       26       34       39       75        68
C6te dIlvoi're                60       54       75        72       10       11        5        6       30       34       20        22
Croatia                       23       17       28        15       38       38       27       28       39       45       45        57
Cuba                          30       24       10        8        32       36       22       21       39       41       68        71
Czech Republic                14       13       11         9       67       54       44       36       19       33      2d5       85
Denmark                       10        7        3        3        41       37       17       16       44       55       76        8�1
Dominican Republic           40        31       11        9        26       32       16       23       34       38       73        68
Ecuador                      44        39       22       16        21       20       15       16       34       41       63        68
Egypt, Arab Rep.             43        32        8       43        20       23       10        9       32       38       56       31
El Salvador                  56        50        8         7       20       22       18       19       24       29       73        74
Eritrea                       79       77       88       85         7        8        2        2       14       16       11        13
Estonia                      19        18       12       11        50       48       36       34       31       34       52        55
Ethiopia                     90        86       89       86         2        2        2        2        6       11       10       12
Finland                      12        10        9        5       42        38       21       14       38       49       64       76
France                        9         6        7        4       43        38       22       17       48       56       71       78
Gabon                        59        46       74       59        18       21        5       10       24       33       21       32
Gambia,The                   77        74       93       92        10       12        2        3       13       14        5         6
Georgia                      31        27       34       24        32       38       21       23       37       34       45        52
Germany                        6        4        8        4        54       48       33       24       40       48       59       172
Ghana                        66        64       57       55        12       12       14       14       22       25       29       31
Greece                       25        19       39       23        34       32       18       17       40       47       39        51
Guatemala                    64        64       17       16        17       16       27       23       19       21       56        61
Guinea                        86       83       96       92         2        2        1        1       12       15        3         7
Guinea-Bissau                81        78       98       96         3        3        0        0       17       19        2         3
Haiti                         79,      76       61       57         8        9        8        8       13       15       31        35
Honduras                     63        48       40       25        17       23        9       12       20       30       51        64
S8 1998 World Development Indicators



2.5
Agriculture                   Industry                     Services
Male          Female         Male          Female         Male          Female
% f    % o       f    % o      f     % o      f  01% Of                  % of
economically active  economically active  economically active  economically active  economically active  economically active
male population  female population  male population  female population  male population  female population
1980    1994   1980   1994    1980   1994   1980   1994    1980   1994   1980    1994
Iran, Ialamic Rap .    36.30.82.73.28                       26.6.9.35                    44     12      18
Iraq             ~~~21   12     62      39     24     19      11      9     55     69     27      52
Ireland..                      1 6     ..     3             28      ..    16             39             69
lareel         7       4      4~~~~~~~~~~.......  2.1   39.........37... .   15..   15...  51........ 55...  77.........  77.........
Kazakhstan             28      28     20     15      38     37     25     25      34     35     55     60
Kenya                  77      75     88     85      10     11      2      3      13     14     10     12
Korea, Dam. Rep.       39      35     52     42      37     38     20     23      24     27     28     35
Korea, Rep.            29      13     38     17      30     37     23     25      35     47     36     56
Kyrgyz Republic        34      36     33     28      34     30     23     23      32     34     44     50
Lao PDR                77      76     82     81       7      7      4      5      16     17     13     14
Latvia                 18      19     14     12      49     4 7    35     33      32     34     50     55
Libya                  16       7     63      28     29     27      3      5      55     66     34      68
Malaysia               36      28     49     26      19     23     18     23      44     48     33     52
M all                  86.....   ... ... ... .. ...   I.. .. .  83... .. .. ... .. . 92   89.. . . ... .. ..  2..   21  1.. .. . .. .. ...2... ..   12.I ..... .. .  15.. .... . ...... 7.. . . ... .. 9. .   .
Mongolia               43      34     36     30      21     23     21     22      36     44     43     48
Namibia                52      46     64      54     2 2    21      5      8      27     33     31      39
Netherlandas6                   5      2      2      36     30     12      9      50     58     74      77
Nicaragua              49      38     16      9      26     28     21      23     26     34     63      69
Nigeria                52      42     57      44     10      9      5      3      38     49     38      53
Norway                 10       7      6      3      40     33     14     10      50     57     80      84
Oman                   52      48     25      20     21     22     33      35     27     30     42      45
P.........             56......   ..... ... ......... . .....   .. . .... 45.7372  15....20..   12......I... .. I13.......   29..I...34 .   15..I.............   ...... 5.  . ..
..anam a ..           35..   ...... ......   . ..... 30 .......5 .....3.  21...   ..   .... 21 . 1  10.......... .  38...   46.....   76........ .   80........
.... u.   N. .. .. ... .. . . .. ... ..w.... ..   ...ui   67  92... . .. . . ..... . . .. .   . . 89 .   9... ... I. .. .   . .. .. .. .. . . .. . 2... ...3....16... 18   6- .  8.... ..
Parag e.  .....I   .....I......I......  ..   ... 58......  .....   .. ..... 51.... ......... 9  8.......20. .   ...23.....22... 20....23..26 .  70...   72...... .I ..
Peru ......................   ...... ..45..   ..... . 41...   .. .....25.   ... ..   ..22..   ... 20.... 20....14....12.. 35  39..  61....   66..  .   ......
Ph  -I ....... .......p.......  .ne..   ....  ... 61.. .....   ... 54.... .... I..37.....- 3......15... ..16....16.. 14.... 25 ... 29   47...   56..   ....   ....
Poland...              28................ '...... ..1 . 27 ....32 ..  28...   46... ......... 45......  28  25........   26.........28....   40.... - ....... 47.I....
Rusaian Federation     19      17     13     10      50     48     37      35     31     34     50      56
1998 World Development Indicatora 59



02.52.
Agriculture                               Industry                              Services
Male               Fermale              Male               Female              Male                Femnale
% of                % of                % of                % of               % of                % of
econommca ly active  economically active  economically actiee  economica ly active  economically active  ecvnom caJly active
mnale population   female population    ma e popalation    female popalation   male popu ation    fema e populat on
1980      1994      ±980      1994      ±980      1994      1980      1994      1980      1994      1980      1994
Rwanda                          88        86        98        98         5         6         1         1         7         8         1         2
Saudi Arabia                    45        20        25        12        17        21         5         6        39        59        70        82
Senegal                         74         70       90        86         9        10         2         4        17        20         8        11
Sierra Leone                    63        60        82        81        20        22         4         4        17        18        14        16
Singapore                        1          0         1         0       32        35        39        30        63        62        57        68
Slovak Republic                 15        14        13         9        37        35        34        31        48        50        54        60
Slovenia                        14          5       17          6       49        52        37        39        37        43        46        54
South Africa                    18        16        16        10        45        42        16        14        37        42        68        76
Spai'n                          18        10        16          7       42        39        21        14        36        46        56        65
SriLanka                        41        29        44        32        16        18        12        17        26        37        20        27
Sudan                           66        64        88        84          9       10         4         5        24        26         8        11
Sweden                           8         5          3        2        45        34        16        11        46        52        79        81
Switzerland                                 6                  4                  42                  19         ..       49         ..       74
Syrian Arab Republic            27        22        78        69        35        30         7         6        39        49        15        25
Tajikistan                      36        37        54        45        29        28        16        17        35        35        30        37
Tanzania                        80         78       92        91          7        8         2         2        13        14         7         7
Thailand                                  42                  38                  26         ..       19                  26         ..       31
Togo                            70        66        67        65        12        12         7         7        19        22        26        29
Trinidad and Tobag                       .13                    5                 38                  19                  49         ..       77
Tunisia                         33        22        53        42        30        33        32        32        37        44        16        26
Turkey                          45        38        88        82        22        24         5         7        33        38         7        11
Turkmenistan                    33        34        46        41        32        30        16        14        35        36        38        44
Uganda~                         84        81        91        88         6         7         2         2        10        12         8        10
Ukraine                         26        24        24        16        46        46        33        34        28        31       44        50
United Arab Emirates             5         9         0         0        40        30         7         2        55        61       93         97
United Kingdom                   3         3         1         1        44        32        21        13        44        51       72        80
United States                    5         4         2         2        39        34        19        13        52       62        78        84
Uruuy22                                   21         4         4        31        31        23        21        47        48        74        75
Uzbekistan                      35        34        46        35        34        30        19        19        32        35       36        45
Venezuela                       19        19          3        2        32        25        19        13        48        48        76        76
Vietnam                         71         70       75         73       16        17        10        11        13        13        15        16
West Bank and Gaza               .          .         .         .         .         .        .         .         .
Yemen, Rep.                     60        50        98        88        19        22         1         6        21        29         1         7
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)    34        28        47        32        35        38        19        26        31        34        33        41
Zambi'a                         69        68        85        83        13        13         3         3        19        19        13        14
Zimbabwe                        63        58        85        81        19        13         4         2        18        29        12        17
Low income                      69        66        80        76        14        15        10        12        17        19        10        12
Mlidde income                   34    .   32    .   32        29    .         .5       2 .      .4    21        31   .   35 ....    44   .    49.
'Lo"w er ..m i'd"dlei'n"co"m..e...          .         .          ....35 35        31        24        21    .        .        .33  40    .    42.
UOp"per m i'd"dl ei'n"c"o"m..e  31        25    .   23    .   14    .        .7   34        23        19   .    32   .    41   .   54    .    67.
Low & miodle income                       7.                                                 4~ 
Europe & Ce'n'tral ..A'sia      2         23        27   .    22    .        .5   43    .       .1    30        30.      33    .   42    .   48.
'Lain-'m. Ae'ri'c"a..&...C"a'rib          29                  12                  28                  16                  42         :        71
&. 471ca ...                      .          .         ..5    2         2 .       10....    11   .        .         .43  29   .    29
Sub- S' a' ha' r'a'n' A'f r i c a........... .  69  65 . 6  ..531                1          4         4        20        .         17        21
Hihincome.                     8         6         .8        4.4                 5       23    .   18.4                 6         6         7
60   1998 World Deveeopment Indicators



2.5
The International Labour Organization (ILO) classifies    3=       t   E                                * Agriculture includes hunting, forestry, and fish-
economic activity on the basis of the International                                                    ing, corresponding to major division 1 (ISIC revision
Standard  Industrial Classification  (ISIC) of All       Women's labor force participation              2) or tabulation categories A and B (ISIC revision 3).
Economic Activities. Because this classification is     depends on how work is defined                  * Industryincludesminingandquarrying(including
based on where work is performed (industry) rather      %oflaborforceworkingin                         oil production), manufacturing, electricity, gas and
than on the type of work performed (occupation), all of  u '-: .'r'.  1':                              water, and construction. corresponding to major divi-
an enterprise's employees are classified under the        -                                            sions 2 through 5 (ISIC revision 2) or tabulation cat-
same industry, regardless oftheirtrade or occupation.                                                  egories C through F (ISIC revision 3). * Services
The ILO's Yearbook of Labour Statistics reports                                                     include wholesale and retail trade and restaurants
data by major divisions of the ISIC revision 2 or tab-                                                 and hotels; transport, storage, and communications;
ulation categories of the ISIC revision 3. In this table                                               financing, insurance, real estate, and business ser-
the reported divisions or categories are aggregated                                                    vices; and community, social, and personal services,
into three broad groups: agriculture, industry, and                                                    corresponding to major divisions 6 through 9 (ISIC
services. An increasing number of countries report                                                      revision 2) or tabulation categories G through P (ISIC
economic activity according to the ISIC. Where data           AAp E        Ca LAC  MNA  SAS  SSA        revision 3).
are supplied according to national classifications,                  6 Men    (9 Women
however, industry definitions and descriptions may      Source: iLO.                                     Data sources
differ. Classification into broad groups also may       Although there are still significant differences
obscure fundamental differences in countries' indus-    between men's and women's work by sector, oc-                        Employment data are com-
trial patterns.                                          cupation. and type of work oemen's oserall labol                    piled by the World Bank's
lerce participation r3tes are masine eoaser to those
The distribution of economic activity by gender       of rnen Women's laboa foice parlic'pation con                       Development    Data  Group
reveals  some   interesting  patterns. Agriculture      tinues to be strongly Influenced by gender differ-                   using an ILO database corre-
ences in he ncefinilcGn o, worh in dilfereni coun
accounts for the largest share of female employment     tries. This Is Partcularl$ escert in the nformal             A       sponding to table 2a in its
in much of Africa and Asia. Services accountfor much     sector and In agrIculture. where I Is sometimes  g   -   -          Yearbook of LabourStatistics.
dllffcull tO dlsTangu1sn between womnen's house-  ,,, 
of the increase in women's economic participation in    work and their unpaid work in a family enterprse or  . 
North Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and       Iln agdrcullural procaction.                  t;;
Female labor Io,ce Dariclipavlon ano women's
high-income economies. Worldwide, women      are        shareeofthewoktforcetendtobe largeincountdes
underrepresented in industry.                           where corner, s cmnritbirLns to famil) agnictlure
are dedned as aorl. IhIs i- particuiarly evidem In
There are several explanations for the rising         shica. where se.eral countries report more than 90
importance of service jobs for women. Many service       percent ol the Temale work force in agricultiue. re-
suling In high regional particiontion rates. In other
jobs-such   as nursing and social and clerical           countries. whete du distinct.on between bousework
work-are considered "feminine" because of a per-         arid a sWbs'stence acfl%irr--,ucn as rending a homns
&arde-leIs les cleat. the proportion of wonlel actise
ceived similarity with women's traditional roles.       in agncutture can be substant'ai', smaller thar' tnat
Moreover, women often do not receive training to        of men. Thurs women's work In agriculture and the
Inromria sector warrants speciae attenion to cioss,
take advantage of changing employment opportuni-        country conparl,ns lof women's ihare In the *at%
ties. Finally, the greater availability of part-time work  force.
in service jobs may lure more women, although it is
not clear whether this is a cause or an effect (United
Nations 1991).
1998 World Development Indicators        61



2.6 Unemployment
Male                       Female                      Total
unemployment               unemployment                unemployment
% Of                        % of                       % of
mnale labor force          female labor force          total labor force
1980     1.990      1996   1980      1990      196     1980      1990      1996
Argentina              ..8.4              ...10.4                     ..    2.3       9.2       18.4
Aystralia             5.1      6.7       8.7     7.9       7.2       8.3    6.1       6.9        8.5
Austria                7..3039.36                                    4.5     ..3.2               4.1
Belgium                -.      4.5'     10.5      ..11.4            18.2      ..7.2             13.8
Bolivia               6. .9              3.7      ..7.8              4.5     ..7.3               4.2
Brazil                4.2      3.8        -.     4.4       3.4        ..    4.3       3.7        4.6
Bulgaria                                14.1                        14.2     ..1.7              14.2
Canada                 ..8.1             9.8      ..8.1              9.4     -.       8.1        9.7
Chile          ~~~~   ~   ~~~~10.6  5.7    10.0       5..7       ..   10.4       5.6        6.4
Costa Rica            5.3      4.2        ..     7.8       5.9        -.    5.9       4.6
Czech Republic         ...3.5                     ...4.1                     ..0.3               3.1
Denmark                ...7.8                     ...9.9                     ...8.8
DomTinican Republic   ..       12.5 ~   102.2     .       33.1      28.7     -.      19. 7      16.7
Finland              4.7       4.0      15.8     4.7       2.8      16.5    4.7       3.4       16.1
France               4.3       6.7        ..     9.5      11.7        ..    6.4       8.9       12.4
Germany                76.0              8.1               8'8      10.2     ..7.2               9.0
Greece                3.3      4.3        ..     5.7      11.7        ..    4.0       7.0
Hungary                ...10.7                    ...7.6                     ..0.8              11.0
Ireland                ..12.5           11.9      ..13.8            11.9     ..12.9             11.9
Israel                4.1      8.4.       .      60.0     113.3.            4.8       9.6
Italy                4.8       7.3       93.3   13.1      17.1      16.7    7.6      11.0       12.0
Jamaica              16.3      9.3        ..    39.6      23.1        -.   27.3       15.7
Japan                 2.0O..   2O.0  .......33.3  2.0      2.2       3.4    2.0       2.1        3.4
Korea, Rep..                   2.9       2.3      ..1.8              1.6     ..2.4               2.0
Netherlands           6.3      5.4       7.0    13.4      10.7       8.3    7.9       7.5        7.6
New Zealand                    81        6.1      ..7.2              6.1     ..7.8               6.1
Nicaragua                      90.                 .15.4              ...11.1
Norway               1.3       5.6       4.9     2.3       4.8       4.9    1.7       5.2        4.9
Panama                 ..12.8           11.0      ..22.6            19.4     ..16.1             13.9
Paraguay              3.8      6.6               4.8       6.5        ..    4.1       6.6
Philippines           3.2      7.1               7 5       9.8        ..    4.8       8.1
Poland                 ...9.8                                       13.7     ..6.1              14.0
Porugl4.1                      3.2       6.4    13.0       6.6       8.2    7.84772
Puerto Ri'co         19.5      16.2       ..    12.3      10.7        ..   17.1       14.1
Romania                                  6.3      ...7.4                     ..3.0               6.3
Russian Federation     ...9.6                     ...9.0                     ...9.3
Singapore             I. .9              2.9      ..1.3              3.1     ..1.7               3.0
Slovak Republic       ...                00.                .11.9            ..0.6              13.0
Spain               '10.8      12.0     1-7.3   12.8      24.2      29.4   11.4      16.3       21.9
Sweden               -1.7      1.7       8.5     2.3       1.6       7.5    2.0       1.6        8.0
Switzerland            ...4.4                      ...5.1                    ...4.7
Trinidad and Tobago . 80       1.                40       2.                002.
.. -..  ..   -8.0        178 -.            14.       24.2 ..10.0.20.
United Kingdom         .       .6.9      9.2      ..6.5.             6.4     ..6.7               8.0
United States         6.8      5.7       5.3     7.4       5.5       5.4    7.0       5.6        5.4
Venezuela             ..10.9             8.2      ..9.3              9.8    5.9       10.4       8.7
62 1998 World Development Indicators



2.6
The International Labour Organization (ILO) defines the  survey, for example, can maximize the seasonal effects of  * Unemployment is the share ofthe laborforce that is with-
unemployed as members of the economically active popu-  agricultural unemployment. And informal sector employ-  out work but available for and seeking employment.
lation who are without work but available for and seeking  ment is difficult to quantify in the absence of regulation for  Definitions of labor force and unemployment differ by coun-
work, including people who have lost their jobs and those  registering and tracking such activities.       try (see About the data).
who have voluntarily left work. Some unemployment is     Data on unemployment are drawn from labor force sam-
unavoidable in all economies. At any time some workers  ple surveys, employment office statistics, and administra-  Data sources
are temporarily unemployed-between jobs as employers  tive records of social insurance programs. Labor force
look for the right workers and workers search for better  surveys generally yield the most comprehensive data  Unemployment data are from an ILO database corre-
jobs. Such unemployment, often called frictional unem-  because they include groups-particularly people seeking  sponding to table 3a in its Yearbook of Labour Statistics,
ployment, results from the normal operation of labor mar-  workforthefirsttime-not covered in other unemployment  the OECD's Employment Outlook (1997), and country sta-
kets. Changes in unemployment over time may reflect   statistics. In addition, the qualityand completeness ofdata  tistical sources.
changes in the demand for and supply of labor, but they  obtained from social insurance programs and employment
may also reflect changes in reporting practices. High and  offices vary widely. The most common exclusion from these
sustained unemployment, however, indicates serious inef-  sources is discouraged workers who have given up theirjob
ficiencies in the allocation of resources.            search because they believe that no employment opportu-
The ILO definition of unemployment notwithstanding.  nities exist ordo not register as unemployed aftertheirben-
reference periods and criteria for seeking work vary across  efits have been exhausted. Thus measured unemployment
countries in their treatment of people temporarily laid off  may be higher in economies that offer more or longer unem-
and those seeking work for the first time. In many devel-  ployment benefits. Economies for which unemployment
oping countries it is especially difficult to measure employ-  data are not consistently available or were deemed unreli-
ment and unemployment in agriculture. The timing of a  able have been omitted from the table.
_Z=~~fa
Unemployment continues to be high in transition economies
@1992           t:':i: 1           1.        1I
So re   CF C.  T' '-  'c '                                 I4 -' . 'i'               ' -
Growth in icngierm ur.emplovmenthas been one ol the mrost troubling deeloprnents accompan%ingCentral ane Eastern
Europe's tiansition trom Planned to marker econormes. Follouing an initial rise dunng 19589-93. unemplotment groeth
.n eoit countries nas tapered ofl, and registered unempio,fren. raies hase slabilized or clarten to decline. Bt,t
throughtout tne region. tne long term unemplo-ed-irdlslduals Aho hbae been out of  tark for more tman a gear-now
make up the largest snare ol the anemolo-ed. Although goawch in long termn uremplo,ment Is not a phentomenon Unique
to trapsition economies The situation in Central and Eastern Europe Is serious oec3use of gaps. in iOcl3 satet nets
and a dearth oi labor market programs targeted to rhe needs at the long tenl unemployed.
The proportion ot longtrm' unemplooee grew sneadith berheen 1992 aid 1995 in all contr'e Ir. the regacn excePs
Ciratia. In l996 the stare oa larig-reno unemplofea began to decline slgtai in manh countries. bua h continued to increise
In the Czech Republic Hungrs, and the Slosak Republic Long term unemploamem In Central aind Eastern Europe nows
resembles or esen exceeds lesls In Western Europe. In Bulgaria long term unemployment accounts tor more tnan 60
percent oa loLal unernplonment-a nighei micidence than in Spain. inich has eepenenced chronicalls nigh lonrg term
unemploament Rates approached or surpas,ed 40 percent in all countnes excep rhe Czech Republic vshere It reached
33 percent. In FYR Macedonia iT was 81 percent.
Long term unemplotmeni In Central and Eastern Europe is linked to lob transition patterns. Indikiduals are more
Irbels to oe hired out oa the public sector into the pr.ate sector. or between fifns. than lom the ranks ol the LnempioVea
or nght out al school A. a result there is ,tlemosement out at unemplohment and the pool of unemploved has become
increasingli homogeneous. Recert World Bank po%erey asses-ments for Hungars and Romania shoi that demograpnic
chaiaclensn.cs oa tIe unemplovee-age. ethnicit1. noucation-are crucial risk factors for posert) in the region.
1998 World Development Indicators          63



U        ~2.7 Poverty
National poverty line                                     International poverty line
Population below the               Population below the            Pope ation  Poverty  Populat cn  Poverty
poverty live                       poverty ne                    below    gay at   below    gap at
Survey    Rural   Urban   National   Survey  Ruiral   Uroan  Nationa   Survey  $1 a evy  $1 a dya  S2 a toy  $2 a day
year      %        S                 year     S       %        N       ye:                %                  %. 
Albania                       1996        .        ..   19.6                  .        .       .
Algeria                       1988     16.6      7.3    12.2       1995    30.3    14.7     22.6     1995      <2         ..     17.6      4.4
Angola
Argentina.                    1991        .        ..   25.5
Armenia..                                          .
Australia..                                        .
Austria..                                          .
Azerbaijan..                                       .
Bangladesh                 1991-92     46.0     23.3    42.7    1995-96    39.6    14.3     35.6
Belarus                                   .        ..       ...                                      1993      <2         ..      6.4      0.8
Belgium..                                          .       ...
Benim                         1995        .        ..   33.0                                  .
Bolivia..                                          .       ...
,Bosnia and Herzegovina..                          .       ...
Botswana                                  .        ..       ...1985-86                                       33.0      12.4      61.0    30.4
Brazil                        1990     32.6     13.1    17.4                                  ..     1995    23.6      10.7      43.5     22.4
Bulgaria                                                                                      ..     1992     2.6       0.4      23.5      6.0
Burkona Faso
Burundi                       1990        .        ..   36.2
Cambodia
Cameroon                      1984     32.4     44.4    40.0
Canada..                                           .       ...                        ..       .
Central African Republic..                         .       ...                        ..       .
.Chla.d..                                          .       ...                        ..
Chile                         1992        .        ..   21.6       1994       .       ..    20.5     1992    15.0       4.9      36.5     16.0
China                         1994     11.6       <2     8.4       1995     9.2      <2      6.5     1995    22.2       6.9      57.6     24.1
Hong Kong, China.
Colombia                      1991     29.0      7.5    169.9      1992    31.2     6.0     17.7     1991      7.4       2.3     21.7      6.4
Congo, Dem. Rep..                                                                      .       .
Congo. Rep..
Costa Rica                                                                    ..      .        .     1969    18.9       7.2      43 8    19.4
MSe dilvoire                                                                                  ..     1966    17.7       4.3      54.8     20.4
Croatia
Cuba
Czech Republic                                                                                ..     1993     3.1       0.4      55.1     14.0
Denmark..                                                                             .        .
Dominican Republic            1989     27.4     23.3    24.5       1992    29.8    10.9     20.6     1969    19.9       6.0      47.7     20.2
Ecuador                       1994    47.0      25.0    35.0       1995       ..      .        .     1994    30.4       9.1      65.8    29.6..
Egypt, Arab Rep..                                          .                  .       .       . 1990-91       7.6       1.1      51.9     15.3
El Salvador                   1992     55.7     43.1    48.3                                  .
Eritreea...
Estonia                       1994     14.7      6.6     6.9                                  ..     1993     6.0       1.6      32.5     10.0
Ethiopia                                                                                      ..1981-82      46.0      12.4      69.0     42.7
F:inla"nd
France..
Gabon..
Gambia. The                   1992                      64.0
Georgia..
Germany..
Ghana                         1992    34.3      26.7    31.4
Greece..
Guatemala                                                                                     ..     1969    53.3      26.5      76.8     47.6
Guinea                                                     ...                                       1091    26.3      12.4      50.2     25.6
Guinea-Bissau                 1991     60.9     24.1    48.8                                  ..     1991    88.2      59 5)     96.7     76.6
Haiti                         1987                      65.0                                   .                 ..
Honduras                      1992    46.0      56.0    50.0                                  ..     1992    46.9      20.4      75.7     41.9
64   1998 World Development Indicators



2.7
National poverty line                                    International poverty line
Population below the              Population below the          Population  Poverty  Population  Poverty
poverty line                      poverty line                below    gap at   below    gap at
Survey   Rural    Urban  National   Survey  Rural   Urbani  National  Survey  $1 a day  $1 a day  $2 a day  $2 a day
year      %       %year                     %        %       %       year      %        %
Hungary                      1993       ..       .    25.3                ...      ....          1993      <2_-10.7                   2.1
India                        1992    43.5     33.7    40.9       1994   36.7    30.5    35.0     1992    52.5      15.6 ..  88.8.    45.8
Indoneaia                    1987    16.4     20.1    17.4       1990   14.3   .168.8   15.1     1995..   11.8      1.8     58..7    19.3
Iran, Islamic Rep..
Iraq.....
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Jamaica                      1992       .             34.2..                                .    1993      4.3      0.5   ..24.9      7.5
Japan                                                                                                        7.:
Jordan                       1991       ..       .    15.0                                       1992      2.5      0.5     23        63
Kazakhstan                                            .........    ..   ..   ...   ....  .. ..   1993      <2         7.  ...  12.1   2.5
Kenya                        1992    46.4     29.3    42.0                                       1992    50.2      22.2     78.1     44.4
Kore.Den. R~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........
Korea, Dm Rep.
Kuwait.                                          ..      .
Kyrgyz Republic              1993.... 48:1.   28.7    40.0                  . ...-.              1993     18.9      5.0     55.3     21.4
Lao PDR                      1993.. 53.0      24.0_   46.1
Latvia
Lebanon 
Lesotho                      1993    53.9     27.8    49.2                                    1986-87    48.8      23 8     74.1     43.5
Libya 
Lithuania                                                                                        1993      <2               18.9      4.1
Macedonia, PYR
Madagascar..                                                                               .     193      73       32        32      56
Malawi                    1990-91.                    54!0 0    .                                                               :....I...
Malaysia                     1989                    -15 5....I....                             .. 1989    5.6      0.9..   26:6.     8.5
Mali
Mauritania                  .1990      ..            .5770.                                      1988     31.4     1-5.2 .....684.4.. 2330
Mauritius                    1992       .             10:6
Mexico                       1988       .             10.1                                       1992    14.9       3.8     40.0     15.9
Moldova                                 .                                                        1992      612              30.6      9.7
M ongolia            .       1995...33.1      38.5  .   36.3                .   ....  ...................               .  .....  .....
Morocco         ........1984-85    .'32.6.    17:3 ..26.0.   1990-1... 18 0      7..   6. 131 1990-91      <2               19.6 ...4.6
Mozambique
Myanmar.
Namibia
Nepal                     1995-96    44.0     23.0    42.0                                       1995     50-.3 ....16.2 ....86.7    44.6
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua                    1993    76.1     31.9    50.3.                                      1993     43.8     18.0     74.5     39.7
Niger....                                                                          ..       .    1992     61.5     22.2     92.0     51.8
Nigeria               ..... 1985 .495.5       31 7    43.0  .1992-93    36.4    30.4    34.1 1992-93      31.1     12.9     59.9     29.8
Norway.
Oman
Pakistan                     1991    369.9    280. _34 0 ...........                         ....  ..  1991  11.6   2.6     57-0     18 6
Panama                                                                                          -1989     2.       12.6     46.2     24.5
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay                     1-991   28.5     19.7    218 8                                                   .....      .................
Peru                         1986    64.0     45.0    52.0       1991   68.0    50.3    54.0                                           ....
Philippines                  1985    58:.0    42.0.   52.0       1991   71.0    39.0_ 54.0.      1991     28.,6      7.7. . 64.5_. 28.2
.Poland  .. ............... 1993 ..23.8                                                          1993      6.       47      15.1      7.
Puerto Rico 
Romania                      1994    27 9.    20:4.   2-15 5.... 1992                                     17.7      4.2     70.9     24.7
Russian Federation           1994                     30 9                                       1993      <2               10.9      23
1998 World Development Indicators 88



O ~2.7
National poverty line                                        International poverty line
Population oelow the                 Population below tie            Populat on  Poverty'  Pope ation  Poverty
poverty fine                        poverty line                   below    gap at    ueIO.    gap at
Survey    Rural    LJrban  National    Survey  Rural   Urban     aon,     Survey  51 a nayv  $1 a day  $2 a dlav  $2 a day
year               % S                year     %        %        S       year       %                            % 
Rwanda.                        1993        ....           51.2                 ..        .        .    1983-85    45.7     11.3      88.7     42.3
Saudi Arabia                               .         .       .                   .       .        ..
Senegal                                    .         ..      ...                          .       ..   1991-92    54.0     25.5      79.6     47.2
Sierra Leone                   1989     76.0      53.0    88.0...
Singapore                                  .         .       .                                    .. 
Slovak Republic                            .         .        ...                                          1992    12.8      2.2     85.1     27.8
SIlovenia...                                                                             ..       ......-
South Africa                               ...                                           .        ..       1993   23.7       6.6     50.2     22.5
Spain                                      .                                     .       .        ..
Sri Lanka                   1985-86     45.5      26.8    40.6    1990-91    38.1     28.4     35.3        1990     4.0      0.7     41 2     11.0
Sudan
Sweden
Switzerland
Syrian Arab Republic
Taji-kistan                                .         .       .                   .       .        ..
Tanzania                       1991        .         ..   51.1                  ..       .        .        1993    10.5      2.1     45.5     15.3
Thailand                       1990        .         ..   18.0        1992   15.5     10.2     13.1        1992     <2         ..    23.5      5.4
Togo                        1987-89        .         ..   32.3..                          .       ...
Trinidad and Tobago            192         ..21.0                               .         ..
Tunisia                        1985     29.2      12.0    19.9        1990   21.6      8.9     14.1        1990     3.9      0.9     22 7      6.8
Turkey                                     .         .       .                   .       .        ..
Turkmenistan                               .         ..       ...                         .       ..       1993     4.9      0.5     25.8      7.6
Uganda                         1993        .         ..   55.0                                   ..    1989-90    69.3     29.1      92.2     56.8
Ukraine                        1995        .         ..   31.7
United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom..                                             ....
United States..                                               ....
Uruguay.
Uzbekistan
Venezuela                      1989                 ..    31.3                                   ..        1991    11.8      3.1     32.2     12.2
Vietnam                        1993     57.2     25.9     50.9
West Bank and Gaza                         .
Yemen, Rep.                    199)2    19.2      18.6    19.1I
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.l               .         .        ..                          .       .                   .       .
Zambia                         1991     88.0      46.0    68.0       19~93      .        ..    86.0        1993   84.6     53.8      98.1     73.4
Zimbabwe                    1990-91         .        ..   25.5                                   ..    1990-91     41.0    14.3      88.2     35.5
66   1998 World Developmnent Indicators



2.7
International comparisons of poverty data entail both  living standards. The choice between income and con-  v Survey year is the year in which the underlying data were
conceptual and practical problems. Different countries  sumption as a welfare indicator is one issue. Incomes  collected. * Rural poverty rate is the percentage of the
have different definitions of poverty, and consistent  are generally more difficult to measure accurately, and  rural population living below the national rural poverty line.
comparisons between countries can be difficult. Local  consumption accords better with the idea of the stan-  * Urban poverty rate is the percentage of the urban pop-
poverty lines tend to have higher purchasing power in  dard of living than does income, which can vary over  ulation living below the national urban poverty line.
rich countries, where more generous standards are  time even if the standard of living does not. But con-  * National poverty rate is the percentage of the popula-
used than in poor countries.                      sumption data are not always available, and when they  tion living below the poverty line deemed appropriate for
Is it reasonable to treat two people with the same  are not there is little choice but to use income. There  thecountrybyits authorities. Nationalestimatesarebased
standard of living differently-in terms of their com-  are still other problems. Household survey question-  on population-weighted subgroup estimates from house-
mand over commodities-because one happens to live  naires can differ widely, for example, in the number of  hold surveys. * Population below $1 a day and $2 a day
in a better-off country? Can we hold the real value of  distinct categories of consumer goods they identify.  are the percentages of the population living on less than
the poverty line constant between countries, just as we  Survey quality varies, and even similar surveys may not  $1 a day and $2 a day at 1985 international prices,
do when making comparisons over time?             be strictly comparable.                           adjusted for purchasing power parity. * Poverty gap is
Poverty measures based on an international poverty  Comparisons across countries at different levels of  the mean shortfall below the poverty line (counting the
line attempt to do this. The commonly used $1 a day  development also pose a potential problem, because  nonpoor as having zero shorffall) expressed as a per-
standard, measured in 1985 international prices and  of differences in the relative importance of consump-  centage of the poverty line. This measure reflects the
adjusted to local currency using purchasing power par-  tion of nonmarket goods. The local market value of all  depth of poverty as well as its incidence.
ities, was chosen for the World Bank's World      consumption in kind (including consumption from own
Development Report 1990: Poverty because it is typi-  production, particularly important in underdeveloped  Data sources
cal of the poverty lines in low-income countries.  rural economies) should be included in the measure of
Purchasing power parity (PPP) exchange rates, such as  total consumption expenditure. Similarly, the imputed  l,  . ,   Poverty measures are pre-
those from the Penn World Tables, are used because  profit from production of nonmarket goods should be                  pared by the World Bank's
theytake into accountthe local prices ofgoods and ser-  included in income. This is not always done, though              Development Research Group.
vices that are not traded internationally. But PPP rates  such omissions were a far bigger problem in surveys            National poverty lines are
were designed not for making international poverty  before the 1980s. Most survey data now include valu-                based on the Bank's country
comparisons, but for comparing aggregates from    ationsfor consumption or income from own production.                  poverty assessments. Interna-
national accounts. As a result there is no certaintythat  Nonetheless, valuation methods vary-for example,              tional poverty lines are based
an international poverty line measures the same   some surveys use the price at the nearest market,                     on nationally representative pri-
degree of need or deprivation across countries.   while others use the average farmgate selling price.  mary household surveys conducted by national statisti-
Just as there are problems in comparing a poverty  The international poverty measures shown here are  cal offices or by private agencies under government or
measure for one country with that for another, there can  based on the most recent PPP estimates from the latest  international agency supervision and obtained from gov-
also be problems in comparing poverty measures within  version of the Penn World Tables (PWT_5.6). It should be  ernment statistical offices and World Bank country
countries. For example, the cost of living is typically  noted, however, that any revisions in the PPP of a coun-  departments.
higher in urban than in rural areas. (Food staples, for  try to incorporate better price indexes can produce dra-  The World Bank has prepared an annual review of
example, tend to be more expensive in urban areas.) So  matically different poverty lines in local currency.  poverty trends since 1993. The most recent is Poverty
the urban monetary poverty line should be higher than  Whenever possible, consumption has been used as the  Reduction andthe World Bank: Progress in Fiscal 1996 and
the rural poverty line. But it is not always clear that the  welfare indicatorfordecidingwho is poor. When only house-  1997.
actual difference between urban and rural poverty lines  hold income is available, average income has been
found in practice properly reflects the difference in the  adjusted to accord with either a survey-based estimate of
cost of living. For some countries the urban poverty line  mean consumption (when available) or an estimate based
in common use has a higher real value-meaning that it  on consumption data from national accounts. This proce-
allows poor people to buy more commodities for con-  dure adjusts only the mean, however; nothing can be done
sumption-than does the rural poverty line. Sometimes  to correct for the difference in Lorenz (income distribution)
the difference has been so large as to imply that the inci-  curves between consumption and income.
dence of poverty is greater in urban than in rural areas,  Empirical Lorenz curves were weighted by household
even though the reverse is found when adjustments are  size, so they are based on percentiles of population, not
made only for differences in the cost of living. As with  households. In all cases the measures of poverty have
international comparisons, when the real value of the  been calculated from prmary data sources (tabulations or
poverty line varies, it is not clear how meaningful such  household data) ratherthan existing estimates. Estimation
urban-rural comparisons are.                      from tabulations requires an interpolation method; the
The problems of making poverty comparisons do not  method chosen was Lorenz curves with flexible functional
end there. Further issues arise in measuring household  forms, which have proved reliable in past work.
1998 Worid Development Indicators       67



O ~2.8 Distribution of income or consumption
Survey year             Gin! index                  Percentage share of income or consumption
Lowest   L.owest   Second    Third   Fourth    H ghest   Highest
10%      20%      20%       20%      20%       20%       10%
Albania
Algeria                   1995a,                 35.3          2.8       7.0     11.6     16.1      22.7     42.6      26.8
Angola
Argentina
Armenia
Australia                 1989c0.d               33.7          2.5       7.0     12.2     16.6      23.3     40.9      24.8
Austria                   1987C, d23.1                         4.4      10.4     14.6     18.5      22.9     33.3      19.3
Azerbaijan
Bangladesh                19920"                 28.3          4.1       9.4     13.5     17.2      22.0     37.9      23.7
Belarus                   19930, d               21.6          4.9      11.1     15.3     18.5      22.2     32.9      19.4
Belgium                   19920,                 25.0          3.7       9.5     14.6     16.4      23.0     34.5      20.2
Benin
Bolivia                   19900,0d               42.0          2.3       5.6      9.7     14.5      22.0     48.2      31.7
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana
Brazil                    19950, 0               60.1          0.8       2.5      5.7      9.9      17.7     64.2      47.9
Bulgaria                  19920,01               30.8          3.3       6.3     13.0     17.0      22.3     39.3      24.7
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cambodia
Cameroon
Canada                    1994c0.d               31.5          2.8       7.5     12.9     17.2      23.0     39.3      23.6
Central African Republic
Chad
Chile                     19940, 0               56.5          1.4       3.5      6.6     10.9      18.1     61.0      46.1
China                     19950,01               41.5          2.2       5.5      9.8     14.9      22.3     47.5      30.9
Ho~ng Kong China.
Colombia                  1995c,0d               57 2          1.0       3.1      6.8     10.9      17.6     61.5      46.9
Congo, Demn. Rep..
Congo, Rep..
Costa Rica                19960, d               47 01.3                 4.0      8.8     13.7      21.7     51.6      34.7
CMe dIlvoire              1988a, b               36.9          2.8       6.8     11.2     15.6      22.2     44.1      28.5
Croatia
Cuba
Czech Republic            19930.0d               26.6          4.6      10.5     13.9     16.9      21.3     37.4      23.5
Denmark                   1992c0.d               24.7          3.6       9.6     14.9     18.3      22.7     34.5      20.5
Dominican Republic        19890,01               50.5          1.6       4.2      7.9     12.5      19.7     55.7      39.6
Ecuador                   1994a,                 46.6          2.3       5.4      8.9     13.2      19.9     52.6      37.6
Egypt, Arab Rep.          1991a,'                32.0          3 .9      8.7     12.5     16.3      21.4     41.1      26.7
El Salvador               19950.0d               49.9          1.2       3.7      8.3     13.1      20.5     54.4      38.3
Eritrea
Estonia                   19930.0d               39.5          2.4       6.6     10.7     15.1      21.4     46.3      31.3
Ethiopia
Finland                   199lc, 1               25.6          4.2      10.0     14.2     17.6      22.3     35.8      21.6
France                    19890 1                32.7          2 .5      7.2     12.7     17.1      22.8     40.1      24.9
Gabon
Gambia, The
Georgia
Germany                   19890.01               28.1          3.7       9.0     13.5     17.5      22.9     37.1      22.6
Ghana                     1992a, b               33.9          3.4       7.9     12.0     16.1      21.8     42.2      27.3
Greece
Guatemala                 19890.0I               59.6          0.6       2.1      5.8     10.5      18.6     63.0     .46.6
Guinea                    1991"                  46.8          0.9       3.0      8.3     14.6      23.9     50.2      31.7
Guinea-Bissau             l99la, b               58.2          0.5       2.1      6.5     12.0      20.6     58.9      42.4
Guyana.1993, b'                                  40.2          2.4       6.3     10.7      15.0     21.2     46.9      32.0
Haiti
Honduras                  19960. I               53.7          1.2       3.4      7.1      11,7     19.7     58.0      42.1
88  1998 World Development Indicators



2.8-
Survey year               Gini index                    Percentage share of income or consumption
Lowest    Lowest    Second     Third     Fourth   Highest    Highest
10%       20%       20%       20%        20%      20%/       10%
Hungary                     19930, d27.9                            41.1      9.7 .... 13.9      16.9      21.4      38 .1.     24.0
India                       1994a, b29.7                            4.1       9.2      13.0      16.8      21.7      39.3       25.0
Indonesia                   1995a b34.2 .....                   ....36.6   ... 8.4     12.0      15.5      21.0 .. .. 43.1      28.3
Iran, Islamic Rep.
I raq.
Ireland                     19870, d                 35.9           25.5... .. 6.-7    11.6      16.4      22.4      42.9 .....27.4
Israel                      19920, d35.5                            2.8 ....  6.9      11.4      16.3      22.9...... 425.5     26.9
Italy                       19910. d                 31.2           2:9 .... 7.6       12.9      17.3      23.2 ..... 38.9 ....23.7
Jamaica                     1991a' b                 41.1 .....     2:4 ..... 5.8      10.2      14.9      21..6     4775.5.... 31.9
Japan
Jordan                      19,b43.4                                2:4.      5.9        98 ....139 ......20.3        501 ....34:7
Kazakhstan                  19930, d                 32:7 ....      3:1..     7.5      12.3      16.9      22.9 ... 40.4 .    . . 24 9
Kenya                       1992a, b57.5                            12.2      3.4       6.7      10.7      17.0      62.1_      47.7
K orea,  O em I . . .. . .. R ep. . . . .   . . .   . . .  .  . . .. . . . . . . .   . . . . . . . .   . . .. . . . . . . . . . .   . . .   . . . . .. . .   . . . .. . . .   ... . : . . .
Korea, Dm Rep.
Kuwait
Kyrgyz Republic             19930. d.....           .35.3  ...... ....2:7  ...  6.7    11.5      16.4      23.1 ... .. 42:3.3   .... 26.2
Lao PDR                     1992a, b30.4 ......I....4:2 . ....9.6                      12.9      16.3      21.0      402_.2    .. 26.4
Latvia                      1993cd                   27.04:3 .......96                 136       17.5      22.6       36:7...... 22.1
Lesotho                  1986-87a, b                 56~.0. .....   0.9.      28        6.5      11.2      19.4 ...60:1_        43....4 
Libya
Lithuania                   1993c,5                  336.. 6 ...... 3:4.      8.1 .....12.3      16.2      213 3..... 42:1,     28.0
Luxembourg                  19910, d                 26~9.          4:2 ...   9.5 .....136       17.7      22.4      36.7       22.3
Macedonia, FYR
Madagascar                  1993a, b........ 43~4              .....23 ...    5.8       99 9     140...... 203       50.0       34.9
Malawi
Malaysia                    1989,5 d48.4 ..........1.9                    ~  .4.6 ......83       13' 0... . 20.4  .....537      37.9
Mali                                                                             %
Mauritania                  19888, b42.4 ....                       07.7 ....  3.6     10 3      16.2      23 0...... 46 5 ........30.4
Moldova                     1992, d34~4                             2.7 .....8 .9      11.9      16-.7     23 1      41.5        25.8
Mongolia                    1995a, b                 33.2           2 9       73       12.2      16.6      23.0      40.9 ........24.5
Morocco                  1990-..la, b39~2 ........ .28 .                   ....6.6      10.5      150      217 ......463 ........30.5
Mozambique
Myanmar.
Neap                     1995-96a, b36.7                            372       7:6 ....11.5       15.1      21.0      44.8..      29~8
Netherlands                 1991.5 d31.5                            2 9       80       13.0      16.7      22.5      399        24.7
New Zealand
Nicaragua                   1993a, b                 503 ...        1:6        42       7.9      12.6      20.0     .552 ...    39~8
Niger                       1992a, b                 36.1           30.0      7.5.... 11.8       15.5      21.1 ......441.1    .29.3
Nigeria                  1992-93a, b                 45.0           1.3       4.0       8.9      14.4      23.4      494.4.     31.4
Norway                      19910.5 d25 2                           4.1      10.0      14.3      17.9      22.4       35.3      21... .22
Oman
Pakistan                    19la, b31.2                             3.4       8.4      12.9       16.9      22.2      39.7       25.2
Panama                      19910. d56.8                            0.5       2.0       6.3 ..    11.3     20.3       60.1       42.5
Papua New Guinea            1996a. b50.9                      ....  1.7        4.5       7.9      11.9 ....  19.2     56.5       40.5
~ ~~~~  .                          t:~~~....   .  .......  :..1........... .   ...
Peru                        1994a, b44.9                            1.9        4.9      9.2      :14~1....  21.4 .... 50.4     ..34.3
Philippines                 1994, b42.9                             24.4      5.9       9.6       13.9      21.1      49.6       33.5
Poland                      1992a, b272.2.                          4:0       9.3       13.8      17 .7   .. 22.6     3 6 .6.....I22.1
Portugal
Puerto Rico
Romania                     19920.5 d25.5                           378..      9:2     14.4       18.4     23.2       34.8       20.2
Russian Federation          1993c.d                  31.0           30.0       7.4 ..  12.6       17.7      24.2      38:2.2.... 22.2
1998 World Development Indicators 69



O ~2.8
Survey year              Gini index                   Percentage share of income or consumption
Loesest   Lossest  Second     Thrid    Fourth   Highest    Highest
10%       20%      20%       20%       20%      20%        10%
Rwanda                  1983-85a, b28.9                          4.2       9.7     13.2      16.5      21.6     39.1       24.2
Saudi Arabia
Senegal                    1991a5,b                54.1          1.4       3.5       7.0     11.6      19.3     58.6       42.8
Sierra Leone               1989a,                  62.9          0.5       1.1       2.0      9.8      23.7     63.4       43.6
Singapore
Slovak Republic            1992c,                  19.5          5.1      11.9      15.8     18.8      22.2     31.4       18.2
Slovenia                   1993c. d                29.2          4.0       9.3      13.3     16.9      21.9     36.6       24.5
South Africa               1993a, b               58.4           1.4       3.3       5.8      9.8      17.7     63.3       47.3
Spain                      1990c. d                32.5          2.6       7.5      12.6     17.0      22.6     40.3       25.2
Sri Lanka                  1990a, b               30.1           3.8       8.9      13.1     16.9      21.7     39.3       25.2
Sudan
Sweden                     i92,d25.0                             3.7       9.6      14.5     18.1      23.2     34.5       20.1
Switzerland                1982c,                 36 .1          2.9       7.4      11.6     15.6      21.9     43.5       28.6
Syrian Arab Republic
Tajikiatan
Tanzania                   1993~~                 38.1           2.9       6.9      10.9     15.3      21.5     45.4       30.2
Thailand                   19928, b               46.2           2.5       5.6       8.7     13.0      20.0     52.7       37.1
Togo
Trinidad and Tobago
Tunisia                    1990a0.b               40.2           2.3       5.9      10.4     15.3      22.1     46.3       30.7
Turkey                                               .             ..                 ..
Turkmenistan               1993c0.0                35.8          2.7       6.7      11.4     16.3      22.8     42.6       26.9
Uganda                     1992a~                 40.8           3.0       6.8     10.3      14.4      20.4     48.1       33.4
Ukraino                    1992c. d               25.7           4.1       9.5     14.1      18.1      22.9     35.4       20.8
United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom             19860. d               32.6           2.4       7.1     12.8      17.2      23.1     39.8       24.7
United States              1994c. d               40.1           1.5       4.8     10.5      16.0      23.5     45.2       28.5
Uruguay
Uzbekistan
Venezuela                  19950. d                46.8          1.5       4.3       8.8     13.8      21.3     51.8       35.6
Vietnam                    19931~                  35.7          3.5       7.8      11.4     15.4      21.4     44.0       29.0
West Bank and Gaza
Yemen, Rep.                19921                   39.5          2.3       6.1     10.9      15.3      21.6     46.1       30.8
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.                          .             .         .        .         ..
Zambia                     1993a,                  46.2          1.5       3.9       8.0     13.8      23.8     50.4       31.3
Zimbabwe                   1990,,                  56.8          1.8       4.0       6.3     10.0      17.4     62.3       46.9
a. Refers to experdituer sahren by eercentiies of population. b. Ranked by per capita expenditure. c. Refers to income snares bv percentlen of population. d.Ranked tDy per canpIa incomwe.
70   1998 World Developpnent Indicators



2.8
Inequality in the distribution of income is reflected in  World Bank staff have made an effort to ensure  * Survey year is the year in which the underlying data
the percentage share of either income or consump-  that the data are as comparable as possible.  were collected. * Gini index measures the extent to
tion accruingto segments of the population ranked by  Whenever possible, consumption has been used  which the distribution of income (or, in some cases,
income or consumption levels. The segments ranked  rather than income. Households have been ranked  consumption expenditures) among individuals or
lowest by personal income receive the smallest share  by consumption or income per capita in forming the  households within an economy deviates from a per-
of total income. The Gini index provides a convenient  percentiles, and the percentiles are of population,  fectly equal distribution. A Lorenz curve plots the
summary measure of the degree of inequality.  not households. The income distribution and Gini  cumulative percentages of total income received
Data on personal or household income or con-  indexes for high-income countries are directly cal-  against the cumulative number of recipients, starting
sumption come from nationally representative house-  culated from the Luxembourg Income Study data-  with the poorest individual or household. The Gini
hold surveys. The data in the table refer to different  base. The estimation  method used  here is  index measures the area between the Lorenz curve
years between 1985 and 1996. Footnotes to the sur-  consistent with that which is applied to developing  and a hypothetical line of absolute equality, expressed
vey year indicate whether the rankings are based on  countries.                             as a percentage of the maximum area under the line.
per capita income or consumption. For the first time,                                       Thus a Gini index of zero represents perfect equality
every distribution (including high-income economies)                                        while an index of 100 implies perfect inequality.
is based on percentiles of population-rather than                                           * Percentageshareofincomeorconsumptionisthe
households-with households ranked by income or                                              share that accrues to subgroups of population indi-
expenditure per person. Where the original data from                                        cated by deciles or quintiles. Percentage shares by
the household survey were available, they have been                                         quintiles may not add up to 100 because of rounding.
used to directly calculate the income (or consump-
tion) shares by quintile. Otherwise, shares have been                                        Data sources
estimated from the best available grouped data.
The distribution indicators have been adjusted for                                        Data on distribution are compiled by the World Bank's
household size, providing a more consistent measure                                         Development Research Group using primary house-
of per capita income or consumption. No adjustment                                          hold survey data obtained from government statisti-
has been made for spatial diFferences in cost of living                                     cal agencies and World Bank country departments.
within countries, because the data needed for such                                          Data for high-income economies are from national
calculations are generally unavailable. For further                                         sources, supplemented by the Luxembourg Income
details on the estimation method for low- and middle-                                       Study database.
income economies, see Ravallion and Chen (1996).
Because the underlying household surveys differ
in method and in the type of data collected, the dis-
tribution indicators are not strictly comparable across
countries. These problems are diminishing as survey
methods improve and become more standardized,
but achieving strict comparability is still impossible
(see the notes to table 2.7).
The following sources of noncomparability should
be noted. First, the surveys can differ in many
respects, including whether they use income or con-
sumption expenditure as the living standard indicator.
Income is typically more unequally distributed than
consumption. In addition, the definitions of income
used in surveys are usually very different from the
economic definition of income (the maximum level of
consumption consistent with keeping productive
capacity unchanged). Consumption is usually a much
better welfare indicator particularly in developing
countries. Second, household units differ in size
(number of members) and in extent of income sharing
among members. Individuals differ in age and con-
sumption needs. Differences between countries in
these respects may bias distribution comparisons.
1998 World Development Indicators    71



2.9   Education policy and infrastructure
Public expenditure  Expenditure per student  Expenditure  Primary  Duration
on education                           on teaching  pupil-  of
materials  teacher  primary
ratio  education
Primary  Secondary  Tertlary  Primar,y  Secondary
%  f%o              f%of  % of      toa of  tt. pu.pils per
GNP     GNP per capita  GNP per capita  GNP per capita  fon level  for le,el  yeco  ears
1980  19950  1980  1994  1980  19950  1980  19950  1994  1994  19950  19950
Albania          ..   3.4   ..   .    . 23.0  .. 36.0   ..   5.4    is     8
Algeria          7.8  ..    8.9  1106.6.          .     1.1  0.0    27     6
Argentina        2.7  4.5   6.5  116.2  .. 12.0  110.4  17.0  ...7
Armenia                ...       .    ..  .   .. 19.0   ..22               4
Australia        5.5  5.6    .   ..   .   .. 29.6  30.0  .    .     16     6
Austria          5.6  5 .5  16.1  1188  .. 25.0  37.9  32.0  . ..12        4
Azerbaijan            3.0            ..   .   . 13.0    ..   0.3    20     4
Bangladesh       1.5  2 .3  4.8  .    .. 23.0  46.8  30.0  ...5
Belarus          5.2  5.6  19.6  37.4  .  .. 32.8  20.0  ..20              4
Belgium          6.1  5.7  17.8  .    .. 25.0  34.8  35.0  0.2     12      6
Benin                 3.1    ..  .    . 22.0  ..240.0   ..49               6
Bolivia          4.4  6.6  13.7  .    .. 18.0  .. 67.0  .            .8
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana              9.6  113.6  ..  .   ..  665.5  ...      .26          7
Brazil.          3.6  ..    8.7  .  1.1.0  .. 0.1  ...        .23          8
Bulgaria         4.5  4.2  17.5  28.9  .. .   . 21.0    .    ..17          4
Burkina Faso     2.6  3.6  26.5  ..   .   .3,371.1  ..0.8    ..58          6
Burundi               2.6  24.2  14.2  .. 69.0  ..941.0  1.4  2.5   65     6
Cambodi'a             ...        .    .   .   .   ..                45     5
Cameroon         3.2   .    110  ..   .   .. 362.8  ...       .46          6
Canada           6 .9  7.3   .   ..   .   .. 27.9  36.0  ..  4.0    16     6
Central African Republic   22.1  ..   .   ..  .   ...         ..6
Chad                  2.2    . 112.3  .. 33.0  ..234.0  ..   0.9    62     6
Chile            4.6  2.9   9.6  8.5  .. 9.0  .. 21.0  0.0   ..27          8
China            2.5  2.3   3.8  5.6  .. 14.0  .. 81.0  .    ..24          5
Hong Ko0ng, China    2.8            .. 12.0  .. 52.0   0.3  ..24          6
Colombia         1.9  3.5   5.2  110.5  .. 11.0  41.1  29.0  . ..25        5
Congo, Dem. Rep.  2.6  ...       .    .   . 748.9  ...        .45          6
Congo, Rap       7.0  5.9  10.1  .    ..  .   ..224.0  0.1   ..70          6
Costa Rica       7.8  4.5  13.1  110.6  .. 19.0  76.1  44.0  0.4  ..31     6
CSte dIlvoire    7.2   .   22.5  . 1113.0 ..  .   ...               45     6
Croatia               5.3    .   .    .   .   .   .      .   ..20          4
Cuba             7.2  ..   10.4  ..   .   .  28.5  ..5.7     ..14          6
Czech Republic        6.1    . 411.2  .. 25.0  .. 41.0  ..  36.11  20      4
Denmark          6.9  8.3  38.4  ..      . .. .  55.0  4.3          la 1   6
Dominican Republic  2.2  1.9  3.1  2.9  .. 5.0  .  5.0  .    ..35          8
Ecuador          5.6  3.4   5.6  3.9  .. 15.0  22.3  34.0  . ..26          6
Egypt, Arab Rep.  5.7  5.6  ..   .    .   .   . 108.0   ..   0024          5
El Salvador      3.9  2.2  12.4  .    .. 5.0  103.5  8.0  .  ..28          9
Estonia          ..   6.6   ..   .    .   .   . 40.0    ..  3.4     17     5
Ethiopia         ..   4.7  19.4  56.9  .. 62.0  ..592.0  2.5  .     33     6
Finland          5.3  7.6  20.7  24.0  .. 30.0  27.8  46.0  6.2  4.7  ..6
France           5.0  5.9  12.0  115.9  .. 26.0  21.8  24.0  .. 0.3  19    5
Gabon            2.7   ...      5.5  ..   .   .   .      .   0.6    52     6
Gambia, The      3.3  5.5  21.1  .    .. 28.0  ..235.0  .     .     30     6
Georgi'a         ..   5.2                     . 28.0    .    ..16          4
Germany  .... ..4.7                           .  35.0   ...18              4
Ghana            3.1  ..    3.9  ..   .   .   .   .1.6        .28          6
Greece..              3.7   8.3  .    .. 19.0  27.0  29.0  2.4  ..16       6
Guatemala        ..   1.7   4.9  6.2  .. 5.0  .. 33.0   .     ..34         6
Guinea            ....         110.4  .. 38.0  .. 498.0  .    .     49     6
Guinea-Bissau     ...      32.7  .    ..  .   ..  ......6
Haiti            1.5  5. .9      ..   .   .  65.3  ..1.5      ...6
Honduras         3.2  3.9  10.9  .    .. 22.0  72.1  59.0  3.6  ..35       6
72  1998 World Development Indicators



2.9
Public expenditure      Expenditure per student       Expenditure   Primary  Duration
on education                                        on teaching    pupil-    of
materials    teacher  primary
ratio  education
Primary    Secondary   Tertiary   Primary  Seconcdary
% of          S of        % of       % of     % of total  % of total  pupils per
GNP        GNP per capita  GNP per capite  GNP per capita  for level  for level  teacher  yearn
1980   1.995a  1980 1994  1.980 1.995a  j980 19950  1994   1.994    ±9950    19950
Hunga.ry              4.7    6.0     14.0  26.0 ..   28.0  ..75.3  7.  .  .73.             11       8
India                 2.8    3.5     9.4  11.9    .   13.0    .  78 0.                     63       5
Ind. onesia           1.7     ...           ...236
Iran, Islamic Rep.    7.5    4.0     22.4  82.2   ..  120.0  . ..  62.0.....            .... 32 . ......5
Iraq             3 0            7.0   ..     ..   ..    ..   ..       .... .  .....   2 2..  6.. . . . .   . . . . .
Ireland                    ....  6.3.  11-5.5 . 149.9  ..230 0.  38 8.  38.0   0.3  0:5    23       6
Isreel               ..7.9   6.6    15.4    . . ...  .  .29.0  ..5   22   31.0  9.9  ........ ....  16  8
Italy... - ... ...            49..        199.9    .... 26:0  . 23.0       ..    1.4       11       5
Jamaica               7.0    8.2    14.0 14.7        25.0 166~6 193.0     1.7     .        37 6.
Japa          ..5.8           3.8    14.8   ..19:0          2  1    1.0   4.8     ..18              6
Jordan                  .     6.3..         .                 . 111.0       .    3.0       21       10
Kazakthstan            ..    4.5      ..    .                    00.               .204
Kenya          .   .  6.8..   7.4    15.6  1 7.7      4770  808.2_540.0 .31.8
- orea .. e m.  R ep....   ...     . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .....      .. ..    ..... .  .. ...4
Korea, Rep.           3.7    3.7    10.4 14.7     .   120.0  7.1 6.0      2.2    0.1       32       6
Kuwait                2.4    5.6     6.1    .     .27.9            .      6:9....I..... 15          4
,rf.:  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~  -  ..  .. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~49.0  0.6      20       _4
Lao PDR             ...........2:4      ....  4.7     25.0.      55.0       .    0.3       30       5
Latva..             ...   . 3:3 .  6.3  -.7 .                    45.0       1....   .       4  ...  .4
Lebanon                ..    2.0                                                           126
Lesotho               5.1    5.19    8:8  -126 ........  51.0  642.3  399.0   0.4  .       49       7
Libya                 3.4      ...          ............. ........                                  9
Lithuania             5.5    6.1                  .     .     .  51.0       .    04.4      17       4
Macedonia, FYR                5520.6                                             0.1       20       8
Madagascar            4.4            7:8        35 6                      1:1     .40               5
Malawi,               3.4     5.7     7.5  9.6    .  1450.0 11136.7  979.0   ....  8. 162           8
Malaysi'a             6.0    5.3    12.0 10.9     .   22.0 148.6 77.0     6.0    8.8       20       6
Mali      .........   3.8    2.2    .329.9  17.5  .   35.0    .  522.0    2:.2    .        66       6
Mauritani'a            ..    5.0     30.4  12.7   ..  59.0   ..157.0       ..    48526
Mauritius         5.3    4.3    15.6. . .. I.       .. 130     .0. .....22476
Mexriico47                    53     43s.          .2. 5.3 61.0           1.360.0.        2296
Moldova       ..     6.1     ~~~   ~~~   ~~~  ~ ~  ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~...  . .  ...  .... .. .  0   ...  . .....  23......4.
M ongolia..   ....5.6 .........                       3.0  ..    7 .0...  .. ......        .....25 .  3.....
Morocco               6.1    5.6    15.5 15.          205.0   . 74.0      0.21:  .,        2896
M o a m biqe.4.4..                     .. ..  ...  .. . ..  4. .   .       .5                
Mongolia   .... 1. 7     .334.               .   0.0        104 
Namib. a              1.5..9.4.........               4.08 740                             325  7.... 3
Nethrlands            7.6     5.3    13.8  ...    ..  205.0  5....744.0   3.1              28196
Niger          3.1     ~~ ~  ~~~~ ~ ~  ~ ~~  ~~... ...  2.4..........1,492.  ...    37..  6. .....   ..
N igeri               6.4..   .... ......  4.5. ..  .. .  . ...  . ... .  . ... .... . ... ..... .. .....344.6.  . 37  6... ... . ...
Mynoarwa              17.    8.3    300    82      .    ..  2875          2       . 
Oman  2.1    4.8      ..  16.8    ..  23.0                       2.2       26     6~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1.  4
Pakistan       2.0~     ~ ~ ~ ~~~~   ~ ~ ~ ~ . ...  8.7... .... ...  ....   ....  ...23..6.......... .. ....  .S.. .
PNamiba               4.8    5.2    12011741.0              2.   47.0     1.327. 
Npalau                1.5     2.9    14.   7.49    .. 11.0 .  7:  152.0   7.2              24.6
Peru  3.1  ..  7.2  ..     ..   ..    5.1  ..      0.7     ..       28~~~~~~~~..  6 .   .   .
Pohelands             7.6    4.6     8.28 1470.90           53. 42.0      3.1.             16        8
New Zealn  3.  .       .8     5.4    1350  .17.2   .... 20.0  33..  25.0   0.2             12        6
P uerto.   Rico.           .  -   .- .  ..  .. .. .   .... . .  ..  . ..   .........8
Romani...a            3  .3   3.2..- ..       .. 21.7 ....   7 .0 . .I...  4.0..2 
Russan Federation     3.534.1.                                                             2063
1998 World Development .ndca. r  73. ....



C ~~2.91
Public expendiiture   Expenditure per student    Expenditure   Primary  Duration
on education                                    on teaching   puipil-  of
materials   teacher  primary
ratio  education
Primary   Secondary  Tertiary  Primary  Secondar
% of     S~~~  ~   ~~~ of  S of  %f    % of totl %oVt  pupils per
GNP    ~~~~GNP per capita  GNP per capita  GNP per capita  for level  fo r .nece  er
1980  1995a   1980  1994  1980  1995a  1980  1995,  1994  1994  1995,  1995a
Rwanda              2.7    ..     11.1  ..    .    .    .     .3.5         -..              7
Saudi Arabi'a       4.1    5.5     .. 40.8               . 63.0     ..     .        3       6
Senegal              ..    3.6    24.6  ..                   ..4.0         ..58             6
Sierra Leone        3.8     ..          .     .    .    .                   ..              7
Singapore           2.8    3.0    6.8   ..    .  13.0  30.9  32.0   0.0    ...6
Slovak Republic      ..    4.4     .. 22.1   ..   4.0   .. 39.0     -.     .       241      4
Slovenia             ..    5.8     .. 23.0   ..  24.0   .. 38.0     ..    6.9      14       4
South Africa          ..   6.8     .. 32.3   ..    .     . 59.0      ..            37       7
Spain                ..    5.0      . 14.1.   .  21.0   .. 18.0      ...18                  5
Sri Lanka           2.7    3.1      .   ..    .    .. 62.2  64.0     ...28                  5
Sudan               4.8    ..    26.9  ..     .    .  440.6  ...            .36             8
Sweden              9.0    8.0   43.0  45.2   .    ..  25.6  76.0   3.9   6.8      11       6
Switzerland         5.0    5.5      .   .     .    ..  55.7  ...            .12             6
Syrian Arab Republic  4.6  ..     8.0   .     .. 17.0   .    ..1.9        7.9      24       6
Tajikistan          8.2    8.6      .   ..    .    ..  29.7  39.0    ...23                  4
Tanzania            4.4     ..    11.1  ..    .    .2,195.3  ...            .37             7
Thailand            3.4    4.2    8.8   .     .. 11.0   .. 25.0     1.0    ..20             6
Togo                 5.6  5.6     8.3 11.9    .42.0 891.5 621.0     0.2   2.3      51       6
Trinidad and Tobago  4.0   4.6    9.2   ..    .  17.0  55.1  77.0   5.7    .       25       7
Tunisia             5.4    6.8    11.8  13.5  .. 23.0  193.9  89.0  2.0    ..25             6
Turkey.             2.8    3.4    8.0  13.2  ..   9.0  107.7  51.0  0.1   0.1      28       5
Turkmenistan          ...           .   .     .    .     .   .       ..             .4
Uganda              1.2     ..    3.77  .     .    .     .   .       .             35       7
Ukraine             5.6    7.7   21.2  42.9   .    .. 38.5  20.0     ...20                  4
United Arab Emirates  1.3  1.8      .         .    .     .   ...           ..17             6
United Kingdom      5.6    5.5   16.01)       .  22.0  79.7  44.0   2.9    .       19       6
United States       6.7    5.3   27.1   ..    .  24.0  48.3  23.0...               16       6
Uruguay             2.3    2.8    9.3  8.3   ..   8.0   .. 28.4     5.8    ..20             6
Uzbekistan          6.4    9.5     ..   .     .    .     . 28.0      ..   0.3      21       4
Venezuela           4.4    5.2    3.0   ..    .    .   56.68 .      1.3    .23              9
Vietnam               ..   2.7      .   ..    .    ..    .   .....34                        5
West Bank and Gaza    ..    .       .   ..    .    .     .   .       .     .        2       6
Yerren. Rep.          ..   7.5      .   ..    .    ..    .   .....                          9
Yugoslavia. FR (Serb./Mont.)  . . . .  ..          .   . .   .       .    9.3      22       4
Zambia              4.5    1.8    10.6  .     ..  9.0  762.3  160.0  2.8   -.      39       7
Zirnbabwe           6.6    8.5    24.2  1.8.9  .. 39.0  259.8  234.0  0.1  4.1     39       7
Low income          3.4    3.6   11.0  12.4  ..  33.5  362.  15.     ..     ..     4 
Exci. Chna & Inda  3.4   3.9   11.1  12.6   .  34.5  362.8  192.0  .     ..              6
Middle income        J             :  !4          '    .   -4! 
UOp'per middle income  4.0  5.    6.2  16.5  ..   95   6.  4.        .i 
Lo6w& .  . m'iddle icme  3.9  4.6 ..  10.4  12.9 2ino e.  ..............2.0  ...107 .7 57 .0   ...3
Ea's-t As'ia & Pa'ci!f'ic ....2.1  2.6  7.5  56  . 18.0  186  64.5                 25
bur'op'e" ~&e  traAsia  5.0 .  5..6.. -.....  15.7  23.  ..  21.0  38~.5  39.0..... ..  216 .
L~ati n m.. A e'r'i'ca '& ...Ca"r!b' .  .......... 3'.9 .......3.9   8.7  8.i.1 .  51 39.0  2 
Middle East & N. Africa  5.0  56 10.3  14.5  ..  2.0  193.9  81.5              6
Suti  sia           20    30     91   0.     .. 13.0 148.9  71...2 
Sub-Sahr An: Afic.41..3           156.2.           ....42.0   78 .9.240.                  ....41
Hihincome          5.6   5.5    15.0     ..  .....-  22.5  30.2.  33.5.  .... ....  17    .6
a. Data are from IJNESCO's forthcoming World Education Reporr 1992 They are not yet avadable in time series
74  1998 World Development Indicators



2.9
Data on education are compiled by the United Nations  * Public expenditure on education is the percentage
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization  of GNP accounted for by public spending on public
(UNESCO) from official responses to surveys and from  education plus subsidies to private education at the
reports provided by education authorities in each coun-  primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. * Expenditure
try. Because coverage, definitions, and data collection  on teaching materials is the percentage of public
methods vary across countries and over time within  spending on teaching materials (textbooks, books,
countries, data on education should be interpreted with  and other scholastic supplies) to total public spend-
caution. Although exceptions are noted in the table,  ing on primary or secondary education. * Primary
readers seeking greater detail should consult the coun-  pupil-teacher ratio is the number of pupils enrolled in
try and indicatorspecific notes in the source cited  primary school divided by the number of primary
below. In addition, Behrman and Rosenzweig (1994)  school teachers (regardless of their teaching assign-
contains a generaldiscussion ofthe reliabilityofdata on  ment). * Duration of primary education is the mini-
education.                                      mum number of grades (years) a child is expected to
The data on education spending refer solely to pub-  cover in primary schooling.
lic spending-that is, spending on public education plus
subsidies for private education. Unless specified, the  Data sources
data exclude foreign aid for education. They also may
exclude spending by religious schools, which play a sig-           International data on educa-
nificant role in many developing countries. Data for               tion  are   compiled   by
some countries and for some years referto spending by              UNESCO's     Division  of
the ministry of education of the central government only           Statistics in cooperation with
(excluding education expenditures by other ministries              national commissions  for
and departments, local authorities, and so on). Data for           UNESCO and national statis-
a few countries include private spending, although                 tical services. The data in the
national practices vary with respect to whether parents  1   i     table were compiled using a
or schools pay for books, uniforms. and other supplies.  UNESCO electronic database corresponding to vari-
In most cases the percentage of GNP devoted to edu-  ous tables in its Statistical Yearbook 1996.
cabon spending has little or no correlation with cross-
national indicators of educational attainment. This
percentage can be expected to be reflected in education
indicators only when comparing countries that have the
same national income per capita. Otherwise, this per-
centage reflects effort rather than achievement.
The comparability of pupil-teacher ratios is affected
by whether both full- and part-time teachers are
included, whether teachers are assigned nonteaching
duties, and by differences in class size by grade and in
number of hours taught. Moreover, the underlying enroll-
ment levels are subject to a variety of reporting errors.
(See About the data in table 2.10 for further discussion
of enrollment data.) While the pupil-teacher ratio is often
used to compare the quality of schooling across coun-
tries, it is not strongly related to the value added of
schooling systems (Behrman and Rosenzweig 1994).
In many countries the duration of primary education
changed between 1980 and 1995 (see table 2.10 for
definitions of primary, secondary, and tertiary educa-
tion). As a result the relative size of public spending on
education by level and primary pupil-teacher ratios also
may have changed. These changes may affect the
comparability of enrollment ratios over time and across
countries.
1998 World Development Indicators     75



2.10 Access to education
Gross enrollment                                   Net enrollment
ratio                                             ratio
Preprimary         Primary          Secondary           Tertiary         Primnary        Secondary
% of relevant     % of relevant     % of relevant      % of relevant    % of relevant    % of reJevant
age group         age group         age group          age group        age group        age group
±.995         1980     1995     1980    1995       1980    1.995    1980    1.995    1980    1.995
Albani'a                   38           113       87       67       35         8       10               96
Algeria                     2            94      107       33       62         6       11       81      95       31      56
Angola                     68           174       88       21       14         0        1       70
Argentina                  50            106     108       56       72        22       38       ..       .        .      59
Armeni'a                   22                     82               79         30       49        .
Australia                  73           112      106       71      147a       25       72      100      98       70      69
Austria                    76            99      101       99      104        26       45       99     100               90
Azerbai'jan                20           115      104       93       74        24       20
Bangladesh                               61       92       18                  3
Belarus                    80           104       97       96                 39                        965.              -
Belgium                   116           104      103       91      1448       26       4.9      97      98               98
Benin                       3            67       72       16       16         1        3               59
Bolivia          ..           ~~~~~~~~~~~~~87    37                .16               79                16
Bosnia and Herzegovina... 
Botswana                    ..91                 115       19      56          1        4       75      96       14      45
Brazil                     56            98      112       33      45         11       11       s0      90       14      19
Bulgaria                   62            96       94       84      78         16       39       96      97       73      75
Burkina Faso                ..17                  38        3       8          0        1       15      31       ..       7
Burundi                     ..26                  70        3        7         1        1       20      52        .       5
Cambodia                    6             .      122       3 2     2 7         1        2        .
Cameroon                   11            98       88       18       27         2        ..       .       .       15
Canada                     63            99      102       88     106         57      103       ..      95       ..      92
Central African Republic    .71.                  58       14       10         1        1       56
Chad                        1              .      55         ..      9          .       1.
Chile                      96           109       99       53      69         12       28       ..      86               55
China                      29           113      118       46       67         2        5        ..     99
Hong Kong, China          84           107       96       64      75         10                95      91       61      71
Colombia                   28           124      114       41      67          9       17       ..      85       ..      50
Congo, Dem. Rep.            180                   72       24       26         1        2        ..     61       ..      23
Congo, Rep.                 1           141      1.14      74      53          5        ..      96
Costa Rica                 70           105      107       48       50        21       32       89      92       39      43
Cdte dIlvoire               2            75       69       19       23         3        4        .
Croatia                    31              ..     86        ..     82         19       28       ..      82        .      066
Cuba                       89           106      105       81       60        17       14       95      99       ..      59
Czech Republic             9.1          ~96                         96        18       2-1      ..      98               88
Denmark                    81            96       99      105     1.18        28       45       96      99       86      86
Dominican Republic         20           118      103       42      41           .       ..       .      81       ..      22
Ecuador                    49           117      109       53       60        35        .        .      92
Egypt, Arab Rep.            8            73      100       50      74         16       18       ..      89               65
El Salvador                31            74       66       25      32         13       18       ..      79       ..      21
Eritreea                                  .       57        ..     19          ..       I        ..     31               15
Estoni'a                  .56            98      .91        ..     86         25       38       ..      94       -.      77
Ethiopia                    1            36       31        9      11          0        1        ..     24
Finland                    39            96      100      100     116         32       67       ..      99               93
France                     84           111      106       85     I11         25       50      100      99       79      88
Gabon                       ...                  142        .        ..                 ..
Gambia, The                24            53       73       11      22          ..       2       50      55       -.      18
Georgia                    32             8.       2         .      73.      .30       38       ..      82       ..      71
Germany                    84             ..     102       98     103         34       43       ..     100       ..      88
Ghana                       ..79                  76       41      37          2        ...
Greece                     61           103       ..       81       95        17       38      103       ..85
Guatemala                  32            71       64       18      25          8        8       58       ..      13
Guinea                      9            36       48       17       12         6        .        .      37
Guinea-Bissau               ..68                  64        6        ..47                                ..       3
Haiti                       ..76                   .       14        ..1                .38              .
Honduras                   14            98      111       30      32          8       10       78      90               21
76  1998 World Development Indicators



2.10
Gross enrollment                                             Net enrollment
ratio                                                       ratio
Preprimary
% Of                Primary              Secondary              Tertiary             Primary            Secondary
relevant            % of relevant        % of relevant          % of relevant       % of relevant       % of relevant
age group             age group            age group              age group           age group           age grouip
1995             1980      ±995       ±980      1995         ±980      1995      1980      ±995       1980      ±995
H~ungary                        86            ..96.         97         70.      .81          14.       I9         95        93         ':..... 73
India                            5               83       100          30       49            5         6
Indonesia                       1910                      114          29       48            4        11         88        97                  42
Iran, Islamic Rep.                7....          8   ......9   .....4           6..
......I......... .......            .87..99..42                     69...5
Iraq                             8              113        90         57        44            9                   99        79        47        37
Ireland                        107              100       104         90       114           18        37        100      -100        78        85
Israel                          71               95        99         73        89           29        41
Italy                           9               100        98         72        74           27        41          .        97
Jamaica                         81              103       109         67        66            7         6         96       100        64        64
Japan                           49              101       102          93       99           31        40        100       100        93        96
Jordan                          25              104         94         75         .          27         .         93                  68
Kazakhstan                      29               84        96         93        83           34        33
Kenya                           26              115        85         20)       24            1qi
Korea, Dem. Rep.
Korea, Rep.                     85              110       101          78      101           15        52        100        99        70        96
Kuwait                          52              102         73        80        64           11        25         85        65                 .54
Kyrgyz Republic                  8              116       107        110        81           16        149
Lao PDR                           7             113       107         21        25            0         2                   68.                 18
Latvia                          44               78        89        100        85           24        26                   84                  78
Lebanon                         74              III       109          59       81           30        27
Lesotho                                         102         918                 21                      2         665                 13        16
Libya                                           125       110          76       97            8        16        100        97        62
Lithuania                       36               79        96        114        84           35        28.                                      80
MacedJonia, FYR                 24              100        89         61        57           28        18          .        85                  51
Madagascar                                      133         7213                                        3
Malawi                                           60       135           3       98            1         2         43       100                  66
M alays.Ia....  .......  .....       ..    .....   93  .. ....91 .  . 48       .61            4.11         .   .   .   . .. ..   .91 .... ..
Mali                             3               26        34           8         9           1          .        20        25
M auritania                       0 .. .......   37   . ....78  ...    11       15             .4:.                      .  ..  60  .   ...
Mauritius                       85               93       107          50       62            1         6         79        96
Mexico                          71              120       115          49       58           14       .14         ..       10
Moldova                         45               83        94          78       80           30        25          .
Mongolia                        23              107        88          01       89                     Is15.                s0o.                57
M orocco         .........  ..  63  ..   .       83  ....  83  .. ... .. 26  ...  39  . .. .. .  6~  .  11        62        72        20         '  ..
Mozambique                                       99        60           5         7           0         1         36        40                   6
Myanmar.                                         91       100          22       32            5         5
Namibia                         11                ..      133                   62             .        8                   92                  36
Nepal                             .              86       110          22       383                     5:
Netherlands                    100              100       107          93     .139a          2 9       49         93        99        81
New Zealand                     77              Ill       104          83      117           27        58        100       100        81        93
Nicaragua                       20               98       110          43       47          -13         9         98        83        23        2 7
Niger                            1               25        29           5         7           0         ..        21..4
Nigeri                                          105         89        .16       30            2         4
Oman                             3               51        80          12        6                      5         43        71        10        56
Pakistan                          .              39         74         14       26            .         3          .
Panama                          76              106       106          61       68           21        30         89         .        46
Papua New Guinea                 1               59        80          12       14            2         3
Paragua                         38              106       109          27       38            9        10         89        89                  33
Peru                            36              114       123          59       70           17        31         86        91                  53
Philippines                     13              112       116          64       79           24        27         94       100        45        60
Poland                          45              100         98         77       96           18        27         98        97        70        83
Portugal                        58              123        128         37      102'          II        34         98       100                   78
Puerto Rico...                                               ...                  ..4
Romania                         53              102       100          71       66           12        18                   92                  7 3
Russian Federation              63              102       108          96       87           46        43          .       100
1998 World Development Indicators 77



O ~2.10~
Gross enrollment                              INet enrollment
ratio                                                    ratio
Prepriruary
%of                Primary            Secondary             Tert~ary            Primary           Secondary
relevant           % of relevant       % of relevant        %of relevant        Sof relevant       yy of relevant
age group            age group           age group            age group           age group          age group
±.995           ±980      1995       1.980    ±995        1980     ±999      ±980      1995      1980     ±.995
Rwanda                                         63        82         3        11           0                  59       76                   8
Saudi Arabia                    8              61        78        29        58           7       15         49       62        21       48
Senegal                         2              46        65        11        16           3        3         37       54
Sierra Leone                                   52                  14                     1                   .
Singapore                                     106       104        58        62           8       34         99
Slovak Republic                71.                       97         ..      91            ..      2C
Slovenia                       66                        98         ..       91           .       32         ..      100
South Africa                   28              85       117                 84           -.       17          ..      96        -.       52
Spain                          69             109       105        87      118           23       46       100       100        74       94
Sri Lanka                                     103       113        55        75           3        5
Sudan                          37              50        54        16        13           2
Sweden                         60              97       105        88       132u         31       43                 100        ..       96
Switzerland                    94                       107                  91          1s       32          ..     100
Syrian Arab Republic            7             100      -10 1       46        44          17       18         89       91        39       39
Tajikistan                     10                        89                  82          24       20-
Tanzania                       -.              93        67          3        5           ..       1         68       48
Thailand                       58              99        87        29        55          15       20
Togo                            3             118       118        33        27           2        3          ..      85
Trinidad and Tobago            10              99        96        70        72           4        8         90       88         ..      64
Tunisi'a                                      10~2      116        27        61           5       13         82       97        23
Turkey                          6              96       105        35        56           5       18          ..      96        ..       50
Turkmenistan                    ...                                                      23        .
Uganda                         -.              50        73         5       12            1        2         39
Ukraine                        54            .102        87        94        91          42       41          .
United Arab Emirates           57              89        95        52       78            3        .9       74        83                 71
United Kingdom                 29             103       115        83       134a         19       48       100       100        79      '92
United States                  68              99       102        91        97          56       81        95        96        ..       89
Uruguay                        33             107       111        62       82           17       27          ..      95
Uzbekistan                     54              81        77       105        93          29       32          .
Venezuela                      43              93        94        21        35          21       29         82       88        14       20
Vietnam                        35             109       114        42        47           2        4         95
West Bank and Gaza              .                         .          .        ..                    ..
Yemen, Rep.                     1               ..       79         ..       23           .         4
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)   31              29        72         ..       65           ..      21          .
Zambia                         ..90                      89        16        28           2        3         77       77        ..       16
Zimbabwe                                       85       116         8        47           1         7
Low income                     19              93       107        34        56           3        6
E'xo'.-C1hin-a ..&.. I"n'dia ......75                    822                              3.           .
Middle income                 38             100       105        54    .   60     .    19   .    19                 93
Lower middle income    .      32.9                      14         57   .   60    .     21       .29
Upper.middle.incom       56..           101.107              47        62...       14   ......91
Lowpp"" .. middle~ income.-.....-~............ii......i~...        41.dii                         j 
Latin America & Carin   ........ 56           106        .Il       42       5            14       15                  9
Middle East & N~. Arca ...                                       2       6     .1
.76..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i9               .6~~~~~~~.....-............-
Sb-ahr'anx AfriCa ......78                       .    75   .    14       27            1
Hignhcome                    69     .      102    .   03    .    87   .   04     .    35k       57         ..       98
a includes training for the unemployed.
78   1.989 World Deaveopment Indicators



2.10
School enrollment data are important indicators of  developing countries, leading to a substantial number  i Gross enrollment ratio is the ratio of total enroll-
the size and capacity of a country's education sys-  of overage children enrolled in each grade and raising  ment. regardless of age, to the population of the
tem and may be useful measures of education out-  the gross enrollment ratio. Thus gross enrollment  age group that officially corresponds to the level of
comes, but they are notoriously rife with errors. The  ratios provide an indication of the capacity of each  education  shown.  Estimates  are  based  on
indicators in the table are reported to the United  level of the education system, but a high ratio does  UNESCO's classification of education levels, as fol-
Nations  Educational.  Scientific,  and  Cultural  not necessarily indicate a successful education sys-  lows. * Preprimary provides education for children
Organization (UNESCO) by national education author-  tem. Net enrollment ratios provide a better indicator  not old enough to enter school at the primary level.
ities on the basis of annual enrollment surveys, typ-  of a school system's efficiency, but neither indicator  * Primary provides the basic elements of education
ically conducted at the beginning of the school year.  measures the quality of the education provided.  at elementary or primary schools (see table 2.9 for
They do not reflect actual rates of attendance or                                                 the duration of primary school). * Secondary pro-
dropouts during the school year. Furthermore, school                                              vides general or specialized instruction at middle,
administrators may have incentives to exaggerate                                                  secondary, or high schools, teacher training schools,
Enrollments are improving. but the
enrollments. Behrman and Rosenzweig (1994), com-      school-age population is gohsing            and vocational or technical schools; this level of edu-
paring official school enrollment data for Malaysia in                                            cation is based on at least four years of instruction
1988 with gross school attendance rates from a        r   1 '   " 1 ': -' 1   '"    '             at the primary level. * Tertiary requires, as a mini-
household survey, found that the official statistics   m,,                                        mum condition of admission, the successful comple-
systematically overstated enrollment.                 ,,                                          tion of education at the secondary level or evidence
Overage or underage enrollments may occur, par-                                                 of attainment of an equivalent level of knowledge and
ticularly when parents prefer for cultural or economic                                            is provided at universities, teachers colleges, and
reasons to have children start school at other than                                               higher-level professional schools. * Net enrollment
the official age. Children's age at enrollment may           .                                     ratio is the ratio of the number of children of official
also be inaccurately estimated or misstated, espe-    £       '          :                        school age (as defined by the education system)
cially in communities where registration of births is  .          -   I I -           I |         enrolled in school to the number of children of offi-
not strictly enforced. Parents who want to enroll their                       -                   cial school age in the population.
underage children in primary school may do so by
overstating the age of the child. And in some educa-                     <           - -, -         Data sources
Souirce:" r*-i.
tion systems ages for children repeating a grade may
be deliberately or inadvertently underreported.       Er.ro,ment ranioi have mproaea cons'derabiV m all                Enrollment ratios are from
region, ann at all education le.els. pari,cularlo the  1 *
As an international indicator, the gross primary   primary le%el. Still. a liwlar.tial porbton 0 ch.idien  |        UNESCO's Statistical Yearbook
enrollment ratio has an inherent weakness: the        or school age continue tb be out ol school The                   1997.
challenge for le%eloping countries 13 to create an
length of primary education differs significantly     environmem both 'i scnoo. and ot ol scnool. itat
across countries (see table 2.9), so a short duration  ;s connoacie to nwimnging out-oliscnool cnildien lo
schools and ieLaoing them. In mang coumriei thil
increases the ratio, and a long duration decreases it  challenge vill be ectacroated oD sizale prolectko
(partly because of more dropouts among older chil-    growihtntnepoDulaiion 3ge6-1-lgrowThth3t 111E
pul increasing pressure on tne physlcal ann fin necal  j  -
dren). Other problems affecting cross-country com-    resources ol education sVstems.
parisons of enrollment data stem from errors in
estimates of school-age populations. Age-gender
structures from censuses or vital registration sys-
tems, the primary sources of data on school-age pop-
ulations, are commonly subject to underenumeration
(especially of young children) in order to circumvent
laws or regulations; errors are also introduced when
parents round up children's ages. While census data
are often adjusted for age bias, adjustments are
rarely made for inadequate vital registration systems.
Compounding these problems, pre- and post-census
estimates of school-age children are interpolations or
projections (see the discussion of demographic data
in the notes to table 2.1) based on models that may
miss important demographic events.
In using enrollment data, it is also important to
consider repetition rates, which are quite high in some
a998 World Development Indicators      79



EEi~2.11 Educational attainment
Percentage of cohort           Progression to             Average years of
reaching grade 4            secondary school               schooling
(general)
Male         -ernale         Male         Female
%                            %           ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Male  Female
1980   1991   1980   1991    1980   1991   1980   1991   1980   1992   1980   1992
Albania                                              .             .      *
Algeria                92     97     91      96     55     78     62     83      9     11      5       9
Angola                                                             .      .8            ..7
Argentina                                                   .             ...          13      ..     14
Armenia
Auatralia                                                  ...            .     12     13      12     14
Auatria                                              .      ...           .     11     15     11      14
Azerbaijan
Bangladeah                                           ..    56      ..    47 
Belarus
Belgium                78            81                                         14     14     13      14
Benin                         64             62     41            39      ..     .
Boli :via                      .                           92            90      9     11      8      9
Bosnia and Herzegovina...
Botswana                      91            95      ..     74            77      7     10      8      11
Brazil                                       ...                          .9            ..9
Bulgaria.                     93      ..     90            40            88     11     11     11      12
Burkina Faso           79     81     79      82                   ..2                   3      1      2
Burundi                83     78     83      76      8     12      7     11      3      5      2      4
Cambodia...
Cameroon               81            81      ..     24     32     19     30      8      ..     6
Canada                                                     ..15                        17     15      18
Central African Republic      85             81     38            35      ..
Chad                    ..    74      ..     65      .     36            35      .
Chile                   ...           ...           79      ..    80      .      .     12      .12
Hong Kong. China     100      ..    100      .     87      ..    93      .     12      ..     12
Colombia               ..     72       ..    74      .      ..            .
Congo, Dem. Rep..7                    0313 
Congo, Rep.            91     88      91     89     86     ..     80             .
Costa Rica             80     90      84     91     ..     66            67     10     10     10      9
C8te dIlvoire          94     85     91      83     25            21      .      .
Cuba                                                                             ..    12      ..     13
Czech Repu blic                                                                  .
Denmark                       98            98                                  14     15     14      15
Dominican Republic                                                              ..     10     ..      10
Ecuador                        .
Egypt ,Arab Rep        95       .    65   .      ...                             .     11     9.
El Salvador                                         28     21     26     18     ..      9      ..     9
Eritrea                                                                          ..
Finland                 ..   100      ..    100..           ...                         .
France                  ...                   .      .      ...13                      14     13      15
Gabon                  82      ..    79...                  ...           ...
Gambia,The              ..     .       .41                  .     42      ...           5      8      3
Georgia
Germany                 ..     .                                                 .     15      ..     14
Ghana                  87            82
Greece.                98     ..     98                                         12     13     12      13
Guatemala..                    .       .     ......                                     -
Guinea                  ..    80      .      73      ..    49      ..    44      .4                    2
Guinea-Bissau          63      ..    46      ..     71            46      ..     6             3
Haiti                  ..     60      ..     60     38     80     45     92      .
Honduras
80 1998 World Development indicators



2.11
Percentage of cohort       Progression to           Average years of
reaching grade 4         secondary school           schooling
(general)
Male        Female       Male        Female
%%           %            %          ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Male  Female
1980  1991   1980  1991   1980  1991  1980  1.991  1980  1992   19ao  1992
Hungary             96     9 7   96     9 7    .     .      .    ..     9.   12     10    12
In d ia..                           . . . . . ...            . . . . . ... . . . .
Indonesia                  .            .10                                         . 
Iran, Islamic Rep...       9493.                    83          82                 0. 
Iraq4                                                       1....... 12       .9    9      7
Ireland              ..    .                                .    .      1    1      1     13
Is a I. . . I . . . .. .. ..a.r. . . ..ae l. . . . . . . .  . . . . . . .   . .   . ..   . . . . .   .. . .   . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . .
Italy              100    100   100   100     98    99    98    100     .
Jamaica              .     98     .    100   100    98     89    95    10    11     11    11
Japan              100    100   100    100                             13     .     12
Jordan              95    100    95     9 7                88.....  ..88 7 0  12  11   12  12
Korea, Dem. Rep.     .      ....
Korea, Rep.         96    100    96   100     99          96           12    14    11     13
Kuwait               .      .     .     .     98     .     98          11..         1
Kyrgyz Republic
Lao PDR..                  .      ..     ..         65          60 .          8. 
Lesothb             61    74     77    84                         .     7     8     10    10
Libya
Lithuania          ~  .    :-   ~  .   . :
Madagasca            63~~7.       64     ..    44     ..   41
Malawi              62     73    55     68    ..     .                        6            5
Malaysia                   98          99      .     .     .
Mali                                     .    41    61     3     1.           2      .
Mauritania                 82.          83     .    37           29
Mauritius                  99     .     99    47    45     47    48
Mexico
Moldova
Mongolia
Morocco             90    85     89    85           79      .    84     8     8     5      6
Mozambique   .. ......... .66      .....  .60 .....  25.  39.  23   39  5     4     4      3
Myanmar
Nam ibia                    ' .- I   .I  .... .... ....... ..  ......  76   72  12..      13
Nepal                                          ..   79           77
Netherlands         97      .    100    .     6575                .     4    16     13    15
New Zealand  ..  97  ..  97            ..    ..     14    15    13     16~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..  ... ......
Nicaragua           51      .    55      .8                                   8      9     9
Niger               82           79      .     .    42      .    37     ..    3      .1.
Nigeria
Norway              99          100..                .      ..    .    13    15     13    16
Oman                                          74    84     83    88     5     8      2     7
Pakistan
Panama              87     85    88     88     ..    .      ..    .    11    11     11    11
Papua New Guinea          6867
Para   uay                 79          81.9.....                                   .....  ....8
Peru                85      .    83           8..          7..         1..          10
Philippines          ....                      ....               ..   10    1       11
Poland                                                                 12    12     12    12
Portugal                                            67      .    78     .     ..
Puerto Rico
Romania                                                                ..    11..         1
Russian Federation
1998 World Development Indicators  51



O ~2.11
Percentage of cohort            Progression to               Average years of
reaching grade 4              secondary school                schooling
(general)
Male          Female          Ma[e          Fema e
%                  % ~~~~~~~~~~~~~SMae                        Female
1980    1991   1980    1991   1980    1991   1980    1991 I1980     1992   1980    1992
Rwanda                  83      72     84      75      5              2              ..     6               6
Saudi Arabia            91             90             85      96     94      94      7      9       5       8
Senegal                 93      94     90      90                      .      ..6                   ..      4
Sierra Leone..                                                                       .
Singapore                                             82             84       ..    1       .      i
Slovak Republic
Sloveni'a
South Africa                                                  87      ..     91      ..     12             12
Spain                   95      97     95      98                    91      ..     13     14      12      15
Sri Lanka                       97             98             8892                  -.
Sudan                   78             78                                     .
Sweden                  99            100                              .      ..    12     14      13      14
Switzerland             92             94             42      46     42      48     14     15      13      14
Syrian Arab Republic    94      95     91      95      76     68     76      61     11     10       8       9
Tajikistan                                                                    .
Tanzania                        89             90                      ...                   ...-
Thailand
Togo                    90      84     84      79     39      40     34      35             11     ..       6
Trirnidad and Tobgo11                                                                      11      11      11
Tunisia                 94      93      90     93      31     60     31      60    -10     11       7      10
Tu,key                  ..      99             98     47      62     33      44      .
Tu'kmenistan                     .                      .      .       .      .      .. 
Uganda..                                ........                                     .
Ukraine..                               ........                                     .
United Arab Emirates            94      ..     93     91      92     93      96      8     11       7      12
United Kingdom                                                                      13     15      13     16
United States                                          ..      .       .14                 16      15      16
Uruguay                 93      99     99      99..            ...            ....
Uzbekistan                                                            .              ..
Veniezuela              ..69                                  70      70     75     ..      10      ..     11
Vietnam
West Bank and Gaza
Yemen, Rep.
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)
Zimbabwe                 ..     81      ..     80                      ...                   ..
92 1998 World Development Indicators



2.11
Indicators of students' progress through school pro-  ondary levels, rules governing repetition and promo-  * Percentage of cohort reaching grade 4 is the share
vide a measure of an education system's success in  tion, and the availability of special programs and  of children enrolled in primaryschool in 1980 and 1991
maintaining a flow of students from one grade to the  other alternatives to the general secondary educa-  who reached grade 4 in 1983 and 1994, respectively.
next and thus in imparting a particular level of edu-  tion system.                          The estimate is based on the reconstructed cohort
cation. Although school attendance is mandatory in  The average years of schooling measures educa-  method (see About the data). * Progression to sec-
most countries, at least through the primary level,  tional attainment for men and women.    ondary school (general) is the number of new entrants
students drop out of school for a variety of reasons-                                         in the first grade of secondary school (general) divided
including discouragement over poor performance,                                              by the number of children enrolled in the final grade of
the cost of schooling, and the opportunity cost of                                            primary school in the previous year (according to the
time spent in school. In addition, students' progress                                         country's duration of primary education, as shown in
to higher grades may be limited by the availability of                                       table 2.9). * Average years of schooling is the aver-
teachers, classrooms, and educational materials.                                              age number of years of formal schooling received.
The rate of progression, or persistence, is mea-
sured by the proportion of a single-year cohort of stu-                                        Data sources
dents that eventually reaches a particular grade or
level of schooling. Because tracking data for individ-                                                           Estimates of the percentage
ual students are not available, aggregate student                                                                of cohort reaching grade 4
flows from one grade to the next are estimated using                                                             and  progression  to  sec-
data on average promotion, repetition, and dropout                                                               ondary school were compiled
rates. Other flows caused by new entrants, reen-                                                       -         using UNESCO's database
trants, grade skipping, migration, or school transfers                                                           on enrollment by level. grade
during the school year are not considered. This pro-                                                             or field, and gender.
cedure, called the reconstructed cohort method,
makes three simplifying assumptions: dropouts
never return to school; promotion. repetition, and
dropout rates remain constant over the entire period
in which the cohort is enrolled in school; and the
same rates apply to all pupils enrolled in a given
grade, regardless of whether they previously
repeated a grade.
Because   data  from  the  United  Nations
Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) do not include dropouts or dropout rates,
the number of dropouts is estimated as the differ-
ence between enrollments in successive grades in
successive years, after netting out repeaters. The
remaining students are assumed to be promoted.
Repeated application of the same calculations leads
to an estimate of the number of students entering
each successive grade (Fredricksen 1991).
The percentage of the cohort reaching grade 4,
rather than some other grade, is shown for two rea-
sons. First, four grades are the minimum needed to
acquire literacy (United Nations 1993b). Second,
using grade 4 minimizes the effect of repetition at or
close to the final grade of primary education.
Progression to secondary school measures the
percentage of students in the final grade of primary
school who enter the first year of the general sec-
ondary system. The comparability of this indicator
across time and between countries may be affected
by changes in the definition of the primary and sec-
1998 World Development Indicators    83



2.12 Gender and education
Primary education                 Secondary general               Secondary vocational
Teachers          Pupils          Teachers          Pupils          Teac hers         Pupils
% female         % female         % female         % female        %1 "emale         % female
±980     1995,   1980     1994     1980   1899S    1980     1994    1980     1994    1980     1994
Albani'a                   50       60       47      48      46       51      59       54      32       50      41       31
Algeria                    37       44       42      46               45      39       47       ..      20      21       34
Angola                                       47                        .       32
Argentina                  92                49               75               84                               4 7
Armenia                            -97.              50               85
Australia                  70       76       49      49       45      52       50      49        -
Austria                    75       84       49      49       54      61      49       49      36       44      41       43
Azerbaijan                          83               47                                48        .       ..     32       38
Bangladesh                  8                37                7              24       ..       5        .       2
Belarus                                      ..      4                          .      50
Belgium                    59       72       49      49                         .       .       .
Benin                      23       24       32       ..26
Bolivia                    48               47
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana                   72       76       55      50      35       44      56       53      45       32      25       23
Brazil                     85               49..                                                 .
Bulgaria                   72       89       49      48       64      75      88       67      49       59      40       38
Burkina Faso               20       24       37      39       ..      18      33       34        .      2-1     40       49
Burundi                    47       47       39      45       18       ..     25       38      10       14      18       39
Cambodia                            37       ..      44       ..      28               38       -.
Cameroon                   20       32       45      47       18      25      34       40      24       28      39       41
Canada                     66       67       49      48       44      67      49       49       .
Central African Republic   25                37      ..       12       ..     25        .      25       25      49
Chad                                 8               32                4       ..      1 7 
Chile                               72       49      49                       55       54       .        ..     47       47
China                      3 7      47       45      47      25       36      40       44      25       25      34       46
Hong Kong, China.73                76       48                       51      51        ..      .        .      32
Colombia                   79       80.      50.     50       41.      .      50        ..     42       42      45
Congo, Dem. Rep.                    22       42      43        ...                     30
Congo, Rep.                25       36       48      48        8      15      40       41        .       .      54
Costa Rica                 79       ..       49      49       57              54       52      50               so 5     48
OSte dIlvoire              15       18       40      43                       28       34        .       .      49
Croatia                    73       89       49      49       ..      67        .      65       .-      58       ..      46
Cuba                       75       81       48      49       50      61      51       54      25       34      46       48
Czech Republic             ..       93               49               72       .-      52       -.      55       ..      41
Denmark                    ..       58      49       49       ..      49      51       52       .        .      41       46
Dominican Republic                  71       40      50               50       ..      57       ..      45      75       57
Ecuador                    65       68       49      49      38       44      48       47      37        ..     60       5S
Egypt, Arab Rep.           47       53      40       45      35       41      36       44      21       21      38       45
El Salvador                6.5              49       49      24         -     43       48      32       -.      48       53
Eritrea                             35               44       ..      13       ..      42        .       3       ..      11
Estoni'a                           89       49       48               83               53       ..      64       ..      47
Ethiopia                   22       27      35       38      10       10      36       46       ..       .        .      18
Finland                    ..49                      49                       53       53      42       42      47       54
France                     68       78       48      48      58               49       51      42       ..      68       45
Gabon                      27       44       49      50      28       19      42       ..      17       ..      28
Gambia, The                34       34       35      41      27               30       ..      20       ..      19
Georgia                             94                                 .        .       .        .       .
Germany              ~85                     ..      49               48       ..      50        -      35               44
Ghana                      42        -      44       46      21               38       ..      21        .      252-
Greece                     48       55       48      48      55       56      50       50      24       44      20       34
Guatemala                  62       ..       45      46               ..      43       ..       .        .      39
Guinea                     14       25       33      33       10      12      28       24       4        ..     34       25
Guinea-Bi'ssau             24       ..       32       ..      20       ..      22      ..       3       22      14
Haiti                      49                46       ..      11              47        ..
Honduras                   74       73       50      50                       5..49
84   1998 World Development Indicators



2.12
Primary education           Secondary general           Secondary vocational
Teachers       Pupils        Teachers       Pupils       Teachers        Pupils
% female      % female       % female      % female      % female       % female
1980   1995,   1980  1.994   1.980  l995,   1.980  1.994  1980   1994   1980    1994
Hungary                80. ..~   . .. 84 ... ... 49 ....  49   61  .... .. 67.....  65  ....   63   39.. .... 45
Ireland                74..   ......   .......- -  .....  78.   49...........  49..... ..   .  . . .  . .  51 .. .  50 . .. .. ... ... . ....... ...  72..   49......... ..
Israel                        83      49     49  . . .. ..  ...   . . . ..... 56   . ...53   .   ....   .. ......   ......  46  .   ....  45
Italy                  87     93      49     49     64     71l'   48..   .50..... 45    45 .   ..  41   43
Jamaica                87     89      50     49     67            52       .     56     56     65
Japan                  57     60      49     49            34     50      50      .     28    .. 47.. ... 45
.... ...z ... .  . .. ....  ..t...a...... 97... ..I... ...   .4 9972        .. .......74  . .   .   . ... ..52...
Korea, Dem. Rep.                       .             ..            ..~:   ::      :
Kyrgyz Republic        88     83      49     50     58     71     49      51      .     38     50     50
Latvia                        97     49      48      .     81       .     52             .      .     45
Lebanon                               48     48      .515                 3       8     35     40     4
Liya4747                  49      2439                 53      2             25
Macedonia, FYR                53      ..     48      .     52      .      60      ..                  44
Madagascar      .             56      49     49                    .      50.                  11     34
Malawi                 32     38      41  .. .. 47         .  ...I ..29.  .39      .  ... .. ...!. ..   : . 4
Malaysia               44     59      49     49     46     54     48      51     22     34     29     27
Mauritania              9     20      35     45      8     10     21      36      ..     4      7     23
M exico   ....   .... .   ....   .   .... ......  49.....   48..... ......  ...43..48 ..  ..   ... ..   .66  59. ...
M oldov ....a ........  96... ....... ...  97 ..  ...  ..   ..I  .49 ......  .. 49..   .   .....  5   51...   . ......   ..   ..  ..   .. 43..
M on olia...................91 ...  49  51..   ..... ...   67  .. 52.  58   44     56     63  ..... ..48
Morocco                30     38      37     42      .     32     3       42            26     23     40
Mozambique             22     23      43     42     27     19     29      40     15     24     17     25
Namibia                       65             50      .     46       ...  55             20            39
Nepal.10                      16      28     39      .
Nicaragua              78     84      51     50      .     56     52      53                   5       9
Norway1.   ............  .. .  .. 6.   49..   .  49  .. ...   .. ...51  .. ..   51             47 .   41
Oman                   34     50      34     48     27     48     25      48      6      .      7      17
Pakistan               32             33     31     30      .      26      .     20     20     17      33
Panama                 80             48     ..     55      .      5             47     47     54
Papua New Guinea       27     37      41     45     34     35     32      41     31     3-1      .     31
Para u5                               48     48      ..    65      49     51                           43 . 
Peru                   60     58      48      .     46     39     46       .      .      .     40
Philippines            80      .      49     50      . .           53...
Poland.                               49     48                    71     6                    44     41
Portugal                              48      .     59             48...                        .
P u erto.. Rico.....   .... .....................
Romania                70     84      49     49     53     65     65      53     41     54     45     42
Russian Federation     98     98      49     49     76     79     51      52      .      .      .
1998 World Development Indicators 85



O ~2.12 .
Primary education                      Secondary general                     Secondary vocational
Teachers             Puipils            Teaciners            Pup is            Teachers              Pupils
% female            % female            % female            % female           %/ female           % female
1980      1995a     1980      1994   I  ±980      1995-     ±1980     1994      1980      1994      1980      ±.994
Rwanda                          38                  48        50         ..28                          ..        .         .        55
Saudi Arabia                    39        51        39        47        33        49        37        44        ,.        15        ..        12
Senegal                         24        26        40        43        15        15        34        35         ...                25        35
Sierra Leone                    22                  42                  21                  30          .        .
Singapore                       66                  48                  56                  51        ..        24        ..        23
Slovak Republic                           91                  49                  75                  51        6.         3         ..       48
Slovenia                        ..        92                  49                  76         ..       52        ,.        58                  44
South Africa                    ,.        58         ..       49         ..       64         ..       53         .
Spain                           67        71        49        48        43                  51        51        31                  46        52
Sri Lanka                                 83        48        48                  62        51        51
Sudan                           31        60        40        44        26        ..        37         ..21
Sweden                           ..       72        49        49                  64        51        51                            52        50
Switzerland                      ..       69        49        49                            49        50         ...                39        41
Syrian Arab Republic            54        65        43        47        22        44        37        44        15        34
Tajikiatan                      -.        51         -.       49          -       34         ..       47         .
Tanzania                        37        43        47        49        28        25        33        43         .
Thailand                        49                  48        49        57                  46        50
Togo                            21        14        38        40        13        11        24        26
Trinidad and Tobago             66        74        50        49        52        56        50        51
Tunisia                         29        49        42        47                  36        39        47
Turkey                          41        44        45        47        36        40        35        39        34        39
Turkmenistan                     ....                                                                   .        --
Uganda                          30        32        43        44        20        ..        29        38
Ukraine                         97        98        49        49                                      51
United Arab Emirates            54        69        48        48        48        55        45        51
United Kingdom                  78        82        49        49        49        57        49        49                           57         52
Urited States                    ..       86        49        49         ..       56        49        49
Uruguay                          .         ..       49        49         ..        .        58        55
Uzbekistan                      78        82        49        49        48        49        46        48
Venezuela                       83        75        50        50         ..        .          .       58
Vietnam                         65         ..       47          .       58        ..        47
West Bank and Gaza               ..       48         ..        .          .       41
Yemen, Rep.                     11         .          .       28
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.l     .        75          .       49                             ..       51
Zambi'a                         40        43        47        48          .        ..       35        38         3
Zimbabwe                        38        41        48        48         ..       32        42        44         .
Low income                      32        39        42        44        26        33                  41                            30        31
Ec.Cia& In"d ia            3'1  .              42
Middle income                                      47        48
Lo-w-e-r ..m i'd dle ie)n c"o' m ..e . 65 . 68.4              4
Uprmid ii ncome      .49
Low & middle income            42        47                  45        31                                                          32
E'ast As-ia'. & .aci. c41            .    46.45                7        28      .3                     4                                      4
Etu"ro"p"e & ...C"ent'r"alA As i a  84    85        48        48         ..       6.
Latin  America'  'a arib~.      ..                    ...................49                    ....
Middle East & N. Africa  ~44      51"       42         5        3          42                                                         30
Hgh  income          ..    .~~~~~~~~~~~.......  ...  ..........   ...
a. Dat are from UJNESCO's forthcominlg World Education Report 1998. They are sot yet available in timne Series.
86   1599  World Developmenrt rinclcators



2.12
EM l=
Although data on female enrollment suffer from the           _                                     * Female teachers as a percentage of total teachers
same problems affecting data on general enrollment                                                includes full-time and part-time teachers. * Female
discussed in the notes to table 2.10, female enroll-  Gender disparities in education do not      pupils as a percentage of total pupils includes enroll-
ment as a share of total enrollment is a relatively sim-  respond to changes in GNP per capita    ments in public and private schools but may exclude
ple indicator that does not raise serious problems of  %                                          specialized schools and training programs.
cross-country comparability. Most countries could
achieve gender parity in primary and secondary                                                      Data sources
schools, especially if education resources kept pace
with the population of children. Yet disparities        :                                                              The estimates in this table
remain, and female enrollment rates tend to be pos-             I                      I                             - were compiled   using the
itively correlated with other indicators of development                                                          j     United Nations Educational,
(UNRISD 1977).                                         l                                                 j             Scientific,  and  Cultural
Girls' enrollments have caught up with boys' in                                 .                                   Organization's   electronic
most high-income countries, as well as in Latin                                                                        database  on   institutions.
America and the Caribbean. But they lag behind in                                 ; .  - - .                           teachers, and pupils.
Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East.         --.   ::.i:  -l
In low- and lower-middle-income countries dropout            r     :"..e,' 1
rates at the primary level are higher for girls than for   .. 1 .      .,. .i
boys, indicating that the gender gap in these coun-   Souice: 'itEi,: .v.-r.j iyir.l
tries is wider than is reflected by enrollment rates.
Although the disptlin between the enrollmeni of
One reason for this is early child-bearing in many of  hoes and g.r s has nariowed. tne percentage ol
these countries, which is clearly incompatible with   emolld girs continues to lag bellna that of boVs
schooling.                                           in tratlv Daret oi the deseloping world. The oo-
6racles to female educarion ,tem from mans fac
The economic incentives for educating girls lie in  tars. naxional education policlea that atlect bas
and girls aifetently: uneven distnbutirt oa primary
the opportunities women have to work. Teaching has    schooli. esoecially n raial areas: 'act ol schools
always been one of the first professions open to      for gtirs in sstens segregated bh see: nerceived
women, making the number of female teachers a         itielecance o primarV school currlcu'a to women's
emplosmemn possibilitles: and demand For tne
revealing indicator of employment opportunities. In   household labor of girls.
addition, female teachers are important role models     Gender dis5parities In educational enrollmrenl are
noat correlated With an o%etall stanoara of 1..ng
for girls, particularly in societies where female edu-  such as GrhP per capita. so gender alsparit) Is not
somethir.g that economies -grow our or MFmer.
cation is not encouraged or male teaching of females  Zing. and Pr.tchett l998f. TPuz ans itrategv to
is forbidden. Over the past decade the proportion of  'molrose remale enrollment shouid aim at esrab
female primary school teachers has increased every-   ishing supportive nat'onal policies. preosding ac
cesS to schools Mith adecLtate Intiastr,rcture. and
where. But data on teachers may not reflect the func-  reducing the direct a-id opporannty cost of girls'
tions they perform. Schools may employ teachers in    atltedance.
many capacities outside the classroom, and the
responsibilities assigned to male and female teach-
ers may differ systematically.
1998 World Development Indicators      87



2.13 Health expenditure, services, and use
Health expenditure                 Health            Physicians    Hospital beds   Inpatient Average  Outpatient
expenditure                                       admission  length     visits
per capita                                         rate     of stay  per capita
Pubolic    Private     Total        ppp                    per 1,000       per 100         % of
% of GDP   % of GDP   % of GDP        $          $            people         poop e       oulo       dubs
199O-95~  199O95,  1990-95a,b  1990-95    1,990-95  I1980     1994     190     994    1990-97   1909      19-7
Albania                        2.7           ....                              ..       0.9    1.3       ..     3.0       ..       11          2
Algeria                         3.3        1.3        4.6         247        109         ..    0.8       ..     2.1
Angola                          4.0         ..          .            ..                   .    0.0       ..     1.3
Argentina                      4.3         6.3       10.6.        932        877         ..    2.7       ..     4.6
Armenia                        3.1         4.7        7 .8        140         10        3.5    3.1      8.4     7.8        8       15          3
Australia                      6.0         3.0        8.9       1,728      1,578        1.8     2.2      ..     8.9      14        14         11
Austria                        5.9         1.9        7.9       1,720      1,926        2.3     2.6    11.2     9.4      25        11          6
Azerbaijan                      14.4       6.1        7.5          96          3        3.4    3.8      9.7    10.0        6       18          1
Bangladesh                     1.2         1.3        2.4          35          5.       0 .1   0.2      0.2    0.3
Belarus                        5.3         1.1        6.:4        280        245        3.4    4.1     12.5   12.4       28        18         11
Belgium                        7.0         1.0        8.0      -1,784      2.082        2.5    3.7      9.4     7.6      20        12          8
Benin                          1 .7          .          .            ..                 0.1    0.1      1.5    0.2
Bolivia                         2.7        2.4        5.0         138         38        0.5    0.4       ..     1.4
Bosnia and Herzegovina                                                                   ..    0.6        .     2.0       ..       15
Botswana                       1.9         1.4        3.1.        171        109        0.1    0.2      2.4     1.6
Brazil                         2.7         4.7        7.4         428        261        0.8    1.4       ..     3.0       or        .          2
Bulgaria                       4.0         1.4        6.9         296        197        2.5    3.3     11.1   10.2       18        14          6
Burkina Faso                   2.3         3.2        5.5          43         22        0.0      .        ..    0.3
Burundi                        0.9          ..         .            ..                    .    0.1       ..     0.7
Cambodia                        0.7        6.5        7.2           ..        18        0.1    0.1       ..     2.1
Cameroon                       1 .0        0.4        1.4          33          7          ..   0.1       ..     2.6
Canada                         6.8         2.7        9 .6      2,238      1,835        1.8    2.2       ..     5.4      13        12          7
Central African Republic       1.9           ....                              ..       0.0    0.0      1.6     0.9
Chad                           3.4         0.1        3.5          26          6          ..     .        .     0.7
Chile                          2.5         4.0        6.5         652        241         ..    1.1      3.4     3.2
China                          2.1         1.8        3.8         100         23        0.9    1.6      2.0     2.4       4        15
Hong Kong, China              1 .9        2.5       4 .3       1,036       944         0.8    1.3      4.0     ..        2        I. 
Colombia                       3.0         4.4        7.4         487        138         ..    0.9      1.6     1.4
Congo, Dem. Rep.               0.2          ..          .            ..                   .    0.1       ..     1.4
Congo, Rep.                    1.8         3.2        6.3         170        102        0.1    0.3       ..     3.3
Costa. Rica                    63.3        2.2        8.5        .536        214         ..    0.9      3.3     2.5
C6te dIlvoire                  1 .4        2.0        3.4          71         22         ..    0.1       ..     0.8
Croatia                        8.5         1.6       10.1           ..       302         ..    2.0        .     5.9      14
Cuba                           7 .9          ....                              ..       1.4    3.6       ..     5.4
Czech Republic                 7.7         1.9        9.6         970        383         ..    2.9       ..     7.4  .   19        13         16
Denmark                         5.3        1.1        6.4       1,508      1,849        2.4    2.9       ..     5.0      25         8          5
Dominican Republic             2 .0        3.3        5 .3        220         71         ..    1.1       ..     2.0
Ecuador                        20.0        3.3        573         253         78         ..    1.5      1.9     1.6
Egypt, Arab Rep.               1.6d        21ld       3.7d                              1.1    1.8      2.0     2.1       3         8          4
El Salvador                    1.2         3.8        5.0         132         74        0.3    0.7       ..     1.5
Eritree                        1 .1        0.9        2.0...                              ..     .        ..      .
Estonia                        6.3           ....                              ..       4.2    3.1     12.4     8.4      18        12          6
Ethiopia                       1.7          ..0.0                                              0.0      0.3     0.2
Finland                        5.7         19.9       7.7       1,521      1,526        1.9    2.7     15.5   10.1       23        12          4
France                         8.0         1.9        9.9       2,156      2,576        2.2    2.8       ..    9.0       21        11          6
Gabon                          0.6           ....                              ..       0.5    0.5       ..     3.2       .
.Gambia, Th-e                  1.9          ..          .            ..                   .      .        .     0.6        .
Georgia                        0.8          ..4.8                                              4.2     10.7     8.2       5        13          2
Germany                        8.2         2.3       10.4       2,123      2,578        2.2    3.3       ..     9.7      21        14         13
Ghana                          1.3         0.1        1.4          30          4          ..     .        .     1.5        .
Greece                         5.5         1.8        7.3         706        488        2.4    4.0      6.2     5.0      14         8
Guatemala                      0.9         1.7        2.7          92         33         ..    0.3       ..     1.1        ...
Guinea                         1.2           ....                              ..       0.0    0.2       ..     0.6        ...
Guinea-Bissau                  1.1           ....                              ..       0.1      ..     1.8     1.5        ...
Haiti                          1.3         2.3        3.6          36          8        0.1     0.1     0.7     0.8
Honduras                       2.8         2.8        5.6         121         34        0.3     0.4     1.3     1.0
58   1998 World Development Indicators



2.13
Health expenditure               Health          Physicians    Hospital beds  Inpatient Average Outpatient
expenditure                                   admission  length    visits
per capita                                      rate    of stay  per capita
Public    Private    Total        ppp                  per 1,000      per 1,000      % of
% of GDP   % of GDP  % of GDP       $         $           people        people     population  days
1990-95a   199O-95, j.990-95a,b  1990-95   1990-95    1.980   1994    1980   1994   1990-97  1990-97   1990-97
Hungary           ..        -6.8        0.. O5    7.3        496       295.       2..5   3.6     9.1    9.6      24       10 ..     14
India                        D.7        4.4       5.6         68        24..      0.4.   0.4     0.8    0.8
Indonesia                    0.7        1.1       1-.8        76.        17       0.1    0.2       .    0.7.               6
Iran, Islamic Rep.           2.8        2.0       4.8        239      1,343         3.. 0.3  0.3  1.5   14.4.. .-..: ...I...
Iraq             ..        ..        ~~~~~~~~~                      ~~~   ~~~     ~~~    ~ ~~~~~~~~~.. .  ...  .. .....  .. 06.  0...19 ....7
Ireland                      5.4        13.3      67        1,451     1,151       1.3.20     9.   7     5.0      157           ...
Israel               ....    .2.1  ..   2.1     ..  4.1      560       825..  ... 2.5            5.1    6.0                 ......
Italy                ~~~5.4     2.4        7.7      1,605     1,404       .1.3 ... 1.7     .     65.5     16       1 1....
Jamaica                      3.0        2.3       5.4.       212.        91       0. O4  0.5      ..    2.1
Japan                      .. 5.7       16.6      7.2       1,587     2.580       1.4.   1.8    11.3   16.2       9       46        16
Jordan.                      3.7        4.2       7.9        347       118        0.8    1.6     1.3   .1.6      113                 3
Kazakhstan                   2.2                   ....                           3.2    38     13.1   12.2       6       1 
Kenya.1.9                               1.0       2.5         34         13       0.1    0.0       .    1.7
Korea, Dem. Rp..                                                .         .       25.5     .      .
Korea,Rep...........-1~8          ... .36_   ...  5.4  .     518      ..420       0.6.   1.2     1.7    4:1     ..6       19         2
Kuwait                       3.6                   ...                    .        .7    0.      4.1..........
K~yrgyz Republic             3.7                     .........    .     ...       2.9    3..1   12.0 ..99        16       15         1
Lao PDR                      1.3   ..   1.3      .2.6                     8         ..   0.2       .    2-6.
Latvia                  ..4... 4 4                                                4.1     .      37    91                144
Lebanon                      2.1        3.3 ..   ...5.3                           -I1.7   1.9      ..   3.1.                  ..  .   ...
Lesotho                      3.5...                                                      00
Libya                                                                             1.3    11      48     4.
Lithuania  5.1                  ..                            3~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ...9 ... 4.0  12.1  11.1  20  147
Macedonia, FYR               7.3        0.9       8.3                              ..    2.3 ...        5.5        9..    15..       3
Madagascar                   1.1         ..01                                          1                0.                          0.1
Malawi          ..    ... .  2.3                    ...    ...    . ..  .. .      0.0  0... 0      . ...  1.6 ..
Malaysia                     1.4        1O.0      2.5        220         85       0.3    0.4     2.3 ...2.0
mali                         2.0       -1.3       2.9         1.5        1-1      0.0    0...1..                            ...
Mauritania1.                            41        5.2         75         35..            0.1       .    0.7
Mauritius                    2.2        17.7      3.4        408       109.       0.5    0.8     3.1    3.1        .. 04
Mexico                       2.8        3.0       5.3        365       223        0.9    1.3       .    1.2       6        42
Moldova                      4.9                    .           .         .       3.1    36      2.    12.2      19       18         8
Mongolia        ....   .... 4.8       0... 7      6.7        174..     158.       9.9    2.7    11.2  .11.5. ... 23        ..5
Morocco                      1.6.       1.6       3.4        126         36       0.1.   0.4~    1.2    1.1
Mozambique                   4.6                    ...... 0.0                             .     11     0.9
Myanmar                      0.4          .                                       0.2    0.1     0.       6
Namibia                      3.7        3.7       7.6        303       153          .    0.2       ..     .
Nepal            ..          1.2       .3.8       5:0.0  .... 60         .9       0.0    0.1     0.2    0.2
Netherlands                  6.7        2.0.      8.8      -1,813     2.198       2.1    2.5    12..I5  11.3      6       33 .       6
New Zealand                  5.7        1.8       7.4       1,260     1,018       1..6.  2.1 ...        7.3      14        7.
Nicaragua         .4.3                  3.5       7.8           .        34       0.4    0.7            I.8
Niger                        1.6                    ..          ...                                    .............00..
Nigeria                      0.3        1.0       1.4         18          5       0~1    0,2     0.9    1.7
Norway                       6.6        1.4        .        2,980     2,274       1.9    3.3    15.0   13.5      15       10         4
Oman                         2.5                   .7.         ..         ..      0.      ..9    1.63  . 2.1      1        54
Pakistan                     0.8        2.7       3.5         70         17       03     0.5     06     0.7        ...               3 ... .
Panama                       5.4        2.0       7.5        485       201        1.0    1.8       .    2.5
Papua New Guinea             2.8                   ...                    .       0.1    0.1     5.5.   4 .0       .     ...             ..
Paraguay                     1.0        3.3       4.3        161.        72       0-.6   0.3.      ..0.6
Peru                         2.6        2.3       4.9        199       106        0.7    1.0       .    1.4      O02
Philippines                  1.3        1.0       2.4.        60         22       0.1I   0.1     1.7~   -1.1 
Poland                       4.8        1.1       6.0        283       226        1.8    2.3.    5.6    6.3      14.      11.        6
Portugal                     4.5        3.6       8         1.058,      797       2.0    2.9.      .    4.3      11       10 .       3
Puerto  Rico                            6.0......                                          ..      .      ...
Romania                      3.6                    .           .         .       1.5    1.8     8.8    7.7.     18.      10         5.
Ruasian Federation           4.1        0.6       4 .8       225         96       4.0.   3.8    13.    1.8       20      -17         8
1998 World Development Indicators    89



C ~2.131
Health expenditure                Health           Physicians    Hospital beds  InpatientJ Average Outpatient
eXpenditure                                     admission [length     visits
per capita                                        rate    of stay  per capita
Pub[ic     Private    Tot al       PPP                   Per 1,000       per 1 000      1f
% of GDP   % of GDP   % of GDP       $          $           peop le        peop a     pop lat on  days
1990-95-   199O-95,   1990-95e.b  ±990-95    1990-99    1980    1994    1980   1994    1990-907  1990-97   1990-97
Rwanda                        19.                     ...                   ..       0.0    0.0     1. F    1.7
Saudi Arabia                   3.1         ...                  202       169        0.5    1.3      1.5    2.5
Senegal                       2.5         ...                                .       0.1.   0.1       ..    0.7
Sierra Leone                  1.6        2.0        3.6          22        18        0.1     ..     1.2
Singapore                     1.3        2.3        3.65        845       987        0.9    1.4      4.2    3.6      12
Slovak Republic               6.0          ...                                              2.8        .    7 1      20        11        12
Sloveni'a                     7.4          ..         .           ..                   .    2.2      7.0    5.8      16        11
South Africa                  3.6        4.3        7.9         396       257          .               .      .
Spain                         6.0        1.7        7.6       1,166     1,043        2.8    4.1       ..    4.0      10        11
Sri Lanka                     1.4        0.4        1.9          61        12        0.1    0.1      2.9    2.7
Sudan                           ..       2.7        0.3          ..        29        0.1     ..     0.9    -1.1I
Sweden                        6.0        1.3        7.3       1,523     1,724        2.2    3.0    14.8     6.5      12         8         3
Switzerland                   7.2        2.6       10.0       2.395     3.533          ..   3.1       ..   20.8      15        ..        11
Syrian Arab Repuolic            ..         .          ..                     .       0.4    0.8      11     11
Tajikiatan                    6.4          ...                               .       2.4    2.1    10.0     66       16        15
Tanzania                       3.0 D.                             ..                   .      .      1.4    0.9
Thailano                       1.4       3.9        5.3        336        111        0.1    0.2      1.5    1. 7
Togo                           1.7       2.2        3.4          40        20        0.1    0.1       ..    1.5
Trinidad and Tooago           2.6        1.3        3.9         381       151        0.7    0.7       ..    3.2
Tunisia                       3.0        2.9        5.9          ..       104        0.3    0.6      2.1    1.8       8
Turkey                         2.7       1.5        4.2         239       100        0.6    1.1      2.2    2.5       6         6 
Turkmenista,i                 2.8          ....                              ..      2.9    3.2     10.6   11.5      17        15
Uganda                        1.6        2.2        3.9          61        10        0.0     ..     1.5     0.9
Ukraine                       5.0         -.          .           ..                 3.7    4.4    12.5    1 2.2     23        17        10
United Arab Emirates          2.0        0.5        2.5         376       379        1.1    0.8      2.8    3.1      11         5-
United Kingdom                5.8        1.1        6.9       1.373     1.208        1.6    1.5     9.3     4.9      23        IC         6
United States                 6.6        7.7       14.2       3.801     3.667        1.8    2.5     5 9     4.2      12         8         6
Uruguay                       2.0        6.5        8.5        642        439        2.0    3.2      ..     4.5
Uzbekistan                    3.5          ....                             ..       2.9    3.3    11.5     8.7      19        14
Venezuela                     2.3        4.8        7.1         602       202        0.8    1.6      0.3    2.6
Vietnam                       1.1        4.1        5.2           ...                0.2    0.4      3.5    3.8       7         8         3
Weat Bank and Gaza..                       .                      ..                   .      .        .
Yemen, Rep.                    1.2       1.5        2.6          ..        39        0.1    0.1       ..    0.8
Yugoslavia, FR (Sr./Mn.)    ..                        .                      .       3.4    2.0    13.8     5.4       8        12         2
Zambia                         2.4       0.7        3.3          31       362        0.1    0.1      3.5
Zimbabwe                      2.0        4.2        6.5         122        86        0.2    0.1      3.1    0.5
Low income                    1.5        2.7        4.2          78        22        0.6    1.0     1.5     1.6
Excl. 'Ch"i'na ..&" I"n'dia 1... ...........1 2I.. .......0...  3.1.....I........... 
Middle income       4.3       ~~~~      ~~               ~~2.  5.  247.     .4..6           .    4.-
Loer midence ........ .... ~..                                         6         1.6    1.8      .       .
Low &diddlen incoe.24.2..4.                                    13     .6o                   1.   .   ..      .7
Middl East..  & ...m '"Iein'c .. Amric  2.4  2.2    45.5...... 2139........83        0.9.    ....   1 27.. 12.87
South Asia          1.2       ~~~~       ~~~~        ~~3.8 6: 5.0  648     .0.    0.4     0.7    0-
Sub-aha"r'an A'fri"ca .....  1.6       1.6        2.9          87        655.               .       .     1.2
High income         6.9       ~~~~       ~~~~      ~~~~      ~~~~~~3.  9.  2,2  2,404 1. 2. .    74
a. Data are for most recent year savalable. b. Data may not sum to totals becaLse of roundinnt. c. Less thar 0.5. d. Oata are for 1997.
90   1a98 World Developmsent lnd caters



L
2.13
Most industrial countries have national health account-  -     E-                                   * Public health expenditure consists of recurrent and
ing systems that track and compare public and private                                               capital spending from government (central and local)
health care expenditures. Data on private and public  Low-income countries devote relatively        budgets, external borrowings and grants (including
health expenditures are required for the public sector to  less public spending to health ...       donations from international agencies and nongovern-
rationalize its spending and to devise policies that are  Log public health  <-  * 1; ,,,:          mental organizations), and social (or compulsory)
both efficient and equitable. Few developing countries,  ?                                          health insurance funds. * Private health expenditure
however, have national health accounts. As a result     ,                                           includes direct household (out-of-pocket) spending, pri-
cross-country comparisons of health financing data are                                              vate insurance, charitable donations, and direct ser-
difficult, especially because records of private out-of-                                            vice payments by private corporations. * Total health
pocket expenditures are often lacking. Compiling esti-  -                    *                      expenditure is the sum of public and private health
mates of public health expenditures is also complicated           *     * _                         expenditures. It covers the provision of health services
in countries where state, provincial, and local govern-             *       *                       (preventive and curative), family planning activities,
ments are involved in health care financing because            e*       *                           nutrition activities, and emergency aid designated for
such data are not regularly reported and are often of                                               health but does not include provision of water and san-
poor quality. Furthermore, in some countries health ser-                       ;; -                 itation. * Physicians are defined as graduates of any
vices are considered social services, and so are       ... than do high-income countries            faculty or school of medicine who are working in the
excluded from health sector expenditures. The data on                                               country in any medical field (practice, teaching,
health expenditures shown here were collected by the  m     ri. vi   . r U  l    .' j               research). * Hospital beds include inpatient beds
World Bank as part of its health, nutrition, and popula-                                            available in public, private, general, and specialized
tion strategy. No estimates were made for countries with                    *7                      hospitals and rehabilitation centers. In most cases
incomplete data.                                       -                                            beds for both acute and chronic care are included.
Health services indicators (physicians and hospital                                               * Inpatient admission rate is the percentage of the
beds per 1,000 people) and health utilization indicators                                            population admitted to hospitals during a year.
(inpatient admission rates, average length of stay, and  v                                          * Average length of stay is the average duration of
outpatient visits) come from a variety of sources (see  i                                           inpatient hospital admissions. * Outpatient visits per
below). Data are lacking for many countries, and for oth-                                           capita is the number of visits to health care facilities
ers comparability is limited by differences in definitions. .                                      per capita, including repeat visits.
For example, some countries incorrectly include retired             Log per capita GDP
physicians or those working outside the health sector in  Note: fr:.  ,3i;i  c.l: .,, -; u.s capita GDP  Data sources
estimates of health personnel. Moreover, it is important  t;, v.  - C. J -i . . r... .-:l. lr. r :- 3rity.
Source:
to recognize that these indicators show the availability                                                                 Health expenditure estimates
and use of health services but do not reflect their qual-  Tne Income elansicilt ol heath spending.                      come from country sources,
ity-that is, how well trained physicians are or how well  derined as The percentage change in he3nth                     supplemented by information
spending reauiting nron a percentage change in
equipped hospitals are.                                income can Proaide a iusenl measie of now                        from  international agencies
Average length of stay in hospitals is one indicator of  dlfferences in income translate Imn differences              and World Bank country and
in ne3lTs e%pendrtiures. Glc.bail~. e.ErV 1 percent
the efficiency of resource use. Longer stays may reflect  ircrease in per capita income causes total                     sector studies; including the
a waste of resources if patients are kept in hospitals  healin expenditures to Increase b, 1.24                          Human   Development Net-
iercent. Income elastlcllies are 1.08 for ow.
beyondthetimemedicallyrequired,inflatingdemandfor     income countrles. 110 for middle incc.me                           work's   Sector   Strategy:
hospital beds and increasing hospital costs. Aside from  cotnries. anor 1.96 for nighincome countries.  Health, Nutrition, and Population. Data were also
Tnits countries oirn higher incomes tend lo
differences in cases and financing methods, cross-    spend a iarger share ot their Income on health.  drawn from World Bank public expenditure reviews,
country variations in average length of stay may result  Public reaith espencditlres irnciease b. 1.33  the  International  Monetary  Fund's government
percent for esero 1 percent Increase in pe-
from differences in the role of hospitals. Many develop-  capita incorne. Private health erpendilures are  finance data files, and other studies. Data for private
ing countries do not have separate extended facilities,  ess responsl6e to Income changes tinccme   expenditure are largely from household surveys and
elastlclza of 0.991.
so hospitals become the source of long-term as well as                                              World Bank poverty assessments and sector studies.
acute care. Data for some countries may not include all                                             The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
public and private hospitals. Admission rates may be                                                Development (OECD) provided data on public and pri-
overstated in some countries if outpatient surgeries are                                            vate health expenditures and health services and use
counted as hospital admissions. And in many countries                                               data for member countries. Data for physicians and
outpatient visits, especially emergency visits, may result                                          beds are from the World Health Organization (WHO),
in double counting if a patient receives treatment in                                               supplemented by country data.
more than one department.
S998 World Development Indicators       91



2.14 Access to health services
Health care      Safe water      Sanitation              Child immunization
% of            % of             % of            Meas es            DPT
popul ation      population      population       % of children    % of ch odren
with access     with access      with access     under 12 monorhs  under 12 months
1990   1993  I1990     1995     1990    1995     1980    1999       1980   1995
Albania              100              92                               90      91        94      97
Algeria                               77                               17      69        33      75
Angola                70     24              32        ..     16       26      32         6      21
Argentina                    ..64                             89       58      76        41     82
Armenia                       .......                                    .95              ..83
Australia             99    100       99     95        99     90       68       ...              86
Austria               ..    100      100      ..       85    100       25      60        90      90
Azerbaijan             .      .....91                                                     ..90
Bangladesh             ..    74        ..    79              .35        0      96         0      91
Belarus                ..   100        ...50                 100        ..96              ..     89
Belgium                ..   100        ...99                 100       50      70        95      97
Benin                 ..     42        ..    50        .      20        .      81        8.      7
Bolivia               ..      .        .     60        ..     44       13      83        11      88
Bosnia a nd Herze govina                                                       57         ..     67
Botawana             ~~~       ~~~~~~~86   .  70  ..   55       63      68        64     76
Brazil                                ..      72       ..     41       56      78        40     83
Bulgaria              ..    100       96                      99       98      93        97     100
Burkina Faso           .      ..      35     78        5      18       23      55         2     47
Burundi                ..    80        ......30                                44        38      57
Cambodia              ..      .        .     13        ...                     75         ..     79
Cameroon              20.   -1.5       .     41         .     4 0       1 6    5 1        5      48
Canada                ..     99       9 7    100      60      85        ..     98        80     93
Central African Republic  .. 13       16     18        ...12                   70        13     40
Chad                         26        ..    24        ..     21        .24               1      18
Chile                        95        ...              .     83       87      93        94      96
China                                  ..    90        ..     21        78     89        58      92
Hong Kong. China                      ......74                                72         73     83
Colombia              88     87               76       ..     6         4      7715             9
Cog,Dem. Rep.                               .        .      .        18      41        18     35
Congo, Rep.                            ..    47        ..9             49      39        42      50
Costa Rica             ..    97        ......60                                94        86      85
C6te dilvoire          ..    60       20      72      1 7     54        ..     57         ..     40
Croat'ia              ..      .        .     9          .     68         .90              ..87
Cuba                  ..    100       61     93       31      66       48     100        67     100
Czech Repunlic                                                                 96         ..     96
Denmark               ..    100      100     100      100    100       ..      88        85      89
Dominican Republic    ..      .        .      71       ..     78       29     100        35      83
.Ecuad.or              ..    80        ..     70       ..     64       24     100        10      74
Egypt, Arab Rep.     100     99       90     64        70     11       78      82        84     91
El Salvador            ..     .        .     55        ..     68       45      94        43     100
Eritrea                ..     .        ..               ..               .29              -.     35
.Estonia               .      ........74                                       81        84      84
Ethiopia              ..     55        4     27        ..     10        4      38         3      47
Finland               ..    100       ..    100       100    100       70      98        92    100
France                ..      .        .     100      85      96        0      78        79      89
Gabon                 ..     87        ..    67        ..     76        ..     50        14      48
Gambia, The            .      ..42            76       ..     37        71     68        80      78
Georgia                ..     .        ..              ..                .63
Germany               ..      .        ..              .     100       35      75        ..      6
Ghana                  ..    25        ..    56       ..      27       16      54         7      51
Greece                 ..     .        ..              .      96        ..70             72      78
Guatemnala            ..     60       ..     60       ..      66       23      84        43     80
Guinea                ..     45        ..    62       12      70        -.     69         ..73
Guinea-Bissau         30      ..24           23        ..     20        ..     68         9      74
Haiti                 ..     45        -.    28        ..     24        ..24              3      30
Honduras               ..    62       ..     65        ..     62        35     90        31      96
92  1.998 World Development Indicators



2.141
Health care      Safe water       Sanitation             Child immunization
% of             % of            % of             Measles            DPT
population       population      population       % of children     % of childiren
with access      with access     with access     under 12 months   under 12 months
1980   1993     1980   1.995     1980    1995     1950    1995      1980    1995
.......   ..... ....  .   ...   .   ...   .   ....  I....  ...   .... 94 .. ..999 . ...100   ....   99...  9100.. 0
India   .... .. .. ..... .. .. - ..5.. .. .. .. ...V.81..  .   BJ. ... .....   ...  29  . ... 0 . ...  84 .   31   86
indonesia             ..     43               62 ..           51         0.     89         092
Iraq......-.1 .   .... . . .. 8 .   74 .  44             87 ..    35 ..   88 ...    13 ...  91
Ireland                            . ...... .. .... ...... ..... ..  ....  100 ...  10.   34.     65
Israel                      100..             99        .      70       69      94        84      92
Italy....                  ....   . .. .. 99..         99.    100        5 .    50         . .....  .50
Jamaica                                       70.              74       12       23                0
Japan                       100                               85        69       860              85
Kazakhstan                    .        ...                               .72               .      80
Kenya                        . .... ....   .  53..   . .. ... ..... .77  .. .   .. ..... 35       40
Korea, Dem. Rep. .          100              100              100       29      98        50      96
Korea, Rep.                 100               8               0                  27 00
uwit        00    100       10              100     1004              932670           100
Kyrgy  Rep blic....75...                               53........89.....                   83. ...
L atvia  . . . . . .    . . . . . .   . . .   . .   . . . . . .                 8 5  .. . . . . . . .   7 . .. 6 5
Lebanon                              92. ....  ......   ........ .  . ...5 ....65.4             94
Lesotho  ..    80       18      52       12       6       49      82        56      58~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.!I...I. ........4...
Lithuania                                                                       94                9
Macedonia, FYR                                                                  85                87
Madagascar                   6                 9.                               59        48      67
Malaysia                     8  .. 88.. .. 88          75     91        .11     81        .58     90
Mali                  20      ...             37               31        .      49                46
Mauriltania            .      .                                 .45             53        18      50
Mauritius     .........100  ..   ...99   . ..   ... ..98  ........  100   34 ....  85     87      89
M oldo a ....I ..........   ..                                 ....50.98                  ....86
M orocco P.I     .   ...   ....  ..       ..2.2 I 5   .......  50  .  ...40  ... ..... 1  787  439
Mozambique  .....  ....   ... 30  ...  9      32       10      21.      32      71        56      57
M y nna r            30....  .....   ..   ..   20 ....  38... ......I ... 20  41 .  .... .   : .   . 66  4...84.
Namib                                                          .... 34...5                        61.... ....
Nepal                 10       ....I ....11  ..... 48.  0.     20  ..2     .    78         865
Netherlands                 100      100     10       100     1091              9596              9
NewZeaand.       10         7                       .        80      87       6997
Nicaragua.                                    61        .      31       15      81        15      85
Niger                  .     30               53              15        19      38         6      19
Nigeria               40     67               39355                              0..              44
Norway                  ...100.          110000 o              oo80.            9         90      9
Oman           75     89       15...           ..   ...... ....  ....  .....  ..79.22..98   18...   100.... ....... ..
Panama                       82               83.              87       47      84        4 7     86
Papua  New  ..GuineaI.......  .   96. ..   ..  .....  .... ..   .   .   ...... 28  22......... 1  55....I .....  32....   50....
Par~apu..                                                      30       19      76        1       79
Peru                                         60........   .   ....  ...  ..... ...   ..  .   ...   ....   44  .. .... .. 21   97   14   94
. . ........... . ....I..Philippines...9                                        86        47      86
Poland               100    100       67       .       50     100       92      96        96      95
......a   .. . . . .   . . . . . . .   . ..   .   . .   . . . ..   . .. . 5 7.  .. . .1 0 0 .54 . ..  . ..9 4 . .  .   . . . . 7 3  . . _ .9 3
Puerto Rico
Romania                        ......  .. 77           50.     49       83      93..              98
Russian Federation                                                              91         .      72
1999 World Development Indicators 93



2.14
Health care     Safe water     Sanitation            Child immunization
% of           Itof            % o            Measles           DPT
population     population      po p u[atioc)n  %of chiltreni   % e oh ldret
with access    with access     with access    under 12 months  under 12 months
1980   1993  I 1980   1995    1980   1995     1980    1995     1980   1995
Rwanda                      ...            ..              .42            74       17      83
Saudi Arabia        85     98      91     93       76     86       8      94       41      96
Senegal.                   40      ..     50              58        ..    80        .      80
Sierra Leone         26     ..34                  .13     11       36     44        13     41
Singapore                 100     100    100              97       47     88       84      95
Slovak Republic                           ..43            51        ..    99        ..99
Slovenia                            ....                  90        .91             ..98
South Africa                       ..      70       .     4677774                          81
Spain                              98      99      95    100        8     90        .     688
Sri Lanka           .90    90..             ..             ..             88       46      91
Sudan                      70       ..    50        ..    22        1     74        1      77
Sweden                    10               ,       85    100       56     96       99     99
Switzerland               100       ..    100      85    100       8..              .      9
Syrian Arab Republic       99      71     85       45     78       13     98       13      92
Tajikistan                                                62       ..90             ..95
Tanzania            -72    93,             49       ..    86       45     75        59     79
Thailand            30     59             81        ..    70       ..     86       49      94
T 0ogo'               .  .  .. . .  :   ..   .  .  ..     2        .  
Trinidad and Tobago.99             ..      82       ..    56        ..    87        24     89
Tunisia              95    90       72     ..46            ..65           89        35     92
Turkey               ..   100      67     92        ..    94       27     65       42      66
Turkmenistan         ..     .       .     85        .     60       -.     90        ..87
Uganda               ..    71      ..     34       ..     57       22     79        9      79
Ukraine              ..   100       ..    97       50     49       ..     96       53     94
United Arab Emirates  96   90     100     98       75     95       34     90       11      90
United Kingdom                     ..     100       ..    96       52     92       44     92
United States                       ..    90       98     85       86     89       96      94
Uruguay   .                         .     83       ..     82       50     80       53     87
Uzbekistan                          ...             .     18       .71              ..65
Venezuela                          ..     79        ..    58       50     94       56      68
Vietnam              75     .              36      ..     21        1     95        4      94
West Bank and Gaza   .      ..              ..             ..
Yemen, Rep.  .16            .       .      52      ..     51        2     49        1      53
.Yugos lavia. FR (Serb./Mont.)             ..58          100       95     81       90     .92
Zamnbia              ..    75       ..     43       ..    23        ..    78       83      76
Zimbabwe            85      .              74       5     58       56     77       39      80
Low income                                76              28       40     80       39     81
E ..... C ia &.India                     51              36       18  ... ....63  . .... .  ..13 . 6
Middle i'n"com'e .................60                          .    38     86       41  .  87
Upper middle income                       7               45                       D
Lo"w ..&; . middlei income                76.3                      9     82   .   40    .8
East Asia & Pacific                       84             29
Europe& Central Asia                                                   87              81
L~atiin A"merica & Carib.                  35                      48              38
South Awls                     ~~~~~~                  ~       ~~~~~~          ~~~~~~~~~~~~~78  30 . .  82  25  83
.incom.                                                 92      .53     82.79...
94  1998 World Development Itdicators



2.14
The indicators in the table are provided to the World  these diseases account for about 10 percent of the  * Percentage of population with access to health
Health Organization (WHO) by member states as part  disease burden among children under 5, compared  care is the share of the population that can expect
of their efforts to monitor and evaluate progress in  with an expected 23 percent had vaccination cover-  treatment for common diseases and injuries, includ-
implementing  national health-for-all strategies.  age remained at the 1970s level. In many developing  ing essential drugs on the national list, within one
Because reliable, observation-based statistical data  countries, however, data recording practices make  hour's walk or travel. * Percentage of population
for these indicators do not exist in many developing  immunization difficult to measure (WHO 1996a).  with access to safe water is the share of the popu-
countries, in most cases the data are estimates. In                                          lation with reasonable access to an adequate amount
some cases these estimates may be skewed by a                                                of safe water (including treated surface water and
country's desire to show progress or to establish a                                          untreated but uncontaminated water, such as from
need for international assistance.                                                           springs, sanitary wells, and protected boreholes). In
Access indicators measure the supply of services                                           urban areas the source may be a public fountain or
but reveal little about benefits or rate of use. For                                         standpipe located not more than 200 meters away. In
example, data on access to health care provide no                                            rural areas the definition implies that members of the
informatiDn on the quality of care or on how the con-                                        household do not have to spend a disproportionate
sumption of services differs among groups within                                             part of the day fetching water. An adequate amount of
countries, regions, or communities. Moreover,                                                safe water is that needed to satisfy metabolic,
unless these indicators are based on survey statis-                                          hygienic, and domestic requirements-usually about
tics, they may not fully reflect the situation. In many                                      20 liters a person a day. The definition of safe water
developing countries services by nongovernmental                                             has changed over time. * Percentage of population
organizations and private charities play an increas-                                         with access to sanitation is the share of the popula-
ingly important role for the poor and for many rural                                         tion with at least adequate excreta disposal facilities
residents, widening the gap between official statis-                                         that can effectively prevent human, animal, and insect
tics and the actual production and consumption of                                            contact with excreta. Suitable facilities range from
many essential services. It is not known, however,                                           simple but protected pit latrines to flush toilets with
whether such services truly replace publicly provided                                        sewerage. To be effective, all facilities must be cor-
services, and if so, how they differ in quantity and                                         rectly constructed and properly maintained. * Child
quality from public services. In addition, health care                                       immunization is the rate of vaccination coverage of
facilities tend to be concentrated in urban areas.                                           children under one year of age for four diseases-
Separate data for rural areas (not shown here) indi-                                         measles and DPT (diphtheria, pertussis or whooping
cate much lower coverage and access.                                                         cough, and tetanus). A child is considered adequately
People's health is also influenced by the environ-                                        immunized against measles after receiving one dose
ment in which they live. A lack of clean water and                                           of vaccine, and against DPT after receiving two or
basic sanitation is the main reason diseases trans-                                          three doses of vaccine, depending on the immuniza-
mitted by feces are so common in developing coun-                                            tion scheme.
tries. Drinking water contaminated by feces
deposited near homes and an inadequate supply of                                               Data sources
water cause diseases that account for 10 percent of
the total disease burden in developing countries                                                 --.        -    The table  was produced
(World Bank 1993c). To date, however, efforts to                              <                                  using information provided to
improve the provision of water, sanitation, and                                               -    . -    i     the WHO by countries as part
drainage have been disappointing. At the end of the                                                              of their responsibility for
1980s-which had been declared the International                                                                  monitoring progress toward
Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade by a                                                                 "health for all" and reported
coalition of international aid agencies-most people                                                             in the WHO's World Health
in poor regions still lacked adequate sanitation.                                                                Report 1996 and 1997; the
Governments in developing countries usually                                                WHO's Expanded   Programme   of Immunization
finance immunization against measles and DPT (diph-                                          Information System; and WHO, the United Nations
theria. pertussis or whooping cough, and tetanus) as                                          Children's Fund (UNICEF), and the Water Supply and
part of the basic public health package, but person-                                         Sanitation Collaborative Council's Water Supply and
nel with limited training are often used to provide the                                      Sanitation Sector Monitoring Report 1996.
vaccines. According to the World Bank's World
Development Report 1993: Investing in Health,
i99s  World Development Indicators   95



2415 Reproductive health
'Total ferti'ity      Adolescent            Unwanted           Contraceptive        Birthstattended     Maternal
rate                fertility            fertility           prevaleance          by tained         mortality
rate                 rate                 rate              healt'h staff        ratio
births               births
per 1,000            per 1,000               7- o f                                 per
births               women                wornen               women                                 100.000
per womean           age 15-19            age 15-49             age '5-49            I,of teMPl        ri-e l,th
1980          1996           1995               1990-97               1990-96          1985       1992      1990-96
Albania                        3.6            2.6            26                    ..                                  99         ..28a
Algeria           ~6.7                        3.4            17                                        51               ..1400
Angola                          6.9           6.8          218                                          ..             i         16       1,500b
Argentina                      3.3            2.7            62                                         ..oo .                              100
Armenia                        231.6                         50                                         ...                        .21'
Australia                       1.9           1.8            31                                                        99                     90
Austri'a                       1.6            1.4            23                                                                              j00
Azerbaijan                     3.2            2.1            33                                                                              440
Bangladesh                     6.1            3.4          116                   1.3                   45              ..7                  8500b
Belarus                        2.0            1.3            39                    ...100                                         ..220
Belgiumn                       1.7            1.8            11                                                      IN. 10.                 100
Benin                          7.0            5.9          127                     ..17                                34        34         5000
Bolivia                        5.5           4.4            82                  1.9                   45              36        29         3790
Bosnia an'd H'erzoegovina      2.1             ..28
Botswana                       6.7            4.3          106                                          ..52                      ..        2500
Brazil                         3.9            2.4            37                                        77              73         ..        160,
Bulgaria                       2.1            1.2            60                                                      100          ..200
Burkina Faso                   7.5            6.7          149                   0.9                    8                        33         930b
Burundi                        6.8            6.4           66                     ..                                   .        26       1.3000o
C~ambodia                       4.7           4.6         -108                     .....                                          .             b0
Cameroon                       6.5            5.5          136                   0.6                   16              ..        25         55Q0
Canada                         1.7            1.7            25                                                        99       100           60
Central African Republic       5.8            5.0          145                                         14               .          .        7001
Chad                           5.9            5.6          183                                                          ..       21         9000
Chile                          2.8            2.3           48                                                         95         .         1800
China                          2.5            1.9            17                                        85              ..        51         1150
Hong Kong, China              2.0           1.2            13                                          .                                     70
Colombia                       3.8            2.7           80                   0.8                   72              51         ..        100
Congo, Demn. Rep.              6.6            6.3          221
Congo, Rep.                    6.2            6.0          140                     ....                                                     890 b
Costa Rica                     3.7            2.7           67                     ...                                  .550
M6e dIlvoir(e                  7.4            5.1          136                   1.0                   11                                   6000
Croatia                          ..1.6                       28                                                         ...121
Cuba                           2.0            1.6           68                                                         99       100          360
Czech Republic                 2.1            1.2            34                                        69                                     70
Denmark                        1.5            1.8           18                     ....                                                       gb
Dominican Republic             4.2            3.1           53                     ..64                                96        44         1100
Ecuador                        5.0            3.1            68                    .57                                 27         ..        1500
Egypt, Arab Rep.               5.1            3.3           56                   1.0                   48              ..        24         170b
El Salvador                    5.3            3.5           91                     ..53                                35         ..        30001
Eritrea                          .           5.9           125                     ..8                                  ..         .       40001
Estoni'a                       2.0            1.3           36                                                                               520
Ethiopia                       6.6            7.0          164                                          4             58          ..      1.4000
Finland                        1.6            1.8           20                                                          ..         .          1b
France                         1.9            1.7           17                                                          ...15b
Gabon                          4.5            5.0          150                                                         92         ..        5000
Garnbia, The                   8.5            5.3          167                                                         54        CD5      i.10oo
Georgia                        2.3            1.5           40                                                          ...19~
Germany                        1.4            1.3            14                    ......22b
Ghana                          6.5            5.0          109                     ..20                                73        42         7400
Greece                         2.2            1.4            19                                                                              job .  .  0
Guatemala                      6.2            4.6          106                   1.1                   32              ..        22         1900
Guinea                         6.1            5.7          213                     .2                                   ..       76         8800
Guinea-Bissau                  6.0            6.0          186                     ...16                                                    glo91b
Haiti                          5.9            4.3            70                  1.8                   18              20         ..         000
Honduras                       6.5            4.5          112                     ..47                                50        63         220b
96   1998 World Development Indicators



2.15
Total fertility  Adolescent        Unwanted       Contraceptive   Births attended  Maternal
rate           fertility        fertility      prevalence       by trained    mortality
rate            rate             rate          health staff    ratio
births           births
per 1.000       per 1,000          % of                          per
births          women            women            women                        100,000
per woman       age 15-19        age 15-49        age 15-49        % of total   line births
1980       1996       1995            1990-97          1990-96      1985    1992     1990-96
Hungary                 1.9         1.5        31               ..                ..                 9 914a
India                   5.0        3.1         81              0.8               43          33      7 5     4370
.Indonesia             ..43.3.2.               57  ...0.5                        55 .31                      3900c
Iran, Islamic Rep.      6.1        3.8         80                                52           .      70      10
Iraq              ~~~~6.4    5.3         61.2                                                   4      30
Iraq  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. .                        ... 24..    74.... ......
Ireland          .....-. 3.2  ...   1.9        23                                6 0          ..0b.
Israel                  3.2        2.6         28                                 .99
Ital                    1.6        1.2         14                                           100               1 b
Jamaica                 3.7         2.3        67                                            69      8820
Japan                   1.8         146                                                     100     100...     8
Jordan                  6.8        4.4         43                                            75      86      150 b
Kazakhstan              2.9         21.1       40                                                             53a
Kenya             ~~~7.8     46.6        95              2.0                                           650b
Korea, Dem. Rep..30213                                                                       0 .
Korea, Rep.             2.6  ...    1.7         8                                         .....65    953
Kuwait5.                            29.9       45                                            99      98       18a
Lao PDR?                6.7         5.7  ..    59                                              ......... .   650b
Latvia                  2.0         12.2       34                                            ..               ia
Leba on                 4.0         2.7        43                                            45              300 b
Lesotho                 5.6        4.6         55                                23          28       .      610b
Libya                   7.3        4.0        106                                45          7       68      20
Lithuania            ....2.0        1.4        34                                                     ,,a
Macedonia, FYR          2.5        2.1         38                                                    ..       22~
Madagascar       6..   .5.          5 .7 . .... 145            09:               17 ... .. ...62  .   ..  71   6600
Malawi                  76.6       6.5        151              1.0               22.         59.     41      6200
Malaysia                4.2         3.4        30                .                .82                92       4
Mali                    7.1  ...    6.7  ..   190              0  77                ....27..                 5800
Mauritania        ......6.3         5.1       123                                 ..23 ....         ..       800b
Mauritius               2.7         21.1       42                       ...... ..75          84      91      112a
Mexi.co                 4.5         2.9       .57                                             .. ~ ..  ..   ..~45   1 job
Moldova                 24.4        19.9       46.                                                            33a
Mongolia          .......I5A.4  .   3.3        45                         .    ...  ..... ....I100 .... .. 100   65b
Morocco ...       .    .. .-54.4   _3.3        38              1:4               50.         26       .      372e
Mozambique              6.5         6.1       122......                       ......         28      29     1,500b
Myanmar                 5.1         34.4       30                                            25      97      50
Namibia                 5 . .9..   .4.9  ..   .130                               29.                 71      2200
Nepal                   6.1         5.0        82                                            10       .     1,500b
Netherlands              1.6        158                                                               ..       12b
New Zealand             2.0        2.0         43                                 .99               10025
Nicaragua               .6.2  .. .  40.0.. 136                                   44 .    ..          42       160 b
Niger                   7.4 ..      7.4       222              0.34..                        47.    ..21     5930
Nigeria                 6.9         5.4       120              1.0                6           ..     45     1,00b
Norwa                   1.7         19.9 ..    22                .......                            100   ....
Oman                    997.0                 13..                                           60      9
Pakistan                7.0        5.1        107              1.21424                               70      30
Panama                  3.7         2.6        61                                            83.     85       55b
Papua New Guinea  .....- .7.        4.7        44                                            34      20       930b
Paraguay                4.8         3.9        72                                51          22      1. 90C
Philippines             4.8         3.6        47               1.2              48  .   ..          76 .   .... 208 c
Poland                  2.3         1.6        28                                                    ..        loa
Portugal                2.2  ..     1.4        23                                              ..........151,
Puerto Ric              2.61.                  48                                78
Rormania                 2.4        1:3.3 .    34                                57          99  ...   ..........  41a
Russian Federation       1.9        1.3         31                               34           .        .       538
1998 World Development Indicators  97



C ~2.15
Total fertility      Adolescent           Unwanted           Contraceptive       Births attended     Maternal
rate               fertility           fertility           prevalence           by trained       mortality
rate                 rate                rate             health staff        ratio
births               births
per 1,000            per 1,000             % of                                  per
birthss             women                women               women                                100.000
per woman            age 15-19           age 15-49           age 15-49             % of tote        ve births
1980          1996          1995               1990-97             1990-96          1985      1992       1990-96
Rwanda                        8.3           6.1           65                  2.0                   21              .-       28      1.30Cb
Saudi Arabia                  7.3           6.2            61                   ..                                 79         .          8
Senegal                       6.7           5.7           118                 0.9                    7              -.       ..        51
Sierra Leone                  6.5           6.5           203                                                      25         ..      1.8000
Singapore.                    1.7           1.7            13                                                     1oo       icc          Jon
Slovak Republic               2.3           1.5            35..                                                               .
Slovenia                      2.1           1.3            19                                                       .         .5
South Africa                  4.6           2.9            68                                       69                        .230b
Spain                         2.2           1.2            11                                                      96         ..70
Sri Lanka                     3.5           2.3            33                                                      67        65          300
Sudan                         6.5           4.7            84                                       10             20         -.       370a
Sweden                        1.7           1.7            20                                        ..100                    ..
Switzerland     q1.6                        157                                                      -.             -       100          6
Syrian Arab Republic          7.4           4.0            89                                       40             37        80        1790
Tajikiatan                    5.6           3.7            48                                        --740
Tanzania                      6.7           5.6           123                 0.7                   18             74                  530C
Thailand                      3.5           1.8            18                   -.,                                59        71        2Qo b
Togo                          6.6           6.2           124                                                                 ..       6401
Trinidad and Tobago           3.3.214                                                                -9                                   (
Tunisia                       5.2           2.8            32                                       60             80        50
Turkey                        4.3           2.6            44                 0.9                                  78         ..       loon
Turkmenistan                  4.9           3.3            26                   .                                                       440
Uganda                        7.2           6.7          193                  1.3                   15              .         ,        550,
Ukraine                       2.0           1.3           48                    ...100                                        ..3Q0
United Arab Emirates          5.4           3.5           58                   9..                                  6        94
United Kingdom                1.9           1.7            30                                                      98          .         9
United Statea                 1.8           2.1            46                                                      09       100         l2b
Uruguay                       2.7           2.2            47                                                       ..     io           85b
Uzbekiatan                    4.8           3.4            43                                                       ...24a
Venezuela                      4.1          3.0            60                                                       ..       82        2000
Vietnam                       5.0           3.0            42                                                                          i 15b
Weat Bank and Gaza
Yemen, Rep.                   7.9           7.2          141                  1.7                                                    1.40C00
Yugoalavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)  2.3           1.9            41                                                                 ..121
Zambia                        7.0           5.6           122                   ..26                                .        43        2300
Zimbabwe                      6.8           3.9            68                 0.8                   58             67        49        2800
Low income                    4.3           3.2          .81
&xl hn  India             6.349                      1
Middle in'come                3.8           2.6           54
Lower middle income           3.8           2.6           51
Upper middle income           3.7           2.6           63
Low &'middle income           4.1           3.0           72
East A'sia & Pacific          3.1           2.2           25
Europe&~ Central Aaia         2.5           1.8           40
Latin America & -Car ib.      4.1           2.8           72
Mdidle Easat & N. Africa      6.1           4.0           5
South Aaia                    5.3           3.4          106
Sub-Sa'haran Africa           6.6           5.6          136.
High in'come                  1.9           1.7            27
a. Official estimate. b. UNICEF WHO estimate based en stat,st,osi modeeiing. c. indireet estimate bones on sample sursop d. Based on a sjrvey ODvering 30 provinces e. Boson o srnop e surmev.
98   1998 World Development Indicators



2.15
The number of women and men in need of reproduc-  sure. The data in the table are from the World Health  *Total fertility rate is the number ofchildrenthatwould
tive health services is expected to nearly double over  Organization (WHO), supplemented by data from the  be bom to a woman if she were to live to the end of her
the next two decades (Conly and Epp 1997). Thus any  United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). They are  childbearing years and bear children in accordance with
action taken now to expand reproductive choices-  based on national sources, derived from official com-  current age-specific fertility rates. * Adolescent fertil-
including improved access to safe and reliable con-  munity and hospital records; some reflect only births  ity rate is the number of births to women age 15-19 per
traception-is likely to have a significant effect on  in hospitals and other medical institutions. In some  1,000 women in the same age group. * Unwanted fer-
the health, well-being, eventual size, and quality of  cases smaller private and rural hospitals are  tilityrateisthedifferencebetweenthetotalfertilityrate
life of a country's population,                excluded, and sometimes even primitive local facili-  and the wanted fertility rate. Unwanted births are
Reproductive health behavior is complex and is  ties are included. Thus the coverage is not always  defined as those that exceed the number considered
influenced by a broad range of relevant interventions.  comprehensive, and  cross-country comparisons  ideal or wanted by women of reproductive age.
Fertility  outcomes,  maternal  mortality, births  should be made with extreme caution.        * Contraceptive prevalence rate is the percentage of
attended by skilled providers, and contraceptive  Civil registers in many developing countries provide  women who are practicing, orwhose sexual partners are
prevalence are complex measures and indicate the  extremely unreliable mortality statistics, especially for  practicing, any form of contraception. It is usually mea-
demand for, access to, and use of reproductive  maternal mortality. Classifying a death as maternal  sured for married women age 15-49 only. * Births
health services.                               requires a cause of death attribution, which depends  attended by trained health staff is the percentage of
Total and adolescent fertility rates are based on  on the information available at the time of death. In  deliveries attended by personnel trained to give the nec-
data from vital registration systems or. in their  many developing countries causes of death are  essary supervision. care. and advice to women during
absence, from  censuses or sample surveys.     assigned by nonphysicians and often attributed to "ill-  pregnancy, labor, and the postpartum period, to conduct
Provided that the surveys are fairly recent, the esti-  defined causes." Even when causes are assigned by  deliveries on their own, and to care for newborns.
mated rates are generally considered reliable. In  medically qualified staff with the aid of diagnostic infor-  * Maternalmortalityratioisthenumberofwomenwho
cases where no empirical information on age-specific  mation, some doubts remain about the diagnosis in the  die during pregnancy and childbirth, per 100,000 live
fertility rates is available, a model is used to estimate  absence of autopsies and the assignment of appropri-  births.
the proportion of all births that are teenage births.  ate International Classification of Diseases (ICD)
As with other basic demographic data (see About the  codes. Maternal deaths are also likely to go unrecorded  Daia sources
data in table 2.1), international comparisons of fer-  if they occur in remote and rural areas. Differences in
tility rates are limited by differences in data defini-  definitions also may affect the comparability of esti-  Data on reproductive health come from demographic
tions and collection and estimation methods. Fertility  mates over time and across countries. The maternal  and health surveys and from WHO and UNICEF,
rates for 1996 are generally based on projections  mortality ratios shown here are official estimates from  Revised 1990 Estimates of Maternal Mortality. A
from censuses or surveys from earlier years.   administrative records, survey-based indirect esti-  New Approach.
The unwanted fertility rate is based on survey  mates, orderived from a demographic model developed
responses by women of reproductive age and so is  by UNICEF and the WHO. Official or survey-based esti-
affected by response bias. In many developing coun-  mates are shown wherever they are available. In all
tries fertility is not seen as within the control of an  cases the standard errors of maternal mortality ratios
individual; women do not report a numerical ideal  are large, which makes the ratio particularly unsuitable
family size, and hence no birth is reported as  for monitoring changes over a short period.
unwanted. In such cases women are assumed to
want all their births.
Contraceptive prevalence reflects all methods-
ineffective traditional methods as well as highly
effective modern methods. Unmarried women are
often excluded from surveys, which may bias the esti-
mate. Contraceptive prevalence rates are obtained
mainly from demographic and health surveys and
contraceptive prevalence surveys (see Primary data
documentation for the most recent survey year).
Births attended by health staff is an indicator of a
health system's ability to provide adequate care for
pregnant women. Good health care improves mater-
nal health and reduces mortality. However, data may
not reflect this because health information systems
are often weak, maternal deaths are underreported,
and rates of maternal mortality are difficult to mea-
1998 World Development Indicators     99



2.16 Health: risk factors and future challenges
Prevalence      Low-      Prevalence    Smoking      Incidence       Adult HiV-1 seroprevalence
of anemia    birthweight   of child    prevalence      of
babies    malnutrition              tuberculosisj
% rifcted Women
% of                      % Of                                                       attending
pregnant                  children      of adult   per 100,000                          urban
women        % of births  under 5   male   femate  popuiacio,,  S-ref  Urbno nugh-  S-eny  antenatae
1985--95  1980   1989-95  1990-96  1985-95  1985-95   1995  I ear    r[sl, group  year   clinic
Albania                   .       ..       7        ..      50       8       40
Algeria                  42       ..       9       10       53      10       53     1981-89    con 
Angola                   29      ..       19       35        .       ..     225        1988   24.7 an  1995     1.O1,
Argentina                26                7        2       40      23       50        1996   41.4~    1995     2.8 d
Armenia                                                      .       ..      40
Australia                                                   29      21        6
Austri'a                                   6        ..      42      27       20
Azerbaijan                                ..       10..              .       47        1995    0.00
Bangladesh               53      ..       34       68       60      15      220        1996    0.6 ,
Belarus                   ...5                      ...              .50                  . 
Belgium                   .       ..       6        ..      31      19       16           .
Beni'n                   4.1     ..       10       2 4       .       .      135     1993-94   5330b.0  1993     0.49
Bolivia                  51      10       10       16       50      21      335        1968    5.1f,g,h
Bosnia and Herzegovina                                                       60
Botswana                 ..      ..                27       21      ..      400        1995   42.8a,g  1995    34.2g
Brazil                   33      ..       11        7       40      25       80     1994-95   40.4 nd9  1995    1.79,
Bulgaria                                   6-               49      17    -40          1993    0 .0~ - 1993     0.0
Burkina Faso             24      21       21       33                       289        1994   60.4 b,e  1995   12.0
Burundi                  68       .        ..      38                       367        1986   18.5 at  1993    17.2
Cambodia                 ..       .        .       38        .       ..     235        1996   43.0 e.g  1996    3.2
Cameroon                 44       ..      13       15        .       ..     194        1994   2 1.20b,0  1996   1.9
Canada                            6        6        ..      31      29        8           .
Central African Republic  67     23       15       23        .       ..     139     1994-95   34.0 a   1993    10.0g
Chad                     37      11        .        ..       .       ..     167           .     .      1992     4.59
Chile                    13       ..       7        1       38      25       67        1994    0.7a,g  1994     0.1
China                    52      ..        6       16       61       7       85        1994   66.5 c.1  1993    O.Oi
Hong lKong, China .      .                                  .        .     140        -  ..    .-             . .  -
Colombia                 24       3        9        8       35      19       67        1994   26.2 g,h  1994    0,5g
Congo, Denm. Rep.        76      13       15       34        .       ..     333        1995   30.30    1993     4.6
Congo, Rep.              -.15             16       24        .       ..     250        1987   49.2 e.t,g  1994  .7.1
Costa Rica               28       ..       7        2       35      20      '15        1994    4.9     1992     0.0
CSte d'ivoire            ..      14       14       24        .       ..     196     1994-95   67.6 ne1995-96   11.6 o,g
Croatia                   .       ..       8        ..      37      38       65           .
Cuba                     47      ..        8        8       39      25       20        1993    0.00a   1996     0.01
Czech Republic           23       ..       6        1       43      31       25        1995   10.3h    1995     0.0
Denmark                  ..       ..       5        ..      37      37       12           .
Dominican Republic        .       ..      16        6       66      14      110        1994    7,701   1995     2.89
Ecuador                  17       ..      13       17        .       ..     166        1988   28.8tg9,n  1992   0.3
Egypt, Arab Rep.        24        7       12        9       40       1       78        1994    7.60c   1992     0.0
El Salvador              14       9       11       11       38      12      110     1995-96    6.00a 1994-95    0.0'
Eritrea                   .       ..       .       41        .       ..     151989             5.8e
Estonia                   .       ..       .        ..      52      24       60        1996    0.00
Ethiopia                 42       ..      16       48        .       ..     155        1991   67.5 e-  1991     4,99
Finland                  ..       4        5        .       27      19       15           .
France                   ..       5        5        .       40      2 7      20 
Gabon                     .       ..      10       15        .       ..     100        1988    4.2 ah  1994     1.
Gambia, The              80      35       10       17        .       ..     166        1993   34.7 0.0 1993-95  17,7b
Georgia                                                        ..   .... .  . . . .70 70
Germany                   .       .        .        ..      37      22       18           .
Ghana                                     17       27        .       ..     222     1986-87   30,80.0  1995     2.20.g
Greece                            6        9        ..      46      28       12
Guatemala                39      10       14       33       38      25      110     1990-93    5.3 n.e 1990-91  0.0
Guinea                   ..      18       21       24       40       2      166        1994   36.60  1990-91    0.70b
Guinea-Bissau            74      13       20       23        .       ..     220        1987   3670b,e.f  1995   6.90
Haiti                    38       .       15       2..                .     333        1989   4        1993     8.4
Honduras                 14       9        9       18       36      11      133        1992   3c0.0    1996     1.00
100  1998 World Development Indicators



2.16
Prevalence     Low-    Prevalence   Smoking    Incidence      Adult HIV-1 seroprevalence
of anemia   birthweight  of child  prevalence     of
babies   malnutrition            tuberculosis
% infected
Women
% of                    % of                                                 attending
pregnant                children   % of adult  par 100,tOO                     urban
women        of births  undJer 5  male  female  populatian  Survey  Urban high-  Survey  antenatal
1985-95  1980   1.989-915  1990-96  1-985-95  1985-95  1995  year  risk group  year  clinic
Hungary                .       .9.                    40     27      50          .
India                 88.            33       66      40      3      220      1994    .0     1995   0k
Indonesia             64             :14      40      53      4      220      1994   0.3e 1986-87   0.0
Iran, Islamic Rep..            4      12      1650.
Israel     ..     ...   ......        .   ..........  :.... 45 . .. 30   12
Italy7                             7   7       :      3 8    26      25
Jamaica               40      10      11      10      43     13       10    1994-95  246 6e  1996   0.7
Japan                 ..       ..      6       3      59     15       42
Jordan.  I... . .. .... .       .. .. .. .. ..        ..  . .  .7.10.43.5   14. .   . ....  ...   . .. - .. .. .... .. .. .. .. ..
Kazakhstan            11       .       .1              . :77
Kenya                 35      18      16      23      52      7      140      1992  85.5 e   1995  13.79
Korea, Dem. Rep.                       .       .              .      162
Korea, Rep.                    9      4        .      68      7      162      1988   0.1e
Kyrgyz Republic......                                                68.
Lao PDR                               18      40-.                  . 235   1990-93  12 e
Lebanon                                        9                     35
Lesotho                7       8      11      21..... 38      1.     250      1993  152 a29  1993   6.1
Libya..                        5      5        5                      12
Lithuania  ....... ..... ..... ......   .......  ...   ......... .  52...   10.. 82 .  . 1995  0...   0:   a 1995   0.0
Macedonia. FYR                         .       .                      60
....ad   ......  ....g........  .ca... ...r.  10..   ..... 32   29   28   310   1995   0.3   1995   0.1
Malawi                55      22      20      28       ..     .      173      194   78.0 e.g  1996  32,8
Mal                   58      13      17      31       ..     .      289      1995  55.5hbe  1994   3.59
Mauritania..                   .      11      48      ..     ..      220    1993-94  0.9 a1993-94   0.5b'
Mauritius   ...   ..   .  .29   ..... ...8.....  15   47.     4.....  50    1988-91   0.8 a  1986   0.0
Mexico                14       .      12      14      38     14       60      1994  32.7h    1996   0.0
Moldova               50..                     .       ..      .      70                     1995   0.0
Mongolia              45             10       1       40      7      100    1987-93  QQae 1987-93   0.0
Morocco               45       9      9       10      40      9      125      1990   7.1 e,f  1993  0.2
Mozambique            58      16      20      47       ..     .      189      1994  24.0 ag9  1994  10.5g
Myanmar      .        58       .      16      31                     189      1995  56.5 c   1995   1.3
Namibia               16             12       26       .             400      1992   7.2 a,d  1996  17.6
Nepal                 65             26       49       .             67       1993   0.9 e   1992    OOdj
N ethe lan.   4...I .. . ....   ....   .. ....   .   . ..  4   .. ... . ....36  . .... ..29   .13  ....... .
New Zealand                    5      6        ..     2      22       1
Nicaragua             36             15       24              .      110    1990-91  1.6 ej
Niger-.... ....... ...... . 41 - .. .. ...15 ... .. .. 43  .   .. . ..  144 ... ..  1993   15.4   b.e   1993   1.3b
Nigeria               55      18      16      35      24      7      222    1993-94  22.5e,g 1993-94  3.89
Norway..                       4      5..             36     3 
O m an..-             54 ..   ...   .. ...  10  . . .. ..14    ..   .   .. 20   ........   .. ...   ... ....   ..
Pakitan       7      ..     25      40      27       4     150       1995  .11 5~  1995    0.
Panama..                       8      10       7      56     2 0      90    1984-86  3.1' h  1994    0.3'
Papua New Guinea      13       .      23      30      46     28      275      1992   0.1a,g  1992    0.0
Paraguay     .        29       7      8        4      24      6      166    1987-90  8.8 h   1992    0.0
Peru                  53       9      11      11      41     13      250    1989-90  41.0Oh
Philippines           48       ..      .      30      43      8      400      1993   06g
Polan                16.88....51                            29.....   50.1995       _4.76vg
Port gal8                             5               3       5       6
Puefrto Rico                                   ..              .8
Romania               31                       6       ..            120
Russian Federation    30                       3      67     3        99      1995   0.5     1995    0.0
1998 World Development Indicators ±01



O ~2.161
Prevalence          Lw-i         Prefvalece       Smoking          Incidence           Adult HIV-1 seroprevalence
of anemia        birthweglht      ochild         prevalence           of
babies       malnutrition                     tuberculosis
% infected
Womnen
% of                             % of                                                                       attending
pregnant                         children        % of adult     per 100.000                                    urban
women           % of births      uOder5      male      femnale,  population  Survev   Urban h.gn-  Survey    antenatal
le8s-es      198      189 19     199-9 6    1985-95    1985--9     1999        yea,     risk group   year       clinic
Rwanda                           .         ..        17         29           ...                260           1984    87.9e       1995      25.39
Saudi Arabia                     .         .....                           53          ..        22 
Senegal.26                                ..         11         22         48         35        166           1994    22.1 e.g    1994       1.1 b,9
Sierra Leone                                         17         29           .         .        167           1995    26.70e      1990       0.8b,0
Singapore                                  8          7         14          32         3         82              .
Slovak Republic                                       6          ..        43         26         40           1995      0.0 0,c   1992       0.0
Slovenia                                              6          .         35         23         35          1995       0.0       1995       0.0
South Africa                   37          ...9                            52         17        222          1994     20.10a      1995      10Am r
Spain                           I.                    1          ..        48         25        250              .
Sri Lanka                      39         25         17         38         55          1         49          1993       0.5 d,e
Sudan                          36         17         15         34           ...                211          1989     19.1 a      1995       3.00
Sweden.                         ..         .          S.                   2.2        24           7             .
Switzerland                      .         ..         5          ..        36         26         18              .
Syrian Arab Republic            ..        10          8                                          56
TaJikistan                     50o         .                                                    133
Tanzania                         .          .        14         29           ...                187           1993    4950e    1995-96      13.909
Thailand                       57         12         13         13         49          4        173           1995    34.4 0.9    1995       2.4g.
Togo                           48          ..        20         25                              244          1993       7.3a,b.d
Trinidad and Tobago  53      10          7         42          8        ~~~~20    1983-84     40905       1990       0.3~
Tunisia                         ..         7         10          9          58         5         55           1987      000e      1991       0.0
TurKey                                     8          8         10          63        24         57           1992      ala    1987-88       0.0
Turkmenistan                     .         .....                           27          1          72             .
Uganda                         30          ...                  26         10          0        300          1987     86,00e   1994-95      21.2
Ukra.ine                        ..    ~    6     ~    5          ...                             50          1995     13.0 c      1995       0.0
United Arab Emirates           46          8          8          7           ...                 30              .
United Kingdom                                                             28         28        .12
United States                   ..         7          7          ..        28         23         10              .
Uruguay.20                                ..          8          4         41         27         20          1996     13.0 0,0    1991       0.0
Uzbekistan                       ..        .           ,4                  40          1         55              .
Venezuela                      29          ..         9          5           ...                 44          1994     25.0 1.n 
Vietnam                        52          ..        17         45          73         4        166           1995      7,5v,     1995       ,0.0
West-Bank -and Gaza..                       .         ...
Yemnen. Rep.                                         19         30           ...                 96          1992      0.0a.
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)                          ...                  52         31         50
Zambia                         34          ..        13         29         39          7        345       1992-93     58,90       1994      27.9
Zimbabwe                         ..       15         14         16         36         15        207       1994-95     86.0 0.0    1995      35.2 9
Low income                                                                  51         6        160
Eroci. China & india                                                         .                  195
Middle income                                                              48         16        118
Lower middle income                                                        52         13        136
Upper middle income                                                        42         22         74
Low & middle income                                                        50          9        146
East Asia & Pacific                                                        59          6        125
Europe & Central Asia                                                      58         26         72
Latin America & Carib.                                                     40         20         89
Middle East & N. Africa                                                      ...                 71
South Asia                                                                 41          4        209
Sub-Saharan Africa                                                           ...                220
High income                                                                 39        22         37
a. Patients witOi sexually transmitted diseases. 0. HJV-1 and/or HIV-2. c. injecting drug users. d. Sample size unknown. e. Sex sorkein f. Oats are best avai.able but not re[roble because of
small sample size. g. Data averaged. h. Homosexual or bisexual mnen. i. Not specificaily urban. j. For Yurnan Province. k. For Tamil Nacs Stone. J. UNAIDS dots. m. Nat ona data. n. Oata ore
from UNAIDS 10996.
102    1998 World Developmnent Indicators



2.16
The limited availability of data on health status is a  of this indicator is that it cannot indicate whether  * Prevalence of anemia, or iron deficiency, is defined
major constraint to assessing the health situation  malnutrition is due to wasting or stunting. Still,  as hemoglobin levels less than 11 grams per deciliter
in developing countries. Surveillance data are lack-  weight for age is useful for comparisons with earlier  among pregnant women. * Low-birthweight babies
ing for a number of major public health concerns.  surveys because it was the first anthropometric  are newborns weighing less than 2,500 grams, with
Estimates of prevalence and incidence are available  measure in general use. Assessment methods vary,  the measurement taken within the first hours of life,
for some diseases but are often unreliable and vari-  but the indicator used here reflects weight less than  before significant postnatal weight loss has occurred.
able. National health authorities differ widely in  minus two standard deviations from the median  * Prevalence of child malnutrition is the percentage
their capability and willingness to collect or report  weight for age of the U.S. National Center of Health  of children under 5 whose weight for age is less than
information. Even when intentions are good, report-  Statistics reference population age 0-59 months.  minus two standard deviations from the median of the
ing is based on definitions that may vary widely  This reference population, adopted by the WHO in  reference population (see About the data). * Smoking
across countries or over time. To compensate for  1983, is based on children from the United States,  prevalence is the percentage of men and women over
the paucity of data and ensure a reasonable degree  who are assumed to be well nourished.   15 who smoke tobacco products. * Incidence of tuber-
of reliability and international comparability, the  Data on smoking are obtained through surveys  culosis is the estimated number of new tuberculosis
World Health Organization (WHO) prepares esti-  and should be interpreted with caution because a  cases (all forms). * Adult HIV-1seroprevalence is the
mates in accordance with epidemiological and sta-  one-time estimate of the prevalence of smoking  estimated percentage of people over 15 who are HIV-
tistical procedures.                          does not give any information on its duration (usu-  1 positive.
Adequate quantities of micronutrients (vitamins  ally longer for males).
and minerals) are essential for healthy growth and  Tuberculosis (TB) has reemerged as a global  Data sources
development. Studies indicate that more people are  health problem. From an economic point of view this
deficient in iron (anemic) than any other micronutri-  epidemic is about wasted lives and lost productiv-  , ;   The data presented here are
ent, and most of those suffering are women of  ity. From a health perspective it is about the need  CONFRONTING  drawn from  a variety of
reproductive age. Anemia during pregnancy can  to efficiently organize and finance the health sector  t        sources. including the United
harm both the mother and the fetus, causing loss  to serve the needs of the population. And from a             Nations  Update  on  the
of the baby, premature birth, or low birthweight.  social perspective it is about the need to provide  -   .   Nutrition Situation; the WHO's
Estimates of the prevalence of anemia among preg-  equitable access to appropriate health services  F   v      World   Health  Statistics
nant women are generally drawn from clinical data,  because TB is most likely to be contracted by the  ,       Annual, Global Tuberculosis
which suffer from two weaknesses: one, the sam-  poor. Data on case notifications and treatment out-  -        Control Report 1997, and
ple is not random, but based on those who seek  comes are reported to the WHO by national TB con-  Tobacco or Health: A Global Status Report 1997; the
care; and two, private clinics or hospitals may not  trol offices. WHO  checks  these  data for  World Bank's Confronting AIDS: Public Priorities in a
be part of the reporting network,             inconsistencies and adjusts them where necessary.  Global Epidemic; the WHO-EC Collaborating Centre on
Low birthweight. which is assoc ated with mater-  The data in the table show the overall incidence of  AIDS' European HIV Prevalence Database; and the
nal malnutrition, raises the risk of infant mortality  TB rather than just smear-positive incidence.  U,S. Bureau of Census' HIV/AIDS Surveillance
and stunts growth in infancy and childhood, increas-  Adult HIV-1 seroprevalence rates reflect the rate  Database.
ing the incidence of other forms of retarded devel-  of HIV-1 infection for each country's adult popula-
opment. Estimates of low-birthweight infants are  tion. The global HIV pandemic currently involves two
drawn mostly from  hospital records. But many  HIV viruses: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the dominant
births in developing countries take place at home  type worldwide. HIV-2 appears to be less easily
without assistance from formal medical practition-  transmitted than HIV-1, and the progression from
ers and are seldom recorded. How this factor skews  HIV-2 infection to AIDS appears to be slower than
the data is uncertain. A hospital birth may indicate  that for HIV-1. AIDS is late-stage infection charac-
higher income and therefore better nutrition, or it  terized by a severely weakened immune system that
could indicate a higher-risk birth, possibly skewing  can no longer ward off life-threatening opportunis-
the data toward lower birthweight. Changes in this  tic infections and cancers. This table uses only
indicator are more likely to reflect changes in report-  seroprevalence surveys measuring HIV-1, except
ing practices than improvements or deterioration.  where otherwise noted. Estimates of HIV sero-
The data should be treated with caution and no com-  prevalence are not based on national samples.
parisons within or across countries should be  Most HIV data originate from diagnostic centers or
attempted.                                    screening programs and so are subject to selection
Estimates of child malnutrition are from national  (usually high-risk groups) and participation bias.
survey data on weight for age. Weight for age is a  The results from high-risk groups should not be con-
composite indicator of both weight for height (wast-  sidered indicative of prevalence in the general, low-
ing) and height for age (stunting). The disadvantage  risk population (World Bank 1997a).
1998 World Development Indicators    103



O ~2.17 Mortality
Life expectancy        Infant mortality         Under-five          Child mortality           Adult mortality
at birth                rate                 mortality               rate                      rate
rate
per 1,000                                Male      Femnale       Mae e          emnale
years                lice births           per 1,000        per 1.000  per 1,000     per 1.000      per 1,000
1980      1996     I    1980    1996     I    1980    1996        1988-97    1998-97    1980   1995    1980   1995
Albania                        .69        72           47      37             ..      40           15         15       140    122      82     65
Algeria                         59        70           98      32           139       39                               226    177     197    133
Angola                          41        46          153     124             ..     209                               569    493     458    406
Argentina                       70        73           35      22            38       25                               205    176     102     84
Armenia                         73        73           26       16            ..      20                       ..      158    209      85    108
Australia                       74        76           11        6                     7                               167    110      80     60
Austria                         73        77           14        5                     6            2          1       197    148      92     64
Azerbaijan                      68        69           30      20             ..      23            ..262                     231     127     91
Bangladesh                      48        58          132      77           207     112            47         62       383    314     388    292
Belarus                         71        69           16      13             ..      17            ..255                     301      95    100
Belgium                         73        77           12        7            ..       7            2          1       173    135      90     68
Benin                           49        55          120      87           205     140            89         90       486   472      397    399
Bolivia                         52        61          118      67           171     102            53         47       357   202      273    237
Bosnia and Herzegovina          70                     31                                                              181            104
Botswana                        58        51           69      56            80      85            18         16       341   212      278    153
Brazil                          63        67           67      36            86       42            8          9       221    181     161    123
Bulgaria                        71        71           20      16             ..      20                       ..      190   213      106    106
Burkina Faso                    44        48          121      98           241     158          107         110       467   426      362    340
Burundi                         47        47          121      97           195     176          101         114       489   481      400    403
Cambodi'a                       40        53          201     105             ..    170             ...                473   370      355    298
Carneroon                       50        56           94      54           172     102            64         75       489   413      415    341
Canada                          75        79           10        6            .,       7            2          1       161    125      85     65
Central African Republic        46        49          117      96           193     164            63         64       540    505     424    406
Chad                            42        48          147     115           208     189             ...                556   470      449    385
Chile                           69        75           32      12            37       13            3          2       218    155     120     82
China                           67        70           42      33            60       39           10         11       185    155     148    130
Hong Kong, China              74         79           11       4            12        6            ..150                    109       87     57
Colombia                        66        70           45      25            56       31            7          7       237    214     162    118
Congo, Dem, Rep.                49        53          111      90
Congo, Rep.                     50        51           89      90             ..    145                        ..      408    405     298    313
Costa Rica                      73        77           20       12           29       15                       ..      159    115     100     68
C6te dIlvoire                   51        54          108      84           157     150                                421    392     346    333
Croatia                         70        72           21        9            ..      10                               233    176     106     78
Cuba                            74        76           20        8           22       10                       ..      135    122      94     78
Czech Republic                  70        74           16        6            ..      10            2          2       225    195     102     83
Denmark                         74        75            8        6            ..       6            1          1       163    145     102     92
Dominican Republic              64        71           74      40            92       47           18         20       183   155      138    100
Ecuador                         63        70           67      34            98       40           12          9       229    179     176    110
Egypt, Arab Rep.                56        65          120      53           175       66           22         28       257    278     204    238
El Salvador                     57        89           81      34           125      40            17         20       410    229     178    15'1
Eritrea                         46        55            ..     64            .,     120            82         69         -.  429        ..   342
Estonia                        69         69           17      10            ..      16             ...                291   284      110     95
Ethiopia                        41        49          155     109           213     177             ..491                    442      401    352
Finland                         73        77            8       4             ..       5            1          1       206   150       74     64
France                          74        78           10       5             ..       6            2          2       190    155      05     58
Gabon                           48        55          116      87             ..    145                        ..      474   386      387    322
Gambia. The                     40        53          159      79             ..    107            83         79       584   511      466    419
Georgia                         71        72           25      17             ..      19            ...                210    189      94     77
Germnany                        73        76           12       5             ..       6            2          1       177    145      90     70
Ghana                           53        59          100      71           157     110            63         62       400    320     334    253
Greece                          74        78           18       8             ..       9                               134    113      66     61
Guatemala                       58        66           81      41           140       56           22         24       336    245     266    166
Gui'nea                         40        46          185     122             ..    210           122        112       589    498     507    497
Guinea-Bissau                   39        44          168     134                   223                                535    584     517    372
Haiti                           52        55          123      72           200     130            59         58       348    391     275    329
Honduras                        60        67           70      44           101       50                       ..      306    166     237    111
104    10998 World Deveeopmenr Indicators



2.17
Life expectancy       Infant mortality        Under-five          Child mortality          Adult mortality
at birth                rate               mortality               rate                     rate
rate
per 1,000                               Male      Female       Male          Female
years               live births           per 1,000       per 1,000  per 1,000    per 1,000     per 1,000
1980      1996         ±980    ±.996        1980    1996        1988-97   1988-97    1980  1995     1980  1995
Hungary                        70       70           23      11                    13.          2 ..       2       270   330.. 130      138
India                         54        63          116      65          173       85..        29..       42       261. 229       279   219
Indonesia                     55        65           90      49          124       60.         30         27       368 . 262 ..308.. 205
Iran, Islamic Rep.            60        70           92... . 36          130       37                     .... ..... 221.....158..  190.  149 .......
Iraq                          62        62           80     101           93     136                        . ....  207  182      191   143
Ireland                       73        76           11       5                     7            2         1       175. 125      103.   .72
Israel                         73      .77           15       6           19    9                2        .2.      138   105       85  . 65
Italy                         74.      .78.          15       6                     7            1         1       163   125       80    57
Jamaica                        71       74           21      12           34       14                      .       186   144      121    90
Japan                          76       80            8       4             .       6                 1    1       129   101       70    47
Jordan                          .       71           41      30           64       35           6          6.            171        .120
Kazakhstan                    67        65           33      25             .      30           8          7       312   296     140    120
Kenya*                         55       58           72      57          115       90          33         33       417   362     339    295
Korea, Dem. Rep.              67        63           32      56            -                     ..                270   215     156    102
Korea, Rep.                   67        72           26       9           18       11            -.                270   230     156     96
Kuwait                         71       77           27      11           33       14           6          5       172   126     116     68
. ,. . . . . .. . . . . . .. . .   . . . .   . . . . . .  . . . . . .   . .   . . . I . . . .. .   .....              ...4   ......   ..1   1... ..
Lao PDR                       45_       _53         127     101                  140                       .       531   444     439    375
Latvia                        69        69           20      16             .      18                      .       281   328     106    102
Lebanon                        65       70           48      31             .      36                       .      241   191      181   135
Lesotho                        53       58          108      74                   113                       .      371   347      279   258
Liby                           57       68           79      25             .      306                     5       276   215     218    166
Lithuania                      71       70           20      10             .      13                      .       243   304       92    97
Macedonia, FYR                          72           54      16             .      18                                ..  144        ..   9
Madagascar                    51        58          138      88          175      135          85         82       353   445     278    384
Malawi                        44        43          169     133          271     217          126        114       429   553     349    487
Malaysia                       67       72           30      11             .      14           4          4       230   182     149    110
Mali                           42       50          184     120          291     220          136        138       454   412     362    326
Mauritania                     47       53          120      94             .    155.                       .      505   467     416    396
Mauritius                      66       71           32      17           38       20...                           277   222     181    116
Mexico                         67       72           51      32           76       36          15         17       205   162     121     89
Moldova                        66       67           35      20             .      24                      .       289   275.     173   128
Mongolia                       58       85           82      53             -.     71                      -       320   221     273    182
Morocco                        58       66           99      53          147       67          21         19       264   213      207   163
Mozambique                     44       45          155     123          285      214                              468   431      361   339
Myanmar                       52        60          109      80          134      109                      .       384   308      313   252
Namibia                        53       56           90      61          108       92          30         34       427   356      366   304
Nepal                          48       57          132      85          179      116                              376   327      395   354
Netherlands                    76       77            9       5                     6            2          1      133   110       74    65
New Zealand                    73       76           13       6             -       7           ..                . 177  137       91    .7
Nicaragua                      59       68           90      44          120       57                       .      277   177      189   130
Niger                         42        47          150     118          300        .         212        232       562   510      453   401
Nigeria                        46       53           99      78          196      130        -118        102       535   450      453   377
Norway                         76       78            8       4             .       6            2         1       144   118       71    60
Oman                           60       71           41      18             .      20          13         17       389   201      326   134
Pakistan                      55        63          124      88          161      123          22         37       283   208      291   228
Paaa70                                  74           32      22           47       25                       -      172   139      117    88
Papua New Guinea              51        5867                 62             .      85                      .       514   371      478   339
Praguay                      67        71           50      24           59       45          10         12       198   158      144   108
Peru                           60       68           81      42          126       58          29         31       287   211      229   157
Philippines                   61        66           52      37           69       44          28         25       323   254      259   189
Poland                         71       72           21      12             .      15            2         2       253   179      105     92
Portugal                       71       75           24       7                     8.                      .      199   163       95     76
Puerto Rico                    74       75           19      12           22       14                              159   147       78     61
Romania                        69       69           29      22             .      28            7          5      216   270      116   119
Russian Federation             67       66           22      17             .      25            3          2      341   472      120   172
1998 World Development Indicators      108



2.17.
Life expectancy         Infant mortality          Under-five          Child mortality             Adult mortality
at birth                 rate                 mortality                 rate                       rate
rate
per 1,000                                  Male      Female         Male          Fema e
years                 live births            per 1,000         per 1,000  per 1.000     per 2-000      per 1,000
1980       1996         1980     1996          1980     1996        1988-97     1988-97     1980  1995     1980   1995
Rwanda                           46        41           128     129           218      205            87          73       503    542      409    461
Saudi Arabia                     61         70           65       22             ..      28             ...                283    181      241    149
Senegal                          45        50            91       60          218        88           96          80       586    561      516    496
Sierra Leone                     35        37           190      174          335       284             ...                540    589      527    470
Singapore                        71        76            12        4            13        5             1          1       199    130      115     75
Slovak Republic                  70        73            21       11             ..      13             ...                226    221      105     93
Slovenia                         70        74            15        5             ..       6             .           .      250    188      105     81
South Africa                     57        65            67       49             ..      66             ..
Spain                            76        77            12        5             ..       6             2          2       144    140       69     57
Sri Lanka                        68        73            34       15            48       19           10           9       210    172      152    108
Sudan                            48        54            94       74           132      116           62          63       537    445      462    378
Sweden                           76        79             7        4             ..       5             1          1       142    102       76     60
Switzerland                      76        78             9        5             ..       6             I          1       145    113       70     58
Syrian Arab Republic             62        69            56       31            74       36            ...                    .   217         ..  154
Tajikistan                       66        69            58       32             ..      38             ...                190    200      129    197
Tanzania                         50         50          108       86           176      144           59          52       451    485      370    417
Thailand                         63         69           49       34            58       38           11           11      280    199      210    119
Togo                             49        50           110       87           175      138           75          90       457    377      375    311
Trinidad and Tobago              68        73            35       13            39       15             4          3       234    170      166    130
Tunisia                          62        70            69       30           100       35           19          19       227    171      224    148
Turkey                           61        69           109       42           133       47            12         14       153    158       98    i11
Turkmenistan                     64        66            54       41             ..      50             .           .      263    250      154    122
Uganda                           48        43           116       99          180      141            82          72       463    622      395    558
Ukraine                          69        67            17       14             ..      17             ..                 282    294      112    112
United Arab Emirates             68        75            55       15             ..      1 7            6          5       153    122      106     92
United Kingdom                   74        77            12        6             ..       7             1          1       180    120       96     69
United States                    74        77            13        7             ..       8             2          2       194    160      102     85
Uruguay                          70        74            37       18            43       22             ...                176    174       91     83
Uzbekistan                       67        69            47       24             ..      35             ...                219    209      116    101
Venezuela                        68         73           36       22            42       28             ..                  219   173      123     94
Vietnam                          63        68            57       40            650      48            -..                 262    206      204    136
West Bank and Gaza                ..       68             .       38             .        ..10                     7          .
Yemen, Rep.                      49        54           141       98           198      130           41          47        382   384      304    331
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)     70        72            33       14             ..      19             .           .      164    170      106     99
Zambia                           51        44            90      112           149      202           96          93       482    534      413    494
Zimbabwe                         55        56            82       56           107       86           26          26        389   391      321    393
Low income                      58         63            98       68           145       94                                263    231      241    206
Excli. Chine & India            51    .    56           116       88           175     131                                 402    354      3A6    304
Middle incorne                  63         68     .         .5    37                     456                       6       268    238      168    141
Low-er m-iddile in'co-me        63      ..79.                     40    .          .     49             7          7       285    260      180    155
ipp,er middle income            66         70    .          .3   30     .         .     36             2           2       226    181      138    107
Low &middle income              60         65     .         .7    59           133       80            6           6       265    233      215    184
East Asia & Pacific             65         68            56  .   39             75       47             -222                      180      180    145
Europe &Central Asia            68         68     .          ...2430                                                       269    303      114    128
Latin America & Caribbean   .          .         . .059          33             82       41            3           2       225    182      151    114
MideEst & North Africa         9         6              6      50     .         .41   63             -249                       211     208    177
Sou'thAsia                      5          62120               .  .3174                  93278                                    239      292    230
Sub-sahiaran' Africa'           48         52           115       91           193     147                                 487    448      404    376
Highrinc'om'e     ...7713                                          6                      7            2           2       174    142       91     70
106    1998 World Development Indicators



2.17
Age-specific mortality data such as infant and child  developing countries. Thus estimates must be          * Life expectancy at birth is the number of years a
mortality rates, along with life expectancy at birth,  obtained from sample surveys or derived by apply-    newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of
are probably the best general indicators of a com-    ing indirect estimation techniques to registration,   mortalityatthetime of its birth were to staythe same
munity's current health status and are often cited    census, or survey data. Survey data are subject to   throughout its life. * Infant mortality rate is the
as overall measures of a population's welfare or      recall error and require large samples, especially if  number of infants who die before reaching one year
quality of life. They may be used nationally to iden-  disaggregation is required. Indirect estimates rely  of age, per 1,000 live births in a given year. * Under-
tify populations in need, or internationally to com-  on estimated actuarial ("life") tables that may be    five mortality rate is the probability that a newborn
pare levels of socioeconomic development. Despite     inappropriate to the population concerned. The life   baby will die before reaching age 5, if subject to cur-
variations in the quality of these data, discussed    expectancy at birth that is estimated using this      rent age-specific mortality rates. * Child mortality
below, there is general agreement that age-specific   method would be accurate only if current mortality    rate is the probability of dying between the ages of 1
mortality rates, especially child mortality rates, are  conditions were to remain the same for the entire   and 5, if subject to current age-specific mortality
a key indicator in any health monitoring system.      life of the birth cohort.                             rates. * Adult mortality rate is the probability of
The main sources of mortality data are vital reg-     Life expectancy at birth and age-specific mortality  dying between the ages of 15 and 60-that is, the
istration systems and direct or indirect estimates    rates for 1996 are generally estimates based on the   population of 15-year olds who will die before their
based on sample surveys or censuses. However,         mostrecentlyavailablecensusorsurvey(seePrimary        60th birthday.
civil registers with relatively complete vital registra-  data documentation). Extrapolations based on dated
tion systems-that is, systems covering at least 90    surveys may not be reliable for monitoring changes in  Data sources
percent of the population-are fairly uncommon in      health status.
United Nations Department
of  Economic    and   Social
Information    and    Policy
Child mortality rates show gender discrimination                                                                             Analysis, Population and Vital
Child mortality rate per 1,000                                                                                               Statistics  Report;  demo-
graphic and health surveys
:-: ..c       -        _ ~from  national sources; and
United   Nations  Children's
Fund (UNICEF), The State of the World's Children
1998.
P.:,      0 Girls
Source:             i                      E L  -la -:,,,
In narn' countries parents nave 6ete, 3 preference for sons or a Dreference for a certain see oist'ihroTion ot their cnidren.
Son prelerence s most promminent in North Arrica Soenm Asia. anr East A,ia. and as be-en ocLnnented b' demograpilc
and health arvase In tnese regions Nc consistent pattern tor gender preference has been found In Sub-Sanaran Africa.
shile in some counie; In Lat.n America tnere is a veak preterence for daughter;.
Preferences ror boa5, lead to discrimination In how parems trel Thelir aons and daugriters. For esample. bo); receise
clear preterence wit respect tc senoor athennance. Finding. are less clear and consistent in other areas. althourgh
InsomenSo.thAsianco.nirles ons-earolddbhoahasehigherinmnonizoTionrate;thanonre-searoldgirls TheettecT
ot gender preferences on mort3ata .s ohea o.frcalt to ascertain because infan mortalnv is nigher for boss than ocr
girls n all counrr,es. Cnlo morralir i best,een ages l and s btrter captures the effect of gender discrimination. 3-
malnuiritlon and medic3a interven.ons are often more important tor tnis age groun. When rernaie child rmortaln, is,
higher, there is good reason to betlese that girls are discriminated against.
The data orosroe oniv Indirect esidence or uiscrimination bt parents. baT an alternatise esplanaTlon esists. One
consequence olfson preference .; dint girls tend to grovs up in larger families than bha). a, parents attempt to ach.es
mcin de.red set distribution ol chidren through continuen clildbearrng. 7ne nigher number ol siblings reduce; the
amoeni of resources per cnild esen if Inere Is no discrimination in allocation ol household resources It has been
estimated that. d gender preerences s.erc absem. pregnanc' rates soulo decrease bV 9-21 percem In countries that
hate high sorn preference.
199s World Development Indicators          107



t   )             ',t~~~~~~~
X '< X ~~~
U-~,, 



a   W here developing countries are making economic progress, they risk
repeating the mistakes of the past by putting growth before the environ-
ment-because growth can be a two-edged sword. Although economic
growth raises living standards and gives people the means to enjoy their envi-
ronment, it is often accompanied by urbanization, more motor vehicles, and
increased energy consumption. And because unbridled growth can lead to
congestion, overloaded infrastructure, and dangerous declines in air and
water quality, growth at the expense of the environment is likely to be unsus-
tainable.
Economic and social change is putting increasing pressure on the world's
environmental resources. Much of the world's biological diversity is in devel-
oping nations and it is estimated to be disappearing at 50 to 100 times nat-
ural rates. Wetlands and forests are being lost at 0.3 to 1 percent a year.
Greenhouse gas emissions are growing strongly with increasing economic
activity. Reversing these trends will require actions by both developed and
developing countries.
Many governments are adopting policies for sustainable development-
that is, development that preserves the opportunities for well-being of both
current and future generations. Economic growth and better environmental
management can be complementary, because growth provides the resources
to improve the environment. Striking a better balance between the costs and
benefits of economic development will require reliable information to guide
policy design and track progress toward sustainable development.
Measuring the environment
Understanding the environment and its links to economic activity requires
a sound base of data and indicators. Some indicators deal with environ-
mental "goods" such as protected areas or biodiversity (table 3.4). Others
measure "bads" (deforestation, soil loss, air and water pollution). Still oth-
ers monitor the effects of environmental degradation-waterborne disease,
species loss, and numbers of threatened species. Such indicators are impor-
tant because the links between the environment and the economy are often
direct and immediate.
Many relevant indicators are not available because of weaknesses in country
coverage and concerns about the quality and comparability of data. More-
over, some environmental indicators are not meaningful at a national level.



Although the world is divided into nation-states, air and water  assets being valued. Natural resource extraction    (which
pollution do not respect national boundaries, and many other   includes the economic rent associated with the scarcity of the
environmental problems are highly localized and location-spe-  resource being exploited) is explicitly treated in genuine saw-
cific. Thus a comprehensive set of environmental indicators    ing by deducting the value of depletion of the underlying
must embrace local, national, regional, and global aspects of  resource. (Where forests, water resources, and other renewable
environmental problems.                                        assets are sustainably managed, there is no net depletion).
The main indicators presented here cover important         Deducting pollution damages. including lost welfare in the
themes for which national information is available: land use,  form  of human sickness and death, is also necessary if it is
deforestation, biodiversity, protected areas, freshwater and   assumed that society is aiming to maximize welfare. Finally,
water pollution, energy production and use, energv efficiency  genuine saving estimates consider current education spending
and net trade, sources of electricity generation, carbon diox-  (on books, teacher salaries, and the like) as a component of
ide emissions, urbanization, traffic and congestion, air pollu-  saving (rather than consumption, as in the traditional national
tion, and government commitment. There are important           accounts), since education spending is an investment in
innovations in environmental indicators, however, for cases    human capital.
where limitations in data and coverage do not permit compre-       Table 3a provides genuine saving estimates for selected
hensive national-level tabulations. Three such indicators are  countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. Extended domes-
highlighted here.                                              tic investnment is measured as gross domestic investment plus cur-
"Green GNP" is one indicator gaining currency. There is    rent education spending. While this adjustment does not have
widespread concern that standard national accounts indicators  a large effect for some countries (Bolivia), it more than dou-
do not reflect environmental depletion and degradation and so  bles the rate of domestic investmnent for others (Haiti). The
may send false policy signals for nations aiming for environ-  next step in the accounting is to deduct net foreign borrowing,
mentally sustainable development. While a greener measure of
gross national product would have some policy uses, a related
measure, genuine saving (described below), gets directly to the
question of whether a country is on a sustainable path.            Environmental indicators for the 21jt century
Trade and the environment is another issue high on the
A recent OECD-United Nations-World sank conference identified six
international agenda, particularly since the formation of the      environmental indicators to be monitored by the development
World Trade Organization in 1995. Whether trade liberaliza-        community as part of a new international development strategy. (The
tion is good or bad for the environment is hotly debated, and      table numbers in parentheses show where these indicators appear in
tio  ig ob f t ei m ihthe World Development Indicators.)
questions of environmental protection and competitiveness
are of great concern to developing countries. A significant        Government and institutional commitment
C countries with a national strategy for sustainable development
issue is whether polluting industries and firms will move to         (table 3.13)
countries where environmental legislation is poor or weakly
enforced. Indicators comparing exports to imports of pollu-        * Population with access to sate water (tables 2.14 and 3.5)
tion-intensive sectors can speak to these questions.               * Intensity of freshwater use: percentage of annual available resources
Finally, while many aspects of growth are beneficial to the       used (table 3.5)
environment (rising income means increased willingness and         Biodiversity
ability to pay for environmental protection), certain concomi-     * Nationally protected area as a percentage of total land (table 3.4
tants of growth are harmful. Indicators relating growth in         Energy use
incomes to the demand for polluting transport fuels provide        * GDP per unit of energy use (table 3.81
an important link between growth and the environment.              * Total and per capita carbon dioxide emissions (table 3.8)
Three other topics were identified as important for obtaining a more
Genuine saving                                                     complete picture of the state of the world's environment-air quaJity.
Achieving sustainable development is a process of creating and     land use, and the marine environment.
maintaining wealth. For this to be a satisfactory definition, how-
ever, it is essential that wealth be broadlv conceived to include
human capital, natural resources, and the natural environ-
ment. The rate at which this expanded notion of wealth is
being created (or destroyed) is measured by an indicator of
genuine saving. This is a comprehensive measure of a country's
rate of saving after accounting for investments in human capi-
tal, depreciation of produced assets, and depletion and degra-
dation of the environment.
Genuine saving departs from standard national accounting
conventions in several ways, notably by expanding the range of
110   1999 World Development Indicators



add net official transfers, and subtract depreciation of pro- _
duced assets to arrive at an extended measure of net saving.
Next the value of resource depletion is deducted from     Adjusting for environmental costs lowers Ecuadors savings and
extended net saving to arrive at genuine saving 1. The natural  investment rates
resources included are bauxite, copper, gold, iron ore, lead,
nickel, silver, tin, coal, crude oil, natural gas, phosphate rock,  -                             Larded
and timber. (Several assets-including water, fish, and soil-are
not included because of difficulties in valuation.) The depletion  '
of metals and minerals is measured as the difference between
extraction values at world prices and the total cost of produc-  C-          "'      - E,ten&  L
tion (including depreciation of fixed assets and return on cap-  -.3v*n
ital). (For technical reasons this approach probably overstates               Genuine
depletion. More detailed estimates could embody rising scarcity                            I'
rents and account for the reserve life by applying a discount  - -;4
rate.) The difference between the rental value of roundwood   Sosice: ri.e.,
harvest and the corresponding value of natural growth both in
forests and plantations gives the measure of timber depletion.
Genuine saving I equals genuine saving I less pollution damage.
Because much pollution damage is localized (and difficult to
estimate without location-specific data), table 3a includes only
global damage from carbon dioxide emissions.
Genuine savings rates in selected countries in Latin America and the Caribbean
.-.I: r,f                                           Gross    Extended   Extended
Genuine saving 11       domestic  domestic     net      Genuine   Genuine
Average    Average   Average  investment  investment  saving   saving I   saving 11
1970s      19SOs    1990-94     1994       1994       1994      1994       1994
".-,;,,    I -,       - ,.      -,,        ,~~~~~           ~~-F  ,,       3 ,.JA
eu -,   - ,l..i;1 -r                                       1.                            1          13-
Li~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-
E : .1;  -  3 2   -:.E:e  -114| |   1= 2  1-0  E33  1E30            1     9
E-             7~~~~~~~~~~~~~~                           '        U           J         j
e, .,  ':  ; J     Li l;      _3                   :a1        1 7       1 
9r l. -1  S 3 - :    3S'1  f      : 2-41   0         27    1;    :  12
;  ;   | |    !          -4               -         -    a91L41 
E-|.3J.:                  I!                   A -I  i   -? '   :J 30  7      1Ž.        -S 9        -E.4
T. .....   T.-                      -  _1                13         i : 3- 1:
.,r;;,j...                          , -, - . . - . l   :  l  - ..7 ...  .      1. .- .                -
Tn.I is,, Tn:                      -:         l -il      13         11        13-1       -14.      -13
1998 World Development Indicators  Ill



Figure 3a shows genuine saving in Ecuador from         1970 to    collecting resource royalties and charging pollutiorn taxes both
1994 and carries some important messages. First, Ecuador's            raise development finance and ensure efficient use of'the envi-
genuine saving rate was near zero or negative for much of the         ronment. Measuring genuine saving also makes tLIC growth-
period of oil exploitation. Second, investment in human capi-         environment     tradeoff   more    explicit,  because    countries
tal as a share of GNP shrank for the last decade. Finally, nega-      planning to grow today and protect the environmrent tomorrow
tive genuine saving implies that total wvealth is in decline.         will have depressed rates of genuinie saving.
Policies resulting in persistently negative genuine saving lead
to unsustainability.                                                  Trade and tlds stl rie rm
As well as serving as an indicator of sustainability, genuine     Are developing countries net exporters and developed coun-
saving has other advantages as a policy indicator. It presents        tries net importers of pollution-intensive goods. The export-
resource and environmental issues within a framework that             import ratio for polluting goods can shed soine light on this
finance and development planning ministries can understand.           issue.
It reinforces the need to boost domestic saving, and hence the            The   export-import r-atio    compares the     total value   of
need for sound macroeconomic policies. It highlights the fis-         exports to the total value of imports of the products of each
cal aspects of etivironment and resource management, since            country's six most polluting industrial sectors. These sectors
Export-import ratios for selected countries, 1986 and 1995
1986               1995                                                1986              1995
t.1               ,.,                   Malaysia                      0.39               0.36
Argentina                     0.60               0.58                  Mexico                        0.82               0.71
I 2..'.             11                  Morocco                        0.82              0.66
Austria                        1.29              1.21                  Netherlands                   1.91               1.33
FRel .,; '                     ;,                : 0s                  New Zealand                   0.46               0.80
Bolivia                       1.24               0.51                  Norway                        1.26               1.19
E ,:,l                           -               1'.                   Oman                          0.11               0.27
Canada                         1.91              2.05                  Pakistan                      0.06               0.02
:r.,l.-                       ; :-              E 5: F-                    ;                        0.04               0.07
Colombia                      0.35               0.34                  Peru                          0.92               1.01
E !I                                                r' .-                                                      1       ;!F,. l,r,e  0.44  0.20
El Salvador                   0.19               0.20                  Poland                        0.95               0.98
2.81                  Portugal                      0.69               0.60
Germany                        1.14              1.18                  Senegal                       0.92               1.16
0.48                  Singapore                     1.63               0.65
Guatemala                     0.09               0.15                  Spain                         1.00               0.77
0.03                  Sweden                        1.60               1.65
India                         0.13               0.37                  Switzerlandb                  0.82               1.01
ci,,) :r._, >  | . A ^   1:l 2 -   Thailand         0.16               0.17
Ireland                       0.69               1.08                  Tunisia                       0.80               0.67
l l,.r l' ;e,0.57                                                     Turkey                         0.55               0.41
Italy                         0.77               0.71                  United Kingdom                0.89               0.85
a ,,.: j                      0.66               i . J -Uruguay                                      0.22              0.24
Japan                          1.26              1.19                  United States                 0.51               0.89
- -Cr.,;.                     0.32              0.41                  Venezuela                     2.61               0.95
Korea, Rep.                   0.65               0.68                 Zimbabwe                       0.89               0.56
Madagascar                    0.06               . ..
a. Includes Luxembourg. b. Includes Liechtenstein.
Source: World Bank staff estimates.
112 7 1998 World Development Indicators



were identified, first, by ranking pollution control spending
per unit of output for industries in the United States and other
OECD economies, and then by ranking emission intensities (in       Higb4Incomee countries generate more exports from the six most
terms of air pollutants, water pollutants, and heavy metals) for   polluting industries
U.S. industries. The six most polluting sectors are iron and       Export-import ratio
steel, nonferrous metals, industrial chemicals, petroleum          !'
refineries, nonmetallic mineral products, and pulp and paper
products. (Some highly polluting sectors such as low-technol-
ogy coal-fired thermal power stations that are basically domes-    '                                         :
tic in orientation are not included.).
Table 3b shows the calculated export-import ratio for                                                   .
selected countries in 1986 and 1995. A ratio greater than one      , .
indicates that the country is a net exporter of polluting prod-            -
ucts. Contrary to a common perception, the results show that             Low-income  Lower-middle-  Upper-middle-  High-income
with few exceptions developing countries tend not to special-            countries  income countries income countries  countries
ize in heavily polluting industries-instead, exports are lower                         * 1986  0 1995
than imports for the polluting sectors and the export-import       Source: World Bank staff estimates.
ratio is less than one. Figure 3b shows that lower-income coun-
tries tend to have lower export-import ratios. Most high-
income countries have ratios near or greater than one. These
countries, particularly those with large resource sectors,           -
appear to be the source of polluting goods.
Has trade liberalization in 1986-95 influenced this pattern?   Trade of the six most polluting industries by region
Whereas the average export-import ratio for middle-income          Export-import ratio
countries has fallen, those for high- and low-income countries     1 ^
increased (see figure 3b). For high-income countries the ratio
increased by 29 percent, to 1.32. For the United States the
increase was 75 percent. For low-income countries the increase
was 71 percent, possibly the result of the rapid export growth     00
typical of the early stages of industrialization. Mexico, which has  ,                  I
swiftly lowered trade barriers, had a lower export-import ratio
in 1995 (0.71) than in 1986 (0.82), signaling a shift away from            I
pollution-intensive goods. But Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia             u
Sub-Saharao  Middle East and Latin America and  Asia
tended to increase their ratios during this period (figure 3c).            Africa    North Africa  the Caribbean
There may be several explanations for these results.                                 * 1986  01995
Environmental protection costs may be lower than wage and cap-     Note: Sample includes 5 countries for Sub-Saharan Africa, 5 countries for the
Middle East and North Africa. 20 countries for Latin America and the Caribbean,
ital costs, so that specialization is driven largely by entrenched  and 7 countries for Asia.
technologies and by an economy's relative abundance of labor       Source: World Bank staff estimates.
and physical capital. Thus countries with a large labor supply tend
to specialize in relatively "clean" labor-intensive sectors, whereas
physical- and human capital-intensive countries specialize in
more polluting sectors. (World Bank research finds that the five  over time, however. And some resource-dependent sectors, such
most pollution-intensive sectors are about three times as energy  as petroleum refineries, tend to be close to the market rather
intensive, twice as physical capital intensive, and 2.5 times less  than to the source of the input.
labor intensive than the five cleanest sectors; Mani and Wheeler
1997.) The tendency of countries to specialize in sectors in which  Growth and the environment
they are relatively well endowed with factor inputs is reinforced  Many of the indicators in this section relate to energy production
by lower trade barriers. Given that the most capital-intensive  and use and to the emissions of carbon dioxide associated with
economies are in the OECD, this implies that pollution-intensive  fossil fuel combustion. This is because energy use is both perva-
production increasingly takes place in countries with relatively  sive in economic activities and pollution-intensive. While global
stringent regulation. As environmental regulations become more  pollutants such as carbon dioxide are emphasized in the follow-
strict, however, comparative advantage may shift. Morcover, some  ing indicator tables, energy production and use is also a major
of these industries tend to be relatively immobile, given their  source of local pollutants such as acid rain and particulates sus-
heavy dependence on a natural resource as a main factor of pro-  pended in air. Excess mortality and morbidity are strongly linked
duction. This cannot explain changes in the export-import ratio  to high concentrations of particulates.
199E World Development Indicators  113



Income elasticity of demand for motive fuels in selected Asian
economies, 1973-90
Gasoline      Diesel
Hong Kong, China            0.89          0.56
Indonesia                   1.63          1.59
Malaysia                    1.62          1.53
Philippines                    ..         3.16
Source: World Bank staff estimates.
Consumption of motive fuel (diesel and gasotine) is par-
ticularly important in the urban environment because pollu-
tants are emitted at ground level, where there is the greatest
exposure to humans. Historical data on energy production and
consumption tell much about pressures on the environment,
but the rate of growth of energy demand can help indicate the
likely future state of the environment. Extrapolating past
growth rates is one method of analysis, but greater insight is
gained by estimating one of the key determinants of energy
use-the income elasticity of demand for motive fuels. This is
economists' jargon for a simple ratio: the percentage change
in demand for gasoline (for example) divided by the percent-
age change in income. Does demand for motive fuels rise pro-
portionately at a greater or lesser rate than income? The
answer to this question has profound implications for the rela-
tionship between growth and the environment (table 3c).
The pattern is clear. Except for Hong Kong and (for gaso-
line) Thailand and Bangladesh, income elasticities for motive
fuels are greater than one and in many cases sharply greater.
Hong Kong may be an outlier because of its limited land area,
high vehicle taxes, and well-developed public transit system.
Setting aside the outliers, a 1 percent increase in income leads
to a 1.2-1.9 percent increase in demand for gasoline and a
1.3-3.2 percent increase in demand for diesel. Although only
income elasticities are shown, the underlying analysis embodies
a more complete specification of demand, including the effects
of own-price and cross-price change (that is, how an increase in
the diesel price would affect the demand for gasoline).
Past behavior may or may not be a good guide to the future,
but the pressures that growth in incomes could place on the
urban environment in developing countries are evident. If eco-
nomic growth rates of 6-8 percent a year are typical of countries
that have made the transition to industrialization and urbaniza-
tion, growth rates in motive fuel demand of 10-15 percent a year
are possible. Without policies to curb pollution emissions, espe-
cially of particulates, serious health consequences could follow.
114  1998 World Development Indicators



AI
4
.l  y _fe India                       i
Z *  _    _~~ Japan.
;,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~o c5, w0d a year
=_______                                es t                aS 
_   :  s                      . ______             *  Coal  Natural gas  Hydropower  .  Renewables
--;t                        ,:                     -  Oil  Nuclear  Biomass  @  Solar
; 0/:>                                        A    700
*   J~~~~r.  4444444           _~~~nr,r
[a|r!,,r  =8§ l., ,r>'J I[L ,, --. .                  -    4-,:,,,-
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.E ~ ~  4    -   _ _   _ _ 1_    ::0_
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t;ern,an,______                ,                             a' s
41     3a; _ _      _01_| _ 
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1,,gl   ,n.:m  :..6 li .9  -:.                                dS,w-,r



The United States, European Union,
and Japan contain 13 percent of the
world's people-but account for 42
percent of global carbon dioxide
emissions
Carbon dioxiae e 's have
M'ssions   ~~~~~~~~avo
-  e MO"e-   2s
""6~~~~1
srn..:....1mn a=;.;   I  UiT  - U
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O ~341 Land use and deforestation
Land       Rural                                Land use                                Forest   I      Annual
area     populration                                                                     area       deforestation
density
Permanent
thousand     people         Cropland               pasture              Othrerland       tnousandl              average
sq. km    per sq. km     % of land area        % of land area        % of land a'rea    sq,.        sq. kmn    % change
±995        1995      ±980       1995       1980        1994      1980        1994       ±995   .1990-95      1990-95
Albania                           27        354        26         26         15        .15         59          59         10           0       0.0
Algeria                        2,382        165         3          3         15        .13         82         83          19         234       1.2
Angola                         1,247        248         3          3         43         43         54          54       222        2,370       1.0
Argentina                      2,737         17        10         10         52         52         38          38       339          894       0.3
Armenia                          28         198         ..        25          ..        24          .54                    3         -84      -2.7
Australia                      7,682          6         6          6         57         54         37         40        409        -170        0.0
Austria                          83        202         20         18         25         24         56          57         39           0       0.0
Azerbaijan                       87         208         ..        23          ..        25          .52                   10           0       0.0
Bangladesh                      130       1,157       70         67           5          5         25         29         10           88       0.
Belarus                         207         49          ..       30           ..        14         ..56                  74        -688       -1.0
BelgiuMa                         33          39       24         23          23         21        53          55           7           0       0.0
Benin                           III        236        16         17           4          4        80          79         46          596       1.2
Bolivia                        1,084       137          2          2         25         24        73          73        483        5,814       1.2
Bosnia and Herzegovina           51        516          ..       13           ..        24          .61                  27            0       0.0
Botswana                        567        168          1          1         45         45        54          54        139          708       0.5
Brazil                ~~~~~~        ~~~~8,457  65.  6      .8        20         22         74          .71     5,511      25,544       0.5
Bulgarlia                       Ill          67       38         38          18         16         44         46         32           -6       0.0
Burk�ina Faso                   274        255        10         13          22         22        68          65         43          320       0.7
Burundi                          26        623        46         43          39         42        15          14           3          14       0.4
Cambodia                        177        209         12        22           3          8         85         70         98        1,638       1.6
Cameroon                        465         123       15          15          4          4         81         81        196        1,292       0.6
Canada                        9,221          15         5          5          3          3         92         92      2,446       -1,764      -0.1
Central African Republic        623        103          3          3          5          5         92         92        299        1,282       0.4
Chad                          1259         154          3          3         36         36         62         62        110          942       0.8
Chile                           749          57         6          6         17         1 7        77         77         79          292       0.4
China                         9,326        913        11          10         36         43         53         47      1,333          866       0.1
H-ong Kong, China                1      5,130         7 ..       7           1          1        92          92,
Colombia                      1,039        419          5          6         39         39         56         55        530        2,622       0.5
Congo, Dem. Rep.              2,267        429          3          3          7          7         90         90
Congo, Rep.                     342         755         0          0         29         29         70         70        195         416        0.2
Costa Rica                       51        600        10         10          39         46         51         44         12         414        3.0
C8e dIlvoire                    318        272        10          13         41         41         49         46         55          308       0.6
Croatia                          56         189        ..         22          ..        20          .59                  16            0       0.0
Cuba                            110          71       30         41          24         20         46         39         16         236        1.2
Czech Republic                   77        114         ..        44           ..        12          .45                  26           -2       0.0
Denmark                          42          33       63         55           6          7         31         37           4           0       0.0
Dominican Republic               48        221        29         39          43         43         27         19         16         264        1.6
Ecuador                         277        299         9         11          15         18        77          71        I11        1.890       1.6
Egypt, Arab Re..      .         995.      1j44    .    2     .    3         .                                             0            0       0.0
El Salvador                      21        572        35         37          29         28        36          35           1          36       3.3
Eritrea                         101..     .673          ..         5          .         69         ..26                   3            0       0.0
Estonia                          42          36        ..        27          ..7                    ..66                 20        -196       -1.0
Ethiopia                      1,000        421          ..       12          ..         20          .69                 136         624        0.5
Finland                         305          74         ...1                             0          ...                 200          166       0.1
France                          550          80       34         35          23         19        42          45        150       -1.608      -1. 1
Gabon                           258        169          2          2         18         i8         80         80        179          910       0.5
Gambia, The                      10        452          ...                  19         20          ...1                               6       0.9
Georgia                          70        290          ..       16           ..        27          .57                  30            0       0.0
Germany                         349          93       36         35          17         15        47          50        107            0       0.0
Ghana                           228        391        16         20          37         37         47         43         90        1.172       1.3
Greece                          129        178        30         27          41         41         29         32         65       -1,408      -2.3
Guatemala                       108        479        16          18         12         24         72         58         38          824       2.1
Guine                           46                     3          4         44         44         54         5364                   748       1.1
Guinea-Bissau                    28        279        10         12          38         38         51         50          23         104       0.4
Haiti                            28        873        32         33          18         18         49         49           0           8       3.4
Honduras                        112        196        16         18          13         14         71         68         41        1,022       2.3
118 1998 World Development Indicators



3.10
Land       Rural                               Land use                               Forest         Annual
area    population                                                                     area       deforestation
density
Permanent
thougand    people         Cropland               pasture             Other land      thousand                average
sq. km    per sq. km    t of land area        % of land area        % of land area     sq. km    sq. km     % change
1595        1995     1980       1995       1980       1994       1980       1994       1995     1990-95     1990--95
H-ungar                         92          75       58         54..       14         12        28.         34         17        -88      -0.5
India                         2973        410             57    5743                                        39       650         -72        0.0
Indonesia                     1812        732        14         177777                                              108         084          .
Iran. Islamic Rep             162         148         8.1                   7         27        6            1         1          8          .
Iraq                   ~~~437       96       12         13          9          9        78          78          1           0       0.0
Ireland                         69        115        16         19         67         45        17          36          6       -140      -2.7
Israel                          21        147        20         21         867                  74          72          1           0       0.0
Italy                          294        236        42         37         17         16        40    .     47        65         -8       -.
Jamaica                          11       660        22         22         24         24        54          56          2        158        7.2
Japan                  ~~~~       ~~~~       ~~~       ~~     ~    ~     ~    ~~377  692  13  12  2  2 85  87  251        132       0.1
Jordan                          89        375         4          5          9          9        87          87          0          12       2.5
Kazakhstan                    2,671        21                   12             ...    70         .          1.7      105      -1,928      -1.9
Kenya                          569        476         8          8         37         37        55          55         13         34        0.3
Korea, Dem. Rep.               120        504        16         17          0          0        84          83         62           0       0.0
Korea. Rep.                     99        471        22         20          1          1        77          78         76        130        0.2
Kuwait                          18        927         0          0          8          8        92          92          0           0       0.0
P~~ rh: ~~336                                     7          ..        47          .         4657                    0      0.0
Lao PDR                        231        417         3          4          3          3        94          93
Latvia                          62         40         .         28           .        1 3         .5 9                29        -250      -0.9
Lebanon                         10        236        30         30          1          1        69          69          1         52        7.8
Lesotho                         30        470         ..         .         6     6     6..                              0          0       0.0
Liby                          1,760        41         1          1          7          8        91          91          4           0      0.0
Lithuania                    ... 65        35.        ..        46          ..8..                           46        20        -1        -0.6
Macedonia, FYR                  25        130         .         26          ..        25                    49         10           2      0.0
Madagasca58r37                                5          5    ~    41         41        54          53.       151       1,300..     0.8
Malawi                          94        505        14         18         20         20        66          62        33         546        1.6
Malaysia                       329        512        15         23          1          1        85          76       155       4,002       2.4
Mali                          1,220       208         2          3         25         25        74          73       116        1,138       1.0
Mauritania                    1,025       541         0          0         38         38        62          62          6           0      0.0
Mauritius                         2       668        53         52          3          3        44          44          0           0       0.0
Mexico                        i'09         95        13         14         39         42        48          45       554   .   5,080       0.9
Moldova                          33       118                   66          .         11          .22                   4           0       0.0
Mongolia                      1,67          73        1          1         79         75        20          24        94            0       0.0
Morocco                        446        148        18         21         47         47        35          32         38        118        0.3
Mozamnbique                    784        391         4          4         56         56        40          40       169        1,162       0.7
Myanmar                        658        351        1     15         1                1        84          84       272        3874        1.4
Namibia                        823        121         1          1         46         46        53          53       124         420        0.3
Nepal                          143        659        16         21         13         12        71          69         48        548        1.1
Netherlands                      34       193        24         27         35         31        41          42          3           0       0.0
New Zealand                    268          32       13         12         53         51        34          38         79       -434       -0.6
Nicaragua                      121          67       11         23         40         40        49          39         56       1,508       2.5
Niger                         1,267        148                   .          8          8...                            26           0       0.0
Nigeria                        9 11       222        33         36         44         44        23          20       138        1,214       0.9
Norway                         307        118         3          3          0          0        97          97         81       -10        -0.2
Oman                           212       3,256        0    .     90         5          5        95          95          0           0       0.0
Pakistan                       771        405        26         28          6          6        67          66         17        550        2.9
Panama                           74       234         7          9         17         20        75          71         28        636        2.1
Papua New Guinea       .       453       6,023        1          1          0          0        99          99       369        1,332       0.4
Parauy~                        397        105         4          6         40         55        56          40        115       3,266       2.6
Peru                          1,280       182         3          3         21         21        76          76       676        2,168       0.3
Philippines                    298        586        29         32          3          4        67          64         68       2,624       3.5
Poland                         304          99       49         48         13         13        38          39         87       -120       -0.1I
Portugal                         92       278        34         33          9         10        57          57         29       -20        -0.9
Puerto Rico                       9      3,022       11          9         38         26        51          65          3          24       0.9
Romania                        230        107        46         43         19         21        35          36         62          12       0.0
Russian Federation          16,889          27                   8                     5          .         8 7     7,635           0       0.0
1398 World Development Indicators       119



0~~~3 '
Land       Rural                                Land use                                Forest         Annual
area     population                                                                     area        deforestation
density
Permanent
thoLasano   people          Croplarrd             pasture              Otter and        thousand                average
sq. km    per sq. km     % of land area       8k of and area          of eand area      sq. km     sq. P,m    % change
1995        1998      1980       ±995       ±980       ±994       ±980       1994        ±-995    ±990-95     ±990-95
Rwanda                           25        710        41         47          28        28         30          25)         3            4       0.2
Saudi Arabia                  2,150          88         1          2         40         56        60          42          2           18       0.8
Senegal                         193        208        12         12          30         30        58          58         74         496        0.7
Sierra Leone                     72        619          7          8         31         31        62          62         13         426        3.0
Singapore                          1          0       13          2           .          ....0                                        0        0.0
Slovak Republic                  48        148         ..        33           .         1 7         ..49                 20         -24       -0,1I
Slovenia                         20        414         ..        14          -.         25         ..61                  11            0       0.0
South Africa                  1.221        125        11        '13          67         67        22          21         85         1.50       0.2
Spain                           499          60       41         40          22         21        37          36         64            0       0.0
Sri Lanka                        65       1.549       29         29           7          7        64          64         18         202        1.1
Sudan                         2.376        142         5          5         41         46         54          48        416       3,526        0.8
Sweden                          412          54         7         7           2          1        91          92        244          24        0.0
Switzerland                      40        668        10         11         41         29         49          60         11                0    ,0.
Syrian Arab Republic            184        134        31         32          46         45        23          22          2          52        2.2
Tajikistan                      141        483          .          6          ..        25                    69          4            0        0.
Tanzania                        664         726         3          4         40         40        57          56        325       3,226        1.0
Thailand                        511        278        36         40           1          2        63          58        116       3,294        2.6
Togo                             54         138       43         45           4          4        53          52         12         186        1.4
Trinidad and Tobago                5       486        23         24           2          2        75          74          2          26        1.5
Tunisia                         155        120        30         31          22         20        48          49          6          30        0.5
Turkey                          770          77       37         35          13         16        50          48         89           0       0.0
Turkmenistan                    470        177         ..          3          .         64         ..33                  38            0       0.0
Uganda                          200        331        26         34           9          9        63          57         61         592       0.9
UJkraine                        579         46         ..        59           ..        13         ..26                  92         -54      -0.1
United Arab Emirates             84       1.172        0          1           2          3        97          96          1           0       0.0
United Kingdom                  242        107        29         25         47         46         24          29         24        -128      -0.5
United States                 9,159          34       21         21         26         26         53          53      2,125      -5.886      -0.3
Uruguay                         175          25        8          7          78         77        14          15          8           4       0.0
Uzbekistarr                     4.14       327         ..        11           ..       50          ,.39                  91      -2,260      -2.7
Venezuela                       882        115          4          4         20         21        76          75        440       5,034        1.1
Vietnam                         325       1.082       20         21           1          1        79          78         91       1,352        1.4
West Bank and Gazea.                          .         .          .          ..                    ..
Yemen, Rep.                     528        702          3         3          30         30        57          67          0           0        0.0
Yugoslavia. FR (Serb./Mont.)    102        123         ..        40           -         21         ..39                  18           0        0.0
Zambia                          743          97         7          7         40         40        53          53        314       2,644        0.6
Zimbabwe                        387        244          7         8          44         44        49          48         87         500        0.6
NEIMS                IM~~~~~~                                                  ~~IA  lP K  ' 11,       -Y-W& 611111 (0 lVli
Low income                   39,294        634        12         13          31        32         56          54      6,227      38,690        0.6
Ex-c-... Ch"i'na & ..I"n'd ia .......... 2"6,'9..9'4..  515  8     9   .    32    .    32     ..939                .4.243.       37,896   .    0.9.
Middle income                  od           .           :,
Lower middle income  39,310  462        10    ~   ~~~         ~         ~~~         ~~.........11. ... ......I..... .18....1.......37,888..0.3
Upp"we"r ..m i'd"die i'n"c"o"m ..e.......... ""'"" 57. 170 ....  ....  7...3.32              .    5.09                  jI        6.71         0.
Lmo-w&n.n..mddi4Wn'c'o ..m"e .........9'9,1"78... 5-8-3  10      11          28         27        61          62     26.211     1,13.288       0.4
East Asia & Pacific  15,869     ~~~~       ~~~841  11 . 12        30   .    94    .    59     .    54      3.756      29.826        0.8
LEa t i n ..A"m..enrc"a ..& ...Ca'r'ib.  20,044 . 230 . 7    .         .    28    .    29    .    85          633.    9064    .57,766          0.6
Hihincome                  30.951        215                              25         24                     ..      6.501     -11,564      -0.2
a. inciudes Luxernbourg.
120    1998 World Development Indicators



3.1 
The data in the table show that land use patterns are  mate of forest cover in 1990. Forest cover data for  * Land area is a country's total area, excluding area
changing. They also indicate major differences in  developing countries are based on country assess-  under inland water bodies. In most cases the definition
resource endowments and uses among countries.   ments that were prepared at different times and  of inland water bodies includes major rivers and lakes.
True comparability is limited, however, by variations in  that, for reporting purposes, had to be adapted to  * Rural population density is the rural population
definitions, statistical methods, and the quality of  the standard reference years of 1990 and 1995.  divided by the arable land area. Rural population is the
data collection. For example, countries use different  This adjustment was made with a deforestation  difference between total and urban population (see def-
definitions of land use. The Food and Agriculture  model that was designed to correlate forest cover  initions in tables 2.1 and 3.10). * Land use is broken
Organization (FAO), the primary compiler of these  change over time with ancillary variables, including  into three categories. Cropland includes land under
data, occasionally adjusts its definitions of land use  population change and density, initial forest cover,  temporary and permanent crops, temporary meadows,
categories and sometimes revises earlier data,  and ecological zone of the forest area under consid-  market and kitchen gardens, and land temporarily fal-
Because the data reflect changes in data reporting  eration. Although the same model was used to esti-  low. Permanent crops are those that do not need to be
procedures as well as actual changes in land use,  mate forest cover for the 1990 forest assessment,  replanted after each harvest, excluding trees grown for
apparent trends should be interpreted with caution.  the inputs to State of the World's Forests 1997 had  wood ortimber. Permanent pasture is land used forfive
Satellite images show land use different from that  more recent and accurate information on boundaries  or more years forforage crops, either cultivated orgrow-
given by ground-based measures in terms of both area  of ecological zones and, in some countries, new  ing wild. Other land includes forest and woodland as
undercultivation and type of land use. Furthermore, land  national forest cover assessments. Specifically, for  well as logged-over areas to be forested in the near
use data in countries such as India are based on report-  the calculation of the forest cover area for 1995 and  future. Also included are uncultivated land, grassland
ing systems that were geared to the collection of land  recalculation of the 1990 estimates, new forest  not used for pasture, wetlands, wastelands, and built-
revenue. Because taxes on land are no longer a major  inventory information was used for Bolivia, Brazil,  up areas-residential, recreational, and industrial
source ofgovernment revenue, the quality and coverage  Cambodia, Cote d'lvoire, Guinea-Bissau, Mexico,  lands and areas covered by roads and other fabricated
of land use data (except for cropland) have declined.  Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, and Sierra  infrastructure. * Forest area is land under natural or
Data on forest area may be particularly unreliable  Leone. The new information on global totals raised  planted stands of trees, whether productive or not (see
because of different definitions and irregular surveys.  estimates of forest cover. For industrial countries,  About the data). * Annual deforestation refers to the
Estimates of forest area are from the FAO's State  the United Nations Economic Commission for  permanent conversion of natural forest area to other
of the World's Forests 1997. which provides infor-  Europe and the FAO use a detailed questionnaire to  uses, including shifting cultivation, permanent agricul-
mation on forest cover as of 1995 and a revised esti-  survey the forest cover in each country.  ture, ranching, settlements, and infrastructure develop-
ment. Deforested areas do not include areas logged but
intended for regeneration or areas degraded by fuel-
wood gathering, acid precipitation, or forest fires.
Arable land Per capita in selected countries, 1995
Negative numbers indicate an increase in forest area.
Square meters
6.000                                                                                          Data sources
5,000
4,000                                                                                                          -  Data on land area and land
use are from the FAO's elec-
3.000                                                                                                             use
tronic files and are published
2,000                                                                                                            in its Production Yearbook.
1,000                                                                                                             The FAO gathers these data
0                                                      i *  *  1  1  I  I  I  I                               from    national  agencies
,~~~ ~~~,w  ,~~~~~o ~~~~  ~ ~ ~     r.     ~      &through                                 annual  question-
g9be <ff99 n\.  \,,j  Ct   d          osFf 9 r - / +Nd i naires and by analyzing the
results of national agricultural censuses. Forestry data
are from the FAO's State of the World's Forests 1997.
Note: Does not include land under cultivation for permanent crops.
Source: Table 3.2.
Growing populations and changing consumption patterns are putting increased pressure on land and other
natural resources, reducing some countries' potential for self-sufficiency. The threshold for food self-
sufficiency is estimated at 600-700 square meters per person. On average, all regions have arable land per
capita in excess of this threshold, but some countries fall below.
1998 World Development Indicators     121



0             ~~~3.2 Agricultural inputs
Arable land      Irrigated land  [  Area under        AgriculturalI      Fertil izer       Pesticide
cereal           land per        consumption       consumption
production          worker
Hr-..nreds of grams   Grurr s
hectares            % of           tfcsrdper hectare                                     per ~ecarae
per capita        cr pland           Pca res          hrectares        of arable lard    of a~rable land
97-81  14-6      9781   -1994-96 I 1979-81t 1-994-96  1979-81  1992-94  19790-81  1994-96  1984-86  1994-96
Albania                     0.22     0.18     53.0     48.4     367      246      1.61     1.29    1,556     267        ..      39 1
Algeria                     0.37     0.27      3.4      6.9    2,968   2,488      23.6     20.0      277     145        ..      836
Angola                      0.41     0.28      2.2      2.1     705      915      21.4     16.5       49      33
Argentina                   0.89     0.72      5.8      6.3   11.099   9,342     123.0    113.7       46     208        ..    1.139
Armnenia                      ..     0.15       ..     44.7       ..     179        ..      4.5        ..    129
Australia                   2.97     2.65      3.5      4.9  15,986   14,626    1 119.0  1074.4      269     358
Austria                    0.20     0. 18     0.2      0.3    1.062     820       11.1    13.6     2.615   1.736
Azerbaijan                    ..     0.21        ..    50.0       ..     613        ..      4.3        ..    244
Bangladesh                  0ID      07       171      33    10,823   10,713       0.3      0.3      458   1,316
Belarus                       ..     0.59       ..      1.9       ..   2,528        ..      9.4        -.    849
Belgium                       .        .       0.1      0 .1    426      336      12.5     13.6    5,323   4.190    11.052
Benin                       0.39     0.26      0.3      0.5     525      681       2.0      i.6       12     146        01
Bolivia                     0.35     0.29      6.6      3.7     559      698      27.2     22.4       23      32
Bosnia and Herzegovina        -.     0.13        ..     0.3       ..     296        ..     11.8        ..      0
Botswana                    0.44     0.27      0.5      0.3     153      197     103.0    102.4       33      26
Brazil                      0.32     0.32      3.3      4.9  20,612   19.799      12.6     17.4      915     894        ..      11
Bulgari'a                   0.43     0.48     28.3     19.0   2,110 .2,057         8.8     11.8    2,334     468
Burkina Faso                0.40     0.33      0.4      0.7   2.06     2,998       2.4      1.9       26      69                  1
Burundi                     0.24     0.15      0.7      1.3     203      197       1.0      0.8       10      33       100     123
Cambodia                    0.30     0.39      4.9      4.5   1.241    1,832       1.1      1.5       45      26
Cameroon                    0.68     0.48      0.2      0.3   1.021      881       3.3      2.6       56      50       73 7     253
Canada                      1.86     1.54      1.3      1.6  19,561   19,113      92.2    173.9      415     519        ..     643
Central African Republic    0.8.1    0.60                       194      136       4.8      4.2        5       6         .       12
Chad                        0.70     0.51      0.2      0.4     907    1.514      24.3     20.3        6      22        41
Chile                       0.36     0.28     29.6     29.9     820      602      21.6     18.2      321   1.000        ..    2,701
China                       0.10     0.08     45.1     51.8       .        ..      1.1      1.0    1,493   3.539
,Hong Kong, Chirna        .0.00     0.0      43.5     28.6       0.       0       0.3      0.3        .       ...            9.750
Colombia                    0.13     0.07      7.7     16.8   1.361    1,346      12.7     12.9      812   2.383     4.351
Congo, Dem Rep.    .        0.2      0.1-7     0.1      0.1       .                2.6      1.9       11      15
Congo, Rep.                 0.08     0.06      0.7      0.6      19       29      24.7     21.6       26     134        76
Costa Rica                  0.12     0.09     12.1     23.8     136       61       9.2      9.6    2,650    4,407       ..18.726
CMe dI voire                0.24     0.21      1.4      1 .7   1,008   1.589       7.5      6.2      261     224
Croatia                       ..     0.23        ..     0.2       ..     623        -.      7.3        ..  1,700        ..    3,060
Cuba                        0.27     0.34     23.0     20.2     224      166       6.7      7.7    2,030     532
Czech Republic                ..     0.30        ..     0.7       ..   1,606        ..      7.1       ..   1.073        ..    1,154
Denmark                     0.52     0.45     14.5     20.1   1.818    1.480      15.6     19.1    2,453   1,883        95    1.923
Dominican Republic          0.19    0.17      11.7     13.7     149      137       5.2      5.6      572     727
Ecuador                    0.20     0.14      19.4      8.1     419    1,013       6.5      6.6      471     895        ..    1.672
Egypt, Arab Rep.           0.06     0.05     100.0    100.0   2.007    2,659       0.3      0.4    2.864   3.493    14.494
El Salvador                0.12      0.10     14.8     15.8     422      443       2.0      2.0    1.330   1,3868
Eritrea                       ..    0.12        ..      5.4      ..      301        ..      6.1        .
Estonia                       ..    0.76         ..       .        .     303        ..     12.6       ..     370        ..     138
Ethiopia                      ..     0.20        ..     1.7   4,890        ...              1.5       ..     139        ..      21
Finland                    0.54     0.50        1.190                    999 ,     9.5     13.7    1,868   1,421       77        5
France                      0.32    0.32       4.6      8.0   9,804    8.429      16.3     23.6    3.260   2,628
Gaboni                      0.42     0.29      0.9      0.8       6       15      21.1     22.3       20      13
Gambia, The                 0.26     0.16        .        ..     54       90       1.3      0.9      132      49        ..      29
Georgia                       ..     0.15        ..    42.0       ..     295        ..      4.3        ..    394
Germany                    0.15     0.14       3.7      3.9   7,692    6.528       7.3     12.6    4.249   2,421
Ghana                      0.18     0.17       0.2      0.1     902    1,243       3.8      2.9      104      43        ..      16
Greece                     0.30      0.23     24.2     38.0   1,600   1,1326       7.9      9.6    1,927   2.239     2.540
Guatemala                   0.18     0.13      5.0      6.5     716      644       2.4      2.5      726    1.355
Guinea                      0.13     0.10     12.8     10.9     708      673       5.4      4.1       19      16        ..     147
Guinea Bissau               0.32     0.28      6.0      5.0     142      135       3.9      3.4       24      20
Haiti                       0.10     0.08      7.9  ,   9.6     416      421       0.8      0.7       62      88..               1
Honduras                    0.43     0.29      4.1      3.6     421      482       4.7      5.1      163     340
122   1998 World Development lnd;cators



3.20
Arable land      Irrigated land     Area under        Agricultural       Fertilizer        Pesticide
cereal           land per         consumption      consumption
production         worker
Hundreds of grams     Grams
hectares            % of           thousand                            per hectare       per hectare
per capita        cropland           hectares          hectares        of arable land    of arabie land
1979481  1.994-96  1979-81  1994-96  1.979-81  1994-96  1979-81  1992-94  11979-81  1.994-96  .1984-6  1994-96
Hunga                      0.947    0..47.     3.6      4.2   2,878    2,820       74.      9.2    2,906     683     6,271   3,294
India                       0.24    0.18      22.8     29.5 104,350   99,891       0.9      0.8      342     826
Indonesia                  0:12     0.09      16.2     15.2  11,825   14,682       1 1      0.9      645   1,439
Iran, Islamic Rep.         0.36     0.28      35.5     39.3   8,062    9,284     -10.7      8.7 ......43.0   598
Iraq                       0.40     0.27      32.1     61.3   2,159    3,202       9.4     14.7_     172.    650
Ireland                    0.33     0.37                        425      26       24.      50      5,373   5.647
Israel                     0.08     0.06      49.3     44.6     129      106       6.1     7.6     2,384   2,963
Italy                      0.17     0.14      19.3     24.7   5,082    4,196   .   6.3      8.6    2,295   2,297    19,876
Jamaica                     0.08    0.07      13.6     14.3       4        3..   1.7 ...I  ... 1.6   923   1,601
Japa                       0.04_    0.03      62.6     61.8   2,724    2,378       0.9      1.3    4,687   4,267
Jordan                     0.14     0.08      11.0     18.2     158       79      12.1      7.5      404     503     2.362
-.a..a..h ...tan .  ..... ... . .. ....   ..... 2.00...  7.0... - ..  .  ....  - 18, 3 ....   . .....I ....  128.7  36 . ......   ...  ...   ..... ...
Kenya                      0.23     0.15       0.9      1.5   1,692    1,796       3.9     2:7       160     287....
Kore.,Oem. Rep..0.99 0.08 58.9 73.0 1,625 1,447 0.6 0.5 4,688.4,421.
Korea, Rep.                0.05     0.04      59.6     66.5   1,689    1,183       0.4     0.7     3,920   5,337
Kuwait                     0.00  0....  ..00  . .. ... .. .   ..  .......0 ..  0,  14.3    1-5.3  ...   4,500  2,000...I       ...
Kyrgyz Republic              ..     0.25               77.6       .      590         .    17.6                70
Lao PDR                .... 0.21.   0.19.   ..15.4     18.4     751      580  .... 1.1.... 1.0        40      46
Lat.v~aq .....       ....          0..68         .        .              447         .     12.1              550.              190
Lebanon                    0.07     0.05      28.1     28.7      34       39...    30      6.5     1,653   1,837 .          .     ...
Lesotho                    0.22     0.16        ..        .     203      123       9.8      7 5      150     188
Libya                      0.58     0.36 ... 10.7      21.7     538..    464 ... 64 .1   138.7       357     475.....
Lithuania                     .     0.79        .         .       .    1,070               10.1    ..        283n
Macedonia, FYR                .     0.31                9:... 9.9 ..  .. ..  235            7.2        .     814
Madagacar                  0.29     0.20      21.5     35.0   1,309    1,330       7.3      53.3      31      38          . ..  29
Malawi                     0.21     0.17       1.3      1.6   1,155    1,336       1.2      0.9      235     183
Malaysia...... 0.07                 0.09  ..   6.7..    4:5.5 ... 729.  .707       2.4..... 4.2    4,273   6,735
Mali                        0.31    0.33       2.9      2.6   1,346    2,866      10.1      7.6       60      83
Mauritani'a                 0.12    0.09      25.1     236.6    125      292..                .       59.    195
Mauritius                  0.10 0..0.. '9 ...  15.0.... 17.0 ..   0        0..     1.2      1.8    2,547   3.037
Mexico ..                  0.35     0. 27     20 .3    23.5   9,547   10,424      12.2     12.0      570  .. 562 .. .
Moldova0.41                                     .      14.1 ......       708.               3 .8.   .        651
Mongolia                   0.71     0.54       3.0      6.1     559      359     404.4   350.0        83       9        28
Morocco                  ...0.39    0.33      15.0     13..5. . M,14   5,74        7.3      7.4 ..   269..   344 .... .
Mozambique                 0.24     0.17       2.1      3.4   1,077    1,640       8.3      6.9      109      27
Myanmnar                   0.28     0.21     :10.4     14.3   5,133    6,645       0.8      0.6      I11     130         9
NamibiaI.....              0.654.   0.51       0.6      0.8 ....1.95 .... 329.   152.8   136.1                           ...
Nepal                      0.16     0.13      22.5     31.0   2,5      32          0.6      075 ...   98 .328            .      .21
Netherlands                0.06     0.06     .58..5    61.5 ... 225      194       6.4...   6.4    8,620   5,849
New Zealand                0.80    .0.44.      5..2     9:.1    193.... 153      120.8     98.9    1,965   4,212.             2,370
Nicaragua         0.. .    ...41    0.55 .....6.0       3 3     266      357.     16.5     2-1.0     392     141 .   ..        353
Niger .  ....  .... ..... 1 0 .63 .  0. 53 ....... ....  ..!....  3,872...  6,789 . 5. 0  3.9       10      17.      .. ...     .7
Nigeria                    0.39     0.28       0.7      0.7   6,048   17,990       4.4      4.4  ..... 59     82..        .....
Norway                     0.20.    0.22   ....     .....-  ... 3 11     340       5.9      8.6    3,146   2,187          ...I..  941
Oman                       0.01     0.01      92.7     98.4       2        3       6.3      4.6      840   6,875    .15r133. 24,125
Pakistan            .... ...0.24  0...O16     72.7     79.8  10,693   12,254       1.4~     1.2      525   1,985. ....         330
Pnarnama02                           .1         .        .      166      168       9.4      8.9      692     70
Papua New Guinea           0.01 0....O.01 ......-2                         2       04       03     387     233      17,833    2,635
Paraguay            ~0.52     0.46      3.4      3.0     304      545.     33.7,    38.4       44     105
Peru                       0'.19    0.16-. .. 3.3.0   .41.2 ..  732      816      13..9    11.3      381     445         ...
Philippines                0.11     0.08      14.0     16.7   6,790...  6,621      1.0      0.9      639   1,091
Poland                     0.41     0.37       0.7      0.7   7,875    8,575       3.5      3.7    2,393   1,031       995     500
Portugal        .0.25               0.23      20.1     20.9   1,099      679       3.3      5.3    1,113   1,112
Puerto Rico                0.02     0.0-1     39.0     51.3      .1        0       8.2      8.1..               .
Romania                     0.44     0.41     21.9     31.3    6,340   6,177       4.0      6.6 .....11.448  508".... ..
Russian Federation                  0 88         .      4.0       .   52,901               21.9              123
1998 World Development Indicators 123



03.23.
Arable land       Irrigated land      Area under         Agricultural        Fertilizer         Pesticide
cereal            land per         consumption        consumption
production           worker
Hurncrols of grams      Grams
hoectares            % of             thoUsand                             per hrectare       per hectare
per capita          croplard          i.emr.s            hectares         of arable lard     a' arable ~and
1979-8   1.994-96  1.979-Si  1.994-96  1979-S1  1994-96  1979-81  1992-94   1979-81  1994-96   1984-86  1994-96
Rwanda                       0.15     0.13       0.4       0.3     239       108       0.7      0.7         3        0
Saudi Arabia                 0.20     0.20      28.9      38.7     388       906      69.8    137.7       228      929
Senegal          .0.42                0.28       2.8       3.1    1,216    1,235       3.9      3.0       104       78         ..     214
Sierra Leone                 0.14     0.11       4.1       5.4     434      348        3.1      2.7        38       62
Singapore                    0.00     0.00         .         ..       .        ..      0.5      0.2    22,333   50,010
Slovaks Republic               ..     0.28        ..      18.8        .      868         ..       .          .     675         ..   3.469
Slovenia                       -.     0.12        ..       0.7       ..      110        ..     18.2         ..   3.538         ..   6,248
South Africa                 0.46     0.40       8.4       8.1    6,645    8,389      50.3     51.0       874      506         ..      57
Spain                        0.42     0.39      14.8      17.8    7.391    6,812      12.2     18.7     1.012    1,211
Sril Lanka                   0.06     0.05      28.4      29.2     864       903       0.8      0.7     1,757    2,270
Sudan                        0.66     0.49      14.5      15.0    4,407    8,637      22.1     19.1        51       43         ..      90
Sweden                       0.36     0.31         .         ..   1,505    1,130      14.4     17.4     1,654    1,147
Switzerlarld                 0.06     0.06       6.2       5.8     172      206       10.7      8.0     4,623    3.547         ..   4.832
Syrian Arab Republic         0.80     0.7        9.6    ,13.1     2,642  ,3,509       14.6     11.5       250     872
Tajikistan                      ..     0.14        ..     83.5       ..      260         ..     5.5         ..    854
Tanzania                     0.12      0.11      4.1       4.9    2.835    3,168       4.6      3.2       143       98-
Thailand                     0.35     0.29      16.4      23.5   10,625   10.584       1.1      1.0       177     818      1,492
Togo                 ~~~~0.76  0.51       0.3       0.3     416      694        3.2      2.8        13      59          ..      97
Trinidad and Tobago          0.6        .06     17.8 ,    18.0        4        5       2.8      2.6      1.064     867    28.486
Tunisia                      0.51     0.32       4.9       7.4    1.416    1,091       9.3     10,5       212      296-
Turkey.0.57                            0.40      9.6      15.3   13,499   13,958       3.4      2.9       529     650      1.591
Turkmenistan                   -.     0.31        ..      87.8       ..      442         ..    58.86.             914
Uganda                       0.32     0.27       0.1       0.1     752     1,319       1.3      1.1         1        5                 is 1
Ukrai ne                       ..     0.64        ..       7.5       -.   12.225        ..      8.5         ..    310
Unritted Arab Emirates       0.01     0.02     237.7      86.8       0         1       8.7      3.8     2,250    9.508
United Kingdom               0.12     0.10       2.0       1.8   3.930     3.193      26.2     28.2     3.185    3,790
United States                0.83     0.71      10.8      11.4  72,630    62,929     111.0    118.2     1,092    1,061     1,983
Uruguay                      0.48 .   0.40       5.4      10.7     814      591       78.5     76.0       564     765
Uzbekistan                     ..     0.18        ..      88.9       ..    1,538        ..       8..             1,155
Venezuela                    0.19     0.13       3.6       5.2     814       815      28.1     24.0       711      986
Vietnam                      0.11     0.08      24.1      29.6    5,964    7.430       0.4      0.3       302    2,488
West Bank and Gaza              .         .        .         .        .        ..
Yemen, Rap.                  0.18     0.10      19.9      31.3     865       724       9.9      7.2        93       85
Yugoslavia. FR (Serb./Mont.)   ..     0.35         ..      1.6                                              ..     225
Zambia                       0.89      0.59      0.4       0.9        .        ..     19.1     14.7       145      104         ..     171
Zimbabwe                     0.36      0.27      3.1       4.5    1.633    1,942       8.4      5.0       609      815       911      578
Low income                   0.19     .0.15     24.5      28.3  190.761  214.825       1.9      1,7       530    1.142
Exci. China & India  0.28  0.21  14.7   17.1  86.411  ~~~~~~~~      ~~~~     ~~~114,9-34  4.5  3.6 . 168.32.
East Asia &  Psoff ....i..c... .0,12 . 0 .0   ... ..    .     52 0    5 ,9          .        ,       .1       .8
pier mincom icoe             0.46     0.41         I      9     61576,27  136.974     36.      51.5      91321   1,23
ao    i.. reus (ies L rane m -eaaarg.             6.       6  ~.  j l'9 ' 46 .s      ~           ..
124  1998  W orld  O selog me... n....   ....................di....  ..................................rs...  .  . ..



3.2
Agricultural activities provide developing countries
with food and revenue, but they also can degrade nat-                                               * Arable land includes land defined bythe FAO as land
ural resources. Poor farming practices can cause soil  Arable land is no longer expanding           under temporary crops (double-cropped areas are
erosion and the loss of fertility. Efforts to increase                                              counted once), temporary meadows for mowing or for
Annual ft change
productivity through the use of chemical fertilizers,  2 n                                          pasture, land under market or kitchen gardens, and
pesticides, and intensive irrigation methods also have                                             land temporarily fallow. Land abandoned as a result of
environmental costs and health impacts. Excessive                                                   shifting cultivation is not included. * Irrigated land
chemical fertilizers can alter the chemistry of soil.  J..                                          refers to areas purposely provided with water, includ-
Pesticide poisoning is common in developing coun-                                                   ing land irrigated by controlled flooding. Cropland
tries. And salinization of irrigated land diminishes soil  0                                        refers to arable land and land used for permanent
fertility. Thus the appropriate use of inputs for agri-      |           I .        |               crops (see table 3.1) * Land under cereal production
cultural production has far-reaching effects.                                                       refers to harvested areas, although some countries
This table provides indicators of major inputs to  -0                                            report only sown or cultivated areas. * Agricultural
1965-74    1975-84     1985-94
agricultural production: land, labor, fertilizers, and                                             land per worker is the ratio of land used as cropland
0 Africa Q LAC * Asia 5 Industrial
pesticides. There is no single correct mix of inputs:                                countries      and permanent pasture (see table 3.1) to the number
appropriate levels and application rates vary by coun-  Source: FAO.                                of workers in agriculture (see table 2.5), expressed in
try and over time, depending on the type of crops, the                                              hectares. * Fertilizer consumption measures the
Over the parst ten yeats growth in amable landl
climate and soils, and the production process used.    area-which hlsoucallyhas been ther nansource of  quantity of plant nutrients used per unit of arable land.
Most of the data shown here and in table 3.3 are col-  agricuatural growth--l to nearzero on a globbasis.  Fertilizer products cover nitrogenous, potash, and
A small Increase In arambe lea In devebplng counties
lected by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)  wasoffsetbyadecreawin industuialcountries.Arable  phosphate fertilizers (including ground rock phos-
through annual questionnaires. The FAO tries to        mdmweaisstilllexpandingnAfricarandtosomeextent  phate). The crop year (July through June) is the time
h tatn Amedca, but h Asia the ladfrontierhas been
impose standard definitions and reporting methods,    reached. Wth Increasing demand for dIversified crop  reference for fertilizer consumption. * Pesticide con-
but exact consistency across countries and overtime   andlvestockproducttheareaundertradlt fonod    sumption refers to use or sale to the agricultural sec-
staples (mainly cereals) has begun to decline In Asia.
is not possible.                                      The world is now almost entirely dependent on In  tor of substances that reduce or eliminate unwanted
The calculation of agricultural land per worker is  creased yields to expand agricutural supply  plants or animals, especially insects. They include
based on estimates by the International Labour                                                      major groups of pesticides such as insecticides, min-
Organization of the number of persons employed in       :                  l,eral oils, herbicides, plant growth regulators, bacteria
agriculture (see table 2.5). Data on agricultural                                                   and seed treatments, and other active ingredients.
employment should be used with caution. In many       The distribution of fertilizer
countries much agricultural employment is informal    consumption has changed                        Data bources
and unrecorded, including substantial work per-       Millions of metric tons
formed by women and children.                         I °r                                                             j Data on arable land, irrigated
Fertilizer consumption measures the quantity of                             -        -                                land, and land under cereal
plant nutrients in the form of nitrogen. potassium, and                        I       I                                production are from the FAO's
phosphorous compounds available for direct applica-    m                       I       I                        ,       electronic files and are pub-
tion. Consumption is calculated as production plus                                                                       lished in its Production Year-
imports minus exports. Traditional nutrients-animal           -                                                          book. Data on agricultural
and plant manures-are not included. Because some        .                                                   .            employment, fertilizers, and
chemical compounds used for fertilizers have other                                                                       pesticides are from electronic
industrial applications, the consumption data may           1965     1975    1985     1995         files that the FAO makes available to the World Bank.
overstate the quantity available for crops.               * Africa 0 LAC  * Asia  9 Industrial
Data on pesticides refer to major groups of pesti-                                countries
cides, herbicides. seed treatments, and plant growth   Source: FAO.
regulators used in or sold to the agricultural sector.  Frtilizerconsurnpton rgwmpidkyahetrWorldWar l
They are usually shown in terms of active ingredients,  but has leveled offIn recent years. Fertllzeruse has
declined sharply I industrial countries because of
but some countries report weights including fillers.   concems about Its environmental effects, But con-
Country coverage and time series are incomplete        sumptlon has expanded rapldy In developing coun-
tries-especial In Asia, which now accounts for more
because of the limited information provided bycoun-    thanhagof worldfdizl consumption,uphm ess
tries to the FAO. The FAO is currently revising its pes-  than tO percent In 1965. Stil. growth in fertilIrr use
Is slowing In many countes, because higher fertilizer
ticides database.                                      dosesofferlow mrgnalretums. Feretbrzruseislowest
in SubSaharan Ahtica (at 13 Idlograms of nutrients per
hectare of amble land, compared with 85 in South
Asia), nd overthe past±Oyears Itsusehasstagnated.
1998 World Development Indicators 1|25



U                ~~3.3 Agricultural output and productivitY
Crop              Food            Livestock          Cereal                  Agricultural productivity
production        production        production           yield
index             index             index
Agrrculture
Agriculture          value added
va ue added          per hectare of
kilograms           per worker         agricultura land
1989-91 = 100     1989-91 = 100     1989-91 = 100       per hectare           1987 $               1987 $
1979-81  ±11994-96  1979-S1 1994-96  1979-81 1994-96   1979-81 1994-96     1979-81 1994-96     1979-81    1992-94
Albania                          .        ..       .       ..         .       ..    2,500     2,537       908     1,161       565        752
Algeria                        80      116.       71     115        52     110        656      953      2,713     3,612       109        180
Angola                        102      143        92     126,       88.    102        526      405          ..     149          -.         9
Argentina                      84      125        95     116       107     104      2,183     2,811     6,248     7,028        51         62
Armenia                         ..     108         ..     78         ..     62         I.,431               ..    1,275         ..       261
Australia ..80                         123        92    118       911      1081,   321        1.740    17,222    22.256        16         21
Austria                        93        95       92     101        95     105      4,131    5,384     10,695    15.659       956      1,088
Azerbaijan                      ..       56         .     55         ..     64         ..     1,599
Bangladesh                     80      100        79     103        81     125      1.938    2,602        187      226        587       863
Belarus                         ..      99         ..     68         .      63         ..    2,161          ..    3,023        ..        380
Belgium,                       85      122        88     114        89     113      4,861    7,369
Benin                          54      147        6 3    126        6 9    108       698      1.008       374      563        188        321
Bolivia                        71      128        71     120        76     111      1,183    1.561      1,135        ..        42
Bosnia and Herzegovina                                                                 ..    2,957
Botswana                       90       95        88     102        88     103       203       300        392      483          4          5
Brazil                         75      113        70     117        68     120      1.496    2,383      1,217     2,384        93        119
Bulgaria                      108       69       105      68        96      57      3,853    2,615      4.446     6,240       650        513
Burkina Faso                   59      121        63     121        60     117       575       808        155      182         64         93
Burundi                        80       93        80      94        88      96      1,081    1,298        218      177        212        270
Cambodia                       55      115        51     116        32     121      1,025    1,63       8..        131         ..86
Cameroon                       91      113        83     114        61     108       849     1.313        861      827        252        313
Canada                         78      115        80     Il1        88     I11      2,173    2,702     12,317   30,202        131        154
Central African Republic      103      111        80     111        49     110       529       790        456      516         96        119
Chad                           67      117        91     117       120     109       587       639        148      198          6         10
Chile                          71      120        72     125        76    -131      2,124    4,409      1.729     3,042        79        150
China                          67      125        61     144        45     181          .         ..      113      193        106        184
*Hong Kong, China             134       77       97      52       189       41     1,712         .
Colombia                       84      102        76     109        73     114      2,452    2,623      1,579     2.172       123        165
Congo, Dem. Rep.               72      105        72     106        77     105          .         ..      218      219         63        113
Congo, Rep.                    82      I11        80     112        80     115       825       936        544      629         21         28
Costa Rica                     71      122        73     123        77     1.15     2.498    3,426      2,544     3,790       280        373
Cbte dIlvoire                  74      110        71     118        75     119       867     1,111      1.527     1,354       195        212
Croatia                         ..       77        ..     57         ..     45          .    4,340
Cuba                           87       57        90      62        91      66      2,458    1,877
Czech Republic                  ..      84          .     82.        ..     79         ..    4.167
Denmark                        65       89        83     102        95     112      4,040    5,934     18,790   38.131      1,166      1,684
Dominican Republic             96       91        85     104        69     1-23     3,004    4.034      1,325     1.,587      251        262
Ecuador                        78      135        77     131        73     128      1,633    2,066      1,267    1,790        194       259
Egypt, Arab Rep.               76      117        68     118        68     116      4,053    6,082        757     1,331     2.691      2,990
El Salvador                   120      107        91     107        89     113      1,702    1,887      1,417     1,300       733       674
Eritrea                         ..     128        ..     106         ..     91          .      699
Estonia                         ..      67         .      56         .      46         ..    1,756          ..   6,266         ..        526
Ethiopia                       92                 90       ..       89       ..     1,186         ...              181         ..        116
Finland                        75       93        93      92       107      92      251      3.478     20.171   31,457      2,100      2,072
France                         88      101        94     101        98     104      4,700    6,698     13.699   30,035        838      1.113
Gabon                          78      111        80     107        87     105      1,718    1.779      1,412    1',516        67         74
Gambia, The                    79       81        83      84        93     107      1,284    1,106        215      167        162        199
Georgia                         ..      65        ..      71        ..      75          .    1,881
Germany                        90      100        91      89        98      84      4,166    6,049
Ghana                          72      152        73     143        80     104       807     1,399        813      684        215       227
Greece                         87      108        91     102        99      97      3,090    3,590      5.595     7,726       685        766
Guatemala                      90      104        70     Ill        77     114      1,578    1,915          ..    1,240        ..        503
Guinea                         90      125        97     126       116     124       958     1,219          ..     225         ..54
Guinea-Bissau                  66      il1        69     I11        78     111        711     1,389       186      292         54         78
Haiti                         103       85       106      91       112     112      1,009      929          .
Honduras                       90      107        88     104        81     112      1,170    1,436        959     1.490       200        268
126   1998 World Development Indicators



Crop             Food            Livestock          Cereal                Agricultural poutvt
production       production        production          yield
index            index            index
Agriculture
Agriculture         value added
value added         per hectare of
kilograms           per worker        agricultural land
1989-91 = 100    1989-91 = 100     1989-91 = 100      per hecture          1987 $               1987 $
1979-81  1994-96  1979-81 1994-96   1979-81 1994-96  ±979-8l 1994-96    1979-81 1994-96     1979-8I    1.992-94
Hungary                       93       77       91      73       94       68     4,519    3,910..             4,679         .       485
India                         71      114       68     115       63     119      1,324    2,136       304      404       338        520
Indonesia                     67      116       64     119       50     138      2,837    3,895       422      481       376        519
Iran, Islamic Rep.            5       134   .   61     135       68     130      118      186       445       617        44         6
.    108...  ...............826.4,415 .6.1.7  404.696
Iraq                          74      105       78      93       82      57       832       717
Ireland                       94      106       83     105       83     106      4,733    6,687
Israel                        98      103       86     108       79     114      1,840    1,2       ...    ....       .....     ......
Italy                        106      100      101     102       93     104      3,548    4,716.1051        17,86       1,650     1,964
Jamaica                       99      130       86     116       74     100      1,667    1,374       711     1,045      433        591
Japan                        108       96       94      98       85       98     5.252    6,119     9.832    16,712    11,279    12,445
Jordan                        59      142       61     148       51     162       521     1,209     3,129     2769       224        461
Kazakhstan                 . . . .......  59     ..     70.              73         ..      650                             .........
Kenya                         75      109       68     101       60      97      1364     1,822       268      240        68         90
Korea, Dem. Rep.                             .                                   3,405    3,472
Korea, Rep.                   88      102       78     115       53     143      4,986    5,813     1,950    5,302     5,229      6,961
Kuwait                        41      106       99     129      109     134      3,124    4,937     4,564                288        224
Kyrgyz Republic  ......87                        ..     81.       .      78          ....   1,923.             .69......            ..4
Lao PDR                       73      111       71     115       64     127      1,402    2561    .
Latvia                         .       77        ..     57....5          47          .    1.854              3,870                  349
Lebanon                       52      112       58     117       88     128      1,30      ,6
Lesotho                       95      117       89     109       88     113       977     1,560       291      194        35         24
Libya                         78       89       82      95       69      89       430       679
Lithuania             .    .   .. .. -72         -.65              .     57          ...  .   2,024                .   ......  e
Macedonia, FYR                 .       94        ..     96              101          . .  2,719
Madagascar                    83      101       82     104       90     104      1,664    2,010       190      178        26         34
.   .   . .. ..   - .  .   . .  ... .. .  .   . ..   . .. . .. .. .   - ~ . . ..   .   . . ...16 1.. I  1 4  1 53... . . .   .   .
Malawi'                       84      107       91     102       79      98      111      1,194       162      156       1415
Malaysia                      75      106       55     122       41     141      2,828    3,052     2,235    4,052       941        942
Mali                          59      120       80     114       95     113       804       809       251      259        24         33
Mauritani'a                   60      137       86     100       89      95       384       750          .       .         5          7
Mauritius                     92       96       89     104       66     135      2,536    4.339     1,764    3,762      1,607     1,902
Mexico                        88      107       85     117       85     124      2,152 2.    06.1,372         1,518      109        123
Moldova                        .       71        .      63         .     49               2,711
Mongolia                      45       37       88      80       93      85       573       734                    .....
Morocco                       55      100       56     101       60      98       811     1,236       565      919        78        Ill
Mozambique                   109      109       99     106       83      96       603       647                 92          .        12
Myanmar                       89      142       88     139       86     117      2,521    3,015         .
Namibia                       81       99      108     107      116     108        377      264      1,295    1,458         89
Nepal                         63      109       65     109       75     109      1,615    1,819       173      198       271        406
Netherlands                   80      110       87     104       89     102      5,696    7,752    23,131   41.245      3,489     5,932
New Zealand                   75      126       91     117       95     Ill      4,089    5.356    10,693    13,373       86        132
Nicaragua                    123      110      118     120      140     116      1,475    1,687      3,268    3,697      212        155
Niger                         94      123      101     120      110     114       440       338       292      256         57        63
Nigeria                       52      134       58     132       82     125      1,269    1,172       479      684       I11        150
Norway                        91       95       92      99       95     102      3,634    3,807.1959        34,809      3,172     3,403
Omen                          60      110       63      88       62      96        982    2,180      1,041        .      155        328
Pakistan                      66      111       66     125       60     131      1.608    1,943       323      466       227        382
Panama                        97       96       86     102        71    113      1,524    2,078      1.954    2.320      208        246
Papua New Guinea              86      106       86     106       85     105      2087     1,698       671      752      1,756     2,186
Paraguay.58                            99       61     113        62    113      1.511    2,137      1,698    2,204       49         54
Peru                          81      125       78     123        78     119     1,944    2,915          .
Phili'ppines                  88      109       86     116        74    138      1,611    2,283       777      780       782        835
Poland                        85       86       88      83        98      79     2,345    2,854               1,359                 366
Portugal.85                            90       72      97        72    106      1,102    2.310-                                    715
Puerto RICO                  131       72      100      86        90      91     8,925    5,733      6,379        ..     817
Romania                      114       96      111      97      110       96     2,854    2,812          .    3,007         .       393
Russian Federation             .       77        ..     71         .      67              1,313..                 .
1998 World Development Indicators    127



03.~33
Crop              Food            Livestock          Cereal       jAgricultural productivity
production        production        production           yield 
index             index             index
Agr cu. ture
Agr cu. ture         ,oiut eadedd
vI ue added          per hecture of
klograms            per uorkee        .agruicLtru and
1939-91 = 100     1989-91 = 100     1989-91 = 100       per lectare           1987 $               1987 $
1979-81  1994-96   1979-81 1994-96   1979-81 1994-96   1979-81 1994-96     1979-81 1994-96     1979-81    1992-94
Rwanda                         89       68        90      72        81      86      1,134    1,491        306      206        445        378
Saudi Arabia                   27      105        31      95        33     il1        820    4,143      1,641        ..        23
Senegal                        78        97       75     106        64     131        690      824        326      375         92        118
Sierra Leone                   80        94       66      95        84     107      1.249     1.192       365      344        117        123
Singapore                     696       57       154      42       174      40         ..8,791                  20,215     18,956     72.942
Slovak Republic                 ..      89          .     76        ..      67         ..    4,298          ..        .         .        497
Slovenia                        ..     112         ..     96        ..      97          .     5,026         .
South Africa                   97      101        93      98        90      92      2,117     1.918     2.361     2.870        45         49
Spain                          83       90        62      95        84     107      1,986    2.474          .     8.699                  496
Sri Lanka                      99      105        98     108        93     133      2,462    2.568        489      561        592        801
Sudan                         122      129       104     126        91     119       659       527        669        ..        42
Sweden                         92       86       100      96       104     102      3.595    4,399     18,485   28,590      1,263      1.577
Switzerland                    95       94        96      97        99      97      4,883    6,362
Syrian Arab Republic          101      147        94     134        73     103      1,156    1,660      3,426        ..       212
Tajikistan                      ..       61        ..     70                64                1,109
Tanzania                       82        94       77      98        69     109      1.063     1,310         .
Thailand                       80      111        80     108        65     116      1.911     2,434       375      554        338        488
Togo                           70      116        77     117        52     119        729      762        404      461        119        189
Trinidad and Tobago           120      102       102     105        84      99      3,167    3.649      4.822~    3,586c    1.801      1.245
Tunisia                        69        93       68      99        64     123        828     1.184     1,384     2,286       142        232
Turkey                         77      106        76     105        81     102      1,669    2,019      1,206     1,168       354        404
Turkmenistan                     .      87         ..    121         .     119         ..    2.570.
Uganda                         68      110        71     107        85     113      1,555    1,552         ..      592         ..        515
Ukraine                         .,      69        ..      70        ..      64          .    2,410          .
United Arab Emirates           39      192        47     169        42     137      5,808    7,528      6,928        ..       970      2,076
United Kingdom                 79      100        92     101        98     101      4,792    6,909
United States                  99      114        95     113        89     112      4,151    5,136     17.719        ..       156       261
Uruguay                        86      129        87     123        86     117      1,644    3,016      5,379    6,535         65         80
Uzbekistan                      ..      86        ..     108        ..     110          .    1,762         ..     1.228         .        150
Venezuela                      77      108        78     120        82     122      1,904    2,719      3.103     3.270       110        139
Vietnam                        67      127        64     127        54     130      2,049    3.504          .      801          .      2.640
West Bank and Gaza              .         .        .        .        .        ..                  ..
Yemen, Rep.                    82      109        75     113        69     118      1.038    1.046
Yugoslavia, FR lSerb./Mont.)    ..       83        ..     94        ..     104          .         .
Zambi'a                        66        93       74      97        86     102         -.         .       1-16     100          6          7
Zimbabwe                       78      100        82      92        85      94      1,359    1,163        294      266         34         41
Low income                     70      121        67     130        58     153      1.349    1,846        209      293        128       206
Excl. China & India            75      116        76     118        75     118      1,380    1,595          ..     393         79       135
Middle income                  80      109        79     110        82     106      1,997    2,120          ..        .         .       202
Lower middle income            79      110        77     111        77     110      1.957    1,919         ..         .         .       320
Upper middle income            82      107        81     109        85     107      2.050    2,694                             ..       114
LOW & middle income            74      116        72     122        70     131      1.629     1.993         ..     459         ..       206
East Asia & Pacific            70      124        65     139        50     174      2,216    3,067          .
Europe & Central Asia                                                                  ,,    1,774
Latin America & Carib.         82      112        80     115        82     116      1,840    2,494      1,586     2.292        90       118
Middle East & N. Africa        69      119        67     118        65     113      1,173    1,928      1.918         .        85
South Asia                     73      113        70     11S        64     122      1,410    2,136        290      383        337       519
Sub-Saharan Africa             77      115        79     113        84     106      1.100     1.041       456      392         53        88
High income                    93      107        92     106        92     106      3,522    4,470..                  .
a. Inc udes Luxembourg.
128   1998 World Development Indicutors



_3.3.3.
The agricultural production indexes in the table are  Agricultural productivity is measured by value  * Crop production index shows agricultural produc-
prepared by the Food and Agriculture Organization  added per unit of input. (See tables 4.1 and 4.2 for  tion for each year relative to the base period
(FAO). The FAO obtains data from official and semi-  further discussion on the calculation of value added  1989-91. It includes all crops except fodder crops.
official reports of crop yields, area under produc-  in national accounts.) Agricultural value added  Regional and income group aggregates for the FAO's
tion, and livestock numbers. If data are not    includes that from forestry and fishing. Thus inter-  production indexes are calculated from the underlying
available, the FAO makes estimates. The indexes  pretations of land productivity should be made with  values in international dollars, normalized to the base
are calculated using the Laspeyres formula: pro-  caution.                                       period 1989-91. Data inthistable arethree-yearaver-
duction quantities of each commodity are weighted  To smooth annual fluctuations in agricultural activ-  ages. However, missing observations have not been
by average international commodity prices in the  ity, the indicators in the table have been averaged  estimated or imputed. * Food production index cov-
base period and summed for each year. Because   over three years.                               ers food crops that are considered edible and that
the FAO's indexes are based on the concept of agri-                                             contain nutrients. Coffee and tea are excluded
culture as a single enterprise, estimates of the                                                 because. although edible, they have no nutritive
amounts retained for seed and feed are subtracted                ,                              value. * Livestock production index includes meat
Food production has outpaced
from the production data to avoid double counting.   population growth                           and milk from all sources, dairy products such as
The resulting aggregate represents production                                                    cheese and eggs, honey, raw silk, wool, and hides
available for any use except as seed and feed. The  Index: 1980  100                            and skins. * Cereal yield, measured as kilograms
200
FAO's indexes may differ from  other sources                                                    per hectare of harvested land, includes wheat, rice,
because of differences in coverage, weights, con-                                                maize, barley, oats, rye, millet, sorghum, buck-
cepts, time periods, calculation methods, and use                                               wheat, and mixed grains. Production data on cereals
of international prices.                            150          F.:U:..j w:..:n.:        .  ....refer to crops harvested for dry grain only. Cereal
To ease cross-country comparisons, the FAO uses                                               crops harvested for hay or harvested green for food,
international commodity prices to value production.                                             feed, or silage and those used for grazing are
These prices, expressed in international dollars                              ,u:n              excluded. * Agricultural productivity refers to
(equivalent in purchasing power to the U.S. dollar),  100                                       value added per agricultural worker and valued added
are derived using a Geary-Khamis formula for agri-   :1980    1984     1988   :1992    1996      per hectare of agricultural land (measured as the sum
culture (see Inter-Secretariat Working Group on      Source: Tables 2.1 and 3.3.                 of arable land, permanent cropland, and permanent
National Accounts 1993, sections 16-93). This       Food production has increased by more than 60  pasture) measured in constant 1987 U.S. dollars.
method assigns a single price to each commodity so   percent since S980, outstripping population growth
of about 30 percent in the same period. Growth in
that, for example, one metric ton of wheat has the   food consumption has not been evenly distributed,  Data sources
same price regardless of where it was produced. The  however, and the gain In production may have rt-
duced crop diversity and natural habitats-and in-
use of international prices eliminates fluctuations in  creased chemical contamination (see also tables             Agricultural production indexes
the value of output due to transitory movements of   3.2 and 3.4).                                                  are prepared by the FAO and
nominal exchange rates unrelated to the purchasing                                                       .    .     published  annually in its
power of the   domestic  currency. Unlike the                                                                       Production Yearbook. The FAO
International Comparison Programme (ICP), the FAO aG                                                                 makes these data and data on
calculates international prices only for agricultural                                                               cereal yields and agricultural
products. Substantial differences may arise between                                                                 employment available to the
the implicit exchange rate derived by the ICP and that                                                               World Bank in electronic files
of the FAO. For further discussion of the FAO's meth-                                                               that may contain more recent
ods see FAO (1986). (See tables 4.10 and 4.11 for                                               information than the published versions.
a discussion of the ICP.)
Data on cereal yields may be affected by a variety
of reporting and timing differences. The FAO allocates
production data to the calendar year in which the bulk
of the harvest took place. But most of a crop har-
vested near the end of a year will be used in the fol-
lowing year. In general, cereal crops harvested for hay
or harvested green for food, feed, or silage and those
used forgrazing are excluded. But millet and sorghum,
which are grown as feed for livestock and poultry in
Europe and North America, are used as food in Africa,
Asia, and countries of the former Soviet Union.
1998 World Development Indicators     129



O              ~~~~~~3.4 Biodiversity and protected areas
Nationally        Mammals            Birds        Higher plants'    Why does biodiversity matter?
protected
areas
Iti a saio that species are goieg extinct at 50-100
times the nature rate. Wry should we be concerned?
%oa
thoasand  tatal          Threatened       Tnreatened       Threatened   Biodiseraity conservation, ane the protection of
sq. kmn land area  Species  species  Species  species  Species  species  ecosystems where lb:odl~versity is great,est, are some-
1994b   i.994b   1994b   1994b    j994b   1994b    1994b   1954b      times o smissed as oe ng an elitist concern for a tam
Albania                 0.3      1.2     66        3      306    - 5      2,965     50        crarismatic spec as. In fact. b od versity and the
Algeria               119.2      5.0     92       11      375       7     3,100    145
Angola . 26.4  2.1  276   16      909      13     5,000     25        ~~~~~~~ecosystems that concain t generate a mice range of
Argentina              43.7      1.6    320       20      976      40     9,000    170        oenefits to reman soc ety. Diverse ecosystems offer
Armenia                 2.1      7.6      ..       1        ..      S..              -        cents n a sariey of econom tally esefu.l prodects tnat
Austra ia             940.6     12.2    252       43      761      5 1   15,000  1.597        cno    avse     ree    sipt o      rdcin
Austria                20.6     24.2     63        3      414       3     2.950     22        Toyasprveecnmslyaubesrie,
Azerbaijan              1.9      2.2      ..       3        ..      6        I.hyasopoieecnmc l                            au1eevcs
Bangladesh              1.0      0.7    109       16     664       26     5,000     24        sc   s
Belarus                 2.7      1.2               5                4                           I mproving water qy.al:ty ape quantty for agricul-
Belgium                 0.6       .      56        2     429        3     1.400      3        tere. inoustry. anc reman consu-~ption
Benin                   7.6      7.0    166        7     423        1     2,000      3          Redecing seoimentan on n reserso rs and water-
Bolivia.               92.3      6._5   316       21    1,274      27    16,500     49        vas
Bosnia and Hlerzegovina  0.3     0.5                                2
Botawana  106.6  16.6  164  6    550 ~~~~~~~~~~~~                     * ~M nrim zing fooos, lands ides, coast.al erosion,
Brazil                321.9      3.6    394       45    1,635    103     55.000    463        see droughts
Bulgaria                3.7      3.3     61        1     374       11     3.505     94        *Provid ng recreat one opportu.nic es.
Burkina Face           26.6      9.7    147        6     453        1     1,100                 F s ter ng excess nutr serts.
~~ur,unqi  0.9  3.5  107   6     596        5     2.500  ,   1        * ~~~~~~~~~Provid ng essential habitats for species containing
Cambodia               30.0     17.0    123       19     429       16        ..,     7
genetic materaia chrat can be used no deve op useful!
Cameroon               20.5      4.4    297       21      674      14     6,000     74
Canada                623.6      9.0    193        6      576       5     2.920    649        products such as pharmaceuticsa sand improved
Centre. African Republic  61.1   9.6    209        9      662       2     3,600      .        crops. Moreover, many people va ue spec as and
Chad  114.9  9.1  134     13      532       3     1.600     12        ~~~~~~~~~ecosystems for aesthetic, mere , o' sp ritual rea-
Chile                 137.3     16.3     91       11      446      15     5,125    292
eons, sever if they do rot use them.
Chins                 560.5      6.2    499       94    1.166     163    30,000  1,009
Hong Kong, China                                                                               Altnough a threse benefits are real, m-any of themn
Colombi'a              93.6      9.0    359       24    1,695      62    50,000    376        do sot enter markets. This is zooe of tcre reasons bio-
Congo, Dam. Rep.       99.2      4.4    415       23    1.096      26    11,000      7        diversety tends to be undervalu~ed. W th normal mar-
Congo, Rap. ,11.6                3.4    200       13      569       3     4,360      3        kttascin,b.eseo            rnto    r  etn
Costs Rics              6.5     12.5    205        6      650      10    11,000    456        foceimny-algrmfre.aprofrs,
CSte dIlvoire          19.9      6.3    230       16      694      11     3,517     66
Croatia  3.9  6.9                          4                         a movi~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~e tcketo. With b odiversity. however. r-eire is
Cuba                   11.5      6.1     31       10      342      13     6,004    611        much ess carts ety about the salue, and even the
Czech Republic         10.7     13.68      .       3        ..      5         .      ..       quantty. of whet is being boougnt.
Denmark                13.9    32.7      43        1     439        2     1,200      6
Dominican Republic  10.5  21.7  20  3  254  10    5.000 ~~~~~~~        Habitat destruction-the main cause of biodiversity loss
Ecuador               111.1    40.1     302      20     1,559      50    16,250   375
Egypt, Arab Re p.  7.9  0.8  98   7      439     .       2. 06.    8         A though three are cases where hunting has caused
El Salvador             0.1     0.2     135        2     420              2,500     35        spec as to go extinct (for example. the passenger
Eritrea                   .       ..    112        3     537        3                         p geao: n the United States in tee 20th century), the
Estonia                 4.1    10.4      65        5     330        2     1,530      2        ma n cacao of biodiversity loss is usually haoitat
Ethiopia,,             60.2   ,6.0,     255 ,     21,   5813       17     6,500    153        destruction. oriven oy activit as sucn as logging. con-
Finland                27.4      9.0     60        3     425        4     1.040     11
Franca  56.0  10.2  93     5      506       5     4,500    117        ~~~~~~~~~~~version to agriceltuer. infrastructu.re dave opment. or
Gabon                  10.5      4.1    190       12     629        4     6.500     76        human settlement. Agriculture has playeo a major
Gambia, The             0.2      2.3    106        3     504        1       966               role in this process because crop and I sestock pro-
Georgia                 1.9      2.7               3                5                1        duction affect -,he largest pettier o' mle earth's sur-
Germany       .        91.9    26.3   ,face ano are the word's biggest users oY lard and
Ghana                  11.0      4.9    222       12      725       7     3.600     32
Greece  2.2  1.7  95       5      396       9     4,900    639        ~~~~~~~~~~freshwat,er. n many countnres the conversion of lend
Guatemala              13.3      7.7    250        5     669        4     6,000    316        to agr culture is closely re ateo to loggirg becasae
Guinea                  1.6      0.7    190       13      552      11     3,000     35        many logged areas are later cu.lt sated, see reads
Guinea-Bissau             .       ..    106    ~   5     319        1     1,000               ou t for logginig facil taco new sattlement.
Haiti  0.1  0.4   3        3     22,0   , 10      4.665     26          rl~~~~~~~~~~~~~aoitat conversion can leao directly to the extniction
Honduras                6.6      7.7    173        5      664       4     5,000     55
of spec es. Even f species survive t,he convers en of
130   1998 Wanld Development Indicators



thei
Nationally       Mammals            Birds       Higher plantsa    part ofthi habitat, their long-term survival may be
protected                                                         threatened by fragmentation and disturbance of the
areas                                          ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~rest of the ecosystem. As habitats become smaller, the
number of species they can support per unit area falls,
thuan  ofetnd                      Tratnd           Traee       and the populations of wide-ranging or more aggressive
thuad total        Traee            hetnd           Traee
sq. km land ares Species species Species species Species species species (often introduced species) may expand at the
18994b  19945   1994b   1994b   1994a   j.994a   1994b   J.994b
..   .   ..  .. ...  . ... II........ ......  .. ....  expense....of..species......ithxenmore pespecialimrezedcil habitatta
Hunary                 5.7     6.2      72       2      363      7     2.148     24        reurmnsInHwi,frxap,thntrl
India                143.4     4.8     316      40    1,219     71    15.000  1,256
I'ndonei             18.6     102      43.5.15 110§7,0                          21   ..    coytem has been under continuous attack by intro-
.Iran, Islamic Rep.  .83.0..  .5.1     140.      9     502.     .12I.             1        duced plant and animal species. Some birds unique to
Ira                                               -~~~~~~~8  31 :1 --   2        Hawaii build their nests on the ground and are now
Ireland                0.5     0.7      25       -     417       1       892      9        traee     ypg   n    ogoeohitoue
Israel                 3.1    14.9      92       7     500       8         .     38        aece.Seesaelothaendbarutra
Italy       .         22.8      .77     90.     .4. ...490       6. .. 5.463    273p               p
Jamaica                0.       .        4       2      22..                               hemicals and by changes in water sources caused by
Japan           ~~27.6    7.3    132      17      583      31     470      04        hmnue
is......    .....   .....I.....I....    ..........     ......     .  --.... . . . .3 470. 0.human use.
Jordan                 2.9     3.3      71       8     361   .   4.2,200.10
Kazakhstan             9.9     0.3               914Prtceaesaeonheie
Kenya        .        35.0     6.2_ ..359       16    1,068     22     6,000.   18        Prtcinoedagedcsyemisnewyo
Korea, Damn. Rep.      0.6     0.5               7     390      16     2,898      7.
Korea, Rep.            6.9     7.0      49       6     372      19     2,898     69        ensure that biodiversity and its many benefits are
Kuwait                 0.3     1.5      21       2     321       3       234               preserveo for current and future generations. Since
V,r!.:_ PRputt.-:       25     1.                4               5                1        the first national park (Yellowstone National Park in
Lao PDR               24.4   .10.6     172    .25      651      235                        the United States) was created 125 years ago, the
......a.tv.......... ........ 7.8.12.5 83.4.325                 5   .  1153.    .....    number of established protected areas and the total
Lebanon                0.0     0.4      54       5     329       54
Lesotho                0.1     0.2      33       2     281       3     1,576      7        area protected have grown dramatically (figure 3.4a).
Libya                  1.7     01       76       8     323   .   2.1,800.57           .    Recent growth of protected areas has been espe-
Lithuania              6.3     9.8      68       4     305       4     1,200   .      .    ially rapid in low- and middle-incomne countries.
Macedon.Ia,.............. .... ........  .. FYR..2.2. 8.5...                               Almost 7 percent of the world's lend area is now  pro-
Madagascar            11.2     1l.9    105      33     253      28     9,000    189        tce,silsoto        h   01     ecn    eon
Malawi                10.6    1.1.3    195       6.    645       9~3,600        .61
Malaysia              14.8     4.5     286      20     736      31    15.000    510        meddbsoexpr.
Mali                  40.1     3.3     137      12     622       5     1,741     14          The real question, however, is not just how many
Mauritania  17.5   1.7   61   10   541     3    1,100      3       ~~~~~~~~~~~hectares of land are protected, but which land is pro-
Mauritius              0.0     2.0       4       3       81      9       700    222        tce   n  o   fetv h    rtcini.Teetn
Mexico                98.5     5.1     450      24   .1,926     34    25.000  1,948        o hsclae      oee    osntncsaiyma
Moldova                0.1    .0.2      68.      1.    270.      6.        . 
Mongolia  61.7   3.9   134 8     390      11     2,272     1       ~~~~~~~~~~that the most vulnerable species, genes, or ecosys-
Mongolia  61.7      3.9    134     8~.....  . ...- .. 390 -11  2,27 1....
Morocco                3.7     0.8     105       7     416      11     3.600    195       tems are protected. For this reason the selection and
Mozambique             0.0     0.0     179       9     678      13     5,500.92.        .establishment of protected areas must be based on
Myanmr                 17      03      21       2      99       43      ,00a partnership between experts on biodiversity, other
Namibia              102.2    12.4     154      12     609       6     3,128.23            poetausr,ndgvnmt.xeinchs
Nepal           ~1:1.1    8.1    167      23      824      23     6,500    2
Nephral  ..               .3    15  .   5-       2       .       3     110also demonstrated the need to work with surround-
Netherlands...I............1..  . 4 .3 1. 5   55   2 .  456..   3...   1,170. ....I   ....
New Zealand           60.7    22.9      10       3      287     45     2,160    236       ing communities rather than rely on a strict enforce-
Nicaragua              9.0     7.4     2900      6     750       3     7.000     78        ment approach.
Nigeria               29.7     3.3     274      22     862       8     4,614      9        teetn     owihte       r   nagrdvre
Norw~ay ....... . .. 55.4     18.0      54       3     .453 ...  3.    1,650     20
man           9.9    17.6     56~.......... . 5 . 430   5     1,018..I. ... .....  greatly. In most countries more is known about the
Pakistan              37.2     4.8     151      10     671      22     4.929.12            number of birds and mammals (and the number
Panama                13.3    178.8 .,218 ...   11.    929       9     9,900    561        endangered) than about the number of higher plants.
Papua New.Guinea  .    0.8     0.2     214      33      708     31    10,000               Pln9pce,hwvr5reotnamr motn
305   8     600...   ...... 22 ..7,500  12.......... souirce of potentially usable biological material than
Peru                  41.8     3.3     344      29    1,678     630   17,121    377
.  ~   ~     2      56       86     800     31         birds or mammals. Many poor or very poor countries
Philippines            6.1     2.0    -153d2            5        6      ,0       7
Poland                30.7    10.1      79       4     421       5     2,300     27        are among those with the largest number of plant
Portugal      .        5.8     6.3      63       6     441       7     2,500    240        species (the so-called megadiversity countries). For
Puert Rico ...                          .       .        .      ...                       example, Brazil and Columbia are estimnated to have
Romania               10.7     4.7      84       3     368      11     3,175    122
Russian Federation  705.4   3~~~~~~9  17  35             127        ~~more than 50,000 species of higher plants apiece.
Russian.. . Feeato   705.4.3.9...17                       ..    35. ....127
and China, Indonesia, and Mexico each have more
1998 World Development lnd,cators   131



03.43.
Nationally        Mammals             Birds        Higher plants'     than 25,000 species. Many higl--income countries
protected                                       Ihave fewer than 5,000 species of higher plants.
areas
Therein lies a parados: species diversity and the
pctentuai benief.ts of unexplored genetic material are
% of
thousand  total           Threatened       Threatened       Threatened    coicentrated in preciseiy tnose countries that can
sq. kmn  land area  Species  species ISpecies  species  Specfes  species  least afford to protect ecosystemns and where pro-
19945    1994b   1994b    1994b   l1994b    19945   1994b    1994b
. - -       -       -   ~~~~~~~tected areas and biodiversitv tend to be under the
Rwanda                   3.3     13.3     151      14     -666        6     2.2688gets net
Saudi Arabia            62.0      2.9      77       6      413       10     1.729       6
.eegl21.8                  .11.3    155-960                       5     2,062     32 
Sierra Leone             0.8      1.1     147      12      622       12     2.090     12         Conserving biodiversity while reaping its economic
Singapore                0.0      4.9      45       3      295        6     2,000     14         benefits
Slovak Republic  10.2  21.1  3                                          ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Habitat conservation provides oniy a partial answer
Slovenia                 1,1      5.4      69       3      361        3         ..    11
to the challenge of conserving biodiversity. To also
South Africa            69.7      5.7     247      25      790       16    23.000    953
Spain                   42.5     8.5       82       7      506       10         ..   896         reap the benefits of oiodivers.tf, comp ernentarities
SriL-anka                8.0     12.3      88       4      428       ii.    3.000    436         m,.st be sought between biodiversity protection and
Sudan                   93.8      3.9     267      16      937        9     3,132      8         economic activities. Such complementarities are par-
Sweden  29.8  7.3  60       3      463        4     4,916     l~~~~~~~~~~~~  ticalariy important for agriculture, which depends on
Switzerland              7.3     16.5      75       2      400        3     1,550       9
many services provideo oy the environmient, such as
Syrian Arab Republic      ..       .        .       4         .       6         ..    10
Tajikistan  0.9  0:6        6                 9                        ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~crop Pollination and genes for developing imnproved
Tanzania               139.4     15.7     322      16     1,005      30    10,000    406         crop varieties and livestock breeds. Expioiting blodl-
Thailand                70.2     13.7     265      22      915       44    11,000    382         versity could substantially boost agriculTural produc-
Tgo          -6.5              -11.9     196       8      558        1     2,000 -tion. At roe samne timne, damage to hioniversity often
Trinidad and Tobago      0.2      3.1     100       1      433    -   2     1.982      16        hutagiiue.Rcnlngbovrsycneve
Tunisia                  0.4      0.3      78       5      356        6     2,150     24
Turkey  10.7  1:1  116      4      418       13     8,472  i,827         ti~~~~~~on with increased production to meet toe needs of
Turkmenistan            11.1      2.4      ..       8         .       9         ..               growing humnan populations wit be a major challenge.
Uganda                  19.1     9.6     338       15      992       10     5,000      6           Some countries have been quite successful in link-
Ukraine  4.9  0.9  ..       4         ..     10     2,927     16  -      m~~~~~~~~~ig economic oenefits and biodiversity conservation.
United Arab Emirates       .       ..      25       2      360        4                          CssRa      o  sml,hsarc          ao   ldvr
United Kingdom          51.1    21.2       50       1      219        2     1,550     28
United States  1,302.1  11.4- 42822 . 768          - 16.302   1~~~~~.84 .  sitf packed into a small country. It now advertises
Uruguay     ..              .3    .2           1 .       .       .65  9     2,184   .11          itself as "toe Natural Country" and has developed a
Uzbekistan               2.4     0.6       ..       7         ..     1          ..               major ecotourism industry focuseci on activities asso-
Venezuela              263.2    29.8      305      12     1,296      22    20,000    107         catdwhpretdaes.oeinehnger-
Vietnam                 13.3      4.1     213      25       761      45         ..   350
---- ~~ings from tourism now rival those of traditional
Weat Bank and Gaza        .. .              .        .        .
Yemen, Rep.                .       ..      66       4      366       12         ..   149         exports like coffee and bananas, In addition. :our sm
',i.,l,Fr. 1Z.w.t.ont.) 3.5  3.4       .                                                    revenues heip generate polftical s,,ppott for contin-
Zambia                  63.6      8.6     229,      7      736       10     4.600       9        ued management of Costa Rica's escensive pro-
Zimbabwe                30.7      7.9     270       9      648        7     4,200     94         tected area systerr, wihiuh covers almiost 13 percent
of the country.
Political soci popular support are essential it con-
Low income           1,999.0     5.2
Endi "'"'"'&-'-'ia...... ''---.S.......4.'......   ..............  ...................... China.. ndia.1,.4.8.4.  servatnon  of protected  areas and  toe  biociversity they
Information-on the value of blodiversitv and on the
l.-eern .ciddncd o m e  833.3........   4.1 . ........4"' .....................................................   ....
......  :                                                ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~direct economic benefits flowing fromn protected
Latin  America . a &  Car 13ib.   ........ 1,303.4................................  ..........   .....6.5  ....  
Iig  ncome        3,610.1     11.9
a. Flowering plants only. a. Dsta way refer it earlier years. They are the most recent reported by the World Conservation
Monitoring Center in 1994.
132   1998 World Development Indicators



3.4
small countries that may only have protected areas  -
smaller than 1,000 hectares. this limit will result in
Habitat conservation is vital for stemming the decline  an underestimate of the extent and number of pro-  * Nationally protected areas are totally or partially
in biodiversity. Conservation efforts traditionally have  tected areas.                      protected areas of at least 1,000 hectares that are
focused on protected areas, which have grown sub-  Threatened species are defined according to the  designed as national parks, natural monuments,
stantially in recent decades. Measures of species  lUCN's classification categories: endangered (in dan-  nature reserves or wildlife sanctuaries, protected
richness are one of the most straightforward ways to  ger of extinction and survival unlikely if causal factors  landscapes and seascapes, or scientific reserves
indicate how important an area is for biodiversity. The  continue operating), vulnerable (likelyto move into the  with limited public access. The data do not include
number of small plants and animals is usually esti-  endangered category in the near future if causal fac-  sites protected under local or provincial law. Total land
mated by sampling of plots. It is also important to  tors continue operating), rare (not endangered or vul-  area is used to calculate the percentage of total area
know which aspects are under most immediate threat.  nerable, but at risk), indeterminate (known to be  protected (see table 3.1). * Mammals exclude
This, however, requires a large amount of data and  endangered, vulnerable, or rare but not enough infor-  whales and porpoises. * Birds are listed for coun-
time-consuming analysis. For this reason, global  mation is available to say which), out of danger (for-  tries included within their breeding or wintering
analyses of threatened species status have been car-  merly included in one of the above categories but now  ranges. * Higher plants refer to native vascular plant
ried out for only a few groups of organisms. Birds are  considered relatively secure because appropriate con-  species. * Threatened species are the number of
the only species for which the status of all members  servation measures are in effect), and insufficiently  species classified by the IUCN as endangered, vul-
has been assessed. Mammals approach birds in this  known (suspected but not definitely known to belong  nerable, rare, indeterminate, out of danger, or insuf-
respect. but an estimated 45 percent of mammal  to one of the above categories).             ficiently known.
species remain to be assessed.                   Figures on species are not necessarily compara-
The table shows information on protected areas,  ble across countries because taxonomic concepts  Data sources
numbers of certain species, and numbers of those  and coverage vary. And while the number of mam-
species under threat. The World Conservation  mals and birds is fairly well known, it is difficult to           Data on protected areas are
Monitoring Centre (WCMC)-a joint venture of the  make an accurate account of plants. Although the .       -     from the WCMC's Protected
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),  data in the table should be interpreted with caution,    - -      Areas Data Unit. Data on
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). and World   especially for numbers of threatened species (where               species   are  from   the
Conservation Union (IUCN)-compiles these data  our knowledge is very incomplete), they do identify  -           WCMC's Biodiversity Data
from a variety of sources. Because of differences in  countries that are major sources of global biodiver-       Sourcebook, the WCMC's
definitions and reporting practices, cross-country  sity and show national commitments to habitat pro-           Global Biodiversity: Status of
comparability is Iimited. Compounding these prob-  tection. Until a practical indicator of the effectiveness     the Earth's Living Resources,
lems, available data cover different periods.  of protection is available, these data are the best  and the IUCN's 1996 RedList of ThreatenedAnimals.
Nationally protected areas are areas of at least  available on the distribution and potential protection
1.000 hectares that fall into one of five management  of global biodiversity resources.
categories defined by the WCMC:
* Scientific reserves and strict nature reserves with  -
limited public access.
Worldwide. the number and coverage of protected areas have increased dramatically
* National parks of national or international signifi-
cance (not materially affected by human activity).  .-                    ; ,.'- "';, '.                   Area protected (millions of hectares)
* Natural monuments and natural landscapes with  In:fl                                                                            1,500
unique aspects.                                   .                                                                 t, ,,cr       1,200
* Managed nature reserves and wildlife sanctuaries.                                                               r    . 0 ,.rt ;
* Protected landscapes and seascapes (which may                                       r                                           900
include cultural landscapes).
j :                                                         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~600
The first three categories, referred to as 'totally
protected," are areas maintained in a natural state  -                                                                     .,     300
and closed to extractive uses. The lasttwo categories,                                           _                       C
0
referred to as "partially protected." are areas that  1870  s880  1890  1900  1910  1920  1930  1940  1950  1960  1970  1980  1990
may be managed for specific uses, such as recreation  Source -.-... i,t,  ..t and lUCN.
or tourism, or that provide optimal conditions for cer-
tain species or communities of wildlife. Some natural
resource extraction is allowed within these areas.
Designating land as a protected area does not nec-
essarily mean. however, that protection is in force. For
:1998 World Development indicators   133



W ~~3.5 1 Freshwater
Freshwater                       Annual freshwater withdrawals                          Access to safe water
resources
cubic meters                                                                           JrOan               Rural
p~er Capita       b,ilon     %of total      %for         %/ for       %for    I   fi of populaionor   Or. of population
1996       I    cu. or0    resources0   agr.culturel  irdustry5   domnestic0    1980    1995       1980     1995
Albania                      13.542            0.20         0.4          76           18           6
Algei                           43.5                       32.4          l0 5,                    25'         100       ..70
Angola                       16.577            0.5          0.3          76d    .     10d         14c'.                69           .      1.5
Argentina                    19,705           27.6c         4.0          73           18           9            ..      73         ..      17
Armenia                       2 ,411           3.8         41.8          720          150'        13c
Australia                    18,731           14.60         4.3          33            2          65
Austria                       6,988            2.4          4.2           90          580         330
Azerbaijan                    1,068           15.8        195.1          74d    .     220          40
Bangladesh                   11,153           22.5          1.7         96      ~      1           3           24      42         40       80
Beiarus                       3,612            3.0          8.1          19           49          32            .
Belgium                        879.0                      107.5           4           85          11            .
Benin                         1,829            0.2         -1.5         67d           lod         230           .      41          ..      53
Bolivia                      39,536            1.2          0.4         85             5          10           ..      75          ..      27
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana                      1.959            0.1          3.8         480           200         320           .     100          ..      53
Brazil                       32,183           36.5          0.7         59            19          22           ..      85          ..      31
Bulgari'a                     2,154           13.9         77.2         22            76           3            .
Burkina Faso                  1,640            0.4          2.2         8101           0d         19d
Burundi'                        561            0.1          2.8         6d00                      360
Cambodi'a                     8.574            0.5          0.6         94             1           5            ..     20          ..      12
Cameroon                     19560.4                        0.135                     190                       ..d    71          ..      24
Canada                       95,097           45.           1612                      70          18            .
Central African Republic     42,166            0.1          0.0           4            50         210           .      18          5       18
Chad                          2,269            0.2          1.2         8d2d                      160          27      48         30       17
Chile                        32,458           16.80         3.6         89             5           6            .
China                         2,304    .     460.0     .   1.4.. 76938
Hong Kong. China      ..                                                 ..
Colombia                     28,571            5.3          0.5         43            16          41                   88          ..      48
Congo, Demn. Rep.            20,670     .      9.0.0               .      3d          160         610
Congo, Rep.          345.619            0.0          0.0         -110l         270         620
costa Rica                   27,600            1.40         1.4         89             7           4
OSte d'ivoire                 5,346            0.7          0.9          67~           1          220          30      59         10       81
Croatia                      12,870              ...                                                                   98          ..      80
Cuba                          3,131           .8.1c        23.5         89             2           9            ..     96          ..      85
Czech Republic                5,542            2.7          4.7           201         570         41d
Denmark                       2.090            1.2         10.9         43            27          30           ..     100          ..     100
Dominican Republic            2,511            3.0         14.9         89             6           5            ..     74          ..      67
Ecuador                      26,842            5.6          1.8         90             3           7            ..     82          ..      55
Egpt, ArabRep.   .          .         .     5.1       1,6.986d                         cf6                   93       82         61       50
El Salvador                   3.270            1.0c         5.3         89             4           7            ..     78          ..      37
Eritrea                         757...
Estonia                       8,663            3.3        26.0            301         92d          50
Ethiopia                      1,889            2.2          2.0         850            30         110ld                90          ..      20
Finland                      21.463            2.2          2.0           3           85          12           ..     100          ..     100
France                        3,084           37.7         21.0         15            69          16           ..     100          ..     100
Gabon                       145,778            0.1          0.0           6d          220         720          75      80         34       30
Gambia, The                   2,616            0.0          0.7         910      ..d701                       100       ..27
Georgia                      10,737            4.0          6.9         420           370~        21c
Germany                       1.172           46.3         48.2         200           700         110l
Ghana                         1,729            0.3c         1.0         52f           j13d        350           .      70          ..      49
Greece                        4,310            5.0        11.2          63            29           8.
Guatemala                    10,615            0.70         0.6         74            17           9            ..     91          ..      43
Guinea                       33,436            0.7          0.3         8701           30         10d           .      61         20)      62
Guinea-Bissau                14,628            0.0          0.1          3             40         600           .      18           ..     27
Haiti                         1,499            0.0          0.4         68             8          24           ..      37           ..     23
Honduras                      9,084            1.5          2.7          91            5           4            ..     81           ..     53
134    1998 World Development Indicators



3.50
Freshwater                       Annual freshwater withdrawals                           Access to safe water
resources
cubic meters                                                                           Urban               Rural
per capita        billion     % of total    % for        % for        % for       % of popalation    % of popalation
1996            cu. m6     reaourcea0  agricufturel  incoustry0   domestiC0     1980    1995       1980     1995
Hungary                        596.8.                     113.5         36            55           9
Inldi-a                       1,957         380.00         20.5         93             4           3           72      85         ..       79
Indoneaia                    12,839           16.6           0.7        76            11          13           ..      78          ..      54
Iran, Islamic Rep.            2,051    .      70.0c        54.6          ?2d           2    .      60          70       ..33
Iraq                      1.4...                            116         9201           50          30    .     92          .
Ireland                      12,962            0.80           .         10            74          16
israel                          299            1.9        108.8         790            5d         160
Italy                         2,778    .     56.2          35.3         59            27          14
Jamaica                       3,259            0.30          3.9        86             7           7            ..     92                  48
Japan                         4,350           90.8   ...166.6            50           33 .....17
Jordan                          158            0.5         66.2         750            30         220         100       ..65
Kazakhstan                    4,579           37.9         50.3         79'           170          4
Kenya                          738             2.1         10.1         7 6            40         200           .      67          ..      49
Korea, Damn. Rep.             2,984           14.2         21.1         73            16          11           ..     200               ..lo0
Korea. Rep.                   1,451           27.6         41.8         46            35          19            .
Kuwait                            0             .             ..                        d          8           00.0
Kyrgyz Republic              10.315           11.0         23.4         950            30            d.
Lao PDR                       9,840            1.0          .2.1        82            10           8.                  40.                 39
Latvia                        6,707            0.7          4.2         14'          440          420
Lebanon                       1,030            1.30        30.7         680            40         280          95                 85
Lesotho                       2,571            0.1           1.0        560           220.     .220      .     37.     144   .        .    64
Libya                          116             4.6        766.7         870   .       .       .   11ld
Lithuani'a                    4,206            4.4         28.2           3           90           7            .
Macedonia, FYR                    -..                                                               ..
Madagascar                   24,590           16.3           4.8        990            od          1d                  83                  10
Malawi                        1,747            0.9           5.1   .       .        .        . 3d1060.            .         ..3            44
Malaysia                     22,174            9.4C          2.1        47            30          23                  100                  74.
Mali                          6,001            1.4          2.3         970            10f         2d          58      36         20       38
Mauritania                      171            1~60       407.5         920'                  .       ...                          -
Mauritius                     1,940     .      0.40        16.4                 7       0d7       161        100       95         98      100
Mexico                        3,836           77.6c        21.7    .    86             8           6                   91                  62
Moldova                        231             3.7        370.0         23            70           7
Mongolia                      9,776            0.6           2.2        62            27          1
Morocco                       1110            10.9         36.2         920            30          go          63      98          2       14
Mozambique                    5,547            0.6           0.6        89    .        .        .        .gd82.        17          2.      40
Myanmnar                    23.582             4.0           0.4        90             3           7                   36                  39
Namibia                       3,913            0.3           4.0        680            30         290
Nepal                         7,714            2.7           1.6        95             1           4           75      64          6       49
Netherlands                     644            7.8          78.1        34            61           5                  100                 100
New Zealand                  89,959            2.0           0.6        44            10          46            .
Nicaragua                   38,862             0.90          0.5        54            21          25                   81                  27
Niger                          375             0.5         14.3         820    .      .       .   160                  46         40       55
Nigeria                       1,929            3.6           1.6        54d     .    igo1                              63                  26
Norway                      87651       .      2.0    .     0.5           8           72          20
Oman                            456            1.2        123.2          930           20          50          70                 10
Pakistan                      1.858          155.6c        62.7     .    960    .      20.      .20      ...772                            52
Panama                       53,852            1.3           0.9         77           11          12            .
Papua New Guinea           181.993             0.1           0.0        49            22          29                   84                  17
Paraguay.                    1,971      .      0.4    ~      0.5         786                      15                                       17
Peru                          1,647            6.1         15.3          72            9          19.                   74                 24
Philippines                   4.492           29.50          9.1        61            21          18
Poland                        1,279           12.3          24.9         11           76          13
Portugal                      3,827            7.3          19.2         48           37          15
Puerto Rico...
Romania                       1,637           26.0          70.3         59           33.          8.
Russian Federation           29,191          117.0           2.7         230          600         170
1998 World Developiment Inclicators    135



3.5~
Freshwater                       Annual freshwater withdrawals                           Access to safe water
resources
cubic meters                                                                           Lrb)an              Ru.ral
peoapaita       brJc           f oa         for        %/ for       % fo        %/ of popula ,or    %/ of Ppuylation
1996            ci. m0~    resources0   agrjculture0  irndustry0  domrestic'    1980    1995       1980     1995
Rwanda                          937            0.8          12.2         940           20     ~     5
Saudi Arabia                    124           17Cc'        709.2         90id                      90          92        .8 7
Senegal                       3,093            1.4           5.2         92d           30          50           .       82         ..      28
Sierra Leone                 34,557            0 .4          0.2         890           40                      50       58          3      21
Singapore                       197            0.20         31.7          4           51          45          100     100
Siovak Republic               5.765            1.8           5.8
Slovenia                          .              ..
South Africa                  1,190           13.3          29.7         72d           1          170
Spai'n                        2,809           30.8          27.9         62           26          12
Sri Lanka                     2,361            6.30         14.6         96            2           2            .
Sudan                         1,283           17.8          50.9         940           l           45          49       66        45       45
Sweden                       19,903            2.9           1.7          9           55          36
Switzerland                   6,008            1.2           2.8          4           73          23            ..    100          ..     100
Syrian Arab Republic            483           14.4         205.9         940           2           40          77      92         65        78
Tajikistan                   11,186           12.6          19.0         88d           70          50
Tanzania                      2.623            1.2           1.5         890           2d 0                    88       65        40       45
Thailand                      1,833           31.9          29.0         90            8            4           ..      809                 72
Togo                          2.719            0.1           0.8         256          130         621
Trinidad and Tobago           3,932            0.20          2.9         35           38          27            ..      83         ..      80
Tunisia                         385            3.1          87.2         89"'          30                      96       ..29
Turkey                        3,126           31.6          16.1         720          lid         1l0e.                98          62      65
Turkmenistan                    217           22.8       2,280.0         91            8            1           .
Uganda                        1.976            0.2           0.5         60            8          32            ..     47          ..      32
Ukraine                       1,047           34.7          65.3         30           54          16            .
United Arab Emirates             59            2.1       1,406.7         920            0          70         100      98        100       98
United Kingdom                1,0              1816:6.                    3           77          20            ..    100          ..     100
United States                 9,270          467.3          19.0         4201         450         131           .
Uruguay                      18.420            0.70          1.1         91            3           6            .
Uzbekistan                      702           82.2        504.3          84A          120          40
Venezuela                    38,367            4.10          0.5         46           11          43            ..      80          ..     75
Vietnam                       49028.9                        7.7         78            9          13            ..      53          ..     32
West Bank and Gaza                .              ..                       ..                        ..
Yemnen. Rep.                    260            2.9          71.5         920           id           70          .      88           ..      17
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)
Zambia                        8.703            1.7           2.1         770           70         1601          .       64                 27
Zimbabwe                      1,254            1.2           8.7         7901          70          140                  99                  65
Low income                    4,089                                      90            5           4
M iddle-in-co-me...............1-,7..19                                  623
Lo"w"er ..m i'dd'le  i'n"co"me ...........1-1,5- .................624                            10
Ubp-pe-r.. m iddlein-c'o-m ..e.14768                                           .      17    .     14.
Low  &  middleinco m"e ...........6",9 ..61                          80           137.            ....   ...  .......
'Lr-'-'.. e'',al"',ia 11,411.                                    5              71.
LCa'tin ..A"m"er'ica ...& ..Car'ib . . .....2-2',0..11                   71                         2
Middle East & N. Africa.5                                        84             .           8.84.4
Sout Aia                   3 ...............017                       4~2                                    70      83                  74.
~6Sb-Saha-r'an Af Xric-a .............7'.8..21 .... . .......             5410                            .        .
Hihincome        .          9,378                                     4045                .   ~    
a. Oats rarer to any year fromn 1980 to 1996 unsless othrerwise noted. U. Unless otherwise soted, sectoral withdrawa[ sliares ore estimated for 1918  Dara may not sum to 10o pe,ceot becau0e
of rounding. c. Data rarer to estimates for years before 1980 (see Primary data docuimantationil. d. Oata refer to years otter than 1987 (see Pnrmarr data docrimerrtarrorr
1~36  1998 World Deve.opment Indicators



13.5 
Data on freshwater resources are based on esti-              _                                    * Freshwater resources refer to internal renewable
mates of runoff into rivers and recharge of ground-                                               resources, which include flows of rivers and ground-
water. These estimates are based on different        Annual renewable fieshwater                  water from rainfall in the country but not river flows
sources and refer to different years, so cross-country  resources are coming under                from other countries. Freshwater resources per capita
increasing strain
comparisons of data on freshwater resources should                                                are calculated using the World Bank's population esti-
be made with caution. Because they are collected     Cubic meters per capita                      mates (see table 2.1). * Annual freshwater with-
intermittently, the data may hide significant varia-  '                                           drawals refer to total water withdrawal, not counting
tions in total renewable water resources from one   5,000                                         evaporation losses from storage basins. Withdrawals
year to the next. The data also fail to distinguish  4.000                                        also include water from desalination plants in coun-
between seasonal and geographic variations in water  3,000                                        tries where they are a significant source of water with-
availability within countries. Data for small countries  2,000                                    drawals. Withdrawal data are for single years between
and countries in arid and semiarid zones are less reli-  0                                        :1980  and  1996   unless  otherwise  indicated.
able than those for larger countries and countries                l          I   I      I         Withdrawals can exceed 100 percent of renewable
with higher rainfall. Finally, caution is needed in com-  China Cyprus Egypt India Israel Peru    supplies when extraction from nonrenewable aquifers
paring data on annual freshwater withdrawal, which            * 1955 0 i990 0 2025a               or desalination plants is considerable, when river
are subject to variations in collection and estimation  a. Projected.                             flows from other countries are used substantially, or
methods.                                             Source: Serageldin 1995.                     if there is significant water reuse. Withdrawals for agri-
While information on access to safe water is       Global per capita water supplies are a third lower  culture and industry are total withdrawals for irrigation
widely used, it is extremely subjective, and such    than they were 25 years ago. The reason? The  and livestock production and for direct industrial use
terms as "adequate amount' and "safe" may have        world's population has Increased by some 2 billion  (including withdrawals for cooling thermoelectric
people since then. By 2025 further increases are
very different meanings in different countries despite  expected to boost demand for water by more than  plants). Withdrawals for domestic uses include drink-
official World Health Organization definitions (see  6eo percent, leaving many countries subject to  ing water, municipal use or supply, and use for public
periodic water stress (defined as annual per capita
Definitions for table 2.14). Even in industrial coun-  availabilityoflessthan1,700cubicrmeters).Today  services, commercial establishments, and homes.
tries treated water may not always be safe to drink.  25 countries have Tenewable water resources ad  For most countries sectoral withdrawal data are esti-
less than 1,000 cubic meters per capita, and
While access to safe water is equated with connec-    another 27 have less than 2,000. By 2025, 52  mated for 1987-95. * Access to safe water refers
tion to a public supply system, th's does not take    countries inhabited by some 3 billion people are  to the percentage of people with reasonable access
expected to suitor from periodic water stress or
account of variations in the quality and cost (broadly  chronic water scarcity.                   to an adequate amount of safe drinking water in a
defined) of the service once connected. Thus cross-                                               dwelling or within a convenient distance of their
country comparisons must be made cautiously.                                                      dwelling (see About the data).
Changes over time within countries may result from     -
changes in definitions or measurements.                                                            Data souices
AgricuRture drinks up a lot of the
world's freshwater
Data are compiled by the
%  |      |      || ise i isWorld  Resources  Institute
I *       ~~from various sources and pub-
lished in its World Resources
I                                    ~~~~~~~~~~~1998-99. The D6partement
,  l             l            |  |  | l       | | FHydrog,eologie in  Orleans,
I  I  I                              ~~~~~~~~~France, compiles data on
:  l             I l                              water resources and with-
J     I | |  | |  | |       drawals from published documents, including national,
Low-   Middle-   High-   World         United Nations, and professional literature. The
income   income  income
countries countries countries           Institute of Geography at the National Academy of
* Agriculture Q Industry * Domestic     Sciences in Moscow also compiles global water data
Source: Table 3.5.                           on the basis of published work and, where necessary,
estimates water resources and consumption from
Agriculture uses two-thirds of the world's fresh-
water. Altough Irrigated agriculture has accounted  models that use other data, such as area under irri-
for much of the dramatic increase in world food  gation, livestock populations, and precipitation.
supplies over the past 20 years, constrainFts on
water supplies will limit its capacity to do so in the
future. In low-income countries, where an enor-
mous share of water goes to agriculture, efforts
must be made to increase efficiency.
1998 World Development Indicators      137



3.6 Water pollution
Emissions                         Industry shares of emissions of organic water pollutants
of organic
water pollutants                                                  Soe
kilograms      Primary    Paper            Fosd and  ceram cs.
kilograms          eardsay       metals   and pulp  Chemicals beverages  ans g ass  Texti es  Wood   Other
per day          per worker       9te.               %                  /         S        %         S/
1980      1993     1980     1993      1993      1993     1993     1993     1993      1993      1993     1993
Albani a                         ..    2,431       ..    0.06        -.     91.8                          7.5       -.        .       07
Algeria                     60,290         ..   0.19        ..        .         ..
Argentina                 244,711    179,432    0.18     0.20       7.7     11.8       7. 7    57.4      0.3       8.6      1.5       5.1
Armenia                         ..    34,982       ..    .11.       6.4      3.9       5.7     35.1      0.5      31.4      1.4      15.5
Australia                  204,333   173,490    0.18     0.19     12.4      22.7       6.8     43.4      0.2       5.3      2.8       6.4
Austri'a                   108,416    86.692    0.16     0.15     14.6      19.9       9.4     34.3      0.3       6.9      3.9      10.7
Azerbaijan                       .         .       .        ..                  ..                ..
Bangladesh                  66,713  171,087     0.16     0.17       2..9     7..2     4.1      36.9      0 1      47.1      0.7       1.1
Belgium                    136.452   113,460    0.16     0.16     14.4      17.7     11.6      36.8      0.2       8.8      2.0       8.4
Benin                        1,646         ..   0.28        .         .        .         .       .         .
Bolivia                      9,343     5,724    0.22     0.24      5.8      11.8       7.3     62.6      C.3       8.6      2.7       0.9
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana                     1,106     2,598    0.31     0.25        ..        .         .     99.6       ..        .         .       0.4
Brazil                    866,790   855,432     0.16     0.17     10.4      13.5       9.1     45.8      0.3      11.5      3.0       6.4
Bulgaria                   151,016  11.1.310    0.14     0.14     11.5       6.2     16.2      42.1      0.3      14.8      2.0       6.9
Burkina Faso                 2,347         ..   0.29       ..         .        ..        .       ...
Burundi                        756     1,61 7   0.23     0.26        ..      8.4      4.8      68.9      0.1      1 7.0      ..       0.8
Cambodi'a                       ..    11,881       ..    0.17        ..      3.5       3.3     60.1      0.6      25.1      5.9       1.5
Cameroon                    14,280    13,029    0.29     0.30      3.8       5.9       1.6     79.4      0.0       5.1      3.6       0.5
Canada                    330,241   300.071     0.16     0.18     10.1      30.1      8.7      34.5      0.1       5.9      3.3       7.3
Central African Republic       760       749    0.31     0.19        ..      8.2       6.5     66.6        ...             18.1       0.6
Chile                       44,371    82,825    0.21     0.24      6.6      10.1      6.4      65.0      0.1       7.4      1.9       2.5
China                    3,358,203 5,339,072    0.14     0.15     22.0      10.0     14.0      33.3      0.4      11.5      0.4       8.3
*Hong Kong, China         102,002    86.140    0.11     0.13       1.1     26.5       7.0     14.8      0.0      39.9      0.5       6.3
Colombia                    96.055    97.024    0.19     0.19      4.0      13.2     11.3      52.1      0.3      14.6      L.0       3.5
Congo. Dem. Rep.                 .         .       .        .        .         .        .         .        .
Congo, Rep.                    848         ..   0.37
.ot   ia27,624                                          0.20      0.4      10.1      8.6      58.6      0.1      18.6      1.6       2.0
OSte dIfvoire               13,898         ..   0.24       ..         .        ..        .       ..        .
Croatia                         ..    55,440       ..    0.16      9.3      13.8       8.9     43.1      0.3      14.2      3.7       6.8
Cuba                       114,708         ..   0.28        ..        .        ..        .       ...
Czech Republic                  ..171 .227         ..    0.13     24.5       9.9       6.7     31.3      0.4      12.5      2.3      12.4
Denmark                     65,465    87,244   .0.17     0.18      2.3      28.0       7.3    47.7       0.1       3.7      2.7       8.1
Dominican Republic          54,935         ..   0.38       ..         .        ..       .        ...
Ecuador                     25.297    28,053    0.23    0.22       2.8      11.9     10.6      62.1      0.2       8.4      1.7       2.4
Egy~pt, Arab Rep.         169,146   198,373     0.19    0.19      11.7       7.1      9.1      50.5      0.3      17.5      0 5       3.5
El Salvador                  9,390     7.663    0.24     0.22       7.5     12.0       9.9     49.6      0.1      19.4      0.5       1.1
Ethiopia                        ..    18,593       ..    0.23      2.1       9.5      2.4      59.0      0.1      24.9      1.5       0.4
Finland                     92,275    68,255    0.17     0.19       7.8     41.3       6.5     31.1      0.2       3.3      3.3       6.6
France                    716,2856  609.940     0.14     0.15     11.9      20.7     111.0     37.0      0.2       6.7      1.8      10.8
Gabon                        2.661         ..   0.15       .          .        .         .        .        .
Gambia, The.                  549          ..   0.30
Germany                          ..1,046,1 76 .      .  0.12      15.6      15.3     15.1      27.9      0.2       6.4      2.0      1 7.6
Ghana.                      15,668         ..   0.20       .          ..
Greece                      65.304    59,701    0.17     0.19      6.0      12.1      8.0      61.8      0.3      16.6      1.5       3.8
Guatemala                   20,856    22.606    0.25     0.24      2.1       8.7       8.7     67.3      0.2      10.5      1.4       1.1
Guinea-Bis sau                   .         .       .        .        .          .       .         .        .
.Haiti                       4,734         ..   0.19        .         .        .        .         .        .
Honduras                    12,395    27.565    0.23     0.22      0.7        7.3      6.7     69.8      0.1       5.5      8.6       1.2
138   1998 World Cevelopment Indicators



3.60
Emissions                      Industry shares of emissions of organic water pollutants
of organic
water pollutants
Stone,
kilograms     Primary   Paper          Food and  ceramics,
kilograms        per diay      metals  and pulp Chemnicals beverages and glass  Textiles  wood  Other
per day        per worker       %        %       %        %        %        %       %        % 
1980     1993     1980   1993      1993     1993     1993    1993     1993     1993    1993      1993
Hungary                 201,888   151,311!  0.15    0.18.     9.9   ...7.6      8.1    54.9      0 2     10.8     1.8       6.8
India                  1,457,474 1,441,293  0.21 . .0.20 ..  15.6      8.1 ..   7.3    50.9      0.2     12.9     0.3       4.8
Indonesia               214,010 .. 537,142  0.22    0.19        .       7'8.8. 10.4.   589.9.   .0.2     15.4     4.8 ....2.6
Iran, Islamic Rep ..  ..... 72,334  10-1,763  0.15  0.16 ...  21.7     7.8      7.9    38.2      0.6     17.6     0.8       5.5
Iraq                     31,805   .17,882   0.18    0.15        .     15.4     16.6    43.2      0.8     18.3.    0 4...    5.2
Ireland                  43,544    *33,417  0.19    0.17      1.6     17.3      9.6    54.5      0.2      7.5     1.5       7.7
Israel                   39,113    50,030   0.15. . 0.16      4.1     19.3      8.4    44.3      0.2     12.3     2.1       9.3
Italy                   442,712   353,906   0.13    0.13     17.0     16.1     10.5    25.8      0.3     16.1     2.1     12.1
Jamaica                  11,123  ... 17,752  0.25  .   .0.27.  0.7      7.3  ... 4.6  ...75.4 ...   0.1  ..101-.0 .  . 71.  ..... 0.8
Japa                   1,456,016 1,548,021  0.14    0.14      9.9     22.0      8.8    36.5      0.2      7.9     19 ..... 12..8
Jordan                    4,146     11,166  0.17    0.17      4.1     15.3     15.9    49.8      0.7      7.6     34.4      3.3
Kazakhstan                    .
Kenya.2.....              6,150    44,065  .019_    0.23    ..... .... 11.5~ _ _56.    68.6_.... 071 ...1-9.1     1.9       3.2
Korea,  Dam  Rep       . .    . .....   ....                                                       .....           ......
Korea,Re.281,900                  358,610   0.14    0.13     12.8     15.4.11.2        25.8      0.3     20.8     1.5      12.2
Kuwait                    6,921      9,052  0.16    0.16      2.5     16.1.11.4.47.9             0.4     12.4     3.7       55
Kyrgyz Republic               .    25,426      .    0.19     14.2      3.0      1.1    53.5      0.5     26.1     1.5
Latvia                             42,866       .   0.15      2.4      7.9      5.3    57.2      0.3     14.5     3.8       8.5
Lebanon                  13,137   ... ....  0..24.  ..:
Lesotho                     190        87   0.11    0.09              69.5     27.6              20... 20                   0~9
Libya                     3,532.            0:21                .
Lithuania                     .                                 ..
Macedonia, FYR                .    29,054      .    0 17      64                60     37.7      0.1     24.5     2.0       4.7
Mada  acar....   ...      9,196             0.23        ....-"
Malawi                   12,224         ..  0.32      :..                        .        .        .
Malaysia        I........ 77,215  136,055  .0.15  .. 0.12     6.8     143 3.. 15.2     31.8      02.2    11.1     7.6      13.1
M ali                     1,774          .  030                                           '  ........:  ....... ...  .
Mauritania                                                      :                         :........
Mauritius                 8,949    18,229   0.21   .. 0.15    1.5      4'2      2.3    35.4      01 ..   54.6 .....0.9      1~0
Mexico                  130,993   167'r335.  0.22   0.18     11.0      9.8     12.6    51.9      03       7.6     0.5       6.4
Moldova                       .     54,263     .    0.17      2.1       3.2     1       9         3       5.                7.1
Mongolia                  2.376             015                ..
Morocco                  26,598   .. 33,752.. 0.15  0....14                       ....I.36:3   ..        57.5               6 2
Mozambique..                            0      ..   00
Myanimar
Nepal                    18,692     28,860   0.25   0.14      1.9       5.5     3.4    46.5      1.6     39.0     1.5       0.7
Netherlands             165,416    136,071  0.18    0.18              28'1     12.2    46.4      0.0      2.1     1.5       9.7
New Zealand              59,012     45,849  0 21.   0.22  ..  4.6     20.4      5.3    56.5      0:.1 .   6.4.... 2.5..     4~3
N icaragua                9,647           0. O 28        . .  .. ..   ..........              . .... ........:... . .... ...... ..
N   ...I .... - ......... ... - ....  .. 372 .. .. . 0 19..   I I.
Nigeria                  72,082             0.17                .
Norway                   67,897    47,494   0 19    0.20     11.5     33.1      5 5    38.3      01.1     1.8 ....2.4 ..    7.3
O m an.. .. ..  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. -. . . .   .....  0   0 0   . . . . ..   .. . .   ..  .....
Pakistan                 75,125             0.17...... 0 17
Panama                    8,207     19,821  0.26    0.28      1.1      8.2      5.5    76.4      0.2      6:7     1.2 ...... 0.7
Papua  New..I... Guinea .  ...022..........
Paraguay.                            3,250     .    0.28      2.       9.9      6.0    73.6      0        6.7     039
Peru  50,367   ..   0.18     ..        ..       ..       .                ..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....... ....  ..... .
Philippines             182,052    181,714  0.19    0.19      4.1      8.1      6.9    52.9      0.1     2-14.4  .3.7       2.7
Poland                  580,869    36,8     0.14 ... 0.16    13.4      86.6.    7.7 .. 48.4.     0.3     12.5     2.4       8.7
Portuga                 105,441     77,451  0.16    0.16      6.0       8.7     0.4    44.7 .....04.4    31.4 ....3:8 ........46..
Puerto Rico              23,224    23,466   0A.15   0.15              10.2     15.2    468.8     0.2     19.6     0.8       7.3
Romania                 352,368    146,154  0.~12.. 0.08               16.1     2.9      1.8       . .   414.4.  11.3      26.6
Russian Federation
1998 World Development Indicators 139



03.63.
Emissi'ons                       Industry shares of emissions of organic water pollutants
of organic
water pollutants
Stone,
kilograms      Primary   Paper            Food and  ceramics,
kilograms          per day       metals   and pulp  Chemicals beverages  and glass  Textiles  Wood  Other
per day          per worker       %                           P.6      %                            /
1980      1993     1980    1993      1993      1993     1993     1993     1993      1993     1993      1993
Saudi Arabia               18,181        ..     0.12    0.00        .         .        .        .        .
Senegal                     9.865         ..    0.31
Sierra  Leone                   .         .       .        ..                 ..                ..
Singapore                  28,120   32.410      0.10    0.09      2.7      26.0     10.8     19.9       0.1     10.9      1.8      27.7
Slovak Rep ublic..                        .       ..       ..                                             .
Slovenia                       ..   39,846        ..    0.15     1 7.7     1 7.1     8.4     25.3         .     1 7.6     4.1       9.8
South Africa             *237,599  251,142      0.17    0.17     12.7      16.7      9.5     41.3       0.2     11.0      2.7       5.9
Spai'n                    376,253  318,506     0.16     0.1 7    10.7      15.4      9.3     45.6       0.3      8.7      2.8       7.2
Sri Lanka                  30,086   51,328      0.18    0.19       1.4      8.0      6.4     52.0       0.2     29.9      0.7       1.2
Sweden                    130,439  102,341     0.15     0.16     11.6      36.4      7.4     27.9       0.1      1.5      3.1      11.9
Switzerland                     ..  38.161        ..    0.15         .     76.9       ..        .         .      8.0       ..      15.1
Syrian Arab Republic       36,262   23,754     0.19     0.19      2.8       1.4      7.4     65.6       0.5     16.0      5.4       0.9
Tajikistan                      .         .        .       ..                 ..                ..
Tanzania                   20,648        ..     0.21       ..        .        ..       .        ..        .
Thailand                  214,426  256,930      0.22    0.16       6.3      7.6      6.8     46.4       0.3     26.4      1.9       4.3
Togo                          963        ..     0.27
Trinidad and Tobago         6.737     7,384     0.19    0.25        ..     13.9      6.1     70.1       0.2      6.2      1.3       2.2
Tun isle2029                        25,610      0.16    0.19       5.6      5.6      5.1     62.7       0.8     1 7.4     0.7       2.1
Turkey         .          160,173  168,548      0.20    0.19     15.8       8.0      7.0     46.6       0.3     17.0      0.7       4.5
Turkmenistan
Uganda.
Ukraine                            6566233        ..    0.14     18.3       3.7      7.3     46.9       0.5     10.1      2.0      11.3
United Arab Emirates        4,524        ..     0.15       ..        .        ..       .        ..        .
United Kingdom           964,510   680,865     0.15     0.16      8.9      24.7     10.1     37.1       0.2      7.2      1.7      10.0
United States           2,742,993 2.477,830    0.14     0.15      8.3      32.7      9.5     28.2       0.1      7.8      2.4      10.8
Uruguay                    34.270   37,825     0.21     0.23      1.4      11.1      5.4     65.1       0.2     13.9      1.0       1.9
Uzbekistan                      .         .       .        ..                 ..                ..
Venezuela                  84,797  103,961      0.20    0.21     14.3      13.2     10.4     48.2       0.2      8.7      1.4       3.5
West Bank and Gaza              .         .       .                           .        .        .        .
Yemen, Rep.                     .         .        .                          .        .        .        .
Yugos lavia. FR (Serb.,/Mont.l  .         .        ...                                 .        .        .
Zambia                     13,605    13,453     0.23    0.23       35       9.4      7.5     63.4       0.2     12.4      1.6       2.1
Zimbabwe                   32,681    35,535     0.20    0.21     13.5      12.5      4.7     46.7       0.1     15.8      1.9       2.8
Low income              5,286,072
....c .... Chna.&  India  470,396. .....
UpeMiddle income        2,4619,51
'Lo' w...& ...m 1d"dl ei'n"co ..me ....9,748,041 
Euro-pe ..&.. Ce'nt'r"al "A"s ia  1,........45'0.'6"59 .....
L~a-t in ..Am ..er'i'ca ..& ...Ca'r ib". ' 1,'87"9",17"6... .......
M iddle  E stast . .N .Africa  . .. .   .'"","4 '.. .. .... . ..... .. .. .. .. . ..  .. .. .  :  .. ... .. ..... . .. ...  .. .. ..... . . .. ...
.                    :635,990.... .. . . .. . . .  '.6 3 5 '""0. ... . . ..~:.. .. .. .   .. .. . . ... .. .. . . .. .. .  .   .. ..   ...~ . ..  : . -~ -   .~..   .. . ..
Note: industry shares of emissions may nor sum to LOG percent because of rounding.
140   1998 World Development Indicators



_3.6            6
Emissions of organic pollutants from industrial activ-  * Emissions of organic water pollutants are mea-
ities are a major source of water quality degradation.  sured by biochemical oxygen demand, which refers to
Water quality standards and pollution levels are gen-  the amount of oxygen that bacteria in water will con-
erally measured in terms of concentration or load-  sume in breaking down waste. This is a standard
the rate of occurrence of a substance in an aqueous  water-treatment test for the presence of organic pol-
solution. These substances include organic matter,  lutants. * Emissions per worker are total emissions
metals, minerals, sediment, bacteria, and toxic  divided by the number of industrial workers.
chemicals. Because water pollution tends to be sen-  * Industry shares of emissions of organic water pol-
sitive to local conditions, it is not meaningful to show  lutants refer to emissions from manufacturing activi-
national data for most pollutants. This table, how-  ties as defined by two-digit divisions of the
ever, focuses on organic water pollution resulting  International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC),
from industrial activities in a number of countries.  revision 2: primary metals (ISIC division 37); paper
The data in the table come from an international  and pulp (34), chemicals (35), food and beverages
study of industrial emissions that may be the first to  (31), stone, ceramics, and glass (36 ), textiles (32),
include data from developing countries (Hettige,  wood (33), and other (38 and 39).
Mani, and Wheeler 1998). Unlike the estimates from
engineering or economic models used in previous  Data sources
studies, these estimates are based on actual mea-
surements of plant-level water pollution. The focus is  The indicators are from a 1998 study by Hemamala
cn organic water pollution-measured by biochemi-  Hettige, Muthukumara Mani, and David Wheeler,
cal oxygen demand, or BOD-because it provides the  'Industrial Pollution in Economic Development:
most plentiful and reliable source of comparable  Kuznets Revisited" (available as "New Ideas in
cross-country emissions data. BOD measures the  Pollution Regulation" on the World Bank website at
strength of an organic waste in terms of the amount  http://www.worldbank.org/NIPR). Sectoral employ-
of oxygen consumed in breaking it down. A sewage  ment numbers are from UNIDO's industry database.
overload in natural waters exhausts the water's dis-
solved oxygen content. Wastewater treatment, by
contrast, reduces BOD.
Data on water pollution are more readily available
than other emissions data because most industrial
pollution control programs start by regulating organic
water emissions. Such data are fairly reliable
because sampling techniques for measuring water
pollution are more widely understood and much less
expensive than those for air pollution.
In their study Hettige, Mani, and Wheeler (1998)
used plant- and sector-level information on emissions
and employment from 13 national environmental pro-
tection agencies and sector-level information on out-
put and employment from the United Nations
Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). Their
econometric analysis found that the ratio of BOD to
employment in each industrial sector is about the
same across countries. This finding allowed the
authors to estimate BOD loads across countries and
over time. The estimated BOD intensities per unit of
employment were multiplied by sectoral employment
numbers from UNIDO's industry database for
1975-93. The sectoral emissions estimates were
then totaled to get daily BOD emissions in kilograms
per day for each country and year.
199S World Development Indicators    141



3.7 Energy production and use
Commercial              Commercial energy use          Commercial energy use             Net energy
energ                                                     per capita                     Imports
prDducgtiyon 
thousand               thousand        average                       average               Sof
metric tos f           metric tons of    anniual       kg of o.!       annual             conmmercial
oPi equiva lent        oll equivalent   % growth       equivalent     % growth            ene,gy use
1.980    1.995         1980      1.995    1980-95     1.980   1.995     1.980-95         1980       1995
Albania                     3,053   .940          2,674     1.020      --6.4     1,001     314        -7.7           -14          8
Algeria                    66,730   109,257      12,078    24,346       4.2        647     866        1.4           -452       -349
Angl                        7.700    26,189         937       959       0.5        133      89       -2.3           -722     -2 ,631~
Argentina                  36,661    6605        3716      53,016       1        1,413   1,525        0.5              8        -25
Armenia                     1,263      244        1,070     1,671      -1.8        346     444       -3.1            -18         85
Australia                  86,096   186,625      70,372   *94,200   .   2.2       4,790  5,215        0.7            -22        -98
Austria                     7.654     8,481      23,449    26,383       1.3      3,105   3.279        0.9             6 7        68
Azerbaijan                 14,821    14,719      15,001    13,033      -3.9      2,433   1,735       -5.1              1        -13
Bangladesh                  1,113     5,962       2,809     8,061       7.4         32      67        5.1             60         26
Belarus                     2,566     2,793       2.385    23,808      10.3        247   2,305        9.7             -8         88
Belgium                     7.986    11,628      46,100    52.378       1.6      4,682   5,167        1.3             8 3       7 8
Benin                          ..      232         149        107      -3.3         43      20       -6.2            100      -117
Bolivia                     3,553     4,478       1.599     2,939       3.2        299    396         1.0           -122       -52
Bosnia and Herzegovina         ..      470                  1,595                          364          ..                       71
Botawaina                    260       250         384        555       2.5        426     383       -0.8             32        55
Brazil                     25,777    73,172      73,041   122,928       4.2        602     772        2.3             65        40
Bullgaria                   7.541     9,810      28,476    22,878      -2.5      3,213   2.724       -2.1             74        57
Burkina Faso                   0         0         144        162       1.1         21      16       -1.5            100       100
Burundi                        1         5          58        144       6.4         14      23        3.5             98        97
Cambodia                       13       22          393       517       2.1         60      52       -1.0             97         96
Cameroon                    2.855     5,380        774      1,556       3.3         89     117        0.4           -269      -246
Canada                   207,359    350,629     192,942   233,328       1.6      7,845   7,879        0.3             -7        -50
Central African Republic      17         24          59        94       2.6         26      29        0.2             71         74
Chad                           0          0          93       101       0.6         2 1     16       -1.8            100        100
Chile                       3,871     4,361       7,732    15.131       5.4        694   1,065        3.6             5 0        7 1
China                    428,693   866,556      413,176   850,521       5.1        421     707        3.7             -4        -2
Hong Kong, China              0         0        5.628    13,615       6.2      1,117   2,212        5.0            100       100
Colombia                   13.047    54,361      13962.24.120           3.5        501     655        1.6              7      -125
Congo, Dem. Rep.            1,478     1,948   -   1,487   .2,58         2.2  -      55      47       -1. 1             1          5
Congo, Rep.                 3    -8   9,031        .22        367       26         17       39      -0.     -9               -,6
Costa Rica                   181       380         949      1,971       6.0        415    584         3.3             81        81
C6te dIv  e192                         435        1,435     1,362       1.2        175      97       -2.4             87         68
Croatia                        ..     3,917          -.     6,852                   ..1,435             ...43
Cuba                         293      1,223       9.645    10,437       0.1        992     949       -0.9             97        88
Czech Republi'c           40.002     30.448      45,766    39,013      -1.2      4,473   3.776       -1.2             13        22
Denmark                      896     15,497      19,734    20,481       0.7      3,852   3,918        0.6             9 5       24
Dominican Republic            50       171        2,211     3,801       4.3        388    486         2.1             98        96
Ecuador                   10774      20,967       4,209     6,343        .26       529    553         0.1           -156      -231
Egypt, Arab Rep.          33,374     59.287      15,176    34.678       5.4        371     596        2.9           -120       -71
El Salvador                  407       703        1,004     2,322       5.772             410         4.2             59        70
Eatonia                        ..     3,117                 5,126         ...3.454                      ...39
Ethiopia                      55       158         624      1,178       4.9         17     21         2.0             91        87~
Finland                     6,912    12,911      25,022    28,670       1.5      5,235   5,613        1.1             72        55
France                    46,829   126,866      190.109   241,322       2.1      3,528   4,150        1675                      47
Gabon                       9,090    18,703        831       644       -4.3      1,203     587       -7.2           -994     -2,804
Gambia. The                    0          0         53         61       0.          83      55       -2.9            100       100
Georgia                     4,706      478        4,474     1,850      -3.3        882     342       -3.7             -5         74
Germany                  184.238   12,712       35,9      3927         -0.2      4.585   4,156       -0.5             49         58
Ghana                        554       526        1,303     1.564       2.7        121      92       -0.5             57        66
Greece                      3,696     9,053      15,960.23,698          3.2  -   1,655   2,266        2.7             77         62
Guatemnala                   230       589        1,443     2,191       3.6        209     206        0.6             84         73
Guinea                        38       .58         356        422       1.3         80      64       -1.4             89        86
Guinea-Bissau                 0O          0,         31        40       2.1         38      37        0.3            100       100
Haiti                         19        32         241        357       0.1         45      50       -1.8             92        91
Honduras                      67       235         636      1,401       5.1        174     236        1.9             89        83
142   1998 World Development Indicators



ene.7us
Commercial              Commercial energy use         Commercial enryueNet energy
energy                                                   per capita                    Imports
production
thousand              thousand         average                      average              % of
metric tons of        metric tons of    annual         kg of oil      annual            commercial
oil equivalent        oil equivalent   % growth      equivalent      % growth           energy use
1980     1995         ±980      1995     1.980-95   .1980    1995      1.980-95        1.980      1995
Hungary                   14,442    13,295      28.556    25,103~     -1.0      2,667  2.454       -0.7             49        47
India                     73,760   196,941      93,897   241,291      6.5        137     260        4.4             21        18
Indonesia                 94,717   169,325      25,904    85,785      8.9       .175     442        7.0 .....     :.266.     .-97
Iran, Islamic Rep.        833430   216,406      38,347   84,069        6.3       980   .,374        3.2           -118      -157
Iraq                     136,616    31,100      12,003    25,061       4.1       923  .1206         0.8         --1,038      -24
Ireland                    1,894     3,601       8,484.11,461          2.2      2,495  3,196        2.0             78        69
Israel                       151      562        8,607    16,650       5.0      2,219  3,003        2.6             98        97
!Itay.19,644.2,45                              18,2      161,360  .    1.4      2,456  2,821        1.3             86        82
Jamaica                       10        10       2,164     3,003       2.7      1,015  1,191        1.6            100       100
Japan                     43,247    99,468     346,567   497,231       2.8      2,968  3,964        2.3             88        80
Jordan                         0      192        1,713     4,323..     5.2       785   1,031        0.7            100.       96
Kazakhstan                76,799    64,354      76.799   -55,432     -3.1       5,153  3,337        3.8              0       -16
Kenya                         91      518        1.991     2.907       3.5       120     109        0.3             95        82
Korea, Dem. Rep.          28,275    21,538      30,932    24,600      -1.2      1,751  1,113       -.                9        12
Korea, Rep                 9,644    20,570      41,426   145,099  .   9.6       1,087  3,225        8.4             77        86
Kuwait                    94,084   111,227       9,561    14,494      03        6,953  9,381        0.2          -884       -667
Kygy Republic      .       2.190     137         1,938.    2,315  .   s:.        54      51.. .       .4...13            .    41.
Lao PDR                     236       220         107       184       2.6         33      40.       0.1          -121        -20
Latvia                       261      322         566      3,702     22.9        222   1,471..     22'.9.           54.       91
Lebanon                       73        69       2,376     4.486      .3.2       791   1,1201.                      97      '98
Lesotho                        0         0                              .
Libya              ~~~~~~~~~~~96,537  77.825  7,048.15,781      4.5   .     1.,2               .1-.1,270             -9
Lithuania                    186     3,316      11,353     8.510      -3.2      3,326  2,291       -3.8             98        61
Macedonia, FYR                 ..    1,621                 2,572                       1.308                                  37
Madagascar                    38       84         391       484        1.6        45      36       -1.2             90        83
Malawi                        99       154        334       374        1.6        54      38       -1.6             70        59
Malaysi'a                 15,049    62,385       9,522    33,252       9.8       692   1,655        7.0            -58       -88
IMali                        .21      ..42 ..     .164      207        1j.7       25.     21       -0.9,            87 ..     80
Mauritania                     0         0        214       231        0.5       138     102       -2.0            100       100
Mauritius                     21       34         339       435        2.6       351   .388         1.7             94        92
Mexico                   149.365   201,957      98,904   133,371      2.2       1,486  1,456        0.0            -51       -51
Moldova                       35       24                  4,177                        .963          ... .99..
Mongolia                  -1,195     2,190O      1,913     2,676       1.8      1,168  1,045       -.               38        16
Morocco                      617      440        4,518     8,253      4.4        233     311        2.2             86        95
Mozambique                 1,293       160       1,123      662       -.          93      38       -3..5           -15        76
Myanmar                    1,940     2,167  .    1,858     2,234      0.2         55      50       -1.7             -4         3
Namibia                        0         0                              .
Nepal                         15        97        174       700        9.3        12      33        6.5             91        86
Netherlands               71,830    65,705  .65,000.73,292             14...... 4,9. 4,4 .          0.8.           -11        10
New Zealand                5,592    12,436       9r 190   15,40        3.        .5 ,9.1                    .       3         1
.   ....   ..   ...  -                   ...   ..     "'  . .   ....4290. 3    19... . ..  '..
Nicaragua                     44       302        696      1,159       3.4       248     265        0.3             94        74
Niger                         14       56         210       330        2.0        3       37       -1.2             93        83
Nigeria                  105,512   104,475       9,879    18,393       3.4       139     165        0.4           -968      -468
Norway                    55,743   182,428      18,819    23,715       1.8      4,600  5,439        1.4           -196      -669
Oman                      14,756    45,403       1,010     4,013       9.2       917   1,880        4.6         -1,361     -1,031
Pakistan                   6,970   -18,612      145       31,536  .    7.0       139     243        3.8             39        41
Panama                        83       202       1,419     1,78        1.6       725     678       -0.4..           94.       89
Papua New Guinea              80     2,500         705     1,0D0       2.4       228     232        0.2             89      -10
Paraguay.58                          3,578        544      1,487       7.1       173     308        4.1             89      -4
Peru                      11,188     8,388       8.233    10,035       0.6       476     421       -1 5            -36        16
Philippines                2,789     6,006      13,357    21,542       3.6       276     307.       0.9             79        72
Poland                   120.774    94,666     124,557.94.472         -.        3,501  2,448       -2.5              3         0
Portugal                   1 ,481    1,870      10,291    19,245       4.8      1.054  1,939        4.6             86        90
Puerto Rico                   35        42       8.042     7,444       0.9      2,508  1,993       -0. 1           100        99
Romania                   51,631    30,008      63,751    44,026      -2.9      2,872  1.941       -319                       32
Russian Federation       749.289   928,870     764,349   604,461      -3.0      5,499  4,079       -3.4              2       -54
1998 World Development Indicators   143



03.73.
Commercial               Commercial energy use          Commercial energy use               Net energy
energy                                                      per capita                     Imports
production
thouisand              thousano         averagge                       avefage                Iof
mnetric tons of       mnetric tons of     annual         kg of a          irnnjal            comm-ercoai
oi. equiva.ert         01i equovaient    %. growth      eqjivalent       % gro,,ir           energy ues
1980      1995          1980      1995     1980-95      1980    1995      1980-95           1980       1.995
Rwanda                         29         46         190        211      -0.7          37      33        -2.6             85         78
Saudi Arabia              533.071    469,820      358355     82,742       5.2       3~772   4,360         0.3         -1.408       -468
Senegal                         0         46         875        866      -0.3         158    104         -3.0            100         95
Sierra Leone                    0          0         310        326       0.5          96      72        -1.7            100        100
Singapore                       0          0       6,049     21,369      10.0       2,651   7.162        8.1             icC        100
Slovak Republic             3,251      4,846      20,846     17.447      -1.3       4.142   3,272       --1.7             84         72
Slovenia                     1,623     2,576       4,269      5,583       0.7       2,245   2.806         0.4             62         54
South Africa               66.740    116,160      59,051     68,882       1.8       2,175   2.405        -0.2           -73         -31
Spain                       15,781    31,422      68,583    103,491       3.2       1,834   2,639         2.9             77         70
Sri Lanka                     127        383        1,411     2,469       2.7          96    136          1.3             91         84
Sud.an                         58         81       1,140   ~1.745         3.3          81      65        0).9             9 5        9 5
Sweden                     16,133     31,549 -    40,984     50,658   -   1.3       4.932   5.736         0.9             6 1        36
Switzerland                  7,030    10,961      20.814     25,1i42      1.7       3.294   3,571         0.9             66         3 6
Syrian Arab Republic        9.495     34.287       5,343     14,121       5.9         614   1.001         2.5            -78       -143
Tajikistan                   1,966     1,325        1,650     3,283       6.9         416     563         8.1            -20         80
Tanzania                       66        135        1,023       947       0.8          55      32        -2.3             92         86
Thailand                      535     19.430       12,093    52.125      11.1         259     878         9.4             96         63
Togo                             1         0         195        165     -0.9           75      45        -2.1             99        100
Trinidad end Tobago         13,127    12,991       -3.860 -   6,925       4.0       3.567   5.381         2.6           -240        -88
Tunisia                      6.149     4.579        3,083     5.314       4.0         483     591         1.-7           -09         14
Turkey                     17,190     26,079      31,314    62,187        4.9         704   1.009         2.6             45         58
Turkmenistan                 8.034    32,569        7.948    13,737         .       2,778   3.047        -9.8             -1       -137
Uganda                        153        165         320       430        2.8          25     22         0.0              52         57
Ukraine                   109,708     80,700      97,893    161,586       2.1       1,956   3,136         1.9            -12         50
United Arab Emirates       93.915    138,821       8,576     28,454       7.5       6,222  11,567         1.6           -995      -388
United Kingdom            197,736    254.967     201,168    221,911       1.0       3,571   3,786         0.7              2        -15
United States            1.546,307 1.655,644    1.801,406  2,078.265      1.3       7.928   7,905         0.3             14         20
Uruguay                       233        477       2,206      2,035       0.7         757    639         O.i              89         77
Uzbekoistan                 4,615     49,135       4,621     46,543      11.6         302   2,043        8.9               4         -6
Venezuela                 132,919    187,498      35,011     47,140       1.7       2.354   2,158       -0.9           -280       -298
Vietnam-                    2.728     13.608       4,024      7.694       4.1          75    104          1.8             32        -79
West Bank and Gaza               .         ..                     .         .           .       .
Yemnen, Rep.                    ..    17,394       1.364      2,933       5.3         160    192          1 2              ..      -493
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)     .    11.295           ..    11.865         ...             1.125                                     5
Zambia                       1,146       898        1,685    .1,302      -2.1         294     145        -5.0             32         31
Zimbabwe                     2,024     3,567       2.797      4,673       4.4         399    424          1.3             28         24
Low income                 666,664  1,301,090     567,166  1.227,330      5.5         252     393         3.3            -14         -6
Exci.. Cina  ... India     16441593                40.093  ...135,518  ... 5..8 .  .....116  .132        .2.8,          -105        -75
Middle income   2,821.634 ~~~3,50&9.935'  1.'93"5",0'2-9  2,342,066  5.8   164      .882.6                      -46        -50
Lo-we`r ..m i d'd Ie' i'n c omrn e ....  1,671,934  2.203,208  1,359.924  1.579,612  9.0  1,598  1,426    5.1            -23        -39
Upper rr middle incomeo  1,149,600 ...... 1,   1,306,727 1   575,107.67......2..,4754.11.9......7..2618.41....... ..,63..do........1. -100  -713"' ....   O'O  -00-7
Low & mniddleInc-ome ...... 3,4-8'8 ..39...8... 4',8"1"1.0"25 .....2.'52"2',195" '3",-569.396.. 5..6..706 .... . .751 ... ..3.1 ..  3 -5
Eta"s't 'A s i 'a '& ..P"a"cifi"c ........ ..576,2"5"0...1,1668,'2"5'2'..... 5'14",939.1082,697 . 5.3391.657 . 37 .      -1    . 
Europe &e Centrala Asia  1,235,966.....   1,413,336  1,340,658  1,284,686.....  8.8  3.3353  2,690       -2.7.4-40."6.. .. ... ..8-8.... .....3,3'33  ,690,-2  8-1
Lai  merica & : ...a..db . .. 402~§.279  642,539 ..  .. 3198 ......46......... . ...7.......... d.. d..o.   ... .7..6            -3
Middle.st&N.Arica .    985,969.1,073,532.     142,738  .315726     .   5.2   .    822.1.178      .    2.2           -591       -240
.                         8,3          .4h10,4                .70                                        .32                       21
SUb-S~a'h'ar'an ..A'f'ric"a ........ 203,196  289,675  93,323.136.236     .2.0 .......248 .....238  .    -0.8           -118       -113
Hig1~~ income   2,785,174 ~~3.5"7"4','618  3,0,8  46510           1'.7'    4.611   5,123         1.1             27    .    24
1.44  1698 World Development Indicators



In developing countries growth in commercial energy  X              _                             * Commercial energy production refers to commercial
use is closely related to growth in the modern sec-                                               forms of primary energy-petroleum (crude oil, natural
tors-industry, motorized transport. and urban areas.  Since 1980 low- and middle-income           gas liquids, and oil from nonconventional sources), nat-
This connection is less robust in more developed     countries hale seen rapid growth in          ural gas, and solid fuels (coal, lignite, and other derived
commercial energy use
countries. Thus commercial energy use per capita                                                  fuels)-and primary electricity, all converted into oil
reflects the size of the modern sector as well as cli-  Annual % change, i980-95                  equivalents (see About the data). * Commercial
matic, geographic, and economic factors (such as the                                              energy use refers to apparent consumption, which is
relative price of energy). Because commercial energy   -                                          equal to indigenous production plus imports and stock
is widely traded, it is necessary to distinguish                                                  changes, minus exports and fuels supplied to ships and
between its production and use. Net energy imports                                                aircraft engaged in international transportation (see
show the extent to which an economy's use exceeds                                                 About the data). * Net energy imports are calculated
its domestic production.                                     |                                    as energy use less production, both measured in oil
Energy data are compiled by the International             |                                    equivalents. A minus sign indicates that the country is
Energy Agency (lEA) and the United Nations Statistical     High-   Middle-  Low-  Low-income      a net exporter.
Division (UNSD). IEA data for non-OECD countries is       countries countries contme excs . China
based on national energy data that have been         Source: Table 3.7.
adjusted to conform with annual questionnaires com-                                                Data sources
pleted by OECD member governments. UNSD data are     Although high-income countries use nearly four
times as much commercial energy as low-income
primarily from responses to questionnaires sent to   countries, since 1980 growth in energy use has        -          Data on commercial energy
national governments, supplemented  by official      beenogreatestIntrpdy currentrialice energymde-n                - production and use are pri-
national statistical publications and by data from   In low- and middle-incomne countries will double                 marily from the lEA's elec-
intergovernmental organizations. When official data  every 13 years. Slower growth In high-Income                     tronic files that are also
countries reflects the generally lower economic
are not available, the UNSD prepares estimates        growin.rrheseeconomies 3s%elIa,Lne:rgreaTer  i                  published in its annual publi-
based on the professional and commercial literature.  energy efficiency.                    1-                        cations, Energy  Statistics
The variety of sources affects the cross-country com-                                                     .           and Balances of Non-OECD
parability of data.                                                                                    e              Countries, Energy Statistics
Commercial energy use refers to domestic pri-                                                   of OECD Countries, and Energy Balances of OECD
mary energy use before transformation to other end-  Lowlincome countries are exporting           Countries, and the United Nations Energy Statistics
use fuels (such as electricity and refined petroleum  less energy                                 Yearbook.
products). The use of firewood, dried animal manure,
and other traditional fuels is not included. All forms  Net energy imports/commercial energy use (%8
of commercial energy-primary energy and primary
electricity-are converted into oil equivalents. To con- 
vert nuclear electricity into oil equivalents, a notional  ,
thermal efficiency of 33 percent is assumed; for     _|
hydroelectric power, 100  percent efficiency is       ,,
assumed.                                               ,
income  income   income excl. China
countries countries countries and India
0 1980 0 1995
Source: Table 3.7.
Hlg1h4ncome countries depend on Imports for
roughly a quarter of their energy use, a ratio that
*as remarkabi, constant from 1980 to 1995.
Midole-income countries rrase beer the main net
exporters of energy, with net exports equal to
roughly half of domestic use. This ratio was also
nearly constant from i980 to 1995. Low-income
countries, however, have seen a substantial drop In
net energy exports, particularly when Chinea and
India are excluded.
1-998 World Development indicators     145



3.8 Energy efficiency and emissions
GDP per unit   I        Traditional                          Carbon dioxide emissions
of energy use            fuel use
1987 $ per kg           % ot tota[              Total               Per capita           kg per 1987 $
Oil equivalent          energy use         milion metric tons      metric tonns            or (DP
1±980    1995        ±980o       1995        ±.980     1995       1980      1995         1980       1995
Albania                     0.7       1.8       .12.3         8.6,       4.8        1.8        1.6       0.6         2.6        1.0
Aigeria'                    4.1       2.7         2.7         2.0       66.2       91.3        3.5       3.2         1.3        1.4
Angola                       ..       7.7        47.1.       59.5        5.3        4.6        0.8       0.4          ..        0.6
Argentina                   2.8       2.5         6.5         4.0      107.5      129.5        3.8       3.7         1.0        1.0
Armenia                     2.1       0.6          ...                     .        3.6         ..       1.0           .        3.4
Australia                   2.4       2.8         2.1         3.8      202.8      289.8       13.8      16.0         1.2        1.1
Austria                     4.6      5.5:         14.4        2.8       52.2       59.3        6.9       7.4         0.5        0.4
Azerbaijan                   ..       0.2          ...                     .       42.6         ..       5.7          ..       14.6
Bangladesh                  4.5       3.0        678.8       49.9        7.6       20.9        0.1      0.2          0.6        0.9
Belarus                      ..       0.7           -         0.8         -.       59.3          -      5.7           ..        3.4
Belgium                     2.8       3.2         0.2         0.9      127.2     103.8        12.9     10.2          1.0        0.6
Benin                       7.9      18.4        84.9        92.5        0.5        0.6        0.1      0.1          0.4        0.3
Bolivia                     2.9       2.0        19.8        12.8        4.5       10.5        0.6      1.4          1.0        1.8
Bo.snia and Herzegovina.                                      991.                                       .
Botswana                    2.3       5.1        35.7          ..        1.         2.2        1.1       1.5         1.1        0.8
Brazil                      3.4       2.7        41.2        27.5.     183.4     249.2         1.5       1.6         0.7        0.8
Bulgaria                    0.7       1.0         0.7         0.8       75.3       56.7        6.5      6.7          3.6        2.5
Burkina Faso               11.2      16.4        91.4        93.3        0.4        1.0        0.1      0).1         0.3        0.4
Burundi                    13.       -7.7        92.7        88.8        0.1        0.2        0.0       0.          0.1        0.2
Cambodia                     -.       2.6        71.2        75.3        0.3        0.5        0.0       0.0          ..        0.4
Cameroon                    9.7       6.1        694         77.3        3.9        4.1        0.4       0.3         0.5        0.4
Canada                      1.7       2.0         0.6         0.6      420.9     435.7        17.1     14.7          1.3        0.9
Central African Republic.  18.2      13.6        90.8        89.0        0.1        0.2        0.0       0.1         0.1        0.2
Chad                        6.2      10.7        87.4        90.2        0.2        0.1        0.0      0.0          0.4        0.1
Chile                       2.3       2.4        14.5        13.3       27.9       44.1        2.5       3.1         1.6        1.2
China                       0.3       0.7         8.0         5.6    1,476.8    3,192.5        1.5      2.7         10.9        5.5
Ho~ng Kong, China           5.3      5.4         0.9         0.3       16.4       31.0        3.3       5.0         0.5        0.4
Colombi'a                  .2.1       2.1        214         21.1       39.8       67.5        1.4       1.6         1.4        1.3
Congo, Dem. Rep.            4.4       2.3        79.5        83.9        3.5        2.1        0.1       0.0         0.5        0.4
Congo, Rep.                 5.7       6.6        55.9        61.0        0.4        1.3        0.2       0.5         0.3        0.5
Costa Rica                  4.2       3.3        40.4        12.7        2.5        5.2        1.1       1.6         0.6        0.6
C6te d'ivoire               6.7       8.4        53.5        67.2        4.7       10.4        0.6       0.7         0.5        0.
Croatia                      ..        .            .         3.0         ..       17.0         ..       3.6
Cuba                          .         ..       28.1        19.7       30.7       29.1        3.2       2.6
Czech Republic               ..       0.8          ..         0.5..               120.                  108.                    34
Denmark                     4.4       5.7         0.3         3.3       62.9       54.9       12.3     10.5          0.7        0.5
Dominicani Republic         2.1      1.9         28.3       12.1         6.4      11.8         1.1      1.5          1.4        1.6
Ecuador                     2.3       2.2        26.5       14.8        13.4      22.6         1.7      2.0          1.4        1.6
Egypt. Arab Rep.            1.8       1.6         5.0        3.3        45.2      91.7         1.1      1.6          1.6        1.6
El Salvador                 4.4       2.5       .50.3       42.9         2.1        5.2        0.5      0.9          0.5        0.9
Estonia                      ..       0.8           .         2.3         ..      16.4          ..     11.1           ..        4.3
Ethiopia                     ..       7.4        92.4       90.1         1.8        3.5        00       0.1           ..        0.4
Finland                     2.9      3.3          3.8         5.1       54.9       51.0       11.5     10.0          0.8        0.5
France                      4.1       4.3         1.3         1.0      482.7     340.1         9.0       5.8         0.6        0.3
Gabon                       5.1       7.9        33.6        51.8        4.8        3.5        6.9       3.2         1.1        0.7
Gambia, The                 3.2       4.4        79.7        81.2        0.2        0.2        0.2       0.2         0.9        0.6
Georgia                      ..        .            .         1.3          .        7.7         ..       1.4
Germany.                                ..                    0.7          .     831..                  10.2
Ghana                       3.6       4.6        68.2        79.0        2.4        4.0        0.2       0.2         0.5        0.6
Greece                      2.8      2.2          2.8         1.5       51.7       76.3        5.4       7.3         1.2        1 5
Guatemala                   5.0       4.4        53.1       59.9         4.5        7.2        0.6      0.7          0.6        0.7
Guinea                        ..      6.7        68.4        69.9         .         1.1        0.2       C.2          ..        0.4
Guinea-Bissau               3.9       5.8        76.1        70.5        0.1        0.2        0.2       0.2         1.1        1.0
Haiti                      .6.8       3.3       .82.4        80.3        0.8.       0.6        0.1       0.1         0D.5       0 5
Honduras                    5.6       3.8        61.2        49.3        2.1        3.9        0.6       0.7         0.5        0.7
146 1998 World Development Indicators



3.80
GDP per unit            Traditional                           Carbon dioxide emissions
of energy use             fuel use
1987 $ per kg            % of total              Total               Per capita           kg per 1987 $
oil equivalent          energy use          million metric tons     metric tons              of GDP
±.980     ±995        ±.980       ±.995      ±.980      1.995      ±.980     1995         1980       1995
Hungary                      0.8 1... . 0--a  .....  ... 2.1   1.8       82.5       55.9...     7..7  . ....5.5        3.7        2.3
India                        19.9     1.7         34 .7.     23.3       347.3      908.7        0.5       10.0  -      1.. ...  9  2....... 2..
Indonesia                    2.0      1.6         516.       299.9       94..6     296-.1       0.6 .. .  1 5          1.8        2 1
Iran, Islamic  Rep. ............ 30  2....   2 ...   .. 1.6  ...   .. 0.8   116.1   263.8 ...  .. 3.0     4.3          1'.0 ....  1:4
Iraq.7 2                                           0201                  44.0       9903.4.               48           0.5
Ireland                      3:1 ....4.1           0.1.       0.2        25.2       32.2        7.4..     9.0          0.9        0.7
Israel                      34.4      35.....                             1.1       46.3 ..  ...5..4      84.4         07..       0:8
Italy                       4.8       5.50.7                  1.9       371.9      4-10.0 ...   6.6 ..    7.20.6                  0.5
Jamaica                      1.3 ......1.2..       62 2... I... 8.0       8.4        9.1 4..   . . 0. A   3.6          3.1 .  ..   2 4
Japa                         5.5      6.1          0.1        05.5     ... 907.4  1,126.8       7.8.      9.0          0.5        04.
Jordan                       2.7      1.9 ....................   .....I... 4.7      13~3 ..     2.2  ..   3.2          1.0        1.7
Kazakhstan.                           03        .  .. ...   ...  0.1   .. ........   221~5.   . .13.3                           138
Kenya                       3.1       3.4         75.4       76.1         6.2        6.7        0.4       0.3          1.0        0.7
Korea, Dem. Rp.               . ...-I. ..I....    .2.7.       3.9       124.9      257.0        7.1      11.6
Korea, Rep.                 1.8       1.8          5.7        0.7..     125..2     373~6.6 ..   3.3 ..    83.3         1.7        1.5
Kuwait                       2.7      2.0.                               24.7       48.7       18.0      31.5          1.01.
Kyrgyz .........- .........  ... R epublic.....0 5 ...   .. .   ... ..   ...      .........5 5...I...   1.2.     .... .. . ....  . . 9 .
Lao PDR                               9.6         86.6       85.1         0.2        0.3        0.1       0.1           .         0.2
Latvia          ...........12.1  1...   3  ....      7........  180         .        9~3          .3.7                  .         1.9
Lebanon                      00       1343 4.3.               2.6         62        13.3 ....   2.1.      3.3.2.4
Lesotho                       ...          .....     .:
Libya                        5.7                   1.7 ...    08         26.9       3948.8 ...            7.8 0...      .7
Lithuania                             0.8                      5.6.                 14.8 .   ..           4.0           .         2.1
M acedonia,  FYR                                              6:9  ...............                          '  ...........  ...
Madagascar     6..... ..   .9     . .. 5.8        77.1       83.8         1.6        1-.1.. .... 0.2      0.1          0.6 ..     0.4
Malawi                       3.1 ......38 ...... 891       .. 868.8.      0.7        0.7        0.1...    0.1          0.7        0.5
Malaysia              .... .2.4 ...  .1!9         14~4        6.6        28.0      106..6       2.0       5.3          1-2        1:7
Mali                        10.8     12.1 ....... 85.2 .......87.4        0 ... O.4   0.5       O    0.1    0          0.2        0 2
M auritania    ... . .......   3.8  .. ...5.  0.   0 7  .... .....:....  . ... 0.6   3.10.4               1            0  8       2..... 7..
Mauritius                   3.7       6.6         44.1       41.6         0.6        1.5        0.6       1.3          05         0 5
Mexico                       1.3      1.3          44         4.4       255.0      357.8 ......3.8. ....3 920O.                  2.1
Moldova                       .                                0.5.                 10.8                  2.5
Mongolia                                          14,0        3           6.8        8543.
Morocco                      3.4      2.8          5.44.7                15.9       29.3        0.8       1.1I1.1                 1.3
Mozambique                   1        3472.6                 86.0         3.2        1O.0..   0.3.0..2..0.
Myanmar                                         .. 66.5      69.4         48         7.0.       0..1      0.2
Namibia
Nepal                       12.6.     6~4.4 ...   94:8.8 ....  88.9       0.5   ..... 1.5       0-.0  ...... 0:1.1   ..  .... 0.2   0.3
Netherlands    . ...         30.0    .37.7 .. . ...0.0 .       0.5  .... 152.6 ... 1359.9      10 .8 ...  8.8..        0.8.       0.5
Now Zealand    .........     3.4 ..  . 2.8 .. ...0,2            .        17..6      27.4        5.6       7.6 0. O.6              0.6
Nicaragua                    5.5 ...  3.1.        50..4      45.8 ..... . 2.0        27.7.      0.7       0.6          0 .5       0.7
Niger                       12.1      7.5  ...    78.0       79.6  ..     0.6        1.1 ........0..1     0 10-2                  0:5
Nigeria                      2.6  ....   1.9  . .... .63 7.7 .....  56.6   68.1   ... 90 7.7 .   ..... 1.0  ...   08   2.6  ....  2  7
Oman                         39       31  .................               5.9  ..   11.4        5.3       5:3          1-.5       0:9
Pakistan                     179  ... 16          27. ... . 2  20:2  ..... 31.6     85.4        0.4 ..    0:7 1..-5        ....  .1:7
Panama                       3.3      3.9         26.4       19.4         3.5        6.9        1.8       276 .. ..    07.        1.0
Papua New Guinea .    .   ....3.9 .....46.6       64~1.1.    58.9         1-.8       2..5        0.6      06.6         0 .7       0 ~5
Paraguay                     6.0      34.4.       661.1      51.5         1.5        38.8       0.5       0..8         0.4 .....0:7
Peru                         2.5      24.4        18.7 ...... 22:9.9..   23.5.      30.6..      14.4      1.3          1.21.3
Philippines                  2.5      2.0         35.8       30.5        36.5       61.2        0.8       0.9          1.1        1.4
Poland                       0.5      0.7          0.4         1.1      456.2      338.0       12.8       8.8          7.6        5.1
Portuga                      3.5      2.7          1.10.7                27.1       51.9         2.8      5.2          0.7        1.0
Puerto Rico                  2.4      4.2            .           .       14.0       15.5         4.4      4.2          0.7        0.4
Romania                      0.5      0.7          1.5        21.5      191.8..    1211.        8.6      5.3          5..7       3.9
Russian Federation           0.5      0.5                      1.1..             1,818.0          .      12.3            .        6.1
1998 World Development Indicators 147



3.8
GDP per unit           Traditional                          Carbon dioxide emissions
of energy use           fuel use
1987 $ per kg           8 of total              Total              Per capita          kg per 1987 $
oil equivalent         energy use          million metric tons    merric tons             of GDP
±9B0     1995        1980        1995       1980      1995        1980     1995         1980      1995
Rwanda                      9.2      6.3        84.8        85.7        0.3       0.5         0.1      0.1          0.2       0.4
Saudi Arabia                2.7      1.2           -130.7                       254.3        14.0     13.4          1.4       2.6
Senegal                     4.2      6.1        48.6        55.9        2.8        3.1        0.5      0.4          0.8       0.6
Sierra Leone                2.7      2.2        63.5        69.4        0.6        0.4        0.2      0.1          0.7       0.6
Singapore                   2.3      2.0         0.0         0.0       30.1      63.7        13.2     21.3          2.2       1.5
Slovak Republic                      0.9                     0.5         ..      38.0          ..      7.1           ..       2.3
Sloveni'a                                                    0.8         ..      11.7          ..      5.9
South Africa                1.3      1.0         4.5         3.9      211.3     305.8         7.8      8.3          2.8       3.4
Spain                       3.6      3.5         0.5         0.6      200.0     231.6         5.3      5.9          0.8       0.6
Sri Lanka                   3.4      3.8        54.3        48.4        3.4       5.9         0.2      0.3          0.7       0.6
Sudan                      12.9     12.1        76.4        76.4        3.3       3.5         0.2      0.1          0.2       0.2
Sweden                      3.4      3.4         3.9         2.5       71.4      44.6         8.6      5.0          0.5       0.3
Switzerland                 7.3      7.5         1.1         2.1       40.9      38.9         6.5      5.5          0.3       0.2
Syrian Arab Republic        1.9      1.3          0.1        0.0       19.3      46.0         2.2      3.3          1.9       2.6
Tajikistan                           0.5                                           3.7         ..      0.6           ..       2.5
Tanzania                                         83.7       89.6        1.9        2.4        0.1      0.1
Thailand                    2.8      2.1        48.3        32.7       40.1      175.0        0.9      2.9          1.2       1.6
Togo                        6.4      7.1        38.3        73.1        0.6        0.7        0.2      0.2          0.5       0.6
Trinidad and Tobago .       1.5       .7          .8.16.7                        17.1        15.4     13.3          3.0       3.5
Tunisia                     2.4      2.4        15.4        12.9        9.4      15.3         1.5      1.7          1.3      -1.2
Turkey                      1.9      1.8        18.0         3.1       76.3     165.9         1.7      2.7         1.3        1.5
Turkmenistan                                                              ..     28.3          ..      6.3
Uganda                              24.8        87.2        89.2        0.6       1.0         0.1      0.1          ..        0.1
Ukrai'ne                             0.2                     0.4         ..     438.2         ..       .5
United Arab Emirates        3.6                                        36.3      68.3       34.8      27.8         1.2
United Kingdom              2.8      3.5         0.0         1.1      585.1     542.1       10.4       9.3          1.0       0.7
United States               2.1      2.6         1.2         4.2    4,515.3    5,468.6      19.9      20.8         1.2        1.0
Uruguay             ..~~3.4   4.4        20.4        26.7        5.8       5.4         2.0      1.7          0.6       0.6
Uzbekistan                   ..      0.3          ...                     .      98.9         ..       4.3          ..        7.3
Venezuela                   1.3      1.2          1.0        1.2       89.6     180.2         6.0      8.3          2.0       3.1
Vietnam                      ..      7.8        53.5        49.1       16.8      31.7         0.3      0.4          ..        0.5
West Bank and Gaza            .        ..                      ..                   ..
Yemnen. Rep.                                                  ..        1.2        -.         0.1
Yugoslavia, FR (S erb./Mont.)                                 ....               33.0          ..      3.1
Zambia                      1.3      1.7        54.6        71.2        3.5        2 .4       0.6      0.3          1.6       1.1
Zimbabwe                    1.6      1.4        33.6        27.4        9.6.      9.7         1.4      0.9          2.2       1.5
Low income                  0.9-     1.1        25.4        19.0    2,037.8    4,503.7        0.9      1.4          4.2       3.4
Excl, China & India         3.4      2.7        64.0        56.1      213.7     402.5         0.3      0.4          1.1       1.2
Middle income               .1.2     1.1        14.0         7.7    2,775.7    7,073.8        2.9      4.5          1.7       2.6
Lower middle income         1.0      1.0        16.8         7.5    1,209.0    4,942.5        2.0      4.5          ..        3.2
Upper middle income         1.7      1.5        11.7         8.2   -1,566.7    2,131.3        4.6      4.6          1.8       1.9
Low & middle income         1.1      1.1        18.8        12.0    4,813.5   11,577.5        1.5      2.5          2.3       2.9
East Asia & Pacific          ..      09         15.8        11.6    1,832.7    4,140.0        1.4      2.5          6.0       3.9
Europe & Central Asia         .      0 .6        3.5         2.1      887.9    3,733.7         ..      7.9           ..       5.1
Latin America & Carib.      2.2      2 .0       20.3        15.6      850.5    1,219.8        2.4      2.6          1.2       1.4
Middle East &.N. Africa     3.3      1.83        2.0         1.2.     499.5     982.9         2.9      3.9          1.1       1.7
South Asia                  2.0      1.7        37.5        25.6      392.4    1,024.1        0.4      0.8          1.8       2.1
Sub-Saharan Africa          2.1      1.9        46.6        47.4      350 .5    477.1         0.9      0.8          1.8       1.9
High income                 2.9      3.4         1 .1        2.5    8,772.1   11,122.7       12.0     12.5         0.9        0.7
148   1998 World Development Indicators



3.8                    0
__11. =14i1w.-FIF=M ------                                                                          09=_,
The ratio of real GDP to energy use provides a mea-            . .                                  * GDP per unit of energy use is the U.S. dollar esti-
sure of energy efficiency. Differences in this ratio                                                mate of real GDP (at 1987 prices) per kilogram of oil
over time and across countries are influenced by      Carbon dioxide emissions are                  equivalent of commercial energy use (see table 3.7).
structural changes in the economy, changes in the     increasing everywhere                         * Traditional fuel use includes estimates of the con-
energy efficiency of particular sectors of the econ-  Metric tons per capita                        sumption of fuelwood, charcoal, bagasse, and animal
omy, and differences in fuel mixes.                   I1F                                           and vegetable wastes. Total energy use comprises
For traditional fuels, fuelwood and charcoal con-                                                commercial energy use (see table 3.7) and traditional
sumption estimates are calculated by the Food and                                                   fuel use. * Carbon dioxide emissions are those
Agriculture Organization (FAO) based on population     sr                                           stemming from the burning of fossil fuels and the
data and country specific per capita consumption fig-                                               manufacture of cement. They include carbon dioxide
ures. Estimates of bagasse consumption are based                                                    produced during consumption of solid fuels, liquid
on sugar production data,                                                                          fuels, gas fuels, and gas flaring.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, largely a byprod-                           d
uct of energy production and use (see table 3.7). are       H gh-   Middle-   Low-  Low-income       Data sources
the largest source of greenhouse gases, which are          comures countries  incotmie excl China
associated with global warming. Anthropogenic CO2                  * 1980   0 1995                                      Underlying data on commer-
emissions result primarily from fossil fuel combus-   Source: Table 3.8.                                                cial energy production and
tion and cement manufacturing. Combustion of dif-                                                                       use are from   International
ferent fossil fuels releases different amounts of CO2  The main sources of carbon dioxide, the principal                Energy  Agency  (IEA) and
greenhouse gas, are the burning of fossil fuels #I                E       A         A
for the same level of energy production. Burning oil  the manufacturlng of cement. Decoupling eco.                      United Nations sources. Data
releases about 50 percent more CO2 than burning       nomc growth and carbon dioxide emissions in both                  on CO2 emissions are based
industrial and developing countries will be esserntial
natural gas, and burning coal releases about twice as  to preventing global warming. On average, high.                  on   several  sources   as
much. During cement manufacturing about 0.5 met-      IncomeeconomiesemKted 5mesasmuchcarbon                            reported  by   the   World
dioxide per capita as low, and middle-Income
ric ton of CO2 is released for each ton of cement pro-  countrlesIn±995,and32tlmesasmuchpercapita   Resources Institute. The main source is the Carbon
duced.                                                as low-ncome countries excluding Chinsaand india.  Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Environmental
Although per capita emisslons declined slightly In
The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center      hirgh-ncome countries In the early 1990s, since  Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, in
(CDIAC), sponsored by the U.S. Department of          1980 emissions have grown in every Income     thestateofTennesseeinthe UnitedStates.Traditional
group-especbialy middle-Income countries.
Energy, calculates annual anthropogenic emissions                                                  fuel data are from the World Resources Institute's
of CO2. These calculations are derived from data on                                                 World Resources, the United Nations Energy Statistics
fossil fuel consumption, based on the World Energy                                                  Yearbook, and FAO electronic files.
Data Set maintained by the United Nations Statistical
Division, and from data on world cement manufac-
In 1995 high-income countries emiittedi
turing, based on the Cement Manufacturing Data Set    the most carbon dioxide
maintained by the U.S. Bureau of Mines.                        Ch               Low-income
Although the estimates of global CO2 emissions                a               countries
Although the estimates f global CO2 emissionsand Ind'a         exci. China
are probably within 10 percent of actual emissions                               and India
2%
(as calculated from global average fuel chemistry and         M          -dJ
use), country estimates may have larger error                 Middle-          High
bounds. Trends estimated from a consistent time               income     l      income
countries        countries
series tend to be more accurate than individual val-           31:%             49%
ues. Each year the CDIAC recalculates the entire time  Source: Table 3.8.
series from 1950 to the present. incorporating its
Carbon dioxide emissions per capita are highest In
most recent findings and the latest corrections to its  high-Income countries, but large populations in low-
database. Estimates do not include fuels supplied to  and middle-income countries meant that they
produced more than hafr of the world's carbon
ships and aircraft engaged in international trans-    dioxide emissions in 1995. Middle-income coun-
portation because of the difficulty of apportioning   tries, China, and India accounted for most of the
developing world's emissions; the remaining low-
these fuels among the countries benefiting from that  income countries contributed a mere 2 percent.
transport.
1998 World Development Indicators       149



3.9 Sources of electricity
Electricity                                           Sources of electricity
pfoduction
Hydropower            Coal                0il                Gas             Nuclear power
billion kwh            %                                                         S 
1980      1998      ±980      1995      1980     ±995      1980     1995      1980      1995     1980       1995
Albania                        3.7       4.4      79.4      95.2       0.0      0.0      20.6      4.8        0 .0     0.0
Algeria                        7 .1     19.7        3.        .          .        .       22       33        84.1     95.7
Agola                         0.7       1.'0    .88.1      93.8        .         .      11.9       6   .3.
Argentina                     39.7      64.6      38.1      41.3       2.5      2.5      31.9      4.8       21.0     40.0       5.9      10.9
Armenia             .....13.0           -5.6     .12.0      34.5         .        ..     54.8     39.3        0.0     20.8     33.2        5.5
Australia                     95.2     173.4      13.6       9.2      73.3     77.0       5.4      1.7        7 .3    10.3
Austria                       41.6      55.1      69.1      67.3       7.0     10.6      14.0      3.1        9.2     16.5
Azerbaijan                    15.0      17.0        7.3      9.1        .         ..     92.7     90.9        0.0      0.0
Bangladesh                     2 .4     10.9      24.6       3.4                  -      26.6     16.3       46.6     80.3
Belarus                       34.1      24.9       0.1       0.1       0.0      0.0      99.9     28.5        0.0     71.5
Belgium                       53.1      73.6       0.5       0.5     29.4     26.2       34.7      1.6       11.2     13.8     23.6       56.2
Benin                          0.0       0.0         .         ..        .       ..     100.0    100.0          .
Bolivia                        1.6       3.0)     68.8      53.2        .        ..      10.3      7.6       18.4     36.7
Bosnia and Herzegovina          ..       2.2         ..     64.5        ..    35.5         ..      0.0
Botswana                         .         ..                  .        .         ..                 ..
Brazil                       139.4     275.4      92.5      92.2.      2.0,     1.5       3.6      2.7        0.0      0.2      0.0        0.9
Bulgaria                      34.6      40.7      10.7       3.1     49.2     43.1       22.5      3.6        0.0      7.9     17.7      42.4
Burkina Faso                               7
Burundi
Cambodia
Cameroon                       1.5       2.7      93.9      96.9                          6.1      3.1
Canada                      373.3      551.4      67.3      60.5      ±6.0     15.1       3.7      1.9        2.5      3.9     10.2       17.7
Central African Republic         .         .         .         .        .         ..                 ..
Chile                         11.8      28.0      62.5      65.7     13.8     24.7       21.5      8.2        1.2      0.9
China                       300.6    1,007.7      19.4      18.9      59.3     73.4,     21.1      6.1        0.2      0.2      0.0        1.3
Hong Kn,Cia16                          2790.0                                97.7     100.0       2.3         .
Colombia                      20.6      45.4      70.1      70.4       9.7    11.4        2.1      1.0       17.6     16.7
Congo, Dam. Rep.              .4.4       63.2     95.5     '96.2        .         ..      4.5      3.8
Congo, Rep.                    0.2       0.4      64.1      96.6                         34.0      0.7        1.9      0.7
Costa Rica.                    2.2       5.1      94.7      861.1                         5.3     13.7
CSte dIlvoire                  1.7       2.3      77.6      42.1                         22.4     57.9
Croatia                         ..       8.9         ..     59.4                2.7         .     27.7         ..     10.1
Cuba                           9.9      11.2        1.0      0:.8                        99.0     90.9q       0.0      0.1
Czech Republic                52.7      60.6        4.6      3.3     84.8     74.0        9.6      1.0        1.1      0.8      0.0      20.2
Denmark                       26.8      36.8       0.1       0.1     81.8     75.2       18.0      9.4        0.0      9.7
Dominican Republic             3.3       6.5      17.7      30.6       0.0      4.5      82.3     64.4
Ecuador                        3.4       8.9      25.9      62.0        . .              74 .1    38.0
Egypt, Arab Rep.              18.9      54.8      51.8      19.7        .         ..     27.7     37.3       20.5     43.0
El Salvador                    1. 6      3.4      68.3      42.2        .         ..      8.6     36.3
Eritreea..                                           ....                         ..
Estonia                       18.9       8.7       0.0       0.0      0.0     96.5      100.0      1.2        0.0      2.2
Ethiopia                       07.7      1.3      70.2      86.8                         27.6      7.9
Finland                       40.7      63.9      25.1      20 .2    42.6     26.7       10.8      2.3        4.2     10.4     17.2       30.1
France                      256.9      469.3      26.9      14.6     27.2       5.4      18.9      1.6        2.7      0.6     23.8       77.1
Gabon                          0.5       0.9      49.1      77.1                         50.9     11.8        0.0     11.1
Gambia, The                      .         .         .         ..                                    ..
Georgia                       14.7      .6.8      43.6      69.3                         56.2      2.8        0.0     27.9
Germaniy                     466.3     532.6       4 .1      3.7      62.9    55 8,       5.7      1.7       14.2      8.1     11.9       28.9
Ghana                          5.3       6.2      99.4      99.3                          0.6      0.7..                 .
Greece                        22.7      41.2      15.0       8 .6     4468    69.6       40.1     21.5        0.0      0.2
Guatemala                      1.7       3.2      16.7      67.2                         83.3     26.1..                 .
Guinea..                                   .         ..        .
Guinea-Bissau..                            .         ..        .                                     .
Haiti                          0.3       0.5      70.1     .75.4                         29.9     20.6
Honduras                       0.9       2.7      84.0      99.6                         1.         .
150   1998 World Developmnent indicators



3.9
Electricity                                       Sources of electricity
production
Hydropower           Coal              Oil               Gas            Nuclear power
biflion kwh                            %%%
1.980     15995    ±980     1.995    1.980    1995     1980     1.995    1.980    1995     1.980    ±.995
Hungary                    .23.9      34.0      0.5      0.5     469.9   29.5      24.6.   16.3      28:0.0.. 11.9      0.0     41.2
India                      119.3    4146.6.    39~.0 . 20.1      49.9   .69.4       7.7      2.9       0.8     5.9      2.5       1:7
Indonesia                    84.4     61.2     16.0    1-4.2.     0.0    235.5     84.0    26.8..     O0.0    32.0
(ran, Islamic Rep..     .   22:4    85.4       25.1      8.5.                 ..... 50.1.  3.        24~8     55
Iraq                       11.4      29.0      6.1      2.0                       93.9      98.0...... ......
Ireland                     10.6      17:6.6.. . 7.9     4.0    1-6.4    51.3      60.4    152.2.    .15.2    29..3
Israel                      12.5      30.3      0.0      0.2 0..  .0:0..  62.1    100.0... 37.7        0:0.0... 0.0 ..
Italy                      183.5    237.4     24.7      15.9      9.9 .....11-.6.  .57.0   50.9       5~O.0   19.8      1.2      0.0
Jamaica                      1.5       5.8      8.3      2.1.                      87.9     93.2
Japan                      572.5     980.9     15.4.     8.4      9 6.   17:8      46.2     22.9      14.2    19.5     14..4.   29 7
Jordan                       1:.1.     5.6.     0.0      0.3.                     100.0     86.4       0 0.' 13.3
Kazakhstan                    ..     66.7        .       2..             72.0         .     7.82                         .       0.0
Kenya                        1.5       3.7     71.1     83.3                       28.9     8.9
Korea, Dem. Rep.            350.0     36.0.. 64.3       63.9     35.7    36. 1.. ....
Korea, Rep.                 37.2    184.7       5.3      3.0      6.7    26.4      78.7    22.8        0.0    11.5      9.3     36.3
Kuwait                       9.4      23.7                                         37.2    21.7      62.8     78.3        .
1..  ~  *~''     '''       ''     46.9 .    3.9       00..    0.0
Leo  PDR                       ...          ....... 
Latvia                       4.7       4.0     64.9     73.8      0.0     2.5      35.1    10.5       0.0     13.2
Lebanon                      2.8       5.3     30.9     13.8                       69.1    862.2
Lesotho    ..        ..       ..       ..       ..       .~   ~   ~~~     ~ ~~~~~~. ..... .. .........-....  ....  ......
Libya                   .....4.8      18.0                                   ........  ..100.0 10 .
Lithuania                   117.7     13.5     .4.0      2.8        .       ..     96.0 ...8.3         0.      15       00      84
Macedonia, FYR                ..       6.1              13.1 ...  ...  ..863.3.             06
Madagascar
Malawi                                  .      .. ...
Malaysia           . . .    10.0 ...45.5       13.9    .13 7 ..  ..00     86       84.7     39.5       1.3    383 ...
Mali
M u i an ia                .........                                            .        .               . . . . ......  ..  ... .
Mauritius..                             .                                             ...
Mexico                      67.0   .. 152.5...  25.. 2 . 18.0 0... . O0.  .94      57.9 ..  51.4      15.5    11.9      0.0       5.5
Moldova                     15A.4      8.4      2.6      33.3   .. 0.0   38.-3 ..  97.4     11.1       0.0    47.2
M ongols   ..  ..      ..       ..       ..      ..         ..~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.......   .   ...   ......I ....I.....
Morocco                      5.2      12.0     28.9      5.0- ....195.5 .1  .46.3  51.6..  48.7         .......   ..............
Mozambique                  14.0       0.6     96.8      8.9      00 0.... 13.0     3.2     63.6       0.0    14.6...
Myanmar                  ... 1.5       3.8     53:5     40:4      2.0     0.1      31.3     14.3      13.2    45.2
Namibia                        .         ..
Nepal                        0.2       1.2.    823      969.9      -. ...          1.        3.1
Netherlands                 648.8     81.1      0.0(....  04.1   13.7    35.6      38.4      4.8      39.8.... 51.8.    6 .5      5 0
New Zealand                 22.3     .36.2     85.0     761.1    .1.9     2.0 0...  O.1      0.1 ....77.7.    13.6....
Nicaragua                    1.1       1.8     47.8     22.8                       52.2     57..4.I.............   .....   .......
Niger
Nigeria                      71.1     14.5.    39:0     38.0 0.O4.        00 ...... 45.1   24.1       15.5    38.0
Norway                      83.8     122.0     99.8     994.4     00.0    0.2       0. 1. ... 00. .......00 0..... 0.2
Oman                         0:.8      6.5        .                 .       .        .       93      100 0    80.7
Pakistan                    150.0     53.6     58.2    .42 7      0.2 ..  0.1       1.1     29.4      40:5    26.9      0.0       1.0
Panama                       2.0       3.5     49.4     66.9        .       ..     48.4_   3 1.
Papua New Guinea..                       .                          ..       .
Paraguay                     0:8.8.   416.6.   88.6     99.9                        2.5      0.0
Peru                        10.0      16.0     69.8     85.9                 .     27.3     11.9       1.7     1.4
Philippines                 18:.0     297.7    19.6  ... .109.9   1 0      6 8     67.9 ..  62..8 .                        ......   .
Poland                     121.9     136.7      2.7      1.4     89.4    97.3       7.8      1 1       0.1     0.2
Portugal                    15.2      33.2     52.7     25.2 ..   2:3     406      42.9     31.1.........                       ....
Puerto Rico..                            .
Romania                     67.5      593.3    18'7     28:2     31.4    35.1.      9.6.     98 ....I 38:2.   26.9
Russian Federation         804.9     859.0     16.1     20.5      0.      83       772       92        0.      01       67       1.
1998 World Development Indicators 161



E9lectricity         98      19                      Sources o9f0electricit19
Hydropower          Coal              01[               Gas           Nuclear power
1980 1995 198  199     190     195      180      195       980     9951980  1995
Rwanda
Saudi Arabia               20.5      93.9                                        58.5    55.3      415      47
Senegal                     0.6       0.9                                       100.0   100.0
Sierra Leone
Singapcre                   7.0      22.1                         d100.0                 82.8       0.0    17.2
Slovak Republic            20.0      25.6    11.3     19.1     37.9    22.6      17.9     4.7      10.2     9.0     22.7     44.6
Sloveni'a                   8.0      12.6    42.3     25.6     51.6    34.3       3.9     2.3       2.2     0.0      0.0     37.8
South Africa               99.0     186.8      1.0     0.3     99.0    93.5         .       ...               ..     0.0      6.0
Spain                     109 .2    165.6    27.1     14.0     30.0    40.5      35.2     8.6       2.7     2.3      4.7     33.5
Sri Lanka                    1.7      4.8    88.7     92.7                       11.3     7.3
Sudan                       1.1       1.3    61.7     71.0                       27.7    10.2
Sweden                     96.3     147.0    61.1     45.6      0.2     2.2     -10.4     2.4       0.0     0.6     27.5     47.6
Switzerland                48.2      62.3    68.1     56.6      0.1     0.0       1.0     0.6       0.6     1.3    20.8      40.0
Syrian Arab Republic        4.0      15.3    64.7     45.4                .      31.9    32.1       3.4    22.5
Tajikistan                 13.6      14.8     93.4    98.8                .       6.6     1.2        .
Tanzania                     1.0      1.6    100.0    65.9               ..       0.0    14.1         .
Thailand                   14.4      80.1     6 8      6.4      9.8    16.5      81.4    30.5       0.0    42.3
Togoa.
Trinidad and Tobago          2.0      4.3                                 .       2.3     0.0      96.0    99.2
Tunisia                      2.9      7.3      0.8     0.5               ..      68.3    65.5      30.9    34.0
Turkey                     23.1      86.2    49.0     41.2     25.8    32.5      25.2     6.7       0.0    19.2
TurKmenistan                 6.7      9.6     0.1       0.0               .     100.0     0.0       0.0   100.0
Uganda.
Ukraine                   236.0     194.0     5.7      5.2      0.0    32.9      68.3     4.3       0.0    21.3      6.0     36.3
United Arab Emirates        6.3      19.1                                ..      44.8    16.6      55.2    81.2
United Kingdom            284.1     332.9     1.4      1.6     73.2    43.0      11.7    10.7       0.7    17.5    13.0      26.7
United States            2,427.3  3,558.4    11.5      8.6     51.2    51.5      10.8     2.5      15.3    14.9    11.0      20.1
Uruguay                     3.4       6.3    67.9     87.68.                     30.7    11.0        .
Uzbekistan                 33.9      47.2    14.6     15.0      0.0     6.5      65.4     2.4       0.0    76.1
Venezuela                  36.9      73.5    39.6     70.0                .      14.5     5.4      45.9    24.5
Vietnam                     3.6      14.4    41.8     77.9     39.9     7.4      18.3     8.2       0.0     6.5
West Bank and Gaza..                                                                .
Yemen, Rep                   0.5      2.4                                ..     100.0   100.0
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)         37.2             30.2             63.7        ..     2.4        ..     3.7
Zambia                      9.5       7.8    98.8     99.7      0.7     0.3       0.5     0.0
Zimbabwe                    4.3       7.3    87.6     32.3     11.6    67.7       0.6     0 0
Low income                566.6    1636.7    32.68    23.8     42.     63.       216      70        16       .       ..
Exci. China  &  India  146.9  214.4  55~~~~~~~....1 5.8....:........I..... 1. .1...  34.6...... ... 23 .....25 .8  .17.0  2 .9 .  0.4.......
M'iddl e" in" c' o m"e ...............22-2-9..2.... 3'3"04 ..9.......2"1'.2   26.1   15.3  25.3  54.8  15.4  4.7  24.2  3.6   8.2
Lower middle income  1601.7  2137.3  16.0  23.7  3.8  ~~~~~   ~~202.2.....69.4 ...147.7  3.9  .31.4  46     9.3
Upper middle income  627.5  1167.6  ~~~ ~~29.  30.6..... 44.  34.    17.6     16.6      6.6    .10.8     1.1       6.1
Lo-w ...& ..m 1d"d'l"e i'n"co..me .........279-6.0  4916 236 2.4 2..3.            8.      28"      .. 4.1  17.4      3.2      5.
East Asia & Pacific       39.      283       2.        96      4.       17       2.       10        0.3     5.9      0.0      1.0
Eu'rope ..&... Cent'ral A"s ia .........1'6'4'8.0.... 16-0-8-.9  13.7  16.1  13.4  32.0  65.7  8.2  2.1    28.1      5.0     13.4
Middle East &  N. Africa ... 104.0......... 360.  20.5  7.6   1....I0 ......1.5 ..  52.2 .49.6  264.1.
South Asia       136.5    ~~~~~     ~~~465.  41.5  23.1  43.0  59.3      7.4     6.2       5.9     9.6.     2.2      1 S
Su b-'Sa"h a-r'an'. Afr'ic'a ..... 153.1  245.6  30.6  16.6    64.4    731        4.2    .3.0       0.7     2.3      0.0      4.6
Hihincome              5430.9   6239.1     19.4     1S.0     39.4    37.3~     16.1.     1   .   11.2    13.0     11.5     24.6-
152   1998 World Deveiopwent Indicators



*                                                                     ,.           ~~~~~~~~~3.94
Use of energy in general, and access to electricity in         .                                  * Electricity production is measured at the termi-
particular, are major factors in improving people's                                               nals of all alternator sets in a station. In addition to
standard of living. Electricity generation, however,  Sources of global electricity generation    electricity generated by hydropower, coal, oil, gas,
has the potential to damage the environment.         are shiting                                  and nuclear power, it covers that generated by geot-
Whether such damage occurs largely depends on         1980             Natural                    hermal, solar, wind, and tide and wave energy, as well
how electricity is generated. For example, burning          Hydror!jSer gas Nuclear               as that from combustible renewables and waste.
coal as an energy input emits twice as much carbon             21       W      4%                 Production includes the output of electricity plants
dioxide-a major contributor to global warming-as                  _*..        I                   that are designed to produce electricity only as well
does burning an equivalent amount of natural gas                                                  as that of combined heat and power plants.
(see table 3.8). Nuclear energy does not generate          Petroleum          Coal                * Sources of electricity refer to the inputs used to
28%              33%/
any carbon dioxide emissions, but it is not as safe as    -                                       generate electricity: hydropower, coal, oil, gas, and
solar energy. The table shows how "clean" generated  1995              Nuclear                    nuclear power. Hydropower refers to electricity pro-
Natural  power
electricity is.                                                         18%                       duced by hydroelectric power plants, oil refers to
The International Energy Agency (IEA) compiles                            -1%                   crude oil and petroleum products, gas refers to nat-
data on energy inputs used to generate electricity. IEA  H., :         I                          ural gas but excludes natural gas liquids, and nuclear
data for non-OECD countries are based on national          C' Coal                                refers to eleoLriciLy produced by nuclear power plants.
energy data that have been adjusted to conform with           Petroleum        38%                Shares may not sum to 100 percent because other
annual questionnaires completed by OECD member                  10%                               sources of generated electricity (such as geothermal,
governments. In addition, estimates are sometimes     Source: Table 3.9.                          solar, and wind) are not shown.
made to complete major aggregates from which key      Electricity generation lhas Increased more than 60
data are missing, and adjustments are made to com-    percent since 1950-twice as mucl. as populaelon
drowteh isee tables 2.1arnd 3.91. Becausefossllfuels
pensate for differences in definitions. The lEA makes  are the main sources rl generatec electilc.t, ths  Data sources
these estimates in consultation with national statis-  Increase 'as beenr associateci with %arous eanvi  ,mai          Data on electricity production
ronmental impacts. Including increased carbon
tical offices, oil companies, electricity utilities, and  dloxlde emissions and depleted nonrenewable                 are from the IEA's electronic
natural resorurces. As these figures show, since   s.;.          flsadisana          bia
national energy experts.                                0        =s   ths   ltr rd°ear                   S' G;       ,files and its annual publica-
national energy experts.                ±~~~~980 there has been a move toward lclleaner"    . ..
The IEA occasionally revises its time series to    sources of energy. Svii. sources with the leasi    * F           tions, Energy Statistics and
enviromnental impact, such en solar energy, accont               Balances   of   Non-OECD
reflect political changes. For example, since 1990   ror a small fractlon of generated electriciy. 
estimates of energy balances have been constructed                                                                     Countries, Energy Statistics
for countries of the former Soviet Union. Energy sta-                                              -                   of OECD   Countries, and
tistics for some countries undergo continuous                                                            s'         ,Energy Balances of OECD
changes in coverage or methodology. For example, in                                               Countries.
recent years more detailed energy accounts have
become available for some countries. Thus breaks in
series are unavoidable.
1998 World Development Indicators      153



O ~3.10 Urbanization
Urban population                    Population in              Population in          Access to
urban agglomerations          the largest city       sanitation
of more than one million                             in urban areas
% of total                % of total% of urban                            % of urban
millions         population                population                 oopulation           poou,ation
1980    1996     1980     1996       1980       1996     2015         1980     1995        1980     1995
Albania                      0.9     1.2      34       38...                           ...
Algeria                      8.1    16 .2     43       56         11        13        16          25        24          95
Angola                       1.5     3.5      21       32         13        20        30          63        62          ..      34
Argentina                   23.3    31.1      83       88         35        41        36          43        39          ..     100
Armenia                      2.0     2.6      66       69         34        34        41          51        50
Australia                   12.6    1.5       86       85         47        57        59          26        23
Austria                      4.9     5.2      65       64         27        26        27          42        40          ..     100
Azerbaijan                   3.3     4.2      53       56         26        25        29          48        44
Bangladesh                   9.8    23.0      11       19          5        10        15          33        39          20      77
Belarus                      5.4     7.4      57       72         14        17        20          24        24
Belgium                      9.4     9.9      95       97         12        11        11          13        11          ..     100
Benin                        0.9     2.2      27       39          ...                 ......                                   54
Bolivia                      2.4     4.7      46       61         14        17        19          30        28          ..      64
Bosnia and Herzegovina       1.5      ..      36       42
Botswana                     0.1     0.9      15       63          ...                 .                     ...                91
Brazil                      80.3   127.3      66       79         27        33        34          16        13          ..      55
Bulgaria         ~5.4                5.7      61       69         12        14        20          20        21          ..     100
Burkina Faso                 0.6     1.8       9       16          ...                 .44                  50          ..      42
Burundi                      0.2     0.5       4        8...                           ...
Cambodia                     0.8     2.2      12       21...                           ...
Cameroon                     2.7     6.2      31       46          6        19        14          19        22          ..      73
Canada                      18.6    23.0      76       77         29        35        35          16        19
Central African Republic     0.8     1.3      35       40...
Chad                         0.8     1.5      19       23          -...                .          40        58          ..      73
Chile                        9.0    12.1      81       84         33        34        36          41        41          ..     100
China                      192.3   377.0      20       31          8        11        14           6         4           ..     58
*Hong Kong, China           4.6     6.0      92       95         91         93       86          100       99
Colombia                    17.8    27.4      64       73         22        34        30          20        23          ..      76
Congo, Dem. Rep.            .78     13.1      29       29          ..       10        ..28                  34           8
Congo, Rep.                  0.7     1.6      41       59          ..       39        ..67                  65          17      11
Costa Rica                   1.0     1.7      43       50          -...                .          61        55-
CMe dIlvoire                 2.9     6.3      35       44         15        20        31          44        46          13      59
Croatia                      2.3     2.7      50       56          ...                 .28                  37          ..      72
Cube                         6.6     8.4      68       76         20        20        22          29        27          ..      71
Czech Republic      ~        6.5     6.8      64       66.        12        12        13          18        18
Denmark                      4.3     4.5      84       85         27        25        25          32        30          ..     100
Dominican Republic           2.9     5.0      51       63         25        58        36          50        65          ..      76
Ecuador                      3.7     7.0      47       60         14        28        31          30        27          ..      87
Egypt, Arab Rep.            17.9    26.6      44       45         23        25        25          38        37          95      20
El Salvador                  1.9     2.6      42       45          ..       22        ..40                  48           -      78
Eritrea                       ..     0.6       .:.     17......
Estonia                      1.0     1.1      70.      73...                           ...
Ethiopia                     4.0     9.2      11       16          3         4         6          30        28
Finland                      2.9     3.3      60       64         ..        21        ..22                  33         100     100
France                      39.5    43.7      73       75         21        21        20          23        22          .-     100
Gabon                        0.2     0.6      34       51                                          ...                   .      79
Gambia, The                  0.1     0.3      20       30                                           ....-                       83
Georgia                      2.6     3.2.     52       59 ..      22        25        31          42        43
Germany                     64.7    71.0      83       87         38        41        42          10         9           ..    100
Ghana                        3.4     6.4      31       36          9        10        14          30        27          ..      50
Greece                       5.6     6.2      58       59         31        30        37          54        50          ..     100
Guatemala                    2.6     4.3      37       39          ..       21        ..29                  53          ..      78
Guinea                       0.9     2.0      19       30         12        24        35          65        81          54
Guinea-Bissau                0.1     0.2      17       22          ...                 ..                     .21               32
Haiti                        1.3     2.4      24       32         13        21        27          55        64          ..      42
Honduras                     1.3     2.7      35       44          ...                 .32                  38          ..      89
154   1998 World Developmnent Indicators



3.10                   0
Urban population                         Population in                 Population in            Access to
urban agglomerations              the largest city          sanitation
of more than one million                                   in urban areas
% of total                   % of total                    % of urban              % of urban
millions           population                   population                    population              population
1980     1.996      1.980    1.996        1.980      1996       2015          1980       1995         1980     .1995
Hungary                         6.1       6.6      57        65           19         20         21            34         31            .       100
India                         158.8    256.3       23        27            6         10         12             56                     25        70
Indonesia                      32.9     71.6       22        36            7           9        16            18         13                     73
Iran, Islamic Rep.             19.4     37.2       50        60           13         22         24            26         1990
I raq                           8.5    *16.0       66        7 526                   29         21            39         28           30        95
Ireland      ..  .  .....  ......1.9     2.1       55 ...   ...  5 8 .  ..  ...48                                ....    44            .       100
Israel                          3.4      5.2       89        91           37         35         31            41         39
Italy                 ~~~37.6   38.3        67       67           26          20        21            14         11.                   100
Jamaica                         1.0      I1.4       47       54                                                ..                ..             89
Japan                          89.0     98.4        7 6      78           34         38         39            25         2
Jordan                          1.3       3.1       60       72           29         29         34            49         39           91
Kazakhstan                      8.0      9.9       54        60            6          8         10            12         13
Kenya                           2.7       8.1      16        30            5           7        1432                     24             .       6
Korea, Dem. Rep.               10.1     13.8        57       62           10         11         13            18         18            .       100
Korea,Rp                       21.7     37.5       57        82           37         52         542                       2
Kuwait                          1.2       1.5      90        97           60         70         67            67         73          100       100
Kyrgyz Republic                 1.4      1.8       38        39.                                                                      78        87
Lao PDR                         0.4      1.0        13       21                                                .          ..                    30
Latvi a1.7                               1.8       68        7 3                                              49         50
Lebanon                         2.2       3.6       74       88                      46                       55         52           94
Lesotho                         0.2       0.5       13       25                        .                                              22         1
Libya                           2.1       4.4      69        86           38         34         77            38         39
Macedonia, FYR                  1.0       1.2      54        60
Madagascar                      1.6       3.7       18       27                                               30         25            .        12
Malawi                          0.6      1.4         9       14                        ...                                .70
Malaysia                        5.8     11.2       42        54            7          6          716                     11.                   100
Mali                            1.2       2.7       19       27                                               40         35           90        58
Mauritania                      0.4       1.2       27       53.
Mauritius                       0.4       0.5      42        41                                                .                     100
Mexico                         44.1     68.6       66        74           27         27         25            31         25                     81
Moldova                         1.6      2.3       40        52                        .                                                        96
Morocco                         8.0     14.2       41        53           11         17         2 226                    23           85        69
Mozambique                      1.6       6.3       13       35            6         13         20            47         38           51        53
Myanmar                         8.1     12.0        24       267                       9        13            27         33                     42
Namibia                         0.2       0.6       23       37....                                                                             77
Nepal                           0.9       2.3        7       11                                  .              .5                              51
Netherlands                    12.5     13.8       88        89            7         14         14             88..                            100
New Zealand                     2.6       3.1       83       86                                               30         31
Nicaragua                       1.5       2.8       53       63           23         26         33            42         41                     34
Niger                           0.7       1.7       13       19                        ..        .                                    20        71
Nigeria                        19.1     46.3       27        40            6         11         15            23         23.                    61
Norway                          2.9      3.2       71        .73            ..... ..... .....                                        100. ......   . .... ........  ...   .....l o....  100
Oman                            0.3       1.7       32       77                        .                                              60        98
Pakistan                       23.2     46.5        28       35           11         18         23            22         22           48        53
Panama                          1.0       1.5       50       56                        .                      62         66
Papua New Guinea                0.4      07         13       16                        ..                      ..         .                     82
Paraguay                        1.3       2.6       42       53                      23                       51         43
Peru                           11.2     17.3        65       71           26         28         33            39         39            .        62
Philippines                    18.1     39.5        38       55           12         15         15            33         24
Poland                         20.7     24.7        58       64           18         18         19            16         14            .       100
Portugal                        2.9       3.6       29       3613               .    19         24            46         53                    100
Puerto Rico                     2.1       2.8       67       74           34          35        30            51         48
Romania                        10.9     12.7       49        56            9           9        10             18        17.                    85
Russian Federation             97.0    112.7        70       76           16          19        20              8         8 
1998 World Development Indicators 155



I      V11" 3.10
Urban population              Population in         Population in     Access to
urban agglomerations    the largest city    sanitation
of more than one million                   in urban areas
% of total           % of tota. Iof urban                    % of urban
millions      population           population            population        populat on
1980   199e   ie980  19ee      1980    1996    2015      1980    1.995     1980   1995
Rwanda                  0.2   0.4      5      6......
Saudi Arabia           6.2   16.2     66     83       19      22      22         16      17
Senegal                2.0    3.8     36     44       18      21      31         47     47        ..      83
Sierra Leo.ne          0.8    1.6     24     34        ...              ..                .30             17
Singapore              2.3    3.0    100    100      100      100    100        100     100       ..      97
Slovak Republic        2.6    3.2     52     59
Slovenia                0.9   1.0     48     52       ..        ..                .       ..              95
South Africa           13.1  18.6     48     50       12      34      24         12      12       ..      79
Spain                  27.2  30.1     7 3    7 7      20       1 8    18         16      14       ..     100
Sri Lanka               3.2   4.1     22     22...
Sudan                   3.7   8.8     20     32        6       9      14         31     27        70      79
Sweden                  6.9   7.4     83     83       17      18      19         20      21       ..     100
Switzerland             3.6   4.3     5 7    6 1                        .2 0             2 1       ..    100
Syrian Arab Republic   4.1    7.6     47     53       28      28      36         34      28       58     100
Tajikisatn              1.4   1.9     34     32                                   ....                    83
Tanzania               2.7    7.6     15     25        5       6       9         30      24       93      97
Thailand               .7.9  12.2     17     20       10      11      16         59      55
Togo                    0.6   1.3     23     31                                   .       ...             56
Trinidad and Tobago     0.7   0.9     63     72        .........                                          60
Tuniaia                3.3    5.7     5 2    63       1 7      19     2 6        3 5     3 1      64
Turkey                 19.5  44.2     44     70       17      25      25         23      19       ..      99
Turkmeniatan           1.3     21.1   47     45                        ...                ...             7 0
Uganda                  1.1   2.5      9     13                        ..42              40       ..      75
Ukraine                30.9  35.8     62     7 1      14       1 6    18          7      8         .      7 0
United Arab Emirates    0.7   2.1     72     84        ..       .       .31              39
United Kingdom         50.0  52.5     89     89       25      23      23         15      15
United Statea         167.5  202.5    74     76       36      39      39          9      8
Uruguay                 2.5   2.9     85     91       42      42      41         49     46
Uzbekiatan             6.5    9.6     41     41       11      10      12        26      24        ..     46
Venezuela              11.8  19.2     79     86       16      28      28         22      16       ..      64
Vietnam                10.3  14.7     19     19        5       6       9         27      25       ..      43
Weat Bank and Gaza..            .      ..     .
Yemen, Rep.             1.7   5.4     20     34        .........                                          70
Ygsai,FR (Srbl/Mont.l  4.5  6.1   46     57       11       11     15         24      20        ..    100
Zambia                 2.3    4.0     40     43        9       15     23         23      34       ..      40
Zimbabwe                1.6   3.7     22     33       ..       13      ..39              40       ..      98
Low income            501.1  940.6    21     29        7       11     14         12      13
Excn    ia.......Chins...15 .03&.3 ..India......29150.0.......8307.3.....12.21....29.12.6.  ...... .
'M'idldlie" in"come   638....7 .. 977.6  52....   61  17  ~    Hj... .        ... 2122.... 21 .
Lowerr middled  income  408.3...........   632.1  47... -32.1......... - ......... 56............14 .........141 18.........2020 . 22 . 21..2'" '   '1.......
Low  &  middleInc-o..m"e .........1",1,3-9,.7 ....1,9..1'8".2 ....... 3'2'....... 40' ...... 11"'......... 1-4.   .S . .. -7...17. ...
Eaat Aaia & Pacific  288.4  S58.0  21  33~~~~....  8........ I.........1............ .  ........ .......... .2
M i;Fazi  ri  !ir,  ,               il              3-
S6UA''si' ....198.4    337.3    22.2              6      11      14         9      11   .    §      6.
Sub-'ahka-r'a-n. A'fri"ca ............ .8"7'.2 .....1'89".0  ....... 2'3  32.....   .. 3'"13  2 8.3
High income           '':    '"        .     ..                : 
15O  1998 World Development Indicators



3.10                   0
The population of a city or metropolitan area depends  in the hundreds of towns reclassified as cities in  * Urban population is the midyear population of areas
on the boundaries chosen. For example, in 1990  recent years. Because the estimates in the table are  defined as urban in each country and reported to the
Beijing, China, contained 2.3 million people in 87  based on national definitions of what constitutes a  United Nations (see About the data). * Population in
square kilometers of "inner city" and 5.4 million peo-  city or metropolitan area, cross-country comparisons  urban agglomerations of more than one million is the
ple in 158 square kilometers of "core city." The pop-  should be made with caution.              percentage of a country's population living in metropol-
ulation of "inner city and inner suburban districts"  To estimate urban populations, the United Nations  itan areas that in 1990 had a population of more than
was 6.3 million, and that of "inner city, inner and  ratio of urban to total population was applied to the  one million people. * Population In the largest cIty is
outer suburban districts and counties" was 10.8 miu-  World Bank's estimates of total population (see table  the percentage of a country's urban population living in
lion. (This table uses the last definition.)    2.1). The resulting urban population estimates are  that country's largest metropolitan area. * Access to
Estimates of the world's urban population would  also used to calculate the population in the largest  sanitation In urban areas isthe percentage of the urban
change significantly if China, India, and a few other  city as a percentage of the urban population.  population served by connections to public sewers or
populous nations were to change their definition of  Urban areas with access to sanitation services  household systems such as pit privies, pour-flush
urban centers. In fact, according to China's State  are defined as urban populations served by connec-  latrines, septic tanks, communal toilets, and other such
Statistical Bureau, by the end of 1996 urban resi-  tions to public sewers or household systems such as  facilities.
dents accounted for about 43 percent of the country's  pit privies, pour-flush latrines, septic tanks, commu-
population, when in 1994 only 20 percent of the pop-  nal toilets, and similar facilities. These definitions  Data sources
ulation was considered urban. Besides the continu-  and definitions of urban areas vary, however, so com-
ous migration of people from rural to urban areas, one  parisons between countries can be misleading (see  Data on urban population, population in urban
of the main reasons for this shift was the rapid growth  table 2.14).                            agglomerations, and population in the largest city
come from the United Nations World Urbanization
Prospects: The 1996 Revision. Total population fig-
ures are World Bank estimates. Data on access to
Urban populations in developing               East Asia has had the sharpest increase
counttries are ballooning                      in urban population                          sanitation in urban areas are from the World Health
Organization.
Millions of urban residents                   Millions of urban residents
1  .             Euripe an.3
Mdedie.-.ncom?                   -       '         cenrral Asia
ciunltnes                            Eal A -ia      L-      nnerca
aii' and tne Pa ,rc      ared Lnc Carber,an
/ cour,u'e6 
_Hgr'r-'ncome                  -~Sij-Saharan
rosnrries          ;'"'       So,th As,a       arita
, ,,-, . _ _ _-_-- - - Middie East and
NMr n Afric a
1980     1984    1988     1992    1996        a980     1984     1988     1992    1996
Source: Table 3.10.
Almost all low- and middle.income countries have experienced rapid urban growth In recent years. In 2.60 less than
22 percent oI the developing worlds population "-see In cities: oy 1996 that share hao Increased to 40 percent. Bg
201S it as experwd wo exceed 50 percent if that happens. tne number ol urban residents would reach 4 billion. a more
Thain 50 percent increase over todnr(s total. Worldwide. almost rhree.caarters ol tie 2.6 billion people lIling in urban
areas In 1996 were In developing countries.
1998 World Development Indicators      157



Q      ~~~3.IL1Traf fic and congestion
Motor vehicles    Passenger  Two-wheelers  Road traffic  Traffic
cars                            accidents
people
njured or killed
per 1,000  per kilometer  per 1,000  per 1,000  mn ion veh cle  per 1,000
people     of road     people    people     kilometers  veh ces
1980  1996  1980  1996  1.980  1996  1980  1996  1980  1996  1980  1996
Albani'a          ..    31    ..    6     .   20     ..2        ..         .5
Algeria            ..   ..  .53  .. 14.  30   25     1     .               .    44
Angola            ~~~21       3         19
Argentina        155   154    20   25     ..  127    .    1     .. 56,590
Armenia           ..     2    ..    I.         0     ..2
Australia        502   604   ..    12   401   485   24    1s   204   ..    5
Austria          330   495    23   31   297   458   76    70  35,430  ..  27    14
Azerbaijan         ..   48    ..    7     .   36     ..   1     .  2.207   ..9
Bangladesh         ..    1    ..    I     ..   0     .1         ....            30
Belarus  .....          101   ..   20     ..  101    ..   49    ., 5,493   ,.   10
Belgium          349   469   28    33    ..   424   ..    21  45,779  59,884  25  14
Benin             ..    8     .     7     ..   7     .    44    ...        .    74
Bolivia           19    48    3     7    ..   29     ..   9    795  1.730  41
Boania and Herzegovina  .. 24. .    5    .    22     ..   .                .    25
Botswana          27    45    3     4    9    15     1    ..50                  94
Brazil            85    79    7     6    75   84     3    ,,3                    4
Bulgaria          ..   234    ..   53    92   204    ..  62    665   19          4
Burkina Faso       ..    5    ..    5          4     ..   10
.uu d ...6...3.......                                    .
Cambodia           .     6    ..    2     ..   5     .    39    ,, 1,236   ..   29
Cameroon           8    12   .4     4     ..   7     .    .....           112   46
Canada           548   559    ..   16   417   440   19    11  205,515  .   ..   13
Central African Republic  8  0  1   0     ..   0     ..   0     .  1,250
Chad               ..    4    ..    1     .2         ..1        ....            22
Chile             61   110    8    20    45   71     4    2   7,540   ..  38    33
China              2     8    2     7     ..   3     ..   8   2,032  165,000  12  22
Hong Kong, China  54   78   234   276   41    55    5    5   4,407  10,514  77  39
Colombia    ..    38~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.. ...   13.  12  20  17  .. 2,480
Congo, Dem. Rep.   ..   31    ..    9     ..  17     ..
Congo, Rep.        ..   20    ..    4    .    14     .    ...       103    ..   21
Costa Rica        ..   123    ..   12    20   81     ..   15    .. 4,244   ..   26
Ci5te dIlvoire    24    32    ..    9     ..  20     .
Croatia           ..   196    ..   34     .   175    ..   .     ..         .    18
Cuba               ..    5    .2          ,.   2     ..
Czech Republic    ..   349   ..    65     .   325    .   107    .. 37,350  ..   11
Denmark          322   390   24    28   271   331    ..   10  26,300  41,500  10  5
Dominican Republic  36  47   11    30    20   28    12    9     ...       18
Ecuador            ..   46    ..   12    28   41     ..   3     .. 14,190  ..   18
Egypt,Arab Rep,    ..   30   ..    28    8    23     ..   7     .. 6,222  ..    16
El Salvador        ..   77    ..   44    16   29    ..    7     .. 3,646   ..   17
En re ..  2....1.. 2.....
Estonia            ..  329    ..   32     ,   277    ..   3     ....0
Ethiopia           2     1    1     3    1     1     0    0     2     ..  38
Finland          288   431   18    28   256   379   36    32  26,750  10.120  7  4
France           402   524   27    34   355   437   97    52  298,000  467.300  16  6
Gabon              ..   36    ..    5    .    22     ..   .     ..         .    30
Gambia, The        ..   15    ..    7    11    8     1    1     .
Georgia           ..    87    ..   23    ..   79    5..             165    ..5
Germany          399   528   51    68   297   500   38    30    ..563,200  ..   12
Ghana              ..   8     .     4    ..    5     .    .
Greece           134   312   35    28    91   223   12   184   ..    510  23    10
Guyatemala        ..    18.   .    15 9.
Guinea             ..    5    .     1    ,.    2                           .   147
Guinea-Bissau     ..    12    .     3          7
Haiti             ..     7    .    13    ..    4
Honduras          ..    33    .    13     ..   4
158  1998 World Development Indicators



3.11           0
Motor vehicles      Passenger  Two-wheelers  Road traffic   Trafflc
cars                               accidents
people
injured or killed
per 1,000   per kilometer   per 1,000   per 1,000  million vehicle   per 1,000
people      of road      people      people     kilometers   vehicles
1980  1996   1980  1996  1980  1996   1980  1996  1980  1996  1980  1996
Hungary            18    23      3     17    95   2915                            2 
India               2      7     1     3            4          24                       65
Indonesia           8     22     8     11          11          48                 59
Iran, Islamic Rep.        38           15          29                                   15
Iraq                      14I61.3
Ireland            236   307     9     12   216   272     8     6   14,917  28,390  11  .10
Israel             123   263    114    98   107   208.         12   10,442  31,060  38  32
Italy              334   674    65    122   303   571   114    44 226,569 453,160  12    7
Jamaica             ..    50            741                            .
Japan              323   552    34    60    203   374   102   120 389,052 689,800  16   14
Jordan              56    68    25    44     41    50     2     0     623  2,154  63    54
Kazakhstan           ..   80     .     1061..                              867     .    1
Kenya               8     13     3     6      7    10     1     1          6,200  74    75
Korea, Dem. Rep..            .   
Korea,Re.          14    195    11    106     7   151     6    54   8.728 56,940  212   42
Kuwait             390   404     .    156     .   338          10   12,189   . 
Kyrgyz Republic           32      .    8      ..   32           1          ,62     ..   26
Lao.PDR              4.      1....                  3..49
Latvia                   189            7     .   153     .     8      .           .5
Lebanon             ..   320      .   205298                   13
Lesotho            10     19     3     8      3     6     0     0      ..   445   85    77
Libya                    138      .    9..         87     .7   '.. 
Lithuania            .   238     ..    14     .......212        .5          198    ..7
Macedonia, FYR       ..   142    ..    3139.                               4,247  ..    11
M ..g . ca ..   .....   ...   . . ....   .: ....  . 6.   .. 3 .... 2 .  5.1....        11
Malawi              5      6     3     2      2     3     2     1
Malaysia             .   152     .     33    52   131    101   164                      17
Mali                ..     4     .            .     3.3                                 22
Mauritania           ..   13     ..    4      . 
Mauritius           44    88    23    54     27    63    27    85     46
Mexico              ..    40           52    61    92           3.            ,    . 
Moldova              .    54           19     .    39          25      .    910    .    15
Mongolia             ..   26            2     .    12          10...               ..   2
Morocco                   50           22          40     .     1     18           -- .  44
Mozambique                 1      .     0     .     0     .      .
Myanmar             2. ...              2                              .....1..... ..
Namibia              .    83240                           ..    1249               .     5
Netherlands        343   400     .     49   322   363    61     27  70,825 108.100  12   2
New Zealand        492   562    17    22    420   461    43    13  16,545         1      9
Nicaragua            ..   30.           8     9    16     ..    5150               ..   29
Niger                6     6            5     5     4                       240   63
Nigeria             4     12     3     7      3     7     4     3                123
Norway             342   470    17    22    302   379    36    46      . 25,386    8     6
Oman                 ..   134    ..     9     . . ... 97        2                  ..   23
Pakistan             2     7     5      4     2     5     3     12        3190    71    28
Panama               .    99           24     .    76           3                  .    33
PapuaNemGuinea  ..  26  .  6  ..     7     .     ..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ..  .. ....
Paraguay.                 24     ..     4     ..   14     .
Peru                ..    121          40          58....
Philippines         ..,   13.           5     6     9     4     11          193
Poland              86    248    10    26    67   209     ..    4   44,597  118,530  .   8
Portugal           145    370   26     50     .    277     .    79    283 84,590  31    19
Puerto   Rico  .......... .......  285  ....   74.   .. ....232  ...
Romania             ..    124    ..    1.. 0..                           533,5314
Russian Federation        158          24     .    92     ..    .                  .9
1998 World Development Indicators 159



3.11
Motor vehicles           Passenger     Two-wheelers     Road traffic     Traffic
cars                                         acc idents
people
injured or killed
per 1,000      per kilometer   per 1,000       per 1.000     m Ilioi vehicle  per 1,000
people          of road         people         people        Kilometers      vehicles
1980    1996    1980    1996    1980    1996   1980    1998    1980    1996 I1980     1998
Rwanda                    2       4       2       2       1      2       1       0        .
Saudi Arabia            163     149      26      18      67     90        .      0        ..94.141      ..     13
Senegal                  19      14       8       8       ..     10       .      0        .       ..   56      86
Sierra Leone              ..      6       ..      2       .      4        -2              ..     29
Singapore                ..     167      ..     168      71    120      55      44       ..      .       .     14
Slovak Republic          ..     217      ..      32      ..     198       .     38       ..     651     .      11
Slovenia                  .     387       ..     52      ..     365       .      4        ..  8,037     ..     11
South Africa            133     134      18      16      86     106      7       7   52,939      ..    25      26
Spain                   239     455     120      52     202    376      33      33   70,489 134,541    13       7
SriLanka                 ..      14      ..       3       8      6       6      28       ..   8,950     -.     75
Sudan                     ..     12       .      28       ..    10       .       ..               .
Sweden                  370     450      24      29     347     414      2      13   35,000  65,440     7       6
Switzerland             383     501      38      50     356     462    128     101       5.0,650       14       8
Syrian Arab Republic     ..      28       ..     10       ..     10      ...              ...                  24
Tajikistan                ..I.                            .      0       .       .
Tanzania                  3       5       1       2       2       1      1       1        ..      .      .    104
Thailand                 13     106      13      97       9      28     19     171   16,824  99,900    29      13
Togo                     ..      27       1      15      ..      19      ..     14       ..     386
Trinidad and Tobago      ..     113      ..      18      ..      94 
Tunisia                  38      64      10      25      20      29      2       1        .       ..   45
Turkey                   23      70       4      11      ..      55      ..      4   14,785  41,015    26      25
Turkmenistan              .        .      . 
Uganda                    1       4       1       ..      1      2       0       2     479       .      ..    130
Ukraine                          92      ..      27       .     93      ..      59        .  60,168     .       5
United Arab Emirates             99      ..      52      ..     79       .       .
United Kingdom          303     399      50      63     268    359      24      10  245,900 436.470    19      14
United States            ..     767      25      32     536    521      30      14 2,418,620 2,577,600  ..     17
.Uru.guay                 ..    166    .....     63       ..    151      ..    100        ...            .4
U z b e k-a.a. .............                                              .  . -
Venezuela               112      88      27      23      92      68     41      ..   56,900      ..    32
Vietnam                   ...             .       .       ..              .     45        -.
West Bank and Gaza        .        .      .       .       .       .      .       ..
Yemen, Rep.              ..      34               8       8      15      3       ..   1,251  11,4786    .      15
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)  118  163   23      35      ..     150      .       ..       .      ..    59      12
Zambia                   ..      26               6       ..     17      .
Zimnbabwe                ..      32              19      ..     29       ..     32                      ..     54
Low Income                2       8                              4              13
ELx'cl.C.. Ch'ina ..&.. I'n"dia .... .......... ..........lO .10 ........... ......6 .
Middle income            ..     91                              65                                             12
Lower middle income       ..     70                             46                                         .   13
Uppr.mddl ~income........... 101....   139......  6..  70    1i1..                                            12
Low   &  m;~iddl  I'oml..e....... 1..  .. 4 ........ 3'6'..   23              19                             14
East Asia & Pacific       3       5                                                                     ..      8
Europe & Central Asia    ..     142                            109                                             10
Lat'in . AM ..er'i'ca ..& ...Car'ib".  .  92             62      72
Middl e-East ..&.. N". 'Afric" a .....................  5-3     35                                      2. .
South Asia         ~~      ~~~~~~~~~2  6                   4              20                     ..      61.
ub- ahar'an ..A'fr'ica .........................  2-0,43
High11"" incom"e .........321   559                     338     427             52                             1
160  1998 World Development Indicators



3.11                  0
Traffic congestion in urban areas constrains eco-  3.12 for information on suspended particulates and  -Motor vehicles per 1,000 people include cars,
nomic productivity, damages people's health, and  other air pollutants.)                         buses, and freight vehicles but do not include two-
worsens their quality of life. In recent years owner-  The data in the table are compiled by the  wheelers. Population refers to midyear population in
ship of passenger cars has increased, and the expan-  International Road Federation (IRF) through ques-  the year for which data are available. * Motor vehicles
sion of economic activity has contributed to the  tionnaires sent to national organizations. The IRF  per kilometer of road include cars, buses, and freight
transport by road of more goods and services over  uses a hierarchy of sources to gather as much infor-  vehicles but do not include two-wheelers. * Passenger
greater distances. These   developments  have   mation as possible. The primary sources are      cars refer to individual four-wheel transport. * Two-
increased demand for roads and vehicles, adding to  national road associations. In the absence of such  wheelers refer to mopeds and motorcycles. * Road
urban congestion, air pollution, health hazards, traf-  an association, or in cases of nonresponse, other  traffic is the number of vehicles multiplied by the aver-
fic accidents, and injuries.                    agencies are contacted, including road directorates,  age distances they travel. * Traffic accidents refer to
Congestion, the most visible cost of expanding  ministries of transport or public works, and central  accident-related injuries reported to the authorities and
vehicle ownership, is reflected in the indicators in the  statistical offices. As a result the compiled data are  to deaths resulting from accidents that occurwithin 30
table. Other relevant indicators, such as average  of uneven quality. In addition, the coverage of each  days of the accident.
vehicle speed in major cities or cost of traffic con-  indicator may differ across countries because of dif-
gestion, exact a heavy toll on economic productivity  ferences in definitions. Moreover, comparability is  Data sources
but are not included because data are incomplete or  limited when time-series data are reported. The data
difficult to compare. Motor vehicles also emit partic-  do not capture the quality or age of vehicles or the  j   I  The data in the table are from
ulate air pollution-the dust and soot from their  condition or width of roads. Thus comparisons over                the IRF's annual World Road
exhaust-which is proving to be far more damaging  time and between countries should be made with                    Statistics.
to human health than was once believed. (See table  caution.
*~~    ~~                                                                          _
Global production of motor vehicles continues to rise
Souc:   ... T   11
In recenit decades, along wdtn, household Income. ownership of passenger cars nas, tncieaned sabsiant-3llV In 1946
abouFt 46 million vehicles wore registered worldwIde. By 1994 that numbei exceeded 600 million. Growth irn LIlC numbet
0T private vehicles has substardla,IV exceeded that ol total venicle6. leading t0 relath0vl less use ov public ano mass
transportation and thus to more Pollutionr. The total number of vehicies, lexclucing noior,rzed T.se. and Inree-wheei
sehlclea) is especled to reach 820 mnillIon bV 2010.
t998 World Development Indicators     161



O            ~~~3.12 Air pollution
Country            I      iy   City                 Total           Sufu          Nitrogen           I=&      F
popuClation    susprnded         dSiox iude     dioxide
particulate.                        ~  ~~~~~~~In mnany towns and cities exposure to air pollution is
the main environmental threat to humnan health.
thouands rcicograns pr  microgramrs per  rmurograms per  Winter smog-made up of soot, dust, and sulfur diox-
flx   cu. m           CU. r           Cu m          ide-has iong been associated with temporary spikes
19951995,                  1995,          195
--  in the numnber of deaths. But long-term exposure to
Argentina            C6rdoba City    1.294           97     ...-                     97
~ ~ ~  ~~~~~hgh ievels of soot and smnali partic,es in the air con-
Australia           Sydney           3,590           54               28
Melbourne       3.094            35               0             30            tr)butes to a wide range ot chronic respiratory dis-
Perth           1,220            45       .       S              19           ease5 and exacerbates heart disease and other
Austria             Vienna          2.060            47               14             42            conditions. The burden of iii health caused by partic-
Belgium  Brussels  1,122     78              20                  .  .    ~~~~~~~~~~~~ulate pollution, eitheron irsown orn combinationwith
Brazil              S8oc Paulo     16.533            86              43              83
Rio de                                                    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~sulfur dioxide, is enormous, causing. at least 500,000
Ri  eJaneiro  10,181         139             129
Bulgaria            Sofia           1.188           195              39             122            premature deatns and 4-5 mil.ion new cases of
Canada              Toronto         4,319            36               17             43            chronic bronchitis each year (World Bank 1992).
Montreal        3.3320           34              10              42              Summer smnog is formed from sinal particles and
Vancouver  1,823  29          14             37           ~~~~~~~~~~~~ground-level ozone proouced by tne action of tne sun on
Chile               Santiago        4.891             ..29                           81
China  shanghai  13,584    246               53                          ~~~~~~~~~~~~nitrogen oxides and volatile organic comipounds.
Beijing       .11,299           377              90            122            Exposure to ozone makes it difficult for people to
Tianjin         94              306              82              50           breathe, causing particular problems for asthmatics. And
Colombia            Bogota          6,079           120               *.               .            any plants and trees are susceptible to damage from
Croatia        Za~~~Igre         981            71              31                ..         ozcne exposure, which reduces yields or kills themn off.
Cuba  Havana  2.241          ..              1               5             ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Emissions of sulfur oiox,de ano nitrogen oxides
Czech Republic       Prague          1,225           59               32             23
Denmark             Copenhagen      1,326            6.1               7             54lead to the deposition of acid rain and otner acidic
Ecuador             Guayaquil   .   1,83112                          15                            compounds over long distances-often mnore than
Quito           1,298           175              31              ..1,000 kilometers from their source. Such deposition
Egypt, Arab Rep.  Cairo  9,690                          69
Egpt. Arab Rep.  Cairo . 9~~~~~~~~~~69.0 ....~~                           changes toe chemicai balance of soill anc can lead
Finland             Helsinki        1.059            40                4             35
to the leaching of trace minerals and nutrients critical
France              Paris           9,523            14              14              57
Germany             Frankfurt       3.606            36              11              45to trees and plants. The links between forest damage
Berlin          3,317            50              18             26            and acid deposition are complex. Direct exposure to
Munich          2.238            45               8              53           hign levels of sulfur dioxide or acid deposition can
Ghana               Accra            1,673          137casdeotonnodcc.
Greece              Athens          3,93            178              34              64
Hungary      .      Budapest        2,017.6                           95
Iceland             Reykjavik         100            24                5             42
India               Bombsy         15,138           240              33              39
Calcutta       11,923           375              49             34                 Most environmental costs of fossil fuel
Delhi  9,948  415           24              41               ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~use result from small sources
Indonesia           Jakarta         8.621           271                .                                                Power atd
Iran, Islamic Rep.  Tehran          6,836           248             209                                               district testing
Ireland             Dublin            911                            20              -.4                                         duLarge
Italy               Milan           4,251            77'             31             248                      Small    -7ons
Rome            2,931            73                                                       53%     -~
Torino          1,294           151-.                                                                       Mor
Japan               Tokyo          26.959            49              18              68                                  7sce
Osaka          10,609            43              19              63
Yokohama        3,178            ..100                           13                Note; Oats are an average for five cities: Ktrakow,
Kenya  Nairobi  1,810      69                                                ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Peland: Manila, Philippinse; Murnba,. itlrida San-
Korea. Rep.         Seoul          11.609            84              44              60nas                    il;eahaga,hn.
Pusan           4,082            94              60              51                Source: Lovei 1997.
.         Taegu           ~~~~~~~~~~2.432.  72.            81       .      62                Fuel combustion accounts for most air pollution
Malaysia            Kuala Lumpur    1.238            85              24              -.emissions. Although the composition of pollution
Mexi co             Mexico City    16,562           279              74             130                sores andcontribution of dffeent luelsvarY bYcity,
Netherlands         Amsterdam       1.108            40              10              58                motor vehIcles and small, dispersed sources-refuse
Incinerators, small industdlal, commercial, and
New Zealand         Auckland          945            26                3             20
hoesehold boilers and stoves-usually do the most
Norway              Oslo              477            15                843                             damage to air clualIty.
Philippines         Manila          9,286           2033,
Poland               Katowice       3,552              ..83                          79
Warsaw          2,219            .,16                            32
162   1998 Worla Deveiopment Indicators



I.LE 1.AUEA hlaIL_ LA
3.12                   0
Country                  City         City           Total           Sulfur         Nitrogen 
population      suspended        dioxide         dioxide
particulates                          ~~~~~~~~~~City population is the number of residents of the city
as defined by national authorities and reported to the
micrograms per  micrograms par  micrograms par     United Nations. * Total suspended particulates refer
thousands         cu. m           cu. m           CU. m          to smoke, soot, dust, and liquid droplets from com-
I  ~ ~ ~~195           1      99j 9950                       1995,
..... ......   ..... I....  .....   . .  . ........I   .  .   .. ....bustion  that are  in the  air. Particulate  levels  indicate  the
Lodz              063063                          21              43
.....   ..............I . ...... .  ...  I.... 61.  8.....52......quality                  of the  air people  are  breathing  and  the  state  of
Portugal     .       Uis.on          1,863            6                  ..5
Romania              Bucharest       2,100            82               10             71     .      a country's technology and pollution controls. * Sulfuir
Russian Federation   Moscow          9,269           100             109               .            dioxide (SO) is an air pollutant produced when fossil
.Omak.... I....  1..........  ....... .. 1,199 . 100.                   30. ..  .N    fuels containing sulfur are burned. It contributes to acid
Singapore            Singepore  .    2848           ......             20             30            rain and can damage human health, particularly that of
Slovak Republic      Bratislava        651            62              21.             27            teyugadteedry             irgndoie(O)i
South Africa         Capetown        2,671             .               21             72                                                       2
Johannesburg    1,849              ..19                           31            a poiaonous, pungent gas formed when nitric oxide
Durban          1,149                             31                            combines with hydrocarbons and sunlight, producing a
Spain        ........ .I.... . . ..... Madri4,0 .     42.              11             25.. ...photochemical reaction. These conditions occur in both
Barcelona     2,819117..                                                      natural and anthropogenic activities. NO, is emitted by
Sweden....           Stockholm.. 1,545. . ... 9.                        5.            29            bacteria, nitrogenous fertilizers, aerobic decomposition
Switzerland          Zurich            89731                          11              39
Thailand             Bangkok         6,547           223               11             23            ot organic matter in oceans and soils, combustion of
Turkey               Itabl. 91120                                                                   fuels and biomass, and motor vehicles and industrial
Ankara          28657 ......                      55.             46            activities.
Izmir           2,031
Ukraine              Kiev            2,809          -100              14              51             Dt    ore
United Kingdom       London          7,640                            25              77
Manchester      2,434                             26             49
Birmingham      2.271                              9              45                                The data in the table are from
.... ... ..   ...   .. ... ... ..  ~ ... ...   .. ... ..  .. .  ..              H .  ..I ..... ......
United States        New York       16,332                            26              79              .i,lh     Aie      WHO's  Healthy  Cities  Air
Los A  ales.12,410                                 9              74            Air MaGdagemeiIl    Mngmn           nomto
Chicago         6,844                             14              57an                                             th    Wol
Venezuela            Caracas        -3,007            53              33              5T
Resources Institute, which
a. Data are most recent available for 1990-95. Most are for 1995.                                                       relies on various national
"'.11NI II. sources as well as, among
%%1 '"'--        others, the United Nations
Where coal is the primary fuel for power plants,  micrograms per cubic meter) are average concentra-  Environment Programme (UNEP) and WHO's Urban Air
steel mills, industrial boilers, and domestic heating,  tions observed at these sites. Coverage is not com-  Pollution in Megacities of the World, the OECD's
the result is usually high levels of urban air pollution-  prehensive because, due to lack of resources or  Compendiums of Environmental Data, the U.S.
especially particulates and sometimes sulfur diox-  different priorities, not all cities have monitoring sys-  Environmental Protection  Agency's  National Air
ide-and widespread acid deposition if the sulfur  tems. For example, data are reported for just 3 cities  Quality and Emissions Trends Report.199.5 and AIRS
content of the coal is high. Countries such as China,  in Africa but for more than 87 cities in China. Pollutant  Executive  International  database,  the  China
India, Poland, and Turkey fit this pattern today, as  concentrations are sensitive to local conditions, and  Environmental Yearbook 1996, and the  Korea
many high-income countries once did. Where coal is  even in the same city different monitoring sites may  Statistical Yearbook 1995.
not an important primary fuel or is used by plants with  register different concentrations. Thus these data
effective dust controls, the worst air pollutant emis-  should be considered only a general indication of air
sions are caused by the combustion of petroleum   quality in each city, and cross-country comparisons
products-diesel oil, heating oil, and heavy fuel oil,  should  be  made  with  caution. World  Health
Industrial plants and motor vehicles-especially   Organization (WHO) annual mean guidelines for air
those with two-stroke engines, which do not fully  quality standards are 90 micrograms per cubic meter
process their fuel-are usually the worst offenders.  for total suspended particulates, 50 micrograms per
Data on air pollution are based on reports from  cubic meter for sulfur dioxide, and 50 mnicrograms per
urban monitoring sites. Annual means (measured in  cubic meter for nitrogen dioxide.
1998 World Development Indicators       163



3.13 Government commitment
Environmental  Country  Biodiversity  Frequency   Participation in treaties'
strategy  environmental assessment, of reporting
or action    profile  strategy, or on trade in
plan                action plan endangered                                   Status of national envirornmental
species                                      action plans
Lw    Completed
Nof years  Climate  Ozone  CFC  of the       Albania      Grenada     Nepal
reported'  change  layer  control  Sea'      Azerhaijan    Guinea      Nicaragua
Albania                1993          ...1995                                                        Bangladesh   Guinea-Bissau Nigeria
Algeria                                         ..      50      1994    1993    1993   1996         Belarus      Guyana      Pakistan
Angola                                          ..1994                                              Benin        Honduras    Papua New
Argenti'na             1.992                    ..      82      1994    1990    1990   1996         Bhutan       Hungary       Guinea
Armenia                                         ..1994                                              Botswana     India       Bulgaria
Australia              1992          ..      1994       88      1994    1988    1989   1995        indonesia     Philippines  Poland
Austria                   ..         .           .     100      1994    1988    1989 -1995BrlnaFo                 eyRmna
- I  I                                 tr'. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~  P~~~~~urundi  Lao POR  Rwanda
Bangladesh             1991       1989       1990       80      1994    1990    1990Cabda                        Ltra        Soomad
Belerus                ..                      1988    1989               ~~~~~~~~~~~   ~~~~~~~~    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Cape Verde  Lebanon  Principe
Belgium                                         ..     100      1996    1989    1989ChnLeto                                  Snga
Benin                  1993                     ..       0      1994    1993    1993                Cmrs         Ltuna       Syhle
Bolivia                1994       1986       1988       62      1995    1995    1995   1995
Bosnia and Herzegovina  ..  ..  ..             1992           1994        ~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~Congo. Rep.  Macedonia, FYR Sierra Leone
..  ..   ..  ..  ..   ..  ..  Costa Rica  Madagascar   Sri Lanka
Botswana               1990       19B6       1991       86      1994    1992    1992   1994
Brazil                               ..      1988       41      1994    1990    1990   1994         C6te c'ivoire  Maldives  St. Kitts and
Bulgaria                   -          .      1994        0      1995    1991-   1991   1996         El Salvadon  Mesico       Nevis
Burknina Faso          1993      .1994          ..       0      1994    1989    1989                Estonia      Moldova     Uganda
Burundi                1994       1981       1989        o                                          Ethiopia     Monigolia   Ukraine
Cambodia               1997       1994          ..1996                                              Gambia, The  Mozambique  Zambia
Cameroon                          1989       1989       92      1995    1989    1989   1994         Ghana
Canada                 1990          ..      1994      100      1994    1988    1989
Central African Republic             ...                50      1995            1993                Being prepared
Chad                   1990       1982          ..       0      1994    1989    1994                Armenia      Haiti       St. Lucia
Chile                             1987       1993       65      1995            1990                Djibouti     Kazakrhstan  St. Vincent &
China                  1994                  1994      100      1994    1989    1991   1996         Dominican Rep. Korea, Rep.  Grenadines
Hong Kong, China                                                                      .-Ecuador                 Malaysia    Togo
Colomnbia                         1990       1988       64      1995    1990    1994                gutra   unaMl             zensa
Congo, Dem. uep.                  1986       1990       69      1995    1995           1994         Gabon        Niger       Vietnam
Congco. Rep.,.                       ..      1990      100      1997    1995    1995Geri                         Paauy       Zmbw
Costa Rica             1990       1987       1992       76      1994    1991    1991   1994
Cote dIlvoire          1994          ..      1991               1995    1993    1993   1994         Source: World Resources Instituite, International
Croatia                                         ..1996                  1992    1991   1994        Institute for Environment and Development, and
Cuba                                            ..      50      1994    1992    1992   1994        IIJCN 1996; World Bank.
Czech Republic         1991                     ..     100      1994    1993    1993   1996
De~nmark               1994                     ..     100      1994    1988    1989
Dominican Republic                1984       1995       80              1993    1993
Ecuador                1993       1987       1995       76      1994    1990    1990
Egypt, Arab Rep.  .    1992       1992       1988        0      1995    1988    1989   1994
El Salvador            1994       1985       1988       20      1996    1993    1992
Eritree                1995          ...1995
Estonia                   ..         ..1.994                            1997    1997
Ethiopia               1994          ..      1991       75      1994    1995    1995
Finland                1995          ...                75      1994    1988    1989   1996
France                 1990          ...               100      1994    1988    1989   1996
Gabon                      .         ..      1990       67              1994.   1994
Gambia, The            1992       1981       1989       20      1994    1990    1990   1994
Georgia                                         ..1994                  1996    1996   1996
Germany                    ..        .           .     100      1994    1988    1989   1994
Ghana                  1992       1985       1988       81      1995    1989    1989   1994
Greece                                          ..1994                  1989    1989   1995
Guatemala              1994       1984       1988       83      1996    1988    1990
Guinea                 1994       1983       1988       45      1994    1992    1992   1994
Guinea-Bissau          1993          ..      1991        0      1996                   1994
Haiti                     ..       985          ..1996                                 1996
Honduras               1993       1989          ..      29      1996    1994    1994   1994
164   1998 World Development Indicators



3.13
Environmental  Counftry  Biodiversity  Frequency  Participation in treaties"
strategy environmental assessment, of reporting
oraction     profile  strategy, or on trade in
plan                action plan endanigered                                  Projects financed by the Global
species                                      Environment Facility,
February 1995-iune 1997
Law
% of yearn  Climate  Ozone  CEC  of the      Millions of dollars spent; $1.62 billion total
....   reported'  change  lay-er ....co-ntrol ...Sea'         Ozone depletion
Hungary             ... 1995 .... ...............  ......  57...  1994  1988    1989Inen                      in'   7%   /Maltifocus
India                  1993       1989       1994      100      1994    1991    1992   1995                water'"
Indonesia              1992       1994       1993       92      1994    1992    1992   1994                 Ix1A
Iran, Islamic Rep.  ..   .. ~~~~~~~~~~....   31. . . 1996 . 1991 ....1991
Iraq                                                                                   1994
Ireland                    .                     .1994                  1988    1989BideriyCmaecng
... .. ... .. I.. .. .. ... .. ... .. ... .. .. ... .. .  . .. ... .. .. ... .. ... .. ... .. .. ...   . ... .. ... .. .. .   . .   ... .  ..   . .. ... ..  338%3 8
Israel.                                                 25      1994    1992    1992
Italy                                                   86      1994   ~~        q9    19            ubro rjcs 3      oa
Jamaica                1994       1987          .               1995            1993   1994Mutfcs                         Ealn
Japan                      .         ..                 92      1994    1988    1989   1996             Ozone  2%         Eactiniie
..   ... .. ... .. ... .. ... ... .. ... .. .   . .. ... .. ... ... ..... .. ... .. ... . :   .. ... .. .   . .. ... ..   ..   .. .. ... .. ... .. ... .. ... .d e..d letio n ,ac ivi  e
Jordan                 1991       1979          .       31      1994    1989    1989   1995.                               32%
Kazakhstan                 ..        .          .1995                                                 ""- 
Kenya                  1994       1989       1992       54      1994    1989    1989   1994              6%/
Korea, Dem. Rep.                      .                          95     19 995                         Biodiversity         Climate
29%      -   ~    change
Korea, Rep.                                     .1994                   1992    199    1996                                  28%
Kuwait                                          .               1995    1993    1993   1994
... .I. ... ... . 1  .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. ... ...   .. ... ... .   . .   . . - . ... ..  .. ...   . ... ... ... ... ... ... ..S o ur.ce..:ou G EF.E F
Kyrgyz Republic
Lao PDR                1995                     .               1995                                mrgtitimlmnigancetiente
Latvia.... ............1995.. .1995                                             1995                Nations Development Programme, United Nations
Lebanon                                         ..19                     93     19      95Environment Programme, and World Bank-the
........  .... Global Environment Facility  provides funding  to
Lesotho                1989       1982.                         1995    1994    1994                dvlpnadrniincnmefrrjcsn
Libya                                           ..1990                          190acIIistreiggoabeeisnoeorme
Lithuania                                       ..1995                  1995    1995               of four focus areas: blodiversity, climate change,
Macedonia, FYR                                                          1994    1994   1994        intemational waters, and ozone depletion. Activities
Madagascar             1988          .       1991       82      1996    1997    1997                rittteouaesaeioigbeofeig
Malawi                 1994       1982          .       70      1994    1991    1991Enlngatvtelytefodtisfudsiig
Malaysia               1991       1979       1988       86      1994    1989    1989   1997         and implementing measures to achieve the overall
Mali                      ..      1991       1989               1995    1995    1995   1994         goals In tho focus areas. Between February 1995
Mauritania             1988       1984          ..1994                  19       94    19           and June 1997 the facility provided $1.62 billion for
.....  .   . ...... ................  .  .....  ...............  i9 4 1 9   9 6a     total of 337  projects.
Mauritius              1990           ..                88      1994    1992    1992   1994
Mexico.                                      1988      100      1994    1988    1989   19
Moldova                              ..1995                             1997    1997
Mongolia               1995          .                          1994    1996    1996
Morocco                           1980       1988       44      1996    1996    1996
Mozambique             1994                     .       73      1995    1994    1994
Myanmar...-. ....  .........      1982..    .1989               1995    1994  ....19.94  ...1996
Namibia                1992                              0      1995    1993    1993   1994
Nepal                  1993       1983          .       76      1994    1994    1994
Netherlands            1994           ..               100      194     18       989   19
New Zealand            1994                     .       67      1994    1988    1989   1996
Nicaragua              1994       1981          .       80      1996    1993    199
Niger                      .      1985       1991       41      19593
Nigeria                1990          .       1992       18      1994    1989    1989   1994
Norway                                       1994      10       194     18      189     96
Oman                              1981          .               1995                   1994
Pakistan               1994       1994       1991       94      1994    1993    1993
Panama                 1990       1980          .       86      1995    1989           1996
Papua New Guinea       1992       1994       1993       75      1994    1993    1993
Paragua        . . ...           .19 8.5          .. ..60 .-    1994.. 1993     1993   1994
Peru                       .      1988       1988       59      1994    1989    1993
Philippines            1989       1992       1989       82      1994    1991    1991   1994
Poland                 1993          .       1991        0      1994    1990    1990
Portugal               1995                     .       55      1994    1989    1989
Puerto Rico
Romnania             .. . -                  ...            ....  1994  1993.. .1993   1997
Russian Federation         .         .       1994               1995    1988    1989
1998 World Development Indicators     165



U       ?    ev3nena.se1m3,: eprn                                                       h
Environmental   Country   Biodiversity  Frequency     Participation in treatiesa            r-
species                           ~~~~~~~~~~The Kyoto Protocol was adopted at the third
aw    conference of the parties to the United Na-
repoted  chnge laye  cotro  Se'  Chnge hed i Kyoo, apa    inDecember
Rwanda                   1991       1987            ..      27197
Sad .Aai   . .........          ...                            95     19        93impose binding emission limitations in in-
Senegal                  1984       1990        1991        80       1995    1993     1993   1994          dsrs    n  rniineooiskona
Sierr Leon               1994. ....                  .     .         1995                    1995annex 1" countries. These countries agreed
Singapore                1993       1988        1995       100               1989     1989   1994          to ensure that their greenhouse gas emis-
Slovak Republic             ..          .           .1994                    1993     1-993  1996          sions do not exceed their assigned amounts,
Slovenia                    ..          .           .1996                             19     194with a view to reducing overall emissions of
South Africa             1993           ...                 94               1990     1990   1994          such gases byat least 5.2 percent overl1990
Spain                       ..          .           .      100       1994    1988     1989                levels by 2008-12.
Sri Lanka                1994       1983        1991        54       1994    1990     1990   1994            Tepooo       il
*Allow quantification of emissions to take
Sud   ..an    ..           ..        99.                     4      19                 93    19              into account carbon sinks (such as
Sweden                      ..          .           .       94       194      98      189     96
.. .... ....  .. ....  .   .... ....  .. ..  ... ..  1994.  19   1989  1996forests).
Switzerland                                        ..      100       1994    1988     1989                 * Provide for possible carbon emissions
Syrian Arab Republic        ..      1981            ..1996                   1990     1990                   trading among annex 1 countries.
Tajikistan                                                                                                 * Allow for joint project implementation ac-
Tanzania                 1994       1989        1988        75               1993     1993   1994            tivities among annex 1 countries.
Thailand                    ..      1992            ..      56       1995    1989     1989                 * Create a "clean developmnent mechanism'
Togo                     1991                               69       1995    1991     1991   1994            that enables annex 1 countries to under-
Trinidad and Tobago                                         67       1994    1989     1989   1994taeoitmpmnainprjcsnb-
Tunisia                  1994       1980        1988       100       1994    1989     1989   1994pgcutis
.  . .  .  . .  . .  .  . .  . .  .  ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~   ~   ~   ~  ~~~*Commit all countries to cooperate in the
Turkey  ..  1982         ..                       1991    1991                   ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~development and transfer of climate-
Turkmenistan                ..          .           .1995                    1994     1994                   friendly technologies, commnit industrial
Uganda                   1994       1982        1988         0       1994    1988     1989   1994            countries to help developing countries
Ukraine                      .          ..                                   1988     1989                   create a private sector-enabling envi-
United Arab Emirates        ..          .           .        0       1996    1990     1990                   ronment, and commit annexsIcountries to
United Kingdom           1995           ..      1994       100               1988     1989                   eliminating relevant market distortions.
United States            1995          ..       1995        88       1994    1988     1989                 *Enter into force after ratification by 55
Uruguay  ..  ..         ..       59      1994     1989    1991    1994           ~~~~~~~~~countries that account for at least 55
.   .   .   .   .   .   .   .   .   .                                          ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~percent of -   .~.-. .   emissions
Uzbekistan                   ..         .           .1994                    1993     1993
.   .   .   .   ..   ..   .....   .  ..   ..   ...  .  . ....... .. ..by  annex  1  countries. (The  United  States
Venezuela                                          ..       79       1995    1988     1989aconsfr                           pcet       .emsis
Vietnam                                         1993                 1995    1994     1994   1994             by annex 1 countries.)
West Bank and Gaza
Yemen, Rep.                  ..     1990        1992                 1996    1996     1998   1994
Yugoslavia. FR (Serb./Mont.)
Zambia                   1994       1988            ..      45       1994    1990     1990   1994
Zimbabwe                 1987       1982            ..      83       1994    1993     1993   1994
a. The year the trusty entered into force in that country. b. Inc udes all trade reported by members of the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild F ora and Fauna (CITES) as of May 1993. c. Convention becamne effective
November 16, 1994.
166    1998 World Development Indicators



3.13                 0
Unlike most other tables in this book, this table pre-  line for measuring progress on biodiversity conser-  * Environmental strategies and action plans provide
sents qualitative rather than quantitative indicators.  vation, the United Nations Environment Programme  a comprehensive, cross-sectoral analysis of conser-
National environmental strategies and participation  (UNEP) coordinates global biodiversity assessment.  vation and resource management issues to help inte-
in international treaties on environmental issues pro-  To address global issues, many governments have  grate environmental concerns with the development
vide some evidence of government commitment to  also signed international treaties and agreements,  process. They include national conservation strate-
sound environmental management. But the signing  launched in the wake of the 1972 United Nations  gies, national environmental action plans. national
of these treaties does not always imply ratification.  Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm and  environmental management strategies, and national
Nor does it guarantee that governments will comply  the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment  sustainable development strategies. The years shown
with treaty obligations.                      and Development in Rio de Janeiro:            refer to the year in which a strategy or action plan was
In many countries efforts to halt environmental  * The Convention on Climate Change aims to stabi-  adopted. * Country environmental profiles identify
degradation have failed, primarily because govern-  lize atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse  how national economic and other activities can stay
ments have neglected to make this issue a priority, a  gases at levels that will prevent human activities from  within the constraints imposed by the need to con-
reflection of competing claims on scarce resources. To  interfering dangerously with the global climate.  serve natural resources. The years shown refer to the
address this problem, many countries are preparing  * The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the  year in which a profile was completed. * Biodiversity
national environmental strategies-some focusing  Ozone Layer aims to protect human health and the  assessments, strategies, or action plans covers bio-
narrowly on environmental issues, others dealing with  environment by promoting research on the effects of  diversity assessments, country strategies or action
the integration of environmental, economic, and social  changes in the ozone layer and on alternative sub-  plans, and biodiversity profiles (see About the data).
concerns. Among such initiatives are conservation  stances (such as substitutes for chlorofluorocar-  * Frequency of reporting on trade in endangered
strategies and environmental action plans. Some  bons) and technologies, monitoring the ozone layer,  species refers to the percentage of years for which
countries have also prepared country environmental  and taking measures to control the activities that pro-  a country has submitted an annual report to the
profiles and biological diversity strategies and profiles.  duce adverse effects.           CITES Secretariat since it became a party to the
National conservation strategies-promoted bythe  * The Montreal Protocol for CFC Control requires  Convention on International Trade in Endangered
World Conservation Union (IUCN)-provide a compre-  that countries help protect the earth from excessive  Species. * Participation in treaties covers four inter-
hensive, cross-sectoral analysis of conservation and  ultraviolet radiation by cutting chlorofluorocarbon  national treaties (see About the data). * Climate
resource management issues to help integrate envi-  consumption by 20 percent over their 1986 level by  change refers to the Convention on Climate Change
ronmental concerns with the development process.  1994 and by 50 percent over their 1986 level by  (signed in New York in 1992). * Ozone layer refers to
Such strategies discuss a country's current and future  1999, with allowances for increases in consumption  the Vienna Convention forthe Protection of the Ozone
needs, institutional capabilities, prevailing technical  by developing countries.           Layer (1985). * CFC control refers to the Montreal
conditions, and the status of natural resources.  * The United Nations Convention on the Law of the  Protocol for CFC Control (formally, the Protocol on
National environmental action plans (NEAPs), sup-  Sea, which became effective in November 1994,  Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, signed in
ported by the World Bank and other development  establishes a comprehensive legal regime for seas  1987). * Law of the Sea refers to the United Nations
agencies, describe a country's main environmental  and oceans, establishes rules for environmental  Convention on the Law of the Sea (signed in Montego
concerns, identify the principal causes of environ-  standards and enforcement provisions, and develops  Bay, Jamaica, in 1982). The years shown refer to the
mental problems, and formulate policies and actions  international rules and national legislation to prevent  year in which a treaty entered into force in a country.
to deal with them (table 3.13a). The NEAP is a con-  and control marine pollution.
tinuing process in which governments develop com-  * The  Convention  on  International Trade in  Data sources
prehensive  environmental policies, recommend  Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES)
specific actions, and outline the investment strate-  prohibits commercial trade in endangered species         Data are from  the World
gies, legislation, and institutional arrangements  and requires signatories to closely monitor trade in        Resources Institute, UNEP,
required to implement them.                   species that may become depleted by trade.                       and UNDP's World Resources
Country environmental profiles identify how   To help developing countries comply with their                 1994-95; the World Resour-
national economic and other activities can stay within  obligations under these agreements, the Global         ces Institute, International
the constraints imposed by the need to conserve nat-  Environment Facility (GEF) was created to focus on       Institute for Environment and
ural resources. Some profiles consider issues of  global improvement in biodiversity, climate change,          Development, and  IUCN's
equity, justice, and fairness. Biodiversity profiles-  international waters, and ozone layer depletion. The    1996   World  Directory  of
prepared by the World Conservation Monitoring  UNEP, United Nations Development Programme,  Country Environmental Studies; and the World Bank
Centre and the IUCN-provide basic background on  and World Bank manage the GEF according to the  Environment Department's 1996 National Environ-
species diversity, protected areas, major ecosystems  policies of its governing body of country represen-  mental Strategies: Leaming from Experience.
and habitat types, and legislative and administrative  tatives. The World Bank is responsible for the Global
support. In an effort to establish a scientific base-  Environmental Trust Fund and is chair of the GEF.
1998 World Development Indicators    167



i                       I       I    I   I
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        I                     -1
I
i
I           I
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A 1 LJ Li a
D   eveloping countries set the pace for world economic growth during the
past two decades, but the gap between leaders and laggards grew wider. While
some of the most heavily populated countries saw incomes rise, others experi-
enced further deterioration in living standards, often linked to political and
social upheavals.
Low- and middle-income economies with the strongest growth rates were
generally characterized by:
* Commitment to improved policy environments in terms of domestic macro-
economic management and economic liberalization.
* Open door policies toward foreign trade and foreign investment, which
contributed to closer integration with the global economy.
* Strong growth of the service sector and expanding trade in services.
* A decreasing share of central government expenditure in GDP.
The indicators presented in this section document the patterns of eco-
nomic growth over 1980-96. (Long-terrn changes, back to 1965, are shown in
tables 1.4 and 1.5.) Tables 4a and 4b provide current estimates and projections
of major macroeconomic aggregates through 2000. Tables 4c and 4d provide
recent, highly preliminary estimates of major macroeconomic aggregates for
selected developing countries.
Recent economic developments
Starting from a 30-year low of 2 percent in the early 1990s, the pace of world
economic expansion quickened to closer to 3 percent a year in 1996-97, simi-
lar to growth rates achieved during the 1980s. Developing countries, exclud-
ing Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, achieved GDP increases of
more than 5 percent. Low- and middle-income economies in East Asia (includ-
ing China) made the largest gains, averaging more than 10 percent a year,
though progress slackened in the mid-1990s because of flagging exports and,
more recently, the financial crisis that struck several of the fastest-growing Asian
economies. In South Asia growth accelerated to more than 6 percent in 1996
from 4.5 percent in the previous five years, but growth slowed in India and
Pakistan in 1997 wvhile picking up in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.
Foreign trade expansion enabled Latin America and the Caribbean to
maintain growth rates of more than 3 percent a year through the 1990s, almost
twice the increase achieved duriiig the 1980s. Argentina, Mexico, and Peru all



showed increasing economic growth in 1997 and, particularly  ing in Sub-Saharan Africa grew bv more than 3 percenit after a
Mexico, large increases in exports. Chile's growth declined  decade of retrenchment in the 1980s. but domestic savings rates
slightly but remained above average.                        remained below world averages (tables 4.8 and 4.9).
Merchandise trade in the Middle East and North Africa has  *  Inflation wos kept tow. Rates of'inflation accelerated worldwide in
helped to underpin GDP growth of about 3 percent a vear since  the 1990s compared with the 1980s. Against this background, devel-
1991, compared with increases below 1 percent a year in the 1980s.  oping countries that managed to keep inflationary pressures under
However, the region's growth rate barely kept up with population  control mostly achieved better-than-average GDP growth rates
increases and remains far below the annual gains recorded 20 and  (tables 4.1 and 4.15).
30 years ago. Preliminary 1997 data show mixed results, with Egypt
and Lebanon posting above-average grow-th but Morocco declining.  A global service ecorc my
Prospects for the long-underperforming Sub-Saharan Africa  Service industries increased their share of the worldl economy due-
region brightened when GDP growth of almost 4 percent was  ing the pasttwo decades, while the relative shares of agricllure and
achieved in 1996, resulting in a real increase in per capita incomes.  industry shrank in most developing regions. Compar-ed wvith about
Preliminary 1997 data for Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa show  55 percent in 1980. this sector contributed almost two-thirds of
positive but modest growth rates.                           global GDP in 1996, and one-fifth of the value of world exports.
Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union experienced a  Developing countries' exports of sernices grew at an average annual
sharp decline in growth during the first half of the 1990s-more  rate of 12 percent in the 1990s, mice as fast as those from industrial
than 20 percent a year in some cases. By 1996 the downtrend had  regions (World Bank 1997b, p. 11). Services also absorb an increas-
slowed markedly, particularly in those countries that allowed the  ing share of household consumption expenditures in developing
market economy to replace failing state enterprises and inflexible  countries. New estimates of purchasing power parities (PPPs) show
trading regimes. Growth was still negative for the region as a whole,  that services typically account for between one-third anl onre-half of
but the annual rate of decline had fallen to 2 percent, from an aver-  household consumption. Within individual countries low-income
age of almost 8 percent in the preceding five vears. In Russia pre-  groups spend as large a share of their budgets on services as do the
liminary estimates for 1997 show no real decrease in the economy  better off, but generally pay less for the services that they buy (tables
and a modest increase in exports.                           4.10 and 4.11).
Some aspects of growth in developing economies stand out:  While production by multinational firms is becomiing increas-
*  Service sectors expanded rapidly and increased their share of total out- ingly important in manufacturing, the impact of global service
put. The growth of service activities in East Asia and the Pacific was  industries in developing countries is still small, concentrated in
three times the world average in the 1990s. South Asia experienced  finance, communications, and leisure industries. Even so. dereg7u-
similar growth. In Latin America and the Caribbean services  lation and the opening of sectors such as telecomrmtinications and
account for more than half of total output and continue to grow  utilities to foreign investors are speeding the process of globaliza-
faster than the rest of the economy (tables 4.1 and 4.2). Since 1980  tion (World Bank 1997b, p. 39). Rec ent experiences in low-and mid-
low- and middle-income countries, particularly in Europe and  dle-income countries of the former Soviet Union have shown that
Central Asia, have increased their share of fast-growing world  the process can put considerable pressure on domestic prices. As
exports of services from 15 to almost 20 percent (tables 4.6 and 4.7).  subsidies and regulatory controls are eliminated, public services are
*   Trade grew faster than GDP: but the pace sackened. Since the 1980s  required to become more efficient and cost-effective, particularly in
export growth has exceeded the expansion of world output. In 1996  capitalintensive sectors like housing, utilities, arid transportation.
weakness in inidustrial country import dernianid, die recernt dollar- In 17of22ofthesecouiiirics,iiicludiing Russia, the -ise in cinlsuymer
appreciation (which affected the competitiveness of exporting  prices for services far exceeded the overall rate of inflation during
countries with currencies linked to the dollar), and lower prices for  1996. The increases were attributable partly to the process of con-
certain commodities and semimanufactured goods all played a part  vergence with the prices prevailing in market economn trading part-
in slowing world trade growvth to 4 percent. Developing countries  ners, and partlv to the direct impact of prices set by subsidiaries of
did better than the rest of the world: in East Asia merchandise tade  multinational companies for services ranging from fast foocd to oil
expanded atan average annual rate of 17 percent during the 1990s.  prospecting expertise. Adjustments in domestic prices i rIl1v Luill
Exports of both goods and services grew to the equivalent of 30 per-  these external influences have pushed up overall inflation rates, par-
cent of GDP, about twice the 1980 ratio. South Asian export earn-  ticularly in the early stages of transition from central control to mar-
ings also grewfaster than average. Latin America and the Caribbean  ket economy systems (IMF 1997b. p. 109).
managed double-digit increases after a decade of stagnation (tables
4.4 and 6.2).                                              Prospects for growvtl in 9-200 3
*  Increases in domestic savings helped to boost investment. Here again  The buoyant growth of developing couII tries in the past fewYears-
the East Asia region, particularly China, stood out for its strong sav-  reflected in tables 4c and 4d and in many of the tables throughout
ings and investment performance. Private sector failures caused by  the VVorldDevelopm.ea2tIndicatos.-wvas interrupted by the outbreak of
unsound banking practices and overinvested propertv sectors led to  the financial crisis in East Asia during the middle of 1997. By the
serious liquidityproblems in some of the region's "tiger" economies  end of theyear four developing Asian economies had been severely
in 1997, with worldwide financial repercussions. Investment spend-  affected-Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines. and Tilailand-
170  1998 World Development Indicators



along with the Republic of Korea, which only recently graduated to
the high-income category. The immediate effects of the crisis were
a severe devaluation of currencies, a drop in stock market values,  External environment for developing country growth
and a sharp decline in gross capital flows. In varying degrees, the cri-  .      r:. IE..-
sis in Asia has affected confidence in other developing countries-                                 Curremt   Projection
especially where investors perceive weaknesses in banking systems                                  estimate
or risks in growing short-term debt and overvalued currencies. The                                1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
result is a reduction in expected short-term growth rates for devel-  LhF CI .,.rt ,  ..1.. -.i   3 .  . ' ' 
oping countries, and a much greater degree ofuncertainty over the  ; .,.,., i  or ..cjiun 1          .     .   e       ;
course of the next three years.                                       ,.     ' c:,  ,
Nevertheless, the economic environment facing developing       F
countries remains generally favorable (see table 4a). G-7 inflation  .: -are I:, ;.: ,., ,          .       ; -  -l -:
and international interest rates are expected to remain relatively  t.-ICCWirii nsc.              19 . I-11i !;      )
low. The strong growth ofworld trade characterizing the growth of    -      I      .a. 1              -     - : l  1 -
the mid-1990s is likely to continue, although the prices of many       s C v  x)   e. e   :. 1:-. thelUnitedKingdom,andtheUnited
commodities, especially oil, are expected to fall in the near term,                   ,ights.
causing a decline in the terms of trade for many developing coun-   L .-;1*- !   ..  E --1.
tries. Continuing growth in the United States and Europe will stim-        n Si I iii.
:   In,l  ,- ,. .--  .  n ,r r.uj I;.:1 .  -C rl .Ir s.., -  i.:. I.er I..c..na..urra:.
ulate demand for exports, especially from  countries that have      ,     . I-I J.-.IV,F'
undergone real exchange rate depreciation. Japan's stalled recov-     .  :,,; e 3.-i  -
ery, and its effect on otherAsian economies, is the major uncertainty
in the G-7 outlook.
If the reform programs and financial restructurings under-
taken in the wake of the Asian financial crisis are successful,
growth of the developing countries should rebound after a
period of adjustment in 1998 (see table 4b). The regions most
affected-East Asia (excluding China) and Latin America-will
see sharply reduced growth in 1998, but will substantially recover
by 1999. Capital flows will resume as confidence is restored. The
prospects for other regions are tied less to events in Asia and
depend more on continuing progress in macroeconomic man-           Growth of world GDP. 1996-2000
agement, trade liberalization, and political stability. In South Asia
current account deficits have generally been small, real exchange                                  Current   Projeeftion
rates have been stable, and the banking system is less exposed to                                  estimnate
short-term  debt. With continuing economic reform, though                                         1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
politically difficult, growth is expected to pick up to an average      .                              . .    . 
of 6 percent in 1998-2000. The Middle East and North Africa will                   L 3*.,) S.. , Js - .n , onn s  iS  4(i .id f 
be more acutely affected by a decline in oil prices. Growth at near  - i                                             J. l, E., r.,n.e. :- ,,r,  f   2 a 2
the levels achieved in 1996 depends in large part on the success   Essl ,533 i,O 1E P3 r,.:         5 7.       62   r. 7
of diversified exporters such as Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon,            -I:.. , 
Morocco, Tunisia, and Syria. Despite the improved performance      E.A.: .- 3r, Ier's C i j            ; 3   0  1)  51
of many countries and increased attractiveness to private          ;,-,, , Sri I,V,,Ii.e3n        3 4   2 -     2
investors, the region faces many challenges and is subject to sig-      r ,, l-E l ; i-    .       - -   *. 
nificant downside risk. In Sub-Saharan Africa growth is expected     :-r., i, .i,rs a              _           . 2 J 5
to improve despite declining terms of trade, uncertain capital
Source: r. ] t,53,1  I 3I  i-
flows, and possible extreme weather patterns. In Europe and
Central Asia the effects of the Asian crisis appear to have been
short-lived, but large or rising current account deficits and frag-
ile domestic financial systems expose a number of countries to
further risk. Growth in the region is strongly tied to recovery in
Western Europe and expanding trade.
Note: Preliminary 1997 macroeconomic aggregates are estimates prepared by WAorld
Bank staffand are subject to revision. The projections for 1998-2000 were prepared by
the staff of the Development Prospects Group as part of their work on Globbal conomic
Prospects and theDeveloping Countnes 1998 (forthcoming).
1998 World Development Indicators  171



Nominal             International           Money              Merchandise           Merchandise          IFC Emerging
exchange rate           reserves            supply (M2)             exports              imports             Market index
units of local currency per $
Q1 96                        Q4 97                Q3 97                 Q4 97                 Q4 97                Q4 97
1.0                      $51 billion          $219 billion         $13.3 billion        $16.8 billion              457.4
Brazil
Q4 97          Q1 96                 Q1 96                Ql 96                 Q1 96                 Q1 96
1.1          $53.8 billion         $190 billion         $10.3 billion         $11.5 billion         343.0
Q1 96                        Q4 97                Q3 97                 Q3 97                 Q3 97          Ql 96
2,337.0                $16.7 billion         $323 trillion          $14 billion         $10.4 bililon        123.1
Indonesia
Q4 97          Ql 96                 Ql 96                Ql 96                 Q1 96                       Q4 97
4,650.0          $15.1 billion        $228 trillion         $11.2 billion         $9.6 billion                 51.3
Q1 96                 Ql 96                       Q3 97                 Q4 97                 Q4 97          Q1 96
782.7                 $33.4 billion          $198 trillion         $37.0 billion        $34.5 billion       122.2
Korea, Rep.
Q4 97                 Q4 97          Q1 96                Q1 96                 Q1 96                        Q4 97
1,695.8           $20.4 billion       $152 trillion         $31.5 billion         $35.7 billion                36.3
Q1 96                        Q397             Q3 96                     Q3 97                 Q3 97                Q4 97
2.5                    $22.3 billion           $227 billion        $20.4 billion        $19.9 billion              728.2
Malaysia                                      |                                                                                   /
Q4 97          Q1 96                 Q1 96                Ql 96                 Ql 96                 Q196
3.9          $23.6 billion         $210 billion         $18.6 billion         $19.1 billion         493.9
Q1 96                        Q4 97                Q3 97                 Q2 97                 Q2 97         Ql 96
7.5                    $28.1 billion          $802 billion         $16.5 billion        $18.8 billion       298.9
Mexico
Q497           Q1 96                 Ql 96                Q1 96                 Q1 96                       Q4 97
8.1          $16.9 billion         $595 billion         $13.9 billion         $13.9 billion               108.1
Q1 96                        Q3 97                Q3 97                 Q3 97                 Q3 97                Q4 97
26.2                    $9.6 billion          $1.3 trillion         $6.5 billion        $10.2 billion              121.3
Philippines
Q4 97          Q1 96                 Q1 96                Q1 96                 Q1 96                 Ql 96
35.4          $7.2 billion          $990 billion         $4.6 billion          $7.9 billion          280.6
Q1 96                 Q1 96                        Q3 97                Q4 97          Q1 96                 Ql 96
25.2                  $38.1 billion           $4.1 trillion        $14.5 billion       $19.5 billion         390.2
Thailand
Q4 97                 Q4 97          Q196                  Q96                         Q3 97                 Q4 97
47.2            $25.8 billion       S3.4 trillion        $14.1 billion           $15.2 billion               58.9
Source: International Monetary Fund, Internatonal Finance Statistics Database; nternationa Finance Corporat on. Emerg ng Markets Database.
172   1998 World Deveopnment lndccators



The external environment for developing countries remains favorable In 1998, but growth was interrupted by the
financial crisis in East Asia
East Asia              East Asia and                                Latin America
and 1he Pacific       the Pacific excl. China  Europe and Central Asia  and the Caribbean
s.e
-               3
'I.. ;  :.Qd,,-
Middle East and                                                      . r     _ 
North Africa           South Asia             Sub-Saharan Africa        -tort  Fc.e: i
e ti, ,i
6 h  - 5 5 ;, l 5 S~~~~~~~~~~0,jj
4 1 j 2 # '3 5i                           3.8 z'
s~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~TmrT R11 Is:a*: iqM. =ra =nz. 11ll l      ml     m
I.~ ~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~ _. _1
5/7 =63        3
2 3      2:5            2.5  2 l.123      ' 
96 97 98 99 00
Lt4   "--98-r9 00Six-month LIBOR
Current  Forecast          a. Canada, France,  (% per year)0
estimate                Germany, Italy, Japan, the     ___'   .         -
United Kingdom, and the        _'-I
United States.     ., -                             .  -
b. Consumer price idex n  is 
local currency aggregated .
using 198-908 GDP
vveights.
c. Measured in$.
d. London interbank_e
ottered rate.
World inflation and interest rates will remain low and stable
1998 World Development Indicators  173



Gross domestic  I Exports of goods  Imports of goods  GDP deflator    Current account  Gross international
product         and services     and services                         balance          reserves
1996  1997  1996m1997  997  1996  1997  1996  1997  rn~JonS conths
average annual    average annual   average annual                                             of import
% growth          % growth         % growth          % growth         % of GDP 9$ 96llons coverage
1996     1997    1996     1997     "996     1997    1996     1997  11996       1997    1997     1997
4.4      7.8      8.6      7.3     10.0    29.6      0.5      0.7    -1.4     -3.7    25,668     7.0
Bangladesh                5.3      5.7     10.6     23.0    16.9      9.7     5.6      2.0     -5.1     -2.7     1,719    2.6
Er;:,l                    2.9      3.9      6.1     14.7     5.9     24.3    15.8      7.2     -3.2     -4.2   55.110     6.6
Bulgaria                -9.0      -7.4     -8.7      8.3    -7.8      8.6   113.6    997.7     -0.2      1.8     2,425    4.5
r r.. i,t                 7.2      5.6      3.9      7.6     8.2      5.0     7.0      6.5     -3.9     -3.7   18,891     9.9
China                     9.9      9.0      8.3     24.1     7.8      7.2     5.9      2.5      0.9      2.2  145,988    10.2
c.ui.:.rnr.,.w            2.0      3.0      4.4      5.9     3.0      5.6    17.7     19.8     -5.6    -5.3     10,095    5.5
Cote d'lvoire             5.9      6.3     24.1      0.3    21.2      6.7     3.5      3.1     -1.9     -9.4      724     1.6
Ecuad.:.r                 1.9      3.3      3.6      7.2     2.2     12.7    29.5     31,2      1.5    -1.1      2,086    3.8
Egypt, Arab Rep.          5.0      5.0      8.4      0.5     6.4      7.9     9.1      6.2      0.7    -0.3     19,147   10.3
Chrnn                     5.0      3.0     19.8     -5.5    12.5      0.2    33.3     29.6     -5.1     -7.3      473     2.3
Hungary                   1.3      4.0      7.4     21.4     5.7     19.9    20.4     17.1     -3.8     -3.3    9,249     4.5
India                     7.5      6.1      7.5      9.1     5.7     10.1     7.0      7.0     -1.1     -1.5   28,497     5.3
Indonesia                 7.6      3.5      6.3      7.7     9.6     -0.1     8.7     13.5     -3.7    -2.6    18.476     4.4
-1.7     -1.0      1.0     -1.9     5.7      1.5     24.4    12.0     -1.9     -4.4      810     2.5
Jordan                    5.2      5.0     12.2      4.3    15.7      4.0     5.1      4.0     -3.1     -2.6     2,743    5.4
pcr.',                    4.3     2.0      13.3     -3.4     5.8      7.2     9.6     12.5     -0.8     -2.0      763     2.5
Lithuania                 3.6      3.6      3.6      6.5     3.6      4.2    26.1     12.3     -9.3    -7.6     1.178     2.8
>.lCia. tx                8.0      7.3     10.7      7.6     8.5      6.9     8.2      2.9     -5.2     -4.5   21.700     3.5
Mauritius                 6.1      5.5      6.1      5.8     5.8      5.4     6.0      5.0      0.4    -2.3      1,026    4.2
Mexico                    5.9      6.9    -18.9     13.0   -16.6     18.8    30.8     17.4     -0.6    -1.6    27,581     2.4
Morocco                  11.5     -2.2      6.3      2.8    -3.9      6.2     2.3      3.0     -1.7     -2.6    4,367     4.2
r1, :,,                   3.5     3.3      15.9      7.4    14.4      7.8    31.0      8.8      9.7     3.2     7,040     6.4
Pakistan                  4.6     3.5       2.0     -6.2    13.6     -3.1    11.3     11.4     -6.5     -6.0     1,964    1.4
Peru                      2.8      6.5     10.1     12.7     0.2      9.6     9.4      9.0     -5.9    -5.5      7,093    6.9
Philippines               5.7      5.1     20.3      8.9    21.1      8.7     9.0      7.0     -4.5    -4.5     8,800     2.0
w.--j l 15.9                    6.0      9.8     12.2    23.6     19.0     18.6    14.1     -2.4     -4.1    21,030    6.0
Russian Federation       -4.9      0.0     -2.0      2.2    -1.6      4.6    45.5     18.0      2.6      0.9   25,721     3.3
Si.:, l. -vr,r,-          6.7      5.5     -1.6      6.8    18.5      1.3     5.8      5.5    -11.0    -8.6     3,719     3.4
South Africa              3.3      2.3      7.8      6.0     7.5      5.9     8.2      8.0     -1.6     -1.9     3,595    1.2
SI, LarI 3                3.8      6.0      3.9      3.0     2.8      8.6    10.9      9.5     -4.7    -5.1
Thailand                  6.4      0.4      2.4      3.4     2.8     -7.8     5.1      6.0     -7.9     -2.6    23,000    4.3
Tr,ra;, .no T.t .:        3.2     2.9      -7.7      4.0    -2.4      2.9     4.1      5.7      1.7    -0.6       396     1.7
Tunisia                   7.0      5.7      0.5      5.2    -2.9      6.9      4.4     3.6     -2.7     -2.6     2,612    3.2
l,>' #6.7                         6.5      21.7     14.8    19.0     14.6    78.3     85.0     -0.8    -2.4    30,721     6.2
Venezuela                -1.6      5.7      4.3      7.0    -5.9     19.4   111.4       ..     13.1      7.7    21,601   12.8
Zimbabwe                  7.3      4.5     12.2     -4.4     8.1      1.3    23.0     23.5     -2.1     -3.7      399     1.4
Note: Data for 1997 are preliminary.
Source: World Bank staff estimates.
174   1998 Wold Development Indicators



Nominal exchange rate    Real effective    Money and          Gross         Real Interest   Short-
exchange rate     quasi money    domestic credit       rate        term
debt
local
currency units                                average annual   average annual                    % Of
per $      % change        1990 =100         % growth         96 growth      96       9      exports
1997    1996     1997    ±.996   :1997    1996     1997    1996     1997    1996     1.997   1996
E;r.r:Iviz:r  46.6  42  71                      10.6     1>7     11      136~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.  60  lIt  2.8
1.1  .~~~~~~~~~  .       c.e     i&t     11'..' ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 7.4  ss 
em:;.';  :.: 7K  fec                              it e   I Si.' I           ~       ~       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 14.4
44  >5  1236  1.33-i   1Ž6      1~~~~~~~I.1.? - iC'  1 3.1I  9.7 T  6     36 1
r r i 5  ~     ~        -g     ~  ''SC                                      14                36      4       14.1
1:031  16  CE'S  1439   13>5     ~~~~~   ~~~        ~~~2.14  615  26  ICli  .7 12
.>., -,  QC.  t~~~~~~~~~7  7K-I  dC   3d ~~~~~~87.3
:3:9 r'  ns  aŽi  '16.6   ~~~~~  ~~~1371:  E  341'    C.3    -16C1    194 A      0
Es  MAr. Pr  3 .'  -'.' I  ''K'                 1K' 6   11 .3   13       14         *'    *:      11.8~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~O  1.
211                   326             ~~~~       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~201,2  .3
H                                        I~~~~~~~i3 I.'  K  1C                                                 6.
loLa          :4':     21      ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~7.1          6               1)7               6       61      128E
-4.~~~~~~~ C.  ~17                      1 915 '>                   '7     211      55.3
J ~~~~~~n! -3K                      .7Ic'                            176     26 '              66I5
636                                                I C1.i  13  6  6:  7     UK       1.-      17$
.1)  n'.'.'  '.' '       -3:'             -1-I   ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~             ~~~~~~~24.9  -3.6  1.9  3.8
U jl                                   C.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I  1K'9' .1                       C               11.
If                                          r 0  9 p-       '.       :       .K      f       15.3
27                         .     262     L 424             4 
1~     17 1     3'.                      20.1.    1 4-1    '11     :.                       23.6
Pe ru                     2 7    12'      4337                              2'       *1O5.           15C2     1 93    7930
Foi ar,.d                         (               11      1        29 2                               6.       -.      02
jn F~~.J~    C -'I" C   Ž        Ki                       3 C'     A                6       3.'      33      1.
1'.aI 10rOut'I'C  ~~~~~~~7:i1.3 2                                                            6 0    1.44      C, S
ArrnF;c                        43       '         .        .     15       4        '       :'       4       03       5
i-am 3                                                                --(1  7  :  I'S 1 1  -1-, 7  6  .1  - 
Tnr.,i;j ;rIr. '93               3.      1       62       4        5                  I             ¶1-      6%       8 9
T,,,..~11                  '<      IK         .13                    17S       2       1 
Note: Date for 1997 are preliminary and may not cover the entire year.
Source: international Monetary Fund, international Finance Statistics: World Bank, Debtor Reporting System.
1998 World Development Indicators  175



4. 1 Growth of output
Gross domnesti c         Agricuilture            Industry             Manufacturing             Services
product
average annual         average annual         average annua[         averag, annual          average a nnual
% growth               % growth                % growth               8 growth-              % growth
1980-90     1990-96  i1980-90      1990-96    1980-90     1990-96     1980-90    1990-96     1980-90    1990-96
Albani'a                      1.5        1.5         1.9        8.2         2.1      -11.0            .          .       -0.4         7.2
Algeria                       2.8        0.5         4.6         3.0        2.3       -0.4         3.3        -8.9         2.9        0.8
Angola                        3.7       -0.9         0.5       -9.5         6.4         4.3      -11.1         5.3         2.2       -4.7
Argentina                    -0.3        4.9         09.9       0.         -0.9       .5.0        -05-                    0.0         5.5
Armenia                       3.3      -21.2        -3.9       -0.6         5.1      -28. 7           .          .4.6               -19. 7
Australia                    .3.4        3.7         3.3       -1.2         2.9         2.2         2.0        1.8         3.7        4.6
Austria                       2.2        1.6         1.1       -1.1         1.9         1.3        2.7         0.7         2.4        2.0
Azerbaeijan                    -.      -17.7          ..       -6.0          ..      -10.8           ...                     .      -11.1
Bangladesh                    4.3        4.3         2.7         1.2        4.9        7.2         2.8         7.3        5.7         5.7
Belarus                        -.       -8.3          ..       -9.8           .      -10.....                                        -5.6
Belgium                       1.9        1.2         2.0        3.3           ...2.8                           0.3
Beni'n                        3.3        4.4         5.1        5.1         1.3         4.2          ...2.6                           3.8
Bolivia                       0.0        3.8         2.0          -        -2.9         ..        -1.6          ..        -0.1I
Bosnia end Herzegovina-
Botsawna                     10.3        4.1         2.2       -12         11.1         1.8        8.8         2.6         11         7.1
Brazil                        2.7        2.9         2.8        3.7         2.0        2.1         1.6         2.2        3.5         3.7
Bulgaria                      4 .0      -3.5        -2.1       -3.3         5.2       -4.9           ...4.8                          -0.6
Burkina Faso                  3.7        2.8         3.1        3.8         3.7         1.4        2.0         9.8        4.7         2.1
Burundi                       4.4       -3.8         3.1       -3.4         4.5       -8.3         5.7      -17.3         5.4        -2.7
Cambodia                       ..        6.5          ..        2.1..                 11.3           ..        7.8          ..8.4
Cameroon                      3.3       -1.0         2.1         2.6        5.9       -5.2        11.8        -2.1        2.6        -0.9
Canada                        3.4        1.9         1.5         0.7        2.9         1.8        3.2         2.7        3.6         1.8
Central African Republic      1.7        0.7         2.3         2.6        1.8       -1.9         4.9        -5.5        0.6        -0.4
Chad                          6 .1       1.5         2.3         5.2        8.1       -2.5         4.4        -2.6         7.7        0.4
Chile                         4.1        7.2         5.6        5.5         3.7         6.2        3.4         6.3        4.2         8.2
China                        10.2       12.3         5.9         4.4       11.1       17.3        10.7        1 7.2      13.6         9.6
Hong Kong, China             6.9        5.5....... 
Colombia                      3.7        4.5         2.9         1 .2.      5.0         2.9        3.5         1.4        3.1         6.8
Congo, Dem. Rep.              1.6       -6.6         2.5         3.0        0.9      --15.9        1.6       -13.4         1.2      -17.4
Congo, Rep.                   3.6        0.1         3.4        0.7         5.2         2.0        6.9        -1.9        2.5        -1.8
Costa Rice                   .3.0        4.3         3.1        3.2         2.8        4.0         3.0         4.3        3.1         4.8
C6te dIhvoire                 0.8        2.4         0.3         2.3        4.4         3.4        3.0         1.6       -0.2         2.0
Croatia                        ..       -1.0          ..       -4.4          ..       -8.2          ...                      .       -3.9
Czech Republic                1.7       -1.0          ..       -8.2          ..       -5.2          ...                      .       -3.6
Denmark                       2.4        2.2         3.1         1.7        2.9        1.9         1.4         1.3        2.2         2.0
Dominican Republic            3.0        4.7         0,4        3.3         3.6        5.2         2.9         3.8        3.5         4.6
Ecuador                       2.0        3.2         4.4        2.6         1.2        4.4,        0.0         3.2        1.8         2.6
Egypt, Arab Rep.              5.3        3.7         2.7        2.8         5.2        3.9          ..         4.3        6.6         3.4
El Salvador.                  0.2        5.8        -1.1        1.2         0.1        5.3        -0.2         5.3        0.7         7.5
Eritreea.,                                             ....                              ..
Estonia                       2.1       -6.5          ..       -6.5          ..      -11.6          ...                     .        -1.7
Ethiopia'                     2.3        3.9         1.4        2.3         1.8         3.0        2.0         3.3         3.1        6.7
Finland                       3.3        0.3        -02         0.9         3.3         1.0        3.4         4.3        3.7        -1.6
France                        2.4        1.1         2.0         0.1        1.1       -0.3         0.8         0.0        3.0         1.6
Gabon                        -0.5        2.3         1.4       -2.7         0.6         2.7       -3.8         0.2       -1.8         2.8
Gambia, The                  .3.0        2.6         0.7         1.1        5.4         1.4         6.7        1.6         4.0        3.5
Georgia                        ..      -26.1           .           ..                     ..
Germanyn'                     2.2         ..         1.7          .         1.2          ..        ..            .2.9
Ghana                         3.0        4.4         1.0         2.6        3.3         4.3         3.9        2.6         6.4        6.4
Greece                        1 .8       1.6        -0. 1       3.1         1.3       -0.8         0.5        -1.7         2.3        1.6
Guatemala                     0.8        4.2         2.3        2.8         2.1        4.0           ...2.1                           4.8
Guinea                         ..        3.9           .        4.4          ..        2.7           ...                              4.4.
Guinea-.Bissau              ..4.0        3.5        .4.7        4.8         2.2         2.2          ...3.7                           2.0
Haiti                        -0.2       -5.0          ..        -0.8          .      -13.7           ...                     .       -5.2
Honduras                      2.7        3.5         2.7        3.1         3.3         4.0         3.7        3.7         2.5        3.7
176   1998 World Development Indicators



4.1
Gross domestic          Agrlculture           Industry            Manufacturing           Services
product
average annual        average annual       average annual        average annual        average annual
% growth              % growth              % growth             % growth              % growth
1980-90    1990-96    1980-9O    1990-96    1980-90   1990-96    1980-90    1990-96    ±980-90    1990-96
Hungary                     .6       -0.4         0.6      -5.0       -26         1..36                                      32
Indonesia                   6.1J   .... 7..7  .........3.4  .. .. ..2..8 .........6.9   10  2... .... 12.6   11.1   7.0      7.4
Iran, Islamic Rep.          1.5 ..  .....4:2      4.5       4~8 ........3:3       3.8        45.5       4:6 ....  .  -0.3    4:2
Iraq-6.8                                ..                    ..                    ..
Irelan d   . . .. I . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . .. 3 2   6.1.. . . . . . .  . . . . . . .   . .. . . I . . ..  .. . . . . . ... ... .. .. . . . .
Israel                      3.5       6.4                                .
Italy...........2..4          .. 1. .   0.  0.  .   ...... .1   1.4                 .        2.9        1.0
Jamaica            ..    ...2.0  0...   ....O.8,  0.6       6-.7  .....  ...2.4  ...   ..   -0.2  ..   .. . 2.7   -1.4   1. 9  ........0:8
Japan                       4.0       1~4  ..... ..13      -2.0        42.........02 _..2 ..   .  48.8   .  0  0 ..   .   .  3.9  ... .... 20
Jordan                      2.6       7.6         6:8.8 ..... -3.7     1.7       10.9        0.5 .......10:8.8   .  .... 2.1   6.3
Kazakhstan                    .     -10..5                -15.3          .      -15 7          . 
Kenya                       4.2       1.9         3.3       0.6        39         1.8 ........ 4.9      2.5        4.9       3.5
Korea, Dem. Rep.                                    ..                   ..
Korea, Rep.                 94        7.3         2.8       1.8       13.1 .. .... 7~5..... 13:2 ...... .7.9      8.2        8.0
K uwa.I...t ...... .0..I.  . 9...1    22..       14........ . 7....   ...........   . .. 1. . 0...   ..2  .....0... . 9......  .   ....   ....
Kyrgy  Republic        ............I-12-.3  . ..._....  7........  -4.6  .      -21  7                   .                 -13  4
Lao PDR                     3.7       6.7         3.5       4.4        6.1       12.1        89       12:9'      .. 3,3 .......8:0
Latvia                      3.4     --10.7 .........2.3     -13        4:3      -20.2        4 4  ......-20 :1 .... 3.1     -1.2
Lebanon                    78.2       9.3:I..,                          ..       .-.:.                    :
Lesotho                     4.3       6.7         2~.0 ...... -0.8 ......   . 7.1  ......12~5.5 .   . .. 13.6   9.4   ...  5.1  .... ... 5:9
Libya                      -5.7                     ....
Lithuania                     .      -6.0          .        8.7          .      -10.4         ..-4 6
Macedonia, PIYR                      -9~.1         .          .          ..
Madagascar                  1.1       04  .........2.5 .........18  ........0!9 0. .   .... 5   1.9     3.5        0.3  .... . 0:4
Malawi                      2.3       2.6         2.0       5.1        2.9        1.1 .........3.65     0.7        3.5  ..  ...-2  5
Malasa                      5.2       873.8                 1.9        7.2       11.2 .........8.9     132         4.2 ....  8:5
Mali              ....I...  2,.9 .   .... 2~8  .........3.3   3.3      4.3        5.6        6.8  ...   4:9        2.1        1.5
Mauritania1.7                         4.1 ........ 1.7      4.7        4.9        4.1...-2.14          2.1         0.3       3.8
Mau ~ ritius                6  2 .. ......5-.0 .....  2.9.0.2         10.3  ........57.7 ..  .  -1.1    5.7        5.4  .... ...6:3
Mexico1.1                             J.18        08        12         11         1.8        1.5        20         1.2       1:9
M old... a ol.                      -16.7  ..........     -14..7  ... ...... ...  -23  .7.                                  -1 .... .....   .   .....  ...  .2.3
Mongolia
Morocco                     4.2       2~1 .........6:7 .......-0.7   ...3.0       2.1        41.1   __  25  ..     4.2       2.9
Mozambique                  1.7       7.1         5.5       4.2       -5.2        1.4...                          13.6      11.9
M y:anrnar ......   .............9 ~ ...   .... 0.   .8~....  0...... 5  ........6.2  .........0.5  .......10.7  .. .... _-0 2.2 .  8  5  .........0  7   6 4
Namibia   1.2        4.1        1.2        4.6      ~~~~        ~~~~      ~~~-0O1 .........2.9. ....  7.8  3.8014
Nepal                       4 .65.1               4.0       1.9        6.0        8.5 .........3.~7 .......120     48....   ..   ... .  . 6.9
Netherlands                 2.3       2.2         3.4       3.7       1t .6... .       . 1.2 .. ~2.3 1..... .A7    2.62.3
New Zealand                 1.7       3.3         39_.9 ...... 0.9     1.1        3,8.8..... . 0.4      4.4        1.8 ......34
Nicaragua-2 0                         2.1        -2.2 ... ...4.4      -1..2.                -3.1        0.6       -2.0... .  0.. 4
Niger                      -1.1       1.0         178       2.8       -I 7.. .....0.2                   1.2...    -2.9       -0.2
Nigeria                     1.8       2.6         33.2.4.-1..0.5.0.7.1.5                                           4.4        4
Norway                      2.8       3.9        -02_.2 ..... 4.4 ......._33 _.3 ...  5.2    0.1        2:2 .....  2.7        2.8
Oman8.                                            7910.3                            .       20:6                   6.0
Pakistan                    6.3       4.6         43.3 ....... 3.8     7.3        5  5.      7.7 ....... 5:5.5 ....... 6.8  ~...   .. .5.0
Papua.New Guna1.9                     7.6         1.8       4.8       1-9 ........13~6 . ......0!1      5.2        2.0 ........40
Paraguay                    2.5       3~i 1 ..  .... 3..6   2.7       -0.3        2.2        2.1        1.2  ...... 3.4 ..... 3.7
Peru                       -0.3  8. .. . 0..  ~   ..........  5... . 6... 5,165           .                                   5.8
Philippines                 1.0       2.9         1.0       17        -0:9        3.1        0.2        2.6        2.8........ 3.3
Poland                      1.9       3 2.2 ....... -0.1   -1.6       -0 9..9 ..  ... 4  7 ........... ......   ...  ... ....  5.1   3.0
P ru a.2....I.............. . 9...........  14.   .. .... ......-1.8 .... .. ....-0                               . ......I...
Puerto  Rico4                13.0                 1.8  .   .. .......... ....3:6             1.5.                  4.6     I....
Romania                     0.5  0.... . 0... OO........   ..  .   ....  ..-0.4  .........-2.1  .                    .-2.
Russian Federation          2.8      -9 .0          .       8                   -11 0...                                      8.4
1968 World Development Indicators 177



4.1
Gross domestic            Agriculture              Industry            Manufacturing              Services
product
average annual          average annual         average annuai          a~erage vnnue,          aeage   d-f.a
% growto         ~~~~~% growth           Cgrowth                 ' rwn3got
1980-90     1990-96     1990-90    199-6I18-0              1990-96     1980-90    1990-96     1980-90    1990-96
Rwanda                        2.6        -9.7         0.5       -8.4         2.6       -1 4.9        2.6      -16.6         6.6       -9.0
Saudi Arabia                 -1.2         1.7        13.4          ..       -2.3          ..7.5                   ..        -1.2
Senegal                       3.1         1.8         3.3         2.3        4.1         3.1         4.6         3.5         2.6       1.3
Sierra Leone                  0.6        -3.3         3.1       -1.5         1.7        -6.4           ...                 -2.6       -3.2
Singapore                     6.6         8.7        -6.2         1.3        6.4         9.1         6.6         7.9         7.6       8.6
Slovak Republic               2.0        -1.0         1.6         1.9        2.0        -7.2           -           .0.8                6.4
Slovenia                                  4.3          ..       -0.2          ..         0.1          -....                            3.6
South Africa                  1.2         1.2         2.9         1.4        0.0         0.5        -0, 1       0.6          2.3       1.6
Spain                         3.2         1.3          ..        -4.8          .        -1. 1          ..       -0.7          ..       1.7
Sri Lanka                     4.2         4.8         2.2         1.7        4.6         6.6         6.3        6.6          4.7       6.1
Sudan                         0.6         6.8         0.0          -.        2.68.                   3.7          .0.4
Sweden                        2.3         0.6         1.6       -1.9         2.8        -0.7         2.6         0.8        2.1       -0.6
Swivtzerlandl                 2.2        -0.1          -.          -..                     ..
Syrian Arab Republic          1.5         7.4        -0.6          ..        6.6          ...                      .0.4
.Taji,kis,tan.                          -~16.4          .           ..                     .
Tanzania'                                   ..                      ..                     .           .- 
Thailand                      7.6         8.3         4.0         3.6        9.9        10.3         9.5       10.7          7.3       7.9
Togo                          1.8        -0.6         5.6         0.1        1.1         0.6         1,7       -01          -0.3      -2.0
Trinidad and Tobago   .      -.5          1.2        -5.8        13         -5.5          .8       -10.1         1.1        -3.~3      0.8
Tunisia                       3.3         4 .1        2.8       -0.1         3.1         4.3         3.7        6.2          3.6       5.2
Turkey                        5.3         3.6         1.3         1.2        7.8         4.6         7.9        6.3          6.6       3.7
Turkmenistan                             -9.6           .           ..                     ..
Uganda                       .3.1         7.2         2.3         4.0        6.0        12.2         4.0       13.4          3.0       6.6
Ukraine                                 -13.6          ..      -26.1          ..       -20.0          ...                      .      -6.0
United Arab Emnirates        -2.0          ..         9.6         9.3       -4.2        -1.8         3.1         1.3        2.0-
United Kingdom                3.2         1.6
United States                 2.9         2.4         4.0         3.6        2.8         1.2         3.1         1.6        2.9        1.6
Uruguay                       0.4         3.7         0.1         4.4       -0.2         0.4         0.4       -1.0         0.9        5.6
Uzbekistan                               -3.5          -.       -1.8          ..        -6.0          ..        -6.6          ..      -2.3
Venezuela                     1. 1        1.9         3.0         1.1        1.6    ~    3.1         4.3         1.5         0.6       1.0
Vietnam                       4.6         8.5         4.3         5.2         ..        13.3          ...                                .5
West Bank and Gaza                          .           ..                     ..
Yemen, Rep.                               2.8          ..         2.9          ..        2.9           ...                             2.7
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.).........
Zambia                        0.8        -1.1         3.6         0.5        1.0        -3.2         4.0       -1.9          0.1       0.5
Zimbabwe                      3.0         1.3         2.4         4.5        3.0        -2.1         2.9       -3.7          2.5       2.5
Low  income                   6.1         7.6         3.7 3....................... :. 5..  ...   .  80.0 .  .. .12.2  8.7  .13.2  .7.1  6.8
Err,cl. "Ch'i'na --& ..I'n"d ia  3.2      3.1         31         29            ......3.4
Middle 'inc-ome               2.1....     0.8'          .                                                                     .5       3.8
Low er  . 'idd  ""'""om..............2:7........ '".7.......................  .........   .... m iddle.....  .incom e  2.7..........-0.7.... .. ..  ...  ....
ULppe mdlinoe14                           292.5                  1.7         0.7         2.9         1.3         3.4         2.0       3.7
jo-' ..&.. j ddej n--o.. m,   ......2.9.              3.2..3     2..........4..3 .. .                4....6.....             3......   4.6.'
East Asia & Pacific           7.7        10.2~        4.8        4~.0        8.9        145978. .9                                     8.3
Europe  &  Central ....Asia .. 2.9... Z   ...   ... -.6.4  .................. .......... .............. ..........  ..  ...  ..  ..
La"t in ..Am ..er'i'ca ..&.. C-a,r,ib............ 1'.8 ...  3.2   2.0  2.5   1.42.12                             2  6        1.9       3.8
Middle East& N. Africa  0.4  2.6        ~~~~       ~~~~4.6  3.2  1.3          .. .j.
S'o u"th ..A"s ia 5............... ..7....  ...........6.6 ... ...  3.2   3.0  6.        6.7         7.2         7.46.67
Sub-Saharan Africa  1.7  2.0       1.3        2.1         1.1~       ~~~~       ~~~    ~    ~~~~~ 0.9  1.3  08  2.2  2.0
Hihincome                   3.2         2.0         2.          .j.2                   0.7~... .   3.5        0.4,        3.3        1.9'
a. Dats prior to 1992 inclade Eritrea. b. bate prior to 1990 refer to the Federal Republin of Germnany before anifiateon. n. Data Goner mainiand Tanzania orny
178   1998 World Deveiopwent Indicanors



4.1
Growth rates are calculated using constant price data  home use, barter exchanges, and illicit or deliberately  * Gross domestic product at purchasers' prices is
in the local currency. Regional and income group  unreported activity. How consistent and complete such  the sum of the gross value added by all resident and
growth rates are calculated after converting local cur-  estimates will be depends on the skill of the compiling  nonresident producers in the economy plus any taxes
rencies to U.S. dollars using the average official  statisticians and the resources available to them.  and minus any subsidies not included in the value of
exchange rate reported by the International Monetary                                         the products. It is calculated without making deduc-
Fund for the year shown or, occasionally, an alterna-  Rebasing national accounts            tions for depreciation offabricated assets orfor deple-
tive conversion factor determined by the World Bank's  Countries  occasionally  rebase  their  national  tion and degradation of natural resources. Value
Development Data Group. The growth rates in the  accounts by collecting a complete set of observa-  added is the net output of a sector after adding up all
table are annual average compound growth rates.  tions on the value and volume of production in a new  outputs and subtracting intermediate inputs. The
Methods of computing growth rates and the alterna-  base year. Using these data, they update price  industrial origin of value added is determined by the
tive conversion factor are described in Statistical  indexes to reflect the relative importance of inputs  International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC),
methods.                                       and outputs in total output, and generate volume  rev. 2. * Agriculture corresponds to ]SIC divisions
indexes to reflect relative price levels. The new base  1-5 and includes forestry and fishing. * Industry
Measuring growth                              year should represent normal operation of the  comprises value added in mining, manufacturing (also
An economy's growth is measured by the increase in  economy-that is, a year without major shocks or dis-  reported as a separate subgroup), construction, elec-
value added produced by the individuals and enter-  tortions. But the choice of base year and the timing  tricity, water, and gas. * Manufacturing refers to
prises operating in that economy. Thus measuring real  of economic surveys are also determined by admin-  industries belonging to divisions 15-37. * Services
growth requires estimates of GDP and its components  istrative convenience, resource availability, and inter-  correspond to ISIC divisions 50-99.
valued in constant prices from one period to the next.  national agreement. Some developing countries have
In principle, real value added can be estimated by  not rebased their national accounts for many years.  Data sources
measuringthe quantity ofgoods produced in a period,  Using an old base year can be misleading because
valuingthem at an agreed setof base yearprices, and  implicit price and volume weights become progres-  National accounts data for developing countries are
subtracting the cost of inputs, also in constant prices.  sively less relevant and useful.   collected from national statistical organizations and
This double deflation method, recommended by the  The World Bank collects constant price national  central banks by visiting and resident World Bank mis-
United Nations (UN) System of National Accounts,  accounts series in national currencies and the coun-  sions. Data for industrial countries come from OECD
requires detailed information on the structure of  try's original base year. To obtain comparable series  data files. The World Bank rescales constant price
prices of inputs and outputs. In some sectors, how-  of constant price data, GDP and its main sectoral com-  data to a common reference year. The complete
ever, value added is extrapolated from the base year  ponents by industrial origin (agriculture, industry, and  national accounts time series is available on the
using volume indexes of inputs and outputs. In other  services) are rescaled to a common reference year,  World Development Indicators CD-ROM. For informa-
sectors, particularly services, real output is imputed  currently 1987. This process gives rise to a discrep-  tion on the OECD national accounts series see OECD,
from labor inputs, such as real wages or the number  ancy between the rescaled GDP and the sum of the  National Accounts. 1960-1995. volumes 1 and 2.
of employees. The real output of governments and  rescaled components. This discrepancy is allocated
other unpriced services are calculated in the same  to the estimate of services value added on the output
way. In the absence of well-defined measures of out-  side and to private consumption expenditure on the
put, measuring the real growth of services remains  expenditure side.
problematic.
Technical progress can lead to improvements in  Changes in the System of National Accounts
production and the quality of goods. If not properly  Most countries use the definitions of the UN System
accounted for, either effect can distort measures of  of National Accounts (SNA), series F, no. 2, version 3.
value added and thus of growth. When inputs are used  referred to as the 1968 SNA. Version 4 of the SNA
to estimate output, as in services, unmeasured tech-  was completed in 1993. Until new economic surveys
nical progress leads to underestimates of the quan-  can be implemented, most countries will continue to
tity and real value of output. Unmeasured changes in  follow the 1968 SNA. A few low-income countries still
the quality of goods produced also lead to underesti-  use concepts from older SNA guidelines, including val-
mates of real value. The result can be underestimates  uations such as factor cost and market prices, in
of real growth and productivity change and overesti-  describing major economic aggregates.
mates of inflation.
Nonmarket services pose a particular problem,
especially in developing countries, where much eco-
nomic activity may go unrecorded. Obtaining a com-
plete picture of the economy requires estimating
household outputs produced for local sale and for
1998 World Deveiopment Indicators    1 79



4.2 Structure of output
Gross domestic     I      Agriculture       I       Industry              Manufacturing              Services
product               value added              Value added             value added              value added
S ilin                   % of GDP                %, of GDP                 ofGP/ -GD
1980        1996        1980         1996        1980        1996        1980        1996        .1980        1996
Algeria                       42,345      45,699      10            13          54          48            9          6           36          38
Angola                                     6,721                     7            -.        69                       7            ..24
Argentina                     76,962     294,687         6           6          41          31          29          20           52          63
Armnenia                                   1,454        16          44          56          35                      25           25          20
Australia                    160,109     392,507         5            4         36          28          19          15           58          68
Austria                       78,539     226,100         4           2          36          31          25          20           60          68
Azerbaijan                         ..      3,650        ..23                     ..19                    -.         18           ..56
Bangladesh                    12,950      31,824       50           30          16          16          11          10           34          52
Belarus                            ..     19,346        ..16                     ..41                     ..35                   ..43
Belgium                      118,915     264.,400        2           1           ...22                              1 _9
Benin                          1,405     2,210          35          36          12          14           6           8           52          49
Bolivia                        3,074       6,131        16           .          35            .15                    ..47
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana                       1.035       4,936        11           4          45          46           4           5           43          50
Brazil                       2505        748.916       11           14          44          36          33          23           45          50
Bulgaria                      20,049       9,464        14          10          54          33            .           .32                    57
Burkina Faso                   1,709       2,538       33           35          22          25          16          19           45          40
Burundi                          920       1,137       62           57          13          17            7         17           25          26
Cambodia                           ..      3,125        ..51                     ..15                    -.          5            -.         35
Cameroon                       6,74-1      9,252        29          40          23          22            9         10           48          39
Canada                       263,193     579,300         .            ..                      ..
Central African Republic         797       1,062        40          56          20          18            7          7           40          26
Chad                             727       1,172       54           46          12          16           -.         15           34          38
Chile                         27.572      74,292         7            ..37                    .21                    ..55
China                        201,668     615,412        30          21          49          48          41          38           21          31
Hong Kong, China             28.495     154,767        1            0          32          16          24           9           67          84
Colombia                      33,397      85.202        19          16          32          20          23          16           49          64
Congo, Bem.Rnp.               14,922       6,904       25           64          33          13          14           5           42          23
Congo. Rep.                    1.706       2,386        12          10          47          34            7          6           42          56)
Costa Rica                     4,615       9,015        16          16          27          24          19          18           55          60
C6te dIfvoire                 10.175      10,668        29          28          20          21          11          13           51          51
Croatia                            ..     19.081         .12                     ..25                     .20                    ..62
Czech Republic                29,123      54.890         7           6          63          39            ...30                              55
Denmark                       66,322     174,247
Domninican Republic            6,631      13,169       20           13          28          32          15          17           52          55
Ecuador                        1,733      19,040       12           12          38          37          16          21           50          51
Egypt, Arab Rep:              22.913      67,691       18           17          37          32          12          24           45          51
El Salvador                    3,574      10,469       36           13          22          27          16          21           40          60
Eritrea                            ...                   .10                     .27                     ..15                      .63
Estonia                            ..      4,353        ..7                      ..26                    ..16                    ..65
Ethiopiaa                      5,179       5.993        56          55          12           10           8                      32          36
Finland                       51.306     123,966         .            ..                      ..
France                       664,595   1.540.100         4           2          34          26          24          19           62          71
Gabon                          4,279       5,704         7           7          60          52            5          6           33          41
Gambia, The                      233         363        30          28          16          15            7           7          53          56
Georgia                            ..      4,308        24          35          36          35          26          20           40          29
Germany                            ..2,353,200          I.1.                                  ..                    24
Ghana                          4,445       6,344       56           44          12          17           6           9           30          39
Greece                        48.613     122,946         .            ..                      ..
Guatemala                      7,879      15.817        ..24                     ..20                     .14                    ..56
Guinea                             ..      3,934        ..26                     ..36                     ..5                     ..39
Guinea-Bissau                    195         271        44          54          20           11           .0                     36          35
Haiti                          1,462       2,617        ..42                     ..13                    9.2.                                45
Honduras                       2.566       4,011        24          22          24          31          15          18           52          47
180O   1998 World Developmnent rsdicators



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4.2~
Gross domestic         Agriculture           Industry     r     Manufacturing          Services
product            value added           value added          value added          value added
$ mjlioros           5of GDP               % f GDP               of GDP              'oof GOP
1980       1996      1980       1996      1980       1996      1980       1996      1980       1996
Rwanda                     1,163     1,330      50         40        23         14        17         14         27        45
Saudi Arabia             156.487   126,266       1          ..       81         ..5.                            18
Senegal         .3,016               5.155      16         18        21         17        13         11         63        65
Sierra Leone               1,199       940      33         44        21         24         5          6         47        32
Singapore                 11.718    94,063       1          0        38         36        29         26         51        64
Slovak Republic               ..    18,963       ..5                   ..       31         6..                   .         4
Slovenia                      ..    18,558       ..5.                           38          .        28         ..57
South Africa              78,744   126,301       7          5        50         39        23         24         43        57
Spain                    211.542   581,600       ..3                   .                   .
Sri Lanka                  4,024    13.912      28         22        30         25        18         16        43         52
Sudan                      6,760        ..      34         ..        14          .7                   ..52
Sweden                   125,557   250.240       .          ..                   ..
Switzerland              102,719   293,400       .          ..                   ..
Syrian Arab Republic      13,062    17,587      20         ..        23                              ..56
Tajikistan                    ..     2,033       .          ..                   ..
Tanzania'                      .     5,838       ..        48         ..        21         ..7                   ..31
Thailand                  32,354   185.048      23         11         29        40        22         29         48        50
Togo.1.136                           1,420      2735                  25        23         8         11         48        42
Trinidad and Tobago        6,236*    5,464       2          2         60        45         9          9         38        53
Tunisia                    8,742    19,516      14         14         31        28        12         18         55        58
Turkey                    68,790   181,464      26         17         22        28        14         16         51        55
TurKmenistan                  ..     4,310       .          ..                   ..
Uganda                     1.245     615        72         46         4         16         4         8         23         39
Ukrai'ne                      ..    44,007       ..        13         ..        39         ...                   .48
United Arab Emirates      29.625    39,107       1          ..       77          .4                   ..22
United Kingdom           537.382  1,1i45.801
United States          2,709 000  7.341,900      3          ..       33          .22                  ..64
Uruguay                   1012      1,8          49                  34         26        26         18        53         65
Uzbekistan                    ..    25,198       ..        26         ..        27         ..8                   ..47
Venezuela                 69,377    67,311       5          4        46         47        16         18         49        49
Vietnam                       ..    23.340       ..        27         ..        31         ....42
West Bank and Gaza            ...                .          .          ....
Yemen, Rep.                   ..     6,016       ..        18          ..       49         ..        11         ..34
Yugoslavia, FRl(Serb./Mont.)
Zambia                     3,884     3,388      14         18        41         41        18         29         44        42
Zimbabwe                   5,355     7,550      14         14        36         28        25         19         50        59
Low income               702,232  1.535,031     33         27        35         35        26         25         32        37
Exci. China & India      375,820   349.196      32         34        26         24        12         12         42        42
Middle income          2,373,585  4.374,039     12         11        45         36         .          .43                 53
Lower middle incomne          ..2,090,188       15         12        43         37                   ..42                 51
Upper middle income    1,021,067  2,258,327      8          9        48         34        24        23         4457
Low & middle income    3,061,860  5,924,712     18         15        42         34        22         22        40         51
East Asia & Pacific      465,223  1,553.518     28         20        44         44        32         33         28        36
Europe & Central Asia         ..1,118,817        ..        11         ..        36         ...                   .53
Latin America & Carib.   758,650  1,875,727     10         10        40         33        27        21         50         57
Middle East & N. Africa  459.114        ..      12         ..        48                    9          ..40
South Asia               219,283   480,044      38         28        25         28        17         19         37        44
Sub-Sa!hararn Africa     264,750   305,131      22         24        35         30        14        15         43         46
High Income            7,810.607 22,756,455      3          ..       36          .24                  ..61
s. Oats prior to 1992 Include Entree. b. Data cover mainland Tuoanzni only.
1812  1998 World Developwent Indicators



4.2
Output by industrial origin is the sum of the value of  For further discussion of the measurement of agricul-  * Gross domestic product at purchasers' prices is
gross output of producers less the value of interme-  tural production see the notes to table 3.3.  the sum of the gross value added by all resident and
diate goods and services consumed in production.  The output of industry ideally should be measured  nonresident producers in the economy plus any taxes
This concept is known as value added. A country's  through regular censuses and surveys of firms. But in  and minus any subsidies not included in the value of
gross domestic product (GDP) represents the sum of  most developing countries such surveys are infrequent  the products. It is calculated without making deduc-
value added by all producers in that country. Since  and quickly go out of date, so many results must be  tionsfordepreciation offabricated assets orfordeple-
1968 the United Nations (UN) System of National  extrapolated. The sampling unit, which may be the  tion and degradation of natural resources. * Value
Accounts (SNA) has called for estimates of GDP by  enterprise (where responses may be based on financial  added is the net output of a sector after adding up all
industrial origin to be valued at either basic prices  records) or the establishment (where production units  outputs and subtracting intermediate inputs. The
(excluding all indirect taxes on Factors of production)  may be recorded separately), also affects the quality of  industrial origin of value added is determined by the
or producer prices (including taxes on factors of pro-  the data. Moreover, much industrial production is orga-  International Standard Industrial Classification (ISIC),
duction, but excluding indirect taxes on final output).  nized not in firms but in unincorporated or owner-oper-  rev. 2. * Agriculture corresponds to ISIC divisions
Some countries, however, report such data at pur-  ated ventures that are not captured by surveys aimed  1-5 and includes forestry and fishing. * Industry
chasers' prices-the prices at which final sales are  at the formal sector. Even in large industries, where reg-  comprises value added in mining, manufacturing (also
made-which may affect estimates of the distribu-  ularsurveysare more likely, evasion ofexcise and other  reported as a separate subgroup), construction, elec-
tion of output. Total GDP as shown in the table and  taxes lowers the estimates of value added. Such prob-  tricity, water, and gas. * Manufacturing refers to
elsewhere in this book is measured at purchasers'  lems become more acute as countries move from state  industries belonging to divisions 15-37. * Services
prices. GDP components are measured at basic   control of industry to private enterprise, because new  correspond to ISIC divisions 50-99.
prices. When components are valued at purchasers'  firms enter business and growing numbers of estab-
prices, this is noted in Primary data documentation.  lished firms fail to report. In accordance with the SNA,  Data sources
While GDP by industrial origin is generally more  output should include all such unreported activity as
reliable than estimates compiled from income or  well as the value of illegal activities and other                 National accounts data for
expenditure accounts, different countries use dif-  unrecorded, informal, or small-scale operations. Data  X iI    developing countries are col-
ferent definitions, methods, and reporting stan-  on these areas need to be collected using techniques  ;          lected from national statisti-
dards. World Bank staff review the quality of national  other than conventional surveys.                           cal organizations and central
accounts data and sometimes make adjustments to  In sectors dominated by large organizations and  t    . r         banks by visiting and resident
increase consistency with international guidelines.  enterprises, such as public utilities, data on output,       World Bank missions. Data
Nevertheless, significant discrepancies  remain  employment, and wages are usually readily available              for industrial countries come
between international standards and actual prac-  and reasonably reliable. But in the service sector the           from OECD data files (see
tice. Many statistical offices, especially those in  many self-employed workers and one-person busi-  OECD, National Accounts, 1960-1995, volumes 1
developing countries, face severe limits on the  nesses are sometimes difficult to locate, and their  and 2). The complete national accounts time series is
resources, time, training, and budgets required to  owners have little incentive to respond to surveys, let  available on the World Development Indicators
produce reliable and comprehensive series of   alone report their full earnings. Compounding these  CD-ROM.
national accounts.                              problems are the many forms of economic activity that
go unrecorded, includirng the work that women and
Data problems in measuring output              children do for little or no pay. For further discussion
Among the difficulties faced by compilers of national  of the problems of using national accounts data see
accounts is the extent of unreported economic activ-  Srinivasan (1994) and Hesten (1994).
ity in the informal or secondary economy. In develop-
ing countries a large share of agricultural output is  Dollar conversion
either not exchanged (because it is consumed within  To produce national accounts aggregates that are inter-
the household) or not exchanged for money. Financial  nationally comparable, the value of output must be con-
transactions also may go unrecorded.            verted to a common currency. The World Bank
Agricultural production often must be estimated indi-  conventionally uses the U.S. dollar and applies the aver-
rectly, using a combination of methods involving esti-  age official exchange rate reported by the International
mates of inputs, yields, and area undercultivation. This  Monetary Fund for the year shown. An altemative con-
approach sometimes leads to crude approximations  version factor is applied if the official exchange rate is
that can differ over time and across crops for reasons  judged to diverge by an exceptionally large margin from
other than climatic conditions or farming techniques.  the rate effectively applied to domestic transactions in
Similarly, agricultural inputs, which cannot easily be  foreign currencies and traded products. Shares of out-
allocated to specific outputs, are frequently 'netted  put by industrial origin are calculated from data in local
out" using equally crude and ad hoc approximations.  currencies and current prices.
1938 World Development Indicators     183



4.3 Structure of manufacturing
Value added In  Food,      Textiles    Machinery   Chemicals     Other
manufacturing  beverages,  and clothing  and transport        manufacturing'
and                   equipment
tobacco
$ millions  % Of total   % of total   % of total  % of total  9. 18% of total
1980  1991   1990  1995  1950  1995  1990   1995  1980  199   190   1995
A lbania      ... ..      . ....... ..    ......  ..
Algeria           3,257  3,154  27    113    18    14    10    15     3     5     43    54
Angola...                 383                 .     .     *
Argentin          22.685  56,50  91                 .    1                  .     4
Armenia              .     ..35               .......                 .
Australia         30,722  51,706  17          7     ..   21     .     7     ..    46
Austria          19,263  46,451  16   15    10      5    25    29     7     8     42    42
Azerbaijan           .    725  .. ....
Bangladesh        1,422  2,804  24           43           4           16    ..    14
Belarus                  6,152         .      .     .           .     .
Belgium           25,773  51,744  17  18     8      7    24          11.   15     40    53
Benin    .....112         .174 .  59         14     ..6                     ..    21
Bolivi-a           449          28    34     11     5     4     1     3     3     54    57
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana            43   ..217.       46          ... 16  .....                         38
Brazil            71,098  140,179  14        11    ..    25    ..    11           40
Bulgaria                    .    ..   19     ..    10     .    12     .     5      ..   54
Burkina Faso       261    438   59     .     193                      1     ..    17
Burundi             63    212    .     ...                            .
Cambodia            ..    149    ..    ...                      .
Cameroon           593    794   56    31     9      8     4     1     3     3     29    56
Canada            47,077    .   14    14      7     5    23    30     8     9     48    42
Central African Republic  54  93  49         22     .     8     ..   11     ..    10
Chad   ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ..   ..... .. .  165......  ...  ...  .. ....   . .. ...   .. .   ....
Chile             5,911     .   27    29     9      6     6     5     8    12     51    47
China             81,836 262,657  10  14    18     14    22    25    11    10     38    38
Hong Kong, China . 6,392  11,598  5   10    42    32    18    23     2     2     34    3
Colombia          7,762  15,233  ..    .      ......
Congo, Dem. Rep.  2,144.337      .     .      .     .     .     .     .
.og, e.128           . 139   35      .    1.6   *.                 .44
Costa Rice         895   1,725  46    46    10      7     8     9     7    12     28    26
C6te dIlvoire     1.096  1,272  35           15     ..   10           .     .     40
Croatia              ..  2,847                .     ..
Cubsa.                          55           7      ..    1     ..          ..    37
Czech Republic...                                   ...         ...
Denmark           11,411  29,628  24         5      ..   25     .    10    ..     37
lie ~ ~ ~~~. ..  ......
Dominican Republic  1,015 . 211  66          6      ..    1     ..    6     .     21
Ecuador           2,072  3,783
Egypt, Arab Rep.  2,678  13,740  19          30          11    ..     9     ..    31
El Salvador        589   2,002  37    29    22     18     4     6    11    16     27    32
Esto ia..                 617   . . ..  .  . . .   ..     .
Ethiopia           381b   374
Finland           13,019  29,441  ..  11            3     ..   26     ..    8      ..   53
France           160.811 296,107  13  14     8      5    30    30     8     9     41    42
Gabon              195    297   24    ..     4            9     .     4     ..    58
Gambia,The          15     23   35     ..    2            .     ..    3     ..    60
Georgia              ..   854 .  ....               .....-.
Germany              .. 581,335  .     .      .     .     .     .     .
Ghana              347    594   37    36    11      5     2     2     5    10     46    47
Greece            6,968  9,891  18    28    23     14    14    12     8    11     37    35
Guatemala            ...        39     .     10     .     5     ..    17    ..    28
Guinea               ..    76    .      ..          ..          ...
Guinea-Bissau        .      .    .     .      .     ..          ..          .
Honduras           344    614   5-1   51      9    16     2     2     5     4     34    27
184 1998 World Development Indicators



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4.3
Value added in     Food,           Textiles       Machinery       Chemicals         Other
manufacturing    beverages,      and clothing   and transport                   manufacturing'
and                           equipment
tobacco
S  rr lEonsg   8of total,       9 of total      % of tota        of total       7C` total
1980    199  I1980      1995    ±.980   ±995    1-980   1995    1980    1995    1980    1995
Rwanda                   178       179     ..      ....                    ...
Saudi Arabia            7,740        .     .       .       .       .
Senegal                  389       574   50       48      19       5       4       3       8     23       20      21
Sierra Leone              54        51    5-1     69       5   ~   1       .       ..      .      ..      44      30
Singapore               3,415   22.428     5      4        5   ~   1      44      59       5      8       41      28
Slovak Republic           ...              .      13       .      10      ..      20      ..     10        .      47
Slovenia                  ..      4,589    ..     15       ..     11       ..     18       ..    13        .      43
South Africa           16,607   28.839    12     .15       9       8      21      20       9      9       48      48
Spain                     ..     97,182  16       18      12       7      23      27       9     11       41      38
Sri Lanka                668      1,836    .       .       .       .       .
Sudan                    424         .     ..              ..              ..              .-
Sweden                 26,293    38.821   10       9       3       1      33      34       7     11       47      44
Switzerland                ...             .      10       ..      4       .      29      b..                      7
Syrian Arab Republic       .         .     .       ..              .. 
Tajikistan                 .         .     .       ..              ..
Tanzania'                  .       334    23       ..     33       ..      8       ..S.                   30
Thailand                6,960    47,963   55      ..       8       ..      9       .       7      ..      21
Togo                      89       139    47      ..      13      ..       .       .       8      .       32
Trinidad and Tobag       557       441    22      33       4       2       9       3       4     24       61      38
Tuni'sia                1,030     3,390   18      20      19      24       7       6      15      6       42      45
Turkey                  9.333    32.158   18      19      15      15      14      16      10     10       42      39
Turkmenistan                ..                     ..              ...                            ...--
Ug anda                   53       359     .       .       .       .       .
U nited Arab Emirates   1,130     2,967   12      ..       2       ..      2      7...                    77
United Kingdom        125,830   185.594  13       14      65       5      33      31      10     13      38       37
United States         593,000  1.126,200  11      12       6       5      34      33      10     12       40      38
Uruguay                 2,626     3,143   28.      ..     17      ..      10      7.                     . 38
Uzbekistan                 ..     1,782    ......                          ...
Venezuela              11.112    13.200   19      22       7       2       9      10       8     11       57      54
Vietnam                    ..     2.760.   .       ..              ..
West Sank and Gaza...                      ......                          ...
Ye men. Rep.               ..      697
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)
Zambia                   718       891   44       44      13      10       9       5       9     16       25      25
Zimbabw,e               1,248     1.260   23      36      17      13       8      11       9      3       42      36
Low income            146.716   372,808                                            .. .
'Ex"c'i.  C..lh,in-a ..& ..Inr)d  i'a .........   ........ ....3,7...4 5,1  ...  ... ...  .. .. ..
UOp p er "mi d,dl e-Tinc'o-m'.e.........204,869  393,534
-Lo-w .. & ...mid-dle innc'o..m"e .... 5-7-8.J773  1,3-17-,5-9-7............. ....
L~atin'. Am-er,i,ca ..&.. Ca'r'ib .........1-86,150 . 345,442
.... ................ 33.6-9-5  73.885
Sub'-Sa-h'a-ra-n. A"fric"a ............3,3",9-18..... 4,4,5-7-5
Hihincome         1,891,432  4.003,267
a. Includes ujrallocated data, b. Includes Eritrea. c. Data cover mainiand ranzania only.
±86  1998 World Developmnent Indicators



4.3
Data on the distribution of manufacturing value added  estimates by the UNIDO Secretariat. Nevertheless, cov-  * Value added in manufacturing is the sum of gross
by industry are provided by the United Nations  erage may be less than complete, particularly for the  output less the value of intermediate inputs used in
Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). The  informal sector. To the extent that direct information on  production for industries classified in ISIC major divi-
classification of manufacturing industries is in accor-  inputs and outputs is not available, estimates may be  sion 3. * Food, beverages, and tobacco comprise
dance with the United Nations International Standard  used that may result in errors in industry totals.  SIC division 31. * Textiles and clothing comprise
Industrial Classification (ISIC), rev. 2. Manufacturing  Moreover, countries use different reference periods (cal-  ISIC division 32. * Machinery and transport equip-
comprises all of ISIC major division 3.         endar or fiscal year) and valuation methods (basic, pro-  ment comprise ISIC groups 382-84. * Chemicals
UNIDO obtains data on manufactunng value added  ducers', or purchasers' prices) to estimate value added.  comprise ISIC groups 351 and 352. * Other manu-
from a variety of national and international sources,  (See also the notes to table 4.2).      facturing includes wood and related products (ISIC
including the Statistical Division of the United Nations  Data on manufacturing value added in U.S. dollars  division 33), paper and related products (ISIC division
Secretariat, the World Bank, the Organisation for  are from the World Bank's national accounts files (see  34), petroleum and related products (ISIC groups
Economic Co-operation and Development, and the  About the data for table 4.2). These figures may dif-  353-56), basic metals and mineral products (ISIC
International Monetary Fund. To improve comparability  fer from those used by UNIDO to calculate the shares  divisions 36 and 37), fabricated metal products and
over time and across countries, UNIDO supplements  of value added by industry. Thus estimates of value  professional goods (ISIC groups 381 and 385), and
these data with information from industrial censuses,  added in a particular industry group calculated by  other industries (ISIC group 390). When data for tex-
statistics supplied by national and international organi-  applying the shares to total value added will not match  tiles and clothing, machinery and transport equip-
zations, unpublished datathat it collects in the field, and  those from UNIDO sources.         ment, or chemicals are shown as not available, they
are included in other manufacturing.
Data sources
Manufacturing takes off in China
z] U1 Il  ln.:lJ e 1 -.; Ll-                                                            Data on value added in man-
ufacturing in U.S. dollars are
from  the   World  Bank's
, .r1i it~, ~ national accounts files. The
"i "  Wlf  ; X data used to calculate shares
of value added by industry are
,  /   >rwiz,                   S         provided to the World Bank in
electronic files by UNIDO. The
Arqenri                                      most  recent  published  source  is  UNIDO's
it,.  1;-_   t-uJ  1fl-'   t.'s'   :-'p.'  -':':  .;9>   1--.  Intemational Yearbook of Industrial Statistics 1997.
Source: .-,, i . ;r.,  . . ;, ..... l_
China' growth as a manufacturing power has p3raleled iti rise as an exporter of mrnnufaclfred goodi. In conlrast.
Brazi.v which began the 19S0, as a e.ading mnanufacturer among de.elopling counTries. has tallen far behind and i,
oeing c.erlahen bV ndia.
1998 World Development Indicators     187



4.4 Structure of merchandise exports
Merchandise       Food      Agricultural  Fuels      Ores and   Manufactures
exports                      raw                    metals
materials
$millions      % of total  % of total    f oa      % of total  %of total
1980    1996     1980  1996  1980  19    190   1996  ±.980  1.996  1980  1996
Albania                       296.                      .     ...
Algeria            15,624   12,6090   1     1     0     0    98    95     0     1     0     4
Angola              1.902   4,4721    9           0     ..   78     ..    0     .    13
Argentina          8.019    23.810   65    52     6     4     3    13     2     1    23    30
Armenia               ..290           .           .     .
Australia          21,279   53,252   34    2 5   1 1    7    1 1   1 9   1 7   1 6   2 2   3 0
Austri'a           17,478   57,822    4     4     8     3     2     1     4     3    83    88
Azerbaijan                    618 a   ..                .           .     .
Bangladesh           740    3,2970   12          19           0     ..    0          68
Beiarus                     5,1220                      ..
BelgiUMb           63,967  168,010    9    10     2     1     8     3     7    3     69    77
Benin                 49      255 0  62     ..   25    ..     4     .     I     ..    3
Bolivia             1,036   1,087     8    29     3    10    24    13    82    32     3    18
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswanta.....                              .     ..    ..          ...-
Brazil             20,132   47,164   46    30     4    4      2     1     9    10    37    54
Bulgaria           10,372   4,5430    *     *,*
Burkina Faso          90     2160    41     ..   48     ..    C     .     0    ..    11
Burundi              129      3701   70           6           ..    .     6     .     4
Cambodia-15                  3000     2           7           0     ..   27     ..   64
Cameroon           1,321    1,758    48    24    16    25    31    36     2     6     4     8
Canada             63,105  199,071   12     8    11     8    14    10    14     6    48    83
Central African Republic  ill  115   31     1    43    24     0     0     C    28    28    43
Chad                  72      12501   4     ..   81    ..     0     .     0     ..   15
Chile              4,584    14,979   15    28    10     9     1     0    64    46     9    15
Chinat             18,136 0  151.047  ..    8     .     2     ..    4     .     2     ..   84
Hong Kong, China' . 19,703.180,744.    .     .3  2     1     0     1     2     2    91    92
Colombia            3,945   10,976   72    26     5     5     3    34     0     1    20    34
Congo. Dem. Rep.    2,507   1.46501  11     ..    3     .     8     ..   47     ..    6
Congo, Rep.          955    1,83301   1     1     2    12    90    83     0     1     7     2
Costa Rica          1,032   2,882    64    63     1     6     1     1     0     1    28    24
Obte dIlvoire       2,979   4,99860  64    ..    28     ..    2     .     0     ..    5
Croatia               ..    4,512     ..   11     ..    5.          9     ..    2     ..   72
Cuba                5,541   1,8340   89     ..    0     ..    3     .-         a.
Czech Republic        ..    21,882    ..    5     .     3     ..    4     .     3     ..   84
Denmark            16.407   48,868   33    23     5     3     3     4     2     1    55    59
Domninican Republic  704    3,8930   73    20     0     0     0     0     3     0    24    77
Ecuador            2,481  4.62       33    51     1    3     63    36     0     0     3     9
EytArbRep..304*,54                 7    10   16  .  4     64    48    2     6     11    32
El Salvador          720    1,023.4.       52.12*       1     3~    3     3     2    35    41
Estonia               ..    2,074     ..   15     ..   8      .     6     ..    2     ..   68
Ethiopia'            424     4940    74    ..    18     ..    7           C    . 
Finland            14.140  40,520     3     3    19     7     4     3     4     3    70    83
France            110,865  283,318   16    14     2     1     4     3     4     2    73    79
Gabon              2,189    3,146     1     0     7    13    88    83    12     2     5     2
Garnbia,The           36      22a    99     ..    0    ..     .     .     3     ..7
Georgia               ..261.                .     .     ..          .
Germany           19.1,647  511,728   5           1*    1     4     1     3     2    85    87
Ghana                942    1,6840-  78     .     4     ..    0     ..   17     ..    1
Greece              5,142   9,5580-  26    30     2    4     16     7     9     7    47    50
Guatemala          1.486    2.031    53    61    16     5     1     3     5     1    24    31
Gui'nea              374      7740    4     ..    0     ..    0     .    95     ..1
Guinea-Bissau         11      560    85     ..    2     ..    0     .     0     ..    8
Haiti                376     1800    31     ..    1     ..    0     .     4     ..   63
Honduras             813     845     75    65     5     3     0     0     6     2    12    31
t Data for Taiwan. China  19,837  115,646.. .     ..    .           .     .     .
188  1998 World Development Indicators



4.4
Merchandise       Food     Agricultural  Fuels     Ores and  Manufactures
exports                    raw                    metals
materials
$ mnilions     % of total  % of total  % of total  tt of total  % of total
19ao    i9sse   i980  ie99e  1980  199e  e980  ie99e  1980  i99e  ±980  ie99e
Hungary            8,677   13,138   22 .... 19  ...3  2   ...5   .3 .. 4.    4..  65    68
India              7,511  32,325a   28   19     5     1     0    2     7     3    59    74
Indonesia         21,909  49,727    8    11    14     6    72   26     4     6     2    51
Iran, Islamic Rep.  13,804  22,102 a 1i1                   93          05
Iraq         ~~~28,321   502 .  9          0          99           00
Ireland            8,473  45,565.37.16          2     1.      .9       3     1    54    82
Israel             5,540  20,504    12    5     4     2     0    1     2     1    82    9
Italy             77,640  250,718    7    7     1     1     6    1     2     1    84    89
Jamaica             942    1,347.      .     .9.        .     . .221        6*    63    69
Japan            129,542  410,481    1    0     1     1     0    1     2     1    95    95
Jordan              402    1,466    25   25     1     2     0    0    40    24    34    49
Kazakhstan            ..   6,230    .     .     .
Kenya              1.313   2,203 a  44    ..    8     ..   33    ..    2          12
.orea   Dem  Rep          1,007 a                                                  ...........
Korea, Rep.       17,446  124,4047        2     1     1     0    3     1     1    90    92
Kuwait            20,435  13,420     1    0     0     0    89   95     0     0    10    5
Kyrgyz Republic       .     507     .    28     ..   1115              ..    6.         38
Lao PDR               9     334  ~  13    .    41     ..4                    ..   34
Latvi'a              ..    1,443     .   15     .    19          2     .     1          61
Lebanon             930    1,153 a  28    ..    2     ..    09                    58
Lesotho
Libya             21,910  10,126 a                        100    . 
Lithuania.                 3,356         17     .     6     ..   15          2          60
Macedonia, FYR             1,119 a
Madagascar          387     6161    80   69     4     6     6    1     4     7     6    14
Malawi              269     5011    91   90     2     2     0    0     0     0     6     7
Malaysia          12.939   78.151   15    9....  31  .... 5 25  .... 8......101..... 19  ... 76
Mali                235     2881    30         69           0    ..    0           1     -
Mauritania          255     5741    16          10                          ... 83..0
Mauritius           420    1,699    72   31     0     1     0    0     0     0    27    68
Mexico            15.442  95.199   12     6     2     1    67   12     6     2    12   78
Moldova                    1,104     .    72    ..    2I.             1 .    .3-.       23
Morocco            2,403   4,742   28     3     35               2    41    13    24   50
Mozambique          511     226    68    69     7     9     2    1     5     4    18   17
Myanmar             460    1,187a   40         33           910             ..     7
Namibia               . 
Nepal          ~~~94   3581    21    1    48    00                      0    30    99
Netherlands       73.871  177,228   20   19     3     4    22    8     4     2    50    63
New Zealand        5,262   13,789   48   47    26    17     1    2     4     4    20    29
Nicaragua           414     653     75   60     8     5     2    1     1     1    14    34
Niger               580      791    11    ..    1     ..    1    ..   85           2
Nigeria           25,057  15,610 a   2    ..    0     -.   97    ..    0           0
Norway            18,481  48,922     7    8     3     1    48   5.5   10     7    32    23
Oman               3,748   6,395 -   1    5     0     0    96   79     0     2     3    14
Pakistan           2,588   9,266    24    9    20     6     7    1     0     0    48    84
Panama              353     658     67   73     0     0    23    5     1     2     9    20
Pau  Ne  Guinea    1,133 a 2,554 a  33          7           050              . 
Paraguay            310    1.043    38   58    50    24     0    1     0     0    12    17
Peru               3.266   5,226    16   32     4     3    21    7    43    42    17    16
Philippines        5,751  20,328    36   10     6     1     1    2    21     3    21    84
Poland            16,997  24,387     6   11     3     2    13    7     7     6    61    74
Portugal   .       4,629   23.184   12    7     9     3     6    2     2     1    70    86
Puerto Rico           .       ..                            .     .    .     .
Romania           12,230   8,984     .    9           3     .     7    ..    3..        77
Russian Federation    ..   81,438a
1998 World Development Indicators  189



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4.4
Data on merchandise trade come from customs              -                                     * Merchandise exports show the f.o.b. value of
reports of goods entering an economy or from reports                                           goods provided to the rest of the world valued in U.S.
of the financial transactions related to merchandise  Manufactured exports dominate trade      dollars. * Food comprises the commodities in SITC
trade recorded in the balance of payments. Because  in goods                                   sections 0 (food and live animals), 1 (beverages and
of differences in timing and definitions, estimates of  $ trillions                            tobacco), and 4 (animal and vegetable oils and fats)
trade flows from customs reports are likely to differ  "                      ,,               and SITC division 22 (oil seeds, oil nuts, and oil ker-
from those based on the balance of payments.                                 ra.A., ' ;i       nels). * Agricultural raw materials comprise SITC
Furthermore, several international agencies process                  ;. ma         -          section 2 (crude materials except fuels) excluding divi-
trade data, each making estimates to correct for unre-                  ,r,l                   sions 22, 27 (crude fertilizers and minerals excluding
ported or misreported data, and this leads to other                                            coal, petroleum, and precious stones), and 28 (met-
differences in the available data.                                     -                       alliferous ores and scrap). * Fuels comprise SITC
The most detailed source of data on international    -                                       section 3 (mineral fuels). * Ores and metals com-
trade in goods is the COMTRADE database main-                                                  prise the commodities in SITC divisions 27, 28, and
tained by the United Nations Statistical Division     0                                        68 (nonferrous metals). * Manufactures comprise
1o980   1984   :1988    1992     1996
(UNSD). The International Monetary Fund (IMF) also                                             the commodities in SITC sections 5 (chemicals), 6
Source: World Sank staff estimates.
collects customs-based data on exports and imports                                             (basic manufactures), 7 (machinery and transport
of goods.                                           The value of merchandise exports has more than  equipment), and 8 (miscellaneous manufactured
doubled since ± 980, while manufactured exports
The value of exports is recorded as the cost of the  have more than tripled. Traditional exports of  goods), excluding division 68.
goods delivered to the frontier of the exporting coun-  primary comn nodirlea remain importlant lo,i many
try for shipment-the f.o.b. (free on board) value.  developing countries, but world trade is increas-  Data sources
try fr shimentthe fo.b. freeon bord) vlue. ingly dominated by manufactured goods.
Many countries collect and report trade data in U.S.
dollars. When countries report in local currency, the                                                     `-r7 The      United  Nations Con-
UNSD applies the average official exchange rate for                                                -               ference  on  Trade   and
the period shown.                                                                                                  Development publishes data
Countries may report trade according to the gen-                                                                on the structure of exports
eral or special system of trade (see Primary data doc-                                               .51ff         and imports in its Handbook
umentation). Under the general system  exports                                                                     of Intemational Trade and
comprise outward-moving goods that are (a) goods                                                                   Development     Statistics.
wholly or partly produced in the country; (b) foreign                                                              Estimates of total exports of
goods, neither transformed nor declared for domestic                                           goods are also published in the IMF's lntemational
consumption in the country, that move outward from                                             Financial Statistics and Direction of Trade Statistics
customs storage; and (c) goods previously included as                                          and in the United Nations Monthly Bulletin of
imports for domestic consumption but subsequently                                              Statistics.
exported without transformation. Under the special
system exports comprise categories a and c. In some
compilations categories b and c are classified as
reexports. Because of differences in reporting prac-
tices, data on exports may not be fully comparable
across economies.
Total exports and the shares of exports by major
commodity groups were estimated by World Bank
staff from the COMTRADE database. Where neces-
sary, data on total exports were supplemented from
the IMF's Direction of Trade Statistics. The classifica-
tion of commodity groups is based on the Standard
International Trade Classification (SITC), revision 1.
Shares may not sum to 100 percent because of
unclassified trade. See table 6.2 for data on the
growth of merchandise exports.
1998 World Development Indicators     191



4.5 Structure of merchandise imports
Merchandise         Food       Agricultural   Fuels       Ores and     Manufactures
imports                        raw                        metals
materials
$ millions        % of tota[   % of total   % of t0ta    3 of total    S of total
1980     1998      1980  1998   1980   1996  1980   1996  1980   1996   1980  1998
Albania                         1,283..          ...                 .     ...
Algeria              10,524    8,372     21     29     3      3      2     1      2     2      72    65
Angola                 873      2,0390    18    ..     1             7            I            73
Argentina            10,539    23,762     6      5     4      2     10     4      3     2      77    87
Armenia                  ..862..                 .     ..     ...          .
Australia           1'9,870    60,897     5      5     3      1     14     6      2     1      75    86
Austria              24.415    67,142     6      6     4      2     15     5      5     3      69    82
Azerba'ijan              ..     1,255     .      .     .      .      .     .      .
Bangladesh           I1.980    6,8980    24     ..     6      ..     9     .      3     ..    58
Belarus                  ..    6,778      7..    .     .      .      .     .
Belgium'             71.192   157,860    11     11     3      2     17     7     6      4     58     73
Benin                  302      8690     26     I.     1      .      8     ..     1     .     62
Bolivia                655     1,601     19     11     1      1      1     3      2     2     78     83
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana.....                                    .     .      ...                 --
Brazil               24,949    53,736    10     11     1      3     43    12      5     3     41     71
Bulgaria              9,650    4.313
Burkina Faso           358      7830     20     ..     2      .     13     .      1    6.      4
Burundi                106       1250    13      ..    2      .     19     ..     2      .    61
Cambodi'a              108     1,6470    51     ..     3      ..     2     ..     0     .     26
Cameroon              1,538    1.204      9     14     0      2     12    16      1     1      78    67
Canada               57,707   170.265     7      6     2      1     12     4      5     3      72    82
Central African Republic  80     180     21     12     1     14      2     8      2     1      75    61
Chad                    37       2170a   23     24     2      1      2    18      1     1      72    56
Chile                 5,123    16,810    15      7     2      1     18    11      2     1      60    78
Chinat               19,5010  138,833     ..     6            5            5            4            79
*Hong Kong, China    22,027  196,543     12      6     4     2      6      2     2      2     75    88
Colombia              4,663   .13,863     12     9     3      3     1-2    3      3     3      69    78
Congo, Dem. Rep.     -1 ,117   1,33-1     9      ..    2      ..    12    I.      1     .     75
Congo, Rep.            418     1,5900    19     26     1      1     14     1      2     1      65    71
Costa Rica            1,596    3,671      9     12     2      1     15     9      2     2      66    77
OSte dIlvoire         2,552    2,9090    13      ..    0      .     16     .      2     ..    68
Croatia                  ..    7,7880     .     11     ..     2      .    1       .     3      ..    69
Cuba                  1,656    3,0040    32     ..     1      .     11    ..      2           53
Czech Republic           ..    27,7090    .      7     ..     2      ,,    9      *     3      ..    79
Denmark              19,315    43,093    11     12     5      3     22     4      3     2     57     71
Dominican Republic    1.426    6,3000    17      ..    2      ..    25     .      2     ..    54
Ecuador               2,215    3,733      8     10     2      3      1     4      2     2     87     81
Egypt, Arab. Rep. .   4.860    13,020    32     29     6      6      1     1      1     3      59    60
El Salvador            976     2,670     18     17     2      3     18    12      2     1     61     66
Estonia                  ..    3,1960.          15     ..     3      ..    9      .I..               72
Ethiopia'              721     1,4920     6            3      ..    25     .      1     ..    64
Finland              15.632    30,853     7      7     3      3     29    11      5     5      56    73
France               134,328  274,088    10     10     4      2     27     6      5     3      54    78
Gabon                  674       8980a   19     19     0      1      1     4      1     1      78    75
Gambia,The              169      2720    26     ..     1      .      9     .      0     ..     61
Georgia                  ..      8840            ,     .      .      ,     ,      *
Germany             165,922   443,043    12     10     4      2     23     8      6     3      52    71
Gha na                1,129    3.2190    10     ..     1      .     27     .      2     ..     59
Greece               10,531    26.881     9     16     5      2     23     7      2     3      60    71
Guatemala             1,559    3,146      8     14     2      1     24    15      1     1      65    68
Guinea                 299       8100a   12     ..     1      .     19     .      4     6.     2
Guinea-Bissau           55       107 0   20      ..    0      .      6     .      2     ..     69
Haiti                  536       8650    22      ..    1      .     13     ..     1     .      62
Honduras              1,009    1,922     10     15     1      1     16    14      1     1      72    69
1' Data for Taiwan, China  19,791  101,338..     .     ..     .      ..    .
192 .1998 Wanld Development Indicators



Merchandise       Food     Agricultural  Fuels      Ores and   Manufactures
imports                     raw                    metals
materials
$ millions      36 of total  36 of total   % of total% of total  % of total
1980    1996     1980  ±998  1980  1998  1980  1996 I 1980  19  1980  1998
Hungary            9,212   16,207    8     5     7     3    16    14    6     4     62    73
India              13,819  36,0550   9     4     2     4    45    24    6     7     39    54
Indonesia          10,834  42,925    13    11    4     5    16     9    2     4     65    71
Iran, Islamic Rep.  9,330  13,926   21           4           1I2                    72
Iraq               11,534    4920    13    ..    2     .     0I.                   83
Ireland            11,133  35,750    12    8     3     1    15     4    2     2     66    77
Israel              8,023  29,796    I1    7     3     1    26     6    4     2     57    82
Italy              98,119  202,908   13    12    7     5    28     9    6     4     45    68
Jamaica            i,78     2,916    20    15    1     2    38    15    2     1     39    65
Japan             139,892  347,496   12    16    9     5    50    17   10     6     19    55
.Jordan             2,394   4,293    18i  21     2.    _2  .17    .13. .1.... 3.    61    61
Kazakhstan                  4,261 1   ..         .
:40'.'  ..   1     ..   ~~~   ~~~          ~~~34  .. 156
Korea, Dem. Rep.      ..    2,201 
Korea, Rep         22,228  144,724   10    6    11     5    30    17    6     5     43    67
Kuwait             6,554    8,113    15    16    1     1     1     1    1     2     81    81
KxrgyzRepublic        ..     838      .    2.1         1.         29         1I48
Lao PDR              85      6420   21           0          19          1     .     56
Latvia                      2,319    .     13          2     ..   22                      62
Lebanon             3132   7,560     16          2          15          463
Lesothto 
Libya               6,776   5,1910   19          11178
Lithuania             ..    4,559          13          3     ..   18          3           61
Macedonia, FYR              1,941
Madagascar           676     6710    9     16    3     2    15    14    1     1     73    65
Malawi               440     6870    8     14    1     1    15    11    I1    1     75    73
Malaysia           10,735  76,082    12    5     2     1    15     3    4     3     67    85
Mali                 491    1,1590   19    ..    0     .    35     .    0     .     45
Mauritania           287     616 0   30 ~       -1         . 14    ..   0     ..    52
Mauritius            619    2,255    26    16    4     3    14     86   1     1     54    71
Mexico             19,591  97,63    16     6     3     2     2     2    4     2     75    80
Moldova                     1,522~    .     8    .           .    4                  .    4
Mon olia              ..     451.1   ..    14    ..    1I.        19    I.    165
Morocco            4,182    8,254    20    19    6     5    24    16    4     4     47    57
Mozambique           550     7830   14     22    3     2     9    II1   3     :1   70     62
Myanmra              577    2,5240   6           1     ..    3     ..   2           87
Namibi'a                      ...           .
Neap                 226     66401   4     15    1     5    18    20    1     5     73    4
Netherlands        76,889  160,700   15    14    3     2    24     9    4     3     53    72
New Zealand         5,515  14.716    6     8     2     1    22     6    4     2     65    83
Nicaragua            882    1,076    15    19    1     1    20     9    1     1     63    71
Niger                608     5670    14    ..    0     .    26     ..   3      .    55    -
Nigeria           '13,408   6,433 0  15    ..    0     ..    7     ..   2     .     76
Norway     .       16,952  34,290    8     7     3     2    17     55         5     67    80
Oman                1,732   4,610 0  15    20    1     111         2    0     2     66    70
Pakistan           5,50    11,812    13    15    3     4    27    21    3     3      4    5
Panama              1,447   2,778    10    11    1     1    31    16    1     1     58    71
Papua New Guinea     958    1,8660   21     ..   0     ..   15I.        1           61
Pareg ay             615    3,107    I1    21    1     0    28     8    1     3     60    67
Peru               2,573    7,947    20    17    3     1     2    10    2     1     73    71
Philippines         8,295  34,663     8    8     2     2    28     9    3     3     48    78
Poland             19,089  37,092    14    10    5     3    18     9    6     3     51    75
.~~~~~~~~~.9293 . 33,979. .14  .  13  ~ 7     3    24    .8.   _4  .... 2..  52.. .74
Puerto Rico                    .      ..                           .     .
Romania            13,201  11,435     ..    7          2     ..   21    ..    4..         65
Russian Federation    ..   43,31-80
1998 World Development Indicators  193



4.5~
Merchandise                 Food           Agricultural          Fuels           Ores and         Manufactures
imports                                   m  rials                              metals
$ millions               8 of total        % of total        % of total         Sof total         7S of total
1980         1996         1980     1996      1980     1996  I1980       1996      1980     1996     1980     1996
Rwanda                           155          385 a       10                 3                 13       ..        0                 72
Saudi Arabia                  29.957       27,764         14       13        1        1         1       0         1        4        82       79
Senegal                        1,038        1.6720        25       32        1        2        25      10         0        2        48       53
Sierra Leone                     268          3340        24        ..       1        .         2       I.                 -        71
Singapore                     24,003     131,083           8        4        6        1       29        9         2        2        54       83
Slovak Republic                    ..      10,924          ..       7        -.       2         ..     12         ..       4                 61
Slovenia                           ..       9.4120         -        8        -.       3         .       8                  4                 77
South Africa'                 18,551       26,861          3        6        3        2         0        1        2        1        62       72
Spain                         33,901     122.842          13       12        5        3       39        9         3        3        38       72
Sri Lanka                      2,035        5,0280        20       16        1        2       24         6        2        1        52       75
Sudan                          1,499        1 ,4390       26         .       1        ..      13         .        1        ..       60
Sweden                        33,426       63,970          7        7        2        2       24         7        5        3        62       79
Switzerland                   36.148       79,192          8        7        3        2       11        4         7        3        71       R5
Syrian Arab Republic           4,124        6,399 0       14        ..       3        ..      26        ..        2        ..       55
Tanzania                       1,211        1,642a        13         .       1        ..      21        ..        2        .        63
Thailand                       9.450       73,2890         5         4       3        4        30        7        4        3        51       82
Togo                             550        1,032     017            .       1        ..      23        ..        0        .        59
Trnddand Tobago            3,178        2,204         11       14        2        1        38       19        1        4        49       62
Tunisi'a                       3,509        7,681         14       10        4        3        21        8        4        3        58       75
Turkey                         7.673     42,733            4         7       2        5       48       14         3        5        43       69
Turkmenistan                       ..       1.3130
Uganda                           417          7250        11        I.       1        .       23         .        0       6.         5
Ukrai'ne                           ..     24.042 0.
United Arab Emirates           8,098       30,374 0       11        ..       1        ..      11        ..        2        ..       74
United Kingdomn              117,632     283,682          13       10        4        2       13        4         7        3        61       80
United States                250,280     814,888           8        5        3        2       33        9         5        2        50       78
Uruguay                        1,652        3.322          8       I1        4        3       29       11         3        1        56       74
Uzbekiatan                        ..        4,7610
Venezuela                     10.669        8.902         14       16        3        3         2        1        2        3        79       77
Vietnamn                         618       13,9100        37        ..       2        .         5        ..       0        .        55
Weat Bank and Gaza                 .            .          .         .       ,        .         .        .        .
Yemen, Rep.                    1,853        3,4430        28       29        0        2         7        8        1        1        63       59
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.l  15.064        4,101          8       14        7        4       24       14         5        7        5 7      60
Zambia                         1,100        1,1060         5        ..       1        .        22       I.        1        .        71
Zimbabwe                         193        2,808          6       10        2        2        12      10         1        1        73       73
Low income                               246746
Middle income
UOp'p er ..m i'd"d'le in"com..e......... 174.248  457.717 .    .2   8        3        2       14         7        38 4                   .   77
&PataacaiPfcifc                      395,405                    7                 4                 6                 4                 78
'La't'in ..Am ..er'i'ca ..& ...Carib,.  110.273  315,627 . 13      10   .    2   2.       .        .        .7    3   .    2       63        76
Middle East& N. C Afia  10...0.. 712 ................ . 1                                                .       .        .      70
So6ut-h ..A' s ia .......................... 62.294                 8                     .62                                       ..
Sub- ~ah~ar'an' . A'f r i ca . .......... ... ..  ...... .................4              ._ _ _ _ ~    2
iiii"nCo,..Me.... .... 1,488,876  4,145,913   .        .         .        . .4d              .26  8.5                       3 52      7
a. Data are fromn IMF. Direction of Trade Statistics. b. Includes Luxembourg. c. Data priot to 1992 include Eritrea. d. Data prior to 1990 refer to heFederal Rep jbl,c of Geimatyh efore umfi-
cation a. Dat.a are for the South African Customs Union, which includes Botawana, Lesotho, Narmbia. and South Africa.
194    1998 World Development Indicators



S. c         4.
Data on imports of goods are derived from the same  _ 1_al__                                   * Merchandise imports show the c.i.f. value of
sources as data on exports. In principle, world exports                                        goods purchased from the rest of the world valued in
and imports should be identical. Similarly, exports  Regional imports follow                   U.S. dollars. e Food comprises the commodities in
from an economy should equal the sum of imports by  similar patterns                           SITC sections 0 (food and live animals), 1 (beverages
the rest of the world from that economy. But differ-                                           and tobacco), and 4 (animal and vegetable oils and
East Asia and tnre Pac.fic. 1996
ences in timing and definitions result in discrepancies                F:                      fats) and SITC division 22 (oil seeds, oil nuts, and oil
in reported values at all levels. For further discussion  '.L''-      -   ' l -> '             kernels). * Agricultural raw materials comprise SITC
of indicators of merchandise trade see About the data                                          section 2 (crude materials except fuels) excluding divi-
for tables 4.4 and 6.2.                                                                        sions 22, 27 (crude fertilizers and minerals excluding
The value of imports is generally recorded as the                                            coal, petroleum, and precious stones), and 28 (met-
cost of the goods when purchased by the importer                                               alliferous ores and scrap). * Fuels comprise SITC
plus the cost of transport and insurance to the fron-                                          section 3 (mineral fuels). * Ores and metals com-
Latin Amienca and thr- C3ribbearn. 1995
tier of the importing country-the c.i.f. (cost, insur-                                         prise the commodities in SITC divisions 27, 28, and
ance, and freight) value. A few countries, including   .1:-,-   t  f'-                         68 (nonferrous metals). * Manufactures comprise
Australia, Canada, and the United States, collect                               ,   ,,        the commodities in SITC sections 5 (chemicals), 6
import data on an f.o.b. (free on board) basis and                   a                         (basic manufactures). 7 (machinery and transport
adjust them for freight and insurance costs. Many                                              equipment), and 8 (miscellaneous manufactured
countries collect and report trade data in U.S. dollars.                                       goods), excluding division 68 (nonferrous metals).
When countries report in local currency, the United
Nations Statistical Division applies the average offi-  Mdle East and North At,ca. 1992         Data sources
cial exchange rate for the period shown.                              *      .... .
Countries may report trade according to the gen-                           "-i, --                            , The  United  Nations Con-
eral or special system of trade (see Primary data doc-                        -x---.                              ference  on   Trade   and
umentation). Under the general system  imports                                .,-,.                              Development publishes data
include goods imported for domestic consumption                                                 *                 on the structure of exports
and imports into bonded warehouses and free trade                                                                 and imports in its Handbook
zones. Under the special system imports comprise    Stuth A-ia. 199S                                               of International Trade and
goods imported for domestic consumption (including     *1 ;,-,,, .:,.;*        -                                   Development     Statistics.
transformation and repair) and withdrawals for domes-                                                              Estimates of total imports of
tic consumption from bonded warehouses and free                              F                 goods are also published in the IMF's Intemational
trade zones. Goods transported through a country en                                            Financial Statistics and Direction of Trade Statistics
route to another country are excluded.                                                         and in the United Nations Monthly Bulletin of
Total imports and the share of imports by major                                              Statistics.
commodity groups were estimated by World Bank       Hige Income economies. 1996
staff from the COMTRADE database. Where neces-          r.,-,-,:,-.
sary, data on total imports were supplemented fromr
the IMF's Direction of Trade Statistics. The classifica- -i
tion of commodity groups is based on the Standard
International Trade Classification (SITC), revision 1.
Shares may not sum to 100 percent because of        Source: I'     -rc3'e 31.. Sr
unclassified trade. See table 6.2 for data on the   Because nmanufactured goods dominate sorrd
growth of merchandise imports.                      t ;de the structure tr r,giona iimport and eooris
tend to look ather sirmilar A fews ekceptional cases
Incide the laige portisn of fuel and tne relatisel)
smalkr share of mrianufactured Imports In South
Asia and the larger .hare oa looo inporTs in the
Middle Eait and Noith Atrica.
1998 World Development Indicators     195



4.6 Structure of service exports
Service               Transport       I        Travel        I    Communications,           Insurance
exports                                                              computer,             and financial
information.             services
and
Other services
190$ nmillions 19      80% of total 196      J90% of total 19        s  % of total19o18 % of total 99
Albania                        11         129        42.1        23.4        6.4        59.4       46.8        13.5        4.7         3.6
Algeria                       476          ..        41.0          ..      24.1           ..       29.5          ..        5.4
Angola                          ..        150          ..        21.4         ..0.0                   ..       68.5         ..        10.1
Argentina                   1,876       3,221        42.9183.                                      3.4.                    03
Armenia                         ..         78           .        49.9                    4.9          ..       45.2
Australia                   3,860      18,424        49.3        28.1       29.5        49.3        19.9       17.8        1.3         4.8
Austri'a                    9,423      24,15          7.3        11.5      68.9         52.0       21.3        23.6        2.6        12.9
Azerbaijan                      ..        186           .           ..                     ..
Bangladesh                    163        626         18.5        10.1        7.5         3.6       74.0        86.3        0.0         0.0
Belarus                         ..       613            .           ..                     ..
B~elgiuma                  12,925      36,325        32.7        26.1       14.1        1 7.7      48.6        41.8        4.7        14.4
Benin                          62        104         56.8        56.8      14.1         22.5       26.8        20.6        2.3
Bolivia  ..    .... .          88        207         33.5       .40.2      41.0         29.3       16.6        21.7        8.9         8.8
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana              ~~~~       ~~~~101  260  41.7     .14.7       22.2        62.2        32.0       16.0        4.1         7.1
Brazil                      1,737       6,135.       46.8        42.4        7.3        15.8       38.1        25.3        7.9        16.5
Bulgaria                    1.211       1,357   .    363.        31.7      28.7         28.6       31.0        39.6        4.0
Burkina Faso                   49          56        17.3        11.8      10.2         32.6       72.5        55.6
Burundi                         ..         17          ..        12.0_.                  8.4          ..       78.5          .          .
Cambodia                        ..       163            ..       30.5         ..        50.2          ..       19.3
Cameroon                      374        438         48.4        38.5      15.5         11.8       30.9        44.0        5.2         5.7
Canada                      7.441      28,512        34.1        20.3      34.2         31.1       31.7        48.6
Central African Republic       54          33         6.5         0.0        5.1         0.0       86.1       100.0        2.4
Chad                            0          55         0.0         1.9     100.0         21.3          ..       76.1        0.0         0.7
Chile                       1,263       3.356        32.2        39.7      13.9         27.6       51.9        29.0        2.1         3.8
China                       2,512      20,601        523.3       14.9      28,0         49.5       11.7        35.0        8.0         0.
Hong Kong, China               .           ..                                             ..
Colombia                    1,342       3,867        31.1        36.6      35.6         23.5       27.6        26.1        5.6        13.9
Congo, Demn. Rep.              57           ..       40.4          ..       15.8          ..       42.1          ..        1.8
Congo, Rep.                   111          96        46.0        46.7        6.7         6.1       42.7        47.3        4.6
Costa Rica                    194       1,310        24.9        13.7      43.7         51.2       30.7        35.1        0.7
C6te dIlvoire                 564.        734        50.0        27.3      14.4         10.3       25.7        58.1        9.9         4.3
Croatia                         3.496                            19 .5        ..        62.5          ..       18.0
Czech Republic                          8,181                    16.3,                  49.9          ..       31.6         ..2.2
Denmark                     5,853      15,699        444.4       45.6      21.1         21.8       31.8        32.6        2.7
Dominican Republic            309       2,132   .     7.8   .     1.7      55.8         86.4       35.9        11.9        0.5
Ecuador                       367        658         35.1        40.0      35.6         32.8       13.3        17.1       16.0        10.1
Egyt, Ara Rep..233                    10,636         524         29.0  .   24.8.     .34.6         22.4        35.4        0.4         1.0
El Salvador                   139        388         18.3        24.9        9.6        22.0       50.5        46.3       21.6         6.9
Eritrea                                   105...
Estonia                         ..      1.108           ..       39.8         ..        43.7          ..       15.4         ..1.1
Ethiopia'                     110        373         53.2        55.5        5.7         9.4       40.9        33.4        0.2         1.7
Finland                     2,733       7,276        35.1        29.3      25.0         21.2       37.0        50.0        2.9        -0.5
France                     43,506     88,891         24.2        22.8      19.0         31.9       53.4        36.2        3.4         9.1
Gabon                         325        273         21.5        35.2        5.2         2.6       67.7        56.2        5.6         6.0
Gambia, The                    18        101          0.0        15.5     100.0         52.4        0.0        31.9        0.0         0.2
Georgia                         ..       122            .           ..                     ..
Germany'                   33.062      84,639        26.6        23.3      15.1         20.8       57.4        48.9        0.8         7.0
Ghana                         107        157         33.6        53.1       0.4          8.1       64.9        36.0        1.2         2.9
Greece                      3,947       9,348        23.6         4.0      43.9         39.8       32.4        55.9        0.1         0.3
Guatemala                     211        559         18.9        11.2      29.2         38.7       46.5        44.1        5.4         6.1
Gui~nea                         ..       124..                   12.2         ..5.2                   ..       80.2         ..2.3
Guinea-Bissau                   6           ..        8.9          ..      12.5           ..        78.6
Haiti                          90        109          5.9         5.5      85.0         87.6         7.8        6.9        1 2         0.5
Honduras                       82        258         36.9        21.9      30.1         31.1       18.5        45.3       14.5         1.7
196   1998 World Devetopment Indicators



4.6
Service              Transport              Travel           Communications,          Insurance
exports                                                          computer,           and financial
information,           services
and
other services
$ millions            % of total            % of total            % of total           % of total
1980       1996       1.980      1.996     ±980       1996       1980       1996       1980       1.996
Hungary                     633      5,004 .    ..  5.4      8.3       63.5       44.9       30.5       42.2       0.6        4.6
India                     2,949     10,087       15.0        27.9     52.2        38.1       315.5. .   31.5       1.2        2.5
Indonesia                   449      5,681       15.1         0.0     50.8        95.9       34.1        41..1..      .... ....
Iran, Islamic Rep.          731        593        4.5        23.3       4~O.0... ...11.3     91.5       57'5                  7.9
Ireland  .. ..   ..  .    1,381      5,563       36.6. ._   .20:4 .. . 42.0       44.4       21:4.4 ....  352 2   ..  ........I.
Israel                    2,722      8,004       38.1       24.3      36.0        36.3       24.9       39.3 ....  1 0        0.2
Italy                    19,192     69,910       23.9        21.6     46.7        42.9       22.9..... 28:1 ..     6 5        7.3
Jamaica                     401      1,388       28.0..... 18 .1     ... 61 2     73-6        67.7       74...... 4.2         0.9
Japan                    20,240     67,724       62.9       31.:9       3'2 .....  60        32.4 ....  554 ..  ...~1.6 ..... 4..9
Jordan                      750      1,846       27.0        20.4      51.9       40.3       21:1 1... 393 3...      '1... ..... "
Kenya                       577        956       38.0       335.5..... 41.4       46:9.      198 ..     1816 0..      8..     1.0O
Korea Dem. Rep..                                                         .
Korea,Rp                  4,710     26,806       33.5       36!8  ...  7.8        18.2       53:1.   .. 41.83      56 6... .. 3.2
Kuwait                    1,225      1,613 .......57.7      73.3    ..30  8        8.9    ... 115 ....... 17~8 . ..
.........R .....                     97                     ..                 .. 15.5..:.                   .528....312.I  0...4..
Latvia                        .      1,126                  628                   19.1          .        6.8                 11.4
Lebanon                                630
Lesotho                      32      --38 .... 20             8.2 ... 37.8        46.0       602        45:8
Libya                       164          .       64.5  .. ......'......1.6.2          ....   29:4.4 . .   .. .........
Lithuania                              798          ..      44.9                  39 6                  1 4.4.                1.1
Macedonia, FYR                         185....
Madag scar                   79        293       49.4       27.1        6.3       22.1       44.0       49.2       0.4        1.6
Malawi                       32         22       49.8       58.5      29.5        20.6       19.8...... 20.6       0.9        0.3
Malaysia                  1,135     11,269       41.6       21.3      28.0        35.2       29.8       43.4       0.6        0.1
Mali....- 58 ..                        . 67.     30.9       38.2      25.8,       270.0.     42.2       34.0..... 1.0         0.9
Mauritania                   56         28       26.3   ....-6.3      11.9       4.1.        61.8 . ... _53.6 ...... 0.0
Mauritius                   140        908       38.4       22.9      30.2        55.5       31.2       21 6       0.2        0.0
Mexico                    4,591     10,901        9.7..               69.7    ~ .   .. .. ........ ..... .10.4. .. 10.2..................
Moldova                       .        104                  49:3                  31.6          .       14.5.                 2.8
Mongolia                     37         57       26.5        26.2       8.6       36.0       64.9       33.5.                 4.4
Morocco                     783      2,360 ...   20.3       18:.1      57.9       56.7       207.7.. . . 23~4      .1 ....... 1.8
Mozambique                  118        242       78.5       24.8        0.0         ..       21.5       752
Myanmar              ....    60...     309       34.5                  19.7         .:. .    436.6                 2 3
Namibia                       ..       242          .           .                 86.0          .        26.                  1.4
Nepal                       127        643         5.9       10.0      40.8       21.2       53.3       68.8
Netherlands              .17,150    49,185       51-.5       41.0      1.1       -13.3       34.3       44.2       1.2        1.4
New Zealand                1,009     4,708       58.2      .. 33.9 ..   ..21.1.   51j.7.. .     19,.6   14.6       1.1       -0.1
Nicaragua                    44        132       36.0        13.0      48.6       44.2 ..    14.9       40 8       0. .5  . ... 2.0
Niger                        41         33       33.5         1:2.2.... 15.2      21.3       50.9 ...   77.5       0.4        0.0
Nigeria                    1,127       640       80.9.       10..5      6.0        4.8        6.5 ...   844.4     .66 0....    .3
Norway                    8,615     13,918       74.5.... 56.9          8.8       16.7       16.3.      19 0       0.4        7.4
Pakistan                    617      1,665       41.3        44.7      22.8        5.9       34.1       48.7       1.8 0...I....O8
Panama                      902      1,537       47.0        51.7      19.0       22.3       258.8      20.5       6.2        5.5
Papua New Guinea             43        436       33.8         7.7      28.3        3.1       36.9       86.0       1.0        3.1
Paraguay                    118      1.229         2.0        2.9      55.3       56.5       42.6       40.5       0.2
Peru                        715      1,371       30.9        24.9      40.9       46.1       24.9       214.4.   .. 3..2      7.6
Philippines                1,447     9,348       14.2         2.9      22.1       12.2       63.6       84.3         .        0.7
Poland                    2,018      9,833       59.2   ...  28.0      11.9       32.1       24.1       32.4       4.8        7.5
Portugal        .          2006.     8,141       23.5        17.9      57.3       57.7.      18:.1      19 5       1 2        4.9
Puerto  Rico.........
Romania                    1.063     1,563       37.6        36.6      30.5       33.8       27.8       24.8       4.2..      4..7
Russian Federation            .     12,217                   25 6                 56 3                  1.           .        07
199s World Development Indicators 197



4.6
Service               Transport                Travel            Communications,          Insurance
exports                                                             computer,             and financial
information,             services
and
other services
1980 $ ilos1996        ±980 % fttl1996        1980 % fttl1996        1980 % fttl1996        1980 'oftal1996
Rwanda                         32         21        42.3        33.1      10.8        16.3        46.3       50.7        0.6
Saudi Arabia                5,191      3,518        15.3         0.0      25.9          0.0       58.8      100.0
Senegal                      337         556        19.1        10.1      29.3        30.2        51.3       59.3        0.3         0.4
Sierra Leone                   49        100        31.4        12.3      25.5        69.0        43.1       18.5         ..0.2
Singapore                   4,856     30,040        26.9        17.3      29.5        26.6        42.5       54.5        1.1         1.6
Slovak Republic                -.2,066                          31.1        ..        32.6          ..       30.9         ..5. 4
Slovenia                       ..      2,127          ..        22.6        ..        57.8          ..       19.1         ..          . 5
South Africa                2.929      4,253        41.8        27.0      47.1        52.3         2.5       11.0        6.6         9.6
Spain                      11593      44,364        25.9        15.2      60.0        62.3        11.6       16.8        2.43.
Sri Lanka                     231        765        18.8        44.3      42.9        21.7        37.4   ~   30.4        1.0         3.6
Sudan                         216        115         9 .2        1.6      17.9        16.6        72.4       81.9        0.5         0.0
Sweden                      7,489     16,930        40.5        30.2      12.9        21.8        44.0       45.7        2.6         2.4
Switzerland                 6.888     26,225        18 .8        94       46.0        3420.                  269.795
Syrian Arab Republic          365      1.833        17.2        13.4      42.9        65.8        39.9       20.8
Tajikistan                      ..2                    .           ..                     .
Tanzania                      165        667        39.5        11.5      12.6         77.8       46.4        7.7        1.5         0.4
Thailand                    1.490     17,008        20.1        15.4      58.2        53.4        21.2       29.0        0.5         0.7
Togo                           74         73        38.3        14.2      35.2        32.6        25.0       52.7        1.4         0.5
Trinidad and Tobago           411        343        27.7        56.6      37.3        22.6        35.0       12.0         ..8.9
Tuni'sia                    1,067      2,632        19.4        24.4      64.1        60.3        14.8       13.4        1.6         1.9
Turkey                        711     13,051        37.4        13.5      45.9        43.3        16.3       40.9        0.4         2.3
Turkmenistan                    .           ..                     ..                     ..
Uganda                         10        135         0.0        13.7      40.4        61.1        59.6        5.2
Ukrai'ne                       ..      4,799          ..        75.6        ..6.7                   ..       15.0         ..2.7
United Arab Emirates            .          ..                      ..                     ..
United K�ingdom            36,452     79,389        38.9        22.6      19.0        25.2        42.1       41.0         ..       11.2
United States              47.550    234,687        299.9       20.4      22.3        34.2        44.6       41.1        3.2         4.3
Uruguay                      468       1.359        18.6        29.5      63.7        47.5        14.8       21.7        2.9        1.2
Uzbekistan                     ..        380           .           ..                     ..
Venezuela                     693      1,565    .   4.1         30.4      35.1        56.5         9.5       13.0       14.4         0.1
Vietnam                        ..      2,364          -..                     .           ..
West Bank and Gaza              .           ..                     ..                     ..
Yemen, Rep.                    ..        191          ..        17.3        ..        27.8          ..       54.9
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)    .           ..                     ..
Zambia                        152          ..       56.8          ..      13.9           ..       25.3         ..        4.1
Zimbabwe                      169        383        56.9        24.3      14.6        46.7        25.1       28.7        2.4         0.3
Low income                 11,623     46,899
Exci ~   '''d  ' .......   ...   7,O..6   ...   . 15,95' ........   ..........  .....................  .... . China.....&....ndia....7,064.....15,956...
M iddle c re...............68,474 .....24,..524 ..........  ..........  .....................  .........  ....-. incom e  68,474.   .....242.524...
Lo- --wer m  m iddle  inco e.m e .. . . . .... ...... .. .. .: . ... ..  .. .   .   . .. . .... . .. . .. .. .. .... .. ... .. . . .  .. ..... . .. .... ...   ... . . ..... .. ..  :.. . .
Euroe &CenralAsia
Leti-n "Am-eri'ca' & Carib.  17.799   48.:369
Middle  East&  N. Afric.....  ... 5......................1......3....
South  Asia    4,180     14,128~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~:  ........... .........  ........  ...  .   ..  .   ........ . .....  .... ....:~  ...
a. Incoludes Luxembourg. b. Data pror to 1992 include Eritree. c. Oats prior to 1990 refer to the Feoerai Republic of Germany before urnficat on.
198   1998 World Development Indicators



4.6                    .
Balance of payments statistics, the main source of  new classification of trade in services introduced in  * Service exports refer to economic output of intan-
information for international trade in services,  the fifth edition of its Balance of Payments Manual  gible commodities that may be produced, transferred,
have many weaknesses. Until recently some large  (1993).                                         and consumed at the same time. International trans-
economies-such as the former Soviet Union-did      Still, difficulties in capturing all the dimensions of  actions in services are defined by the IMF's Balance
not   report  data  on   trade  in  services.   international trade in services mean that the record  of Payments Manual (1993), but definitions may nev-
Disaggregation of important components may be   is likely to remain incomplete. Cross-border intrafirm  ertheless  vary  among  reporting  economies.
limited and varies significantly across countries.  service transactions, which are usually not captured  * Transport covers all transport services (sea, air,
There are inconsistencies in the methods used to  in the balance of payments, are increasing rapidly as  land, internal waterway, space, and pipeline) per-
report items. And the recording of major flows as  foreign direct investment expands and electronic net-  formed by residents of one economy for those of
net items is common (for example, insurance trans-  works become pervasive. One example of such trans-  another and involving the carriage of passengers,
actions are often recorded as premiums less     actions  is transnational corporations' use  of  movement of goods (freight), rental of carriers with
claims). These factors contribute to a downward  mainframe computers around the clock for data pro-  crew, and related support and auxiliary services.
bias in the value of the service trade reported in  cessing, exploiting time zone differences between  Excluded are freight insurance, which is included in
the balance of payments.                        theirhomecountryandthehostcountriesoftheiraffil-  insurance services; goods procured in ports by non-
Efforts are being made to improve the coverage,  iates. Another important dimension of services trade  resident carriers and repairs of transport equipment,
quality, and consistency of these data. Eurostat and  not captured by conventional balance of payments  which are included in goods; repairs of railway facili-
the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and  statistics is establishment trade-sales in the host  ties, harbors, and airfield facilities, which are included
Development, for example, are working together to  country by foreign affiliates. By contrast, cross-border  in construction services; and rental of carriers with-
improve the collection of statistics on trade in ser-  intrafirm  transactions in merchandise  may be  out crew, which is included in other services. * Travel
vices in  member countries. In addition, the    reported as exports or imports in the balance of  covers goods and services acquired from an economy
International Monetary Fund (IMF) is implementing the  payments.                                 by travelers in that economy for their own use during
visits of less than one year for business or personal
NNEMMZkM                                                                                        purposes. * Communications, computer, informa-
tion, and other services cover international telecom-
Service exports are increasing                                                              munications and  postal and  courier services;
% of regional exports of goods and services  % of giobal service exports, 1996              computer data; news-related service transactions
E -. s ,^  _     _                                                                    between residents and nonresidents; construction
services; royalties and license fees; miscellaneous
.,;E: jr,' ,r7-j-.  Er< Mg   n t s.,   6r,:;3rr,  business, professional, and technical services: per-
n,,d| E-.--  _ c;_                                         1-                         sonal, cultural, and recreational services; and gov-
.,,..rl  E  I
u-! i.: . rtrF uil,-, .. .. ernment  services  not  included  elsewhere.
Insurance and financial services cover various
tii 1l-,,;*, _- e*                                                  .gr ,,.D(,r,  _   _ . . .. ^  t     ypes of insurance provided to nonresidents by resi-
e. -^; .  r;,e             >ahsrJ,          dent insurance enterprises and vice versa, and finan-
cial intermediary and auxiliary services (except those
of insurance  enterprises  and  pension  funds)
exchanged between residents and nonresidents.
o    5    10   16   20    25
0 1985     0 1995                                                                Data sources
Source: international Monetary Fund, balance of payments data files.
The importance of service exports has increased in every region except South Asia, which already had the        Data on exports and imports
largest share of services in Its export trade. East Asia and the Pacific was the fastest-growing service exporter
during 1985-95, but service exports remain overwhelmingly a business of high-ncome countries.                   of services come from the
IMF's balance of payments
. !1   2   data files. The IMF publishes
balance of payments data in
its  International  Financial
Statistics and Balance of
Payments Statistics Yearbook.
1998 World Development Indicators 1i99



4.7 Structure of service imports
Service              Transport              Travel           Communications,           Insurance
imports                                                          computer,           and financial
information,           services
and
other services
190$ mill ions 19     s % of total 19     180% of tota[ 96     18 % of total]96      18 % of Total 19
Albania                       18       189        43.7       43.3       0.0        6.2       51.4       34.5        4.9       15.9
Algeria                    2,697                  39.9                 12.4         ..       40.9         ..        6.8
Angola                               -1,563                  20.1                  5.6         ..       72.0         ..2.3
Argentina                  3,788      6,716       33.6                 47.3         ..       19.1
Armenia                                129                   71.7                 17.0         ..        3.6         ..7.7
Australia                  6,532     18,495       47.4       36.4      28.1       31.3       23.2       27.0        1.3        5.3
Austria                    6,204     22,455       12.7        8.6      50.6       48.9       32.4       26.7        4.2       15.8
Azerbaijan                             399...
Bangladesh                  173        733        64.3      65.5        3.3       11.7       26.4       16.3       6.0         6.4
Belarus                                183...
Belgium'                  12,827    33,811        29.7       22.3      25.7       28.3       39.4       38.4        5.2       11.0
Benin                       109        111       56.9        65.8       7.1        5.3       25.9       23.0      10.1         5.8
Bolivia                     259        377        53.3       61.7      21.3       13.4       15.2       15.8       9.1         9.1
Bosnia and Herzegovina                                                    .
Botswana                    216        444        42.4       42.2      26.0       32.7       27.8       1 7.1      3.7         8.0
Brazil                    .4,871     13,630       56.5.      42.6       7.5       24.9       35.0       23.3        1.0        9.2
Bulgari'a                   549      1,23.4      51.3      .38.5        8.6       16.1       34.4       45.4       5.7
Burkina Faso                209        138       58.0        46.9      15.3       16.4       21.9       32.6       4.8         4.0
Burundi..                              102                   30.0                 24.9         ..       41.2        ..3.9
Cambodia                               222                   44.9                  6.5         ..       44.6         .4.0
Cameroon                     377       657        39.0       34.4      11.5       21.1       44.1       37.5       5.4         7.0
Canada                    10,805    35,772        29 .5      22.6      30.5       31.0       40.0       46.4
Central African Republic     142.      114        47.3       43.7      24.5       38.0       23.5       10.4       4.7         7.9
Chad                          2 4      199         6.4       48.1      57.5       13.0       35.4       37.6        0.7        1.3
Chile                      1,583      3,587       52.4       52.9      12.6       22.4       32.3       26.8        2.7       -2.0
China                      2,024     22,585       61.6       45.7       3.3       19.8       30.7       33.5        4.4        1.0
Hong Kong, China.
Colombia                   1,170     4.094        45.3       28.2      20.5       22.1       24.0       32.7      10.2        16.9
Congo, Dam. Rep..608                              41.9         ..       8.1                  4.                      .
Congo, Rep.                 480        708        27.0       33.3       6.1        7.5       63.5       57.1       3.5         2.1
Costa Rica                  286        947        58.2       40.1      21.1       34.6       13.9       18.7       6.7         6.6
C6te dIlvoi're             1,531      1,502       38.6       40.1      15.8       16.5       37.7       41.6       7.9         1.8
Croatia                       ..      3,185.        .       42.4         ..       32.4         ..       25.2
Czech Republic                ..     6.264          ..       11.2        ..       4.            .       3.                     4.5
Denmark                    4,663    14,819        47.7      47         274        27.9       22.9       27.4        2.0
Dominican Republic          399        962       39.6       56.8       41.6       21.1       14.7        9.9       4.1        12.2
Ecuador                     704        975        36.0      43.0       32.4       22.5       19.1       19.5      12.4        15.1
Egypt, Arab Rep.           2,343     6,253       40.3       32.6        7.2       25.9       49.1       37.7       3.4         3.8
El Salvador                 273        490        29.3       52.7      38.8       14.8       20.7       21.5      11.2        11.0
Estonia                       ..       608          ..      45.0          .       16.6         ..       34. 1        ..4.3
Ethiopia,                     90       234        72.2      60.9        2.2        8.2       25.6       25.1        ..5.8
Finland                    2,555     8,773       39.4       23.1       23.1       25.3       35.1       49.6       2.4         1.9
France                    32,148    72,087    .  2.4        28.6       18.7       24.3       48.1       35.8       4.8        11.3
Gabon                       789        949       22.0        29.6      12.2       18.3       60.1       48.3        5.7        3.8
Gambia. The                  42         77       55.8        40.3       3.5       20.6       33.2       35.1       7.4         3.9
Georgia                       ..       105          .           ..                   ..
Germany'        .         42,378.  128.060    .        .~1   19.3      41.2       39.7       33.2       38.5       0.6         2.6
Ghana                       270        456        39.7      47.0       12.1        4.9       45.8       41.1        2.3        7.0
Greece                     1,428     4,238       41.5       29.8       21.6       28.6       31.1       36.9        5.8        4.7
Guatemala                   487        660        37.0       43.5      33.6       20.5       26.0       28.4        3.3        7.6
Guinea                        ..       422          ..       34.7        ..        6.3         ..       52.6         ..6.3
Guinea-Bissau                 14        21        47.9       52.6      11.0          .       36.0       41.5        5.0        5.8
Haiti                       162        283        49.3      66.8       25.1       13.1       23.0       20.1        2.7
Honduras                    174        334        53.3       58.9      17.8       1 7.1      16.6       21.6       12.3        2.4
200   1998 World Development Indicators



4.7
Service              Transport              Travel           Communications,         Insurance
imports                                                         computer,           and financial
information,           services
and
other services
$ millions            % of total           % of total            % of total           % of total
1.980      1996      19830      ±996       1980       ±996      1980       1996       1980      1.996
Hungary                     524      3,506     .. 60.3  ..   9:0.0..... 26.9    27.3         6.1      56.9       6.7        6.7
India                     1,516      8,287       60.0.     55.5      ..3.8       9.7        31.0      29.3       5.3        5.4
Indonesia                 4,998     13,475       40.1_ .   35.2       11.9      16.1        44.2      45.4       3.8        3.2
Iran, Islamic Rep.        5,223      2,339       43.6       40.3      325.5     103.3       17..4     40.1       6.4 ....   93
Ireland                   1,593     13,260       43.9      14.3.      36 6      16.4       16.1...    68~1        34...     1.3 ...
Israel                    2,310     10,980      44.1       33.6 .     35.6      36.3       18.5       28.0       1.8        2.1
Italy                    16,249     67,445      43.8       35.0       1 1.8     23.4        31.3      33.1      13.1        8.5
Jamaica                     370      1,034       55.4      47.6        8.9      14.3        23.8      28.7      11.8        9.4
Japan                    32,360    129,962       52.2       25.9     -14.2      28.5.       31..3 .    .. 40.0..  2.3       3.8
Jordan               ......819       1,603       32.8      45.0       331.1     23.9        28.1.     25.2 ....... 6'.0.... 6 0
K aza...... n ~ . . . I . . . . . . .   . ...  9 2 .... ..I . ...                  ... . . ...                               . . . . . .
Kenya.. ..502                         860      .66.2       53.8        46.6     19.4       18!0.      21.0 . ... 11.2       5.8
KoraDem. Rep.
Korea,Rp                  4,089     32,154       55.8  ~   35.9 ....   8.6 I... 23.3       30.0       38.0       5.6        2.8
Kuwait.3067                          5,107       38.8    ..33.4.     43j.7      48.8       16.9   ... 165.5      0.6        1.3
Kyrgyz Republic              ..        49
Lao PDR       ....  .......           119             ....  . 3415              249  ..               39.8  .      ...      0.8
Latvia                        .       742           .......  23.4               503                   194  .....            7.0
Lebanon                       ..      604
Lesotho                      50        64        31.6      50.8      .158       10.6        49.7      33,6       2.8        5'0
Libya                     2,303          .      51.4          .       20.4         .       23.2                  5 0
Lithuania                    ..       677                  44.2         .        9.3                  156                   0
Madagascar                  311       373        57.3      46.7        9.9      19.3       28.0       33.2       4.8        0.8
Malawi                      179       234       81.7       83.0        5.6       6.5         5.3       2.0       7.4        8.5.
Malaysia                  2,957     14,442      44.3       38:2.2.  .. 24.5~ ..  16.0      31.2       45.7
Mali                        212       324       65.8       51.1.       9!.6     16.7       1-8.3      26.7       6.2        5.6
Mauritania                  128       217       59.1       55.7       13.6      10.5       24.2       32.4       3.1        1.3
Mauritius           1. .. 74          680        64.7      411.      12.9 ..   26.3       15.2       28.5 ....  7.2        4 .1
Mexico                    6,514     10,819       28.2      38.6      .47.0 ..   31.3       16.3 ..    19~.0.... 8.5   ....8 .9
Moldova                      ..       182          ..      4.            .      2.            .       2.           .        3.9
Mongolia                     31        95        48.4      63.7        0.3      20.4        51.3      15.
Morocco                   1,436      1,984       34.4 ..  ...36.5 .... 6.8      15.1       55.5       42.4       3.3        5.9
Mozambique                  14        350 ....79.0         32.7        0.0         .        14.5      65.-1      6.5        2.2
Myanmar                      85       122        56.8         .        4.67.                31.7                 6.9
Namibia                       .       494          ..      3.            .      15.1          ..      39.9         .        6..8
Nepal                        81       261        30.1      22.9       29.2      51.4        38.2      25..7      2.5
Netherlands              18,148     45,736       43.9.    . 30.2.     26.6      25.2.       27.1.     41.7    .... 2.4      2..9
New Zealand               1,843      5,037       39.4      41.2       283.3     29.4        31.8.     259 ...    0 .6       3.5
Nicaragua                   104       246        50.7       36.9      29.9      24.4        14.2      35.1 ..     5.2 ...   3.7
Niger                       279       152        430.0-..... 589.9 .   6.6       8.8        43..7.    30.3 ...   6.7        2.0
Nigeria                   5,285      4,215       33.7       9A.4      18.7      27.0..      44.8      62.6       2.8        1.0
Norway                    6,996     13,465       52.2      38.5       21.1      28.5        23.3      22.9       3.4       10.1
Oman                        518      1,037       34.1      42.8        6.2       4.5        55.9      47.9       3.8        4.8
Pakistan                    853      3,159       64.5      55.4        9.6      15.2        22..8     25 .8      3.0...     3.6
Panama                      588      1,012       65.4      66.7        9.5      13.4        14.9      11:.5     10.2        8.3
Papua New Guinea            302       747        60.4      24.1        5.9       9.6        28.9      58.3 . ..  4.8        7..9
Paraguay                    260       960        58.0      53.8       21.0      23.6        13.2      12.5       7.9       10.1
Peru                        880      2,050       55.4      41.2       12.2      17.1        25.2      30.9 7. .2..         10.7
Philippines               1,439      6.926       52.1       29.6       7.4       6.1        39.8      62.7       0.8        1.6
Poland                    2,23       6,429       59.9       263.3     12.9       9.1        25.3      50.. ..2 .  2.0      14.4
Portugal                  1.525      6.943       48.8       25.1      19.1      33.9        27.2      33.8        4.9       7.2
Puerto  Rico............
Romania                   1,045      1,948       76.8       35.5       7.0      34.1         7.7.     25.8        8.5       4.5
Russian Federation           ..     18,595         .        13.4         .      57.7          ..      28.2                   .
1998 Worldl Development Indicators 201



4.7
Service               Transport               Travel           Communications,           Insurance
imports                                                            computer.            and financial
information,            services
and
othe rservices
1980 $n[los1996        1980 % fttl1996       1980 ofttl1996         1980 %otta1996        1980   f t 1996
Rwanda                       123        150        63.5        30.0       9.3        8.3        27.3        51.7
Saudi Arabia              30,231      22,049       17.1         9.8       8.1        0.0        73.3       59.1        1.5         1.1
Senegal                      340        578        46.9        39.9      17.6       12.4        29.0        42.8       6.5         4.9
Sierra Leone                  85        108        54.8        14.5       9.8       57.5        23.4        24.8      11.9         3.2
Singapore                   2,912     18,730       38.3        33.8      11.4       32.5        46.1        28.3       4.3         5.3
Slovak Republic                ..      2,027         ..        19.4        ..       23.8          ..        47.8         .9.0
Slovenia                       ..      1.423         ..        28.4        ..       38.1          ..       31.9         ..1.5
South Africe                3,805      5.689       48.4        46.7      20.3       27.5        20.0        17.0      11.3         8.8
Spein                       5,732     24,352       38.6        28.4      21.5       20.2        34.6       44.4        5.4         7.1
Sri Lanka                    351       1,202       60.4        57.3       9.5       14.6        23.5        22.1       6.5         6.0
Sudan                        258        193        34.3        64.0      16.8       13.8        44.5        21.7       4.5         0.3
Sweden                      7,018     18,755       35.9        26.2      31.6       33.3        28.1        39.1       4.4         1.4
Switzerland                 4.885     15,387       30.4        24.9      48.8       49.0        19.3        25.1       1.8         1.0
Syrian Arab Republic         521       1.555       26.8        51.3      33.9       33.0        37.3       15.7        2.2-
Tajiki stan                     .          ..                     ..                   ..
Tanzania                      132      1,018       82.1        23.1       8.7       43.2        25.6        30.1       5.5         3.4
Thailand                    1,644     19,585       64.4        40.1      14.8       21.9        14.8        31.7       5.9         4.9
Togo                         167          78       62.7        48.4      14.1       29.7        16.7        11.5       6.63       10.4
Trinidad and Tobago          645        242        45.7        38.9      21.6       28. 7       23.5        25.1       9.2         7.3
Tuni'sia                      600      1.259       51.1        40.1      17.7       19.9        25.5        33.6       5.7         6.4
Turkey                       569       6,396       50.5        26.7      18.3       19.8        27 1        46.9       4.2         6.6
Turkmenistan                    .          ..                     ..                   ..
Uganda                       123        383        58.2       34.7       14.6       20.4        22.8       41.0        4.4         3.9
Ukraine                         ..     1,625         ..       34.0         ..       15.7          -.       42.9          .7.3
United Arab Emirates......                                                  ... 
United Kingdom            27,933      68.153       47.5        28.0      22.9       38.2        29.6       32.7         i. .2
United States             40,970    152,774        37.5       29.0       25.4       32.7        35.0       33.4        2.1         5.0
Uruguay                      476        820        31.8        43.7      42.6       27.2        18.1        27.7       7.5         1.5
Uzbekistan                     ..       463           .           ..                   ..
Venezuela                   4,253      4,900       31.7        25.0      47.0       46.4        16.5        25.8       4.8         2.8
Vietnam                        ..      2.390          .           ..                   ..
West Bank and Gaza              .          ..                     ..                   ..
Yemen, Rep.                    ..       757           ..       45.4        ..       12.8          ..        41.8
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)    .          ..                     ..
Zambia~                      851           -.      53.5          ..       8.5         ..        33.9          ..       4.0
Zimbabwe                     395         712       43.3        50.7      40.3       16.9        13.9        29.8       2.6         2.6
Low income                 22.029    64,428......
E'xc I'. C i'n a' & n India............ .....j   k b ....
Middl'e' i n' c'o"m'e .....  161,500  279.679
Low ..&.. mi'd"d'le ..i'nc"o..m"e ........15-7,2-8-6 .....3'3'6,906......
EAst Ai"a &Pa"cifi"c     14.719    86,060
u.ope&Cetra Asa
Lat-in-'  . A e'rijc"a & ...Ca'rib.  32,:387  58.696  .    ........
Middle East & N. Africa  55,014  48 ..............471.
So'Uth  Ai  ia ...................3,18'6... 14 0 0
H4iih  in-c'..m"e ........... ...31-3-87-2 ....1,0"1"9",6..8'0 .......
a. IncJudes L-,Omebourg. b. Data prior to 1992 include Eritrea. c. Data prior to 1990 refer to the Federal Republic of Germany beforc unlficot,or.
202   1998 World Development Indicators



4.7
Although the data have many deficiencies, it is clearthat  such as financial, brokerage, and leasing services.  * Services imports refer to economic output of intan-
trade in services has grown faster than trade in mer-  Growing by an average 9.5 percenta year, trade in these  gible commodities that may be produced, transferred,
chandise over the past 15 years. During 1980-95 ser-  services rose from 37 percent of commercial services  and consumed at the same time. International trans-
vice trade grew an average 8 percent a year, compared  trade in 1980 to 45 percent in 1993. Tourism is another  actions in services are defined by the International
with 6 percentfor merchandise trade (in nominal terms).  rapidly growing sector (see table 6.15).  Monetary Fund's (IMF) Balance of Payments Manual
This rapid growth boosted commercial services' share  Data on service imports are taken from balance of  (1993), but definitions may nevertheless vary among
in global trade from 16 percent in 1980 to 18 percent  payments statistics. For more information on trade in  reporting economies. * Transport covers all transport
in 1995. The most dynamic trade is in private services  services see About the data for table 4.7.  services (sea, air, land, internal waterway, space, and
pipeline) performed by residents of one economy for
those of another and involving the carriage of passen-
gers, movement of goods (freight), rental of carriers
The top 25 service importers in 1996
with crew, and related support and auxiliary services.
$ bYlions                                                                                   Excluded are freight insurance, which is included in
2                                                                                           insurance services; goods procured in ports by non-
resident carriers and repairs of transport equipment,
IT-:                                                                                        which are included in goods; repairs of railway facili-
ties, harbors, and airfield facillties, which are included
to .~                                                                                       in construction services; and rental of carriers without
crew, which is included in other services. * Travel cov-
ers goods and services acquired from an economy by
|I   I I     I  I      i     ii      ii       ii      . |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  g  |  |  |travelers in that economy for their own use during vis-
its of less than one year for business or personal pur-
poses. * Communications, computer, information,
oand ther services cover international telecommuni-
cations and postal and courier services; computer
So UWE e,.                                                                                  data; news-related service transactions between resi-
dents and nonresidents; construction services; royal-
The sare coumri., Lhi are Lne lage .t export6rs of services also Ten Tobe tihe ia,gel imworters. As irnoe In sGr.[cES
coni;nue; ia gr&... n.ore dee'iopnig cc.unteles lIII begin to enrer tne ranks of major trader,,  ties and license fees; miscellaneous business,
professional, and technical services; personal, cul-
tural, and recreational services; and government ser-
vices not included elsewhere. * Insurance and
financial services cover various types of insurance pro-
vided to nonresidents by resident insurance enter-
prises and vice versa, and financial intermediary and
auxiliary services (except those of insurance enter-
prises and pension funds) exchanged between resi-
dents and nonresidents.
Data sources
Data on exports and imports
of services come from the
IMF's balance of payments
data files. The IMF publishes
balance of payments data in
,l  l   its  International  Financial
Statistics and  Balance of
Payments Statistics Yearbook.
1998 World Development Indicators     203



VA" "
4.8 Structure of demand
Private              General          Gross domestic           Exports              Im ports         Gros domestic
consumption           government           investment            of goods              of goods             savings
consumption                               and services         and services
% of GDP             % of GDP             %ofGDP             18% of GDP              % of GDP            % of GDP
1980       1996      1980       1996      1980       1996   I   90        1996      1980      1996       1980       1996
Albania                          56         94          9        13        35         21                   13                   40          ..      -7
Algeria                          43         52        14         14        39         27        34         32        30         25        43        34
Angola                                      19                   33                  -11         ..        77                   40          ..      48
Argentina                        76         82            a      ~         25         19          5         9         6           9       24        18
Armenia                          47        115        16         13        29         10                   24         ..        62        37       -28
Australia                        59         61        18         18        25         21        16         21        18         21        24        21
Austria                          55         56         18        20        29         25        36         39        38         39        27        24
Azerbaijan                                  87                    9          .        24                   2..                  42                    4
Bangladesh                       92         79          6        14        15         17          6        14        18         24         2          7
Belarus                           ..        59          ..       23                   25         ..        44         ..        52                  17
Belgiumn                         63         62        18         15        22         18        62         73        65         68        19        23
Benin                            96        80           9        11        15         17        23         25        43         33        -5         9
Bolivia                          67         79        14        .13        15         15        21         20        17         27        19         8
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana                         47         28        18         29        35         24        50         51        49         33        36        43
Brazil                           70         66          9        16        23         19         9          7        11          8        21        18
Bulgar'a                         55         71          6        12        34         14        36         65        31         62        39        17
Burkina Faso                     95         79        10         13        17         25        10         12        33         29        -6         8
Burundi                          91         91          9        10        14          9         9          4        23         14        -1        -1
Cambodia                          ..        87                    8          ..       21         ..        27         ..        43         . 
Cameroon                         70         71        10          8        21         16        27         19        27         13        20        21
Canada                           55         60        19        20         24         18        28         38        27         35        25        21
Central African Republic         94         89        15          8          7         6        25         19        41         22        -9         3
Chad                             99         85          8        13          4        19        2z         25        41         44        -6         3
Chile                            71         65        12          9        21         28        23         27        27         29        17        26
China                            51        45         15        11         35        42          6         21         7         19        35        44
I-I:.,,~~~~~~ v..:Kr,,,~~~~~~~~                              --                  !4.         I ~~~..143          34        31
Colombia                         70         72        10         10        19         21        16         17        16         20        20        17
Congo, Dem. Rep.         .       82         88          8         4        10          6        16         35        16         33        10         8
Congo, Rep.                      47         59        18         11        36         61        60         67        60         97        36        30
Costa Rica                       66         60        16         17        27         23        26         45        37         46        16        22
C6te dIlvoire                    63         68        17         12        27         14        35         45        41         38        20        20
Croatia                           ..        66          ..       30                  s15.                  42         ..        53         .3
Czech Republic                    ..        51          .        22          .        35         ..        55         .         62         ..       27
Denmark                          56         54        27         25        19         17        33         34        34         30        17        21
Dominican Republic               77         75          8         6        25         24        19         29        29         34        15        19
Ecuador                          60        66         15         12        26         17        25         31        25         26        26        22
Egypt, Areb Rep.                 69        78         16         10        28         17        31         21        43         25        15        12
El Salvador                      72        87         14          9        13         16        34         21        33         33        14         3
Eritrea                           ..      127           .                    ..       26         ..        32         .         85          ..     -27
Estonia                            .        61         ..       25           .        27         ..        73         .         86         ..       14
Ethioplab                        83        82         14         12         9         21        11         13        17         27          3   ~     7
Finland                          54         53        18        22         29         16        33         38        34         30        28        25
France                           59         60        18         19        24         18        22         23        23         21        23        21
Gabon                            26         46         13        11        28         20        65         60        32         37        61        43
Gambia,The                       79         77        20         18        26         21        47         58        72         74          1         5
Georgia                          56       100         13          7        29          4          ..       17         ..        28        31        -7
Germany                           ..        57         ..        20         ..        23          .        24         .23                   .       23
Ghana                            84         79        11         12         6         19         8         27         9         38         5         8
Greece                           71         81        12         14        24         14        16         16        22         27        18          5
Guatemala                        79         87          8         5        16         13        22         18        25         23       -13         8
Guinea                             ..       82          ..        8          .        13         ..        109                  22         ..       10
Guinea-Bissau                    77         93        29          7        30         22         8         10        44         32        -6          1
Haiti                            82       101         10          9        17          2        22          7        31         28         8        -7
Honduras                         70         63        13          9        25         32        36         48        44         52        17        27
204    1998 World Deve.opment Indicators



4.8
Private              General          Gross domestic          Exports             Imports          Gross domestic
consumption          government           investment            of goods             of goods             savings
consumption                              and services         and services
% of GDP             %of GDP              % of GDP            % of GDP             % of GDP            % of GDP
1980      1996       1.980     1996      1980       1996      1980      1996      1980       1996      1980      1996
Hungary                         61         64        10        10         31        27        39         39        41         40       29        26
India                           73         66        10        10         21        27          7        12        10         15       17        24
Indonesia                       51         59        11         8         24        32        34         26        20         25       38        33
Iran, Islamic Rep.              53         53        21        13         30        29        13         2.1       16         16        26       34
Ireland                                    55        19        15                   15        48         75        6593
Israel                          50         58        39        29         22        24        40         29        51         40       11        13
Italy                            61        61        15        16         27       .18        22         28        25         23       24        22
Jamaica                          64        71        20        16         16        27        51         55        51         68       16        14
Japan                            59        60        10        10         32        29        14          9        15          8       31        30
Jordan                           79        66        29        23         37        35        40         50        84         75        -8       11
Kazakhstan                       ..        68         ..       12                   23.                  31         .         34        ..       2 0
Kenya                           62         69        20        15         29        20        28        33        39          37       18        17
Korea, Dem. Rep.                            .         .
Korea, Rep.                     64        55         12        I1         32        38        34        32        41          36       25        34
Kuwait                          31         49        11        33         14        12        78         55        34         49       58        18
Kyrgyz Republic                            87          .       17          .        19.                  31                  55-4
Lao PDR                                               ..        ..                  3                     342                            .       12
Latv a                           59        7 0        8        20         26        19                   46.                  55       33        10
Lebanon                           ..     102          ..       15                   30..                 11                   58                -17
Lesotho                        133         68        26        20         43       104        20         22      122        114       -5         12
Libya                           21          .        22                   22         .        66                  31..                 5
Lithuania                                  70          .       18          .        21I    ..           52          .         62         .       11
Macedonia, FYR                             82          .       14          .         5.                  37         .         49         .4
Madagascar                      89         90        12         6         15        10        13         18        30         24       -1         4
Malawi                           70        72        19        17         25        17        25         21        39         27       11        11
Malaysia                         51        47        17        11         30        41        58         92        55         91       33        42
Mali                            92         78        10        11         16        27        16         21        34         36       -2        12
Mauritani'a                     68         72        25        14         36        2 2       37         54        67         62         7       14
Mauritius                       75         68        14        10         21        26        51         61        61         65       10        22
Mexico                          65         66        10        10         27        21        11         22        13         20       25        23
Moldova..                                  66         ..       20                   28          .        52         ..        66                 14
Mongolia                         44        64        29        16         63        22        21         44        57         46       27        20
Morocco                         68         68        18        16         24        21        17         25        28         30       14        16
Mozambique                     103         68        21        12          0        48        21         28        45         56      -24        20
Myanmar                         82         89                    . a      21        11          91                 13          2       18        11
Namibia                         44         59        17        30         29        20        76         49        67         58       39        11
Nepal                           82         82          7       10         18        23        12         23        19         37        11         9
Netherlands                     61         60        17        14         22        19        51         53        52         47        22       26
New Zealand                     62         63        18        14         21        22        30         30        32         29       20        23
Nicaragua                       83         84        20        13         17        28        24         41        43         66        -2         3
Niger                           67         85        10        11         37        10        24         16        38         22        23         4
Nigeria                         56         64        12        11         21        199                  1         19         I1        31       2
Norway                          50          .        19        21         25         .        43         41        37         31        31
Oman                             28        42        25        31         22        17        63         49        38         40       47        27
Pakistan                        83         73        10        12         18        19        12         17        24         21         7       14
Panama                          45         53        18        15         28        29        98         94        89         91       38        32
Papua New Guinea                61         36        24        24         25        27        43         57        53         44        15       40
Paraguay                        76         73         6        10         32        23        15         21        29         26        18       17
Peru                             57        73        11         8         29        24        22         12        19         16        32       19
Philippines                      67        74          9       12         29        24        24         42        28         52        24        14
Poland                           67        64          9       18         26        20        28         23        31         26        23        18
Portugal                         67        65        13        18         330       250        25        33        38         41        20        17
Puerto Rico                      75         .        16          .        17         .         65                  73          .        10
Ro.mania                         60        70          5       11         40        25         35        27        40         33        35        1
Russian Federation               62        63        15        11         22        22          .        23                   19        22        25
1998 World Development Indicators        205



W ~4.8
Private        General      Gross domestic    Exports        Imports     Gross domestic
consumption     government     investment      of goods        of goods       savings
consumption                   and services    and services
%kof GDP       % of GDP        % of GDP       %of GDP        % of GDP       S GDP
1980    1996   1980    1996   1980    1996    1980   1996    1980    1996[ 1980     1996
Rwanda                  83     92      12      10      16     14      14      6      26      22      4     -3
Saudi Arabia            22      42     16      26      22     20      71     42      30      30     62     32
Senegal                 78     78      22      10      15     17      28     31      44      36      0     11
Sierra Leone            79     99      21      11      17      9      28     12      45      31      0     -10
Singapore               53     41      10       9      46     35     216    187     224     169     38     50
Slovak Republic                49              24             38             57              69     ..     27
Slovenia                       57              20             23      ..     55              56     ..     22
South Africa            50      61     13      21     28      18      36     26      28      26     36     18
Spain                   66      62     13      17      23     21      16     24      18      23     21     21
Sri Lanka               80     73       9      10      34     25      32     35      55      44     11     17
Sudan                   81       ..     16             15      ..     12      ..     24       ..     3
Sweden                  51     52      29      26     2-1     15      29     40      31      33     19     22
Switzerland            .63             14      15      27 C           36     36      40      32     23
Syrian Arab Republic    67             2.3      ~      28             18      ..     35      ..     10
Tajikistan               ..     71       ..    11             17       ..   114             114      ..    18
Tanzania'                       83             13             18      ..     22       .      36     ..      3
Thailand                65      55      12     10      29     41      24     39      30      44     23     35
Togo                    54    80        22     13      28     14      51     31      56      38     23      6
Trinidad and Tobago     46      63      12     12      31     15      50     53      39      42     42     26
Tunisia                 62     61      14      16      29     24      40     42      46      44     24      3
Turkey.77                       71      12     12      18     24       5     22      12      27     11     18
Turkmenistan
Uganda                  89     84      11      10      6      16      19     12      26      22      0      6
Ukraine                  .      58      ..     22       .     23       ..    46       .      48      ..    20
United Arab Emirates    17     54      11      18      28     27      78     70      34      69     72     27
United Kingdom          59     64      22      21      17     16r     27     28      25      29     19     15
United States           64     68      17      16      20     18      10     11      11      13     19     16
Uruguay                 76     76      12      13      17     12     15      18      21      20     12     11
Uzbekistan               .      66      ..     25       .     16       ..    31       .      38      ..9
Venezuela               55     66       12      5      26     17      29     37      22      24     33     30
Vietnam                  ..     86       .      .       ..    28       ..    42       .      55      ..    14
West Bank and Gaza       .       ..
Yemen,Rep.               ..     70       ..    15      ..     25       ..    40       ..     50     ..     16
Yugoslavia. FR (Serb./Mont.)
Zambia                  55      74     26      18      23     15      41     38      45      45     19      8
Zimbabwe                46      63      27     19      23     18      30     41      26      41     27     18
Low income              64     59      13      11     27      31      10     20      13      23     24     29
Middle income59                6       13     1       26     2       25      2      23       8     27       2
LCo"w emddl income      61       5      1      13      26             20  .      .       .      .      .   24
East Asia & Pacific . . . . .  32   .     .   16   .      .  15               3     38~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..  ....I.. .......
eur..mp '"'Ie&..Cintraol Asia   8 6   1       5      25      2       6       2      2 64..232.33.  30     21
.11                                21     25   .       .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. .. .  ... . 1.*...  ....2
aub-naharian africa..                          5.18.7 12 2    2       6   .      .  291     18             18 2
.r.1                                               .      2    .  9      lo20                   23
a. Genera] govern ent conssmption  igures  are  not aailable  separatey;7the...re.inclded.in.private  ...umpt.o.... Oat .prier  to ..99... i. de. Erit..... r  .c......   ......t   ...C.s.re ..n..
d''u -h..As  a....................  - ........ Oats.....cover.9...mainland  -Tanza....... 2  ia8  3  3niy.  2
206   1998  w orl O.... v..... o...m.....t . ind ................ _.........   ..........cators....   ........  ...   .  .... ... ....   - .  .....



4.8
Because policymakers have tended to focus on fostering  of inventories due to price changes, but this is not always  * Private consumption isthe marketvalue of all goods and
the growth of output, and because data on production are  done. In highly inflationary economies this element can be  services, including durable products (such as cars, wash-
easier to collect than data on spending, many countries  substantial.                              ing machines. and home computers) purchased or received
generate their primary estimate of GDP using the produc-  Exports and imports are compiled from customs  as income in kind by households and nonprofit institutions.
tion approach. Moreover, many countries do not estimate  returns and from balance of payments data obtained from  It excludes purchases of dwellings but includes imputed
all the separate components of national expenditures or, if  central banks. Although the data on exports and imports  rentfor owner-occupied dwellings. In practice it may include
they do, derive some of the main aggregates indirectly  from the payments side provide reasonably reliable records  any statistical discrepancy in the use of resources relative
using GDP (output) as the control total.          of cross-border transactions, they may not adhere strictly  to the supply of resources. * General government con.
Expenditures from GDP include private consumption,  to the appropriate valuation and timing definitions of the  sumption includes all current spending for purchases of
general government consumption, gross domestic fixed  balance of payments or, more important, correspond with  goods and services(includingwages and salaries) by all lev-
capital formation (private and public investment), changes  the change-of-ownership criterion. This issue has assumed  els of government, excluding most govemment enterprises.
in inventories, and exports (minus imports) of goods and  greater significance with the increasing globalization of  It also includes most expenditures on national defense and
services. Such expenditures are generally recorded in pur-  international business. Neither customs nor balance of  security. * Gross domestic investment consists of outlays
chasers' prices and so include net indirect taxes.  payments data capture the illegal transactions that occur  on additions to the fixed assets of the economy plus net
Private consumption is often estimated as a residual,  in many countries. Goods carried by travelers across bor-  changes in the level of inventories. Fixed assets include
by subtracting from GOP all other known expenditures. The  ders in legal but unreported shuttle trade may further dis-  land improvements (fences, ditches, drains, and so on):
resulting aggregate may incorporate fairly large discrepan-  tort trade statistics.                 plant, machinery, and equipment purchases; and the con-
cies. When private consumption is calculated separately,  For further discussion of the problems of building and  struction of roads, railways, and the like, including com-
the household surveys on which a large component of the  maintaining national accounts see Srinivasan (1994),  mercial and industrial buildings, offices, schools, hospitals,
estimates are based tend to be one-year studies with lim-  Heston (1994), and Ruggles (1994). For a classic analysis  and private residential dwellings. Inventories are stocks of
ited coverage- Thus the estimates quickly become out-  of the reliability of foreign trade and national income sta-  goods held by firms to meet temporary or unexpected fluc-
dated and must be supplemented by price- and     tistics see Morgenstern (1963).                   tuations in production or sales. * Exports and imports of
quantity-based  statistical  estimating  procedures.                                                goods and services represent the value of all goods and
Complicating the issue, in many developing countries the                                            other market services provided to the world. Included is the
distinction between cash outlays for personal business and                                          value of merchandise, freight, insurance, travel, and other
those for household use may be blurred. General govern-                                             nonfactor services. Factor and property income (formerly
ment consumption usually includes expenditures on                                                  called factor services), such as investment income, inter-
national defense and security, some of which ame now con-                                           est, and labor income, is excluded. Transfer payments are
sidered to be part of investment.                                                                   excluded from the calculation of GDP * Gross domestic
Gross domestic investment consists of outlays on addi-                                           savings are calculated as the difference between GDP and
tions to the economy's fixed assets plus net changes in the                                        total consumption.
level of inventones. Underthe revised (1993) guidelines for
the United Nations System of National Accounts (SNA),                                                Data sourcs
gross domestic investment also includes capital outlays on
defense establishments that may be used by the general                                              National accounts data for developing countries are col-
public. such as schools and hospitals, and on certain types                                        lected from national statistical organizations and central
of private housing for family use. All other defense expen-                                         banks by visiting and resident World Bank missions. Data
ditures are treated as current spending. Investment data                                           for industrial countries come from  Organisation for
may be estimated from direct surveys of enterprises and                                             Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) data
administrative records or based on the commodity flow                                              files. For information on the OECD national accounts series
method using data from trade and construction activities.                                           see OECD. National Accounts, 1960-1995, volumes l and
While the quality of public fixed investment data depends                                           2. The complete national accounts time seres is available
on the quality of govemment accounting systems iwhich                                               on the World Development Indicators CD-ROM.
tend to be weak in developing countries), measures of pri-
vate fixed investment-particularlycapital outlays by small,
unincorporated enterprises-are usually very unreliable.
Estimates of changes in inventories are rarely complete
but usially include the most important activities or com-
modities. In some countries these estimates are derived
as a composite residual along with aggregate private con-
sumption. According to national accounts conventions,
adjustments should be made for appreciation of the value
1998 World Development Indicators       207



W ~4.9 Growth of consumption and investment
Private consumption                     Private               General                 Gros
consumption            governmelnt             domestic
per capita            consumption            investment
averagge annual        average annual         average~ annua.       average annual
$ mniJilons            % growth               % growth               % growoh               % growth
1980       1996      1980-9O     1990-96    1990-90     1990-96    1980-90     199,-96  .1980-90     1990-96
Albania                         ..       2,532        .........                                                         -0.3        41.8
Algeri'a                    18,293      24.081      1.9         0.8       -1.1       -1.5         4.7         4.2       -2.3        -4.8
Angola                          ..       1,269      0.3        -3.8       -2.5       -8.7         2.7        -3.9       -6.8         1.8
Argentina                        ...                  .........                                                         -4.7        12.7
Armenia                         ..       1,692      3.5       -1 7.6       2.2      -18.6         5.9        -8.9        6.2       -17. 7
Australia                   9360       224,020      3.0         3.5        1.5         2.3        3.6         2.6        2.7         5,2
Austria                     43,264     19,065       2.4    .    2.0        2.2         1.3        1.4         2.0        2.2         2.3
Azerbaijan                      ..       3.187        ..        8.2         ...                     ..                     .        -5.3
Bangladesh                  11,857      25,178      4.1         0.8        1.5       -0.8            an                  1.4        13.6
Belarus                                 11,482        ..       -7.8         ..       -7.9          ..       -7.2          ..       -17.1
Belgium                     75.166     167,800      1.7         1.2        1.6         0.8        0.4         1.2        3.1        -0. 7
Benin                        1,356       1,775.     2.3          ..       -0.8          ..        2.4          ..       -4.0         6.6
Bolivia                      2,6          .5        0.6         3.1       -1.4         0.7       -3.1         5.8       -9.9         4.2
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana                       483       1,402                 -3.3        9.8       -5.7        I 3.4        9.7         ..        -1.7
Brazil                     163,832     492.282      1.6         4.4       -0.4         2.9        7.3       -0.8         0.2         3.7
Bulgaria                    11,089       8,777      2.5         0.1        2.6         0.8        9.1      -10.4         2.4       -15.4
Burkeina Faso                131         2,014      2.6         2.7        0.0       -0. 1        6.2         2.2        8.6         1.1
Burundi                        840       1,033      3.7        -2.9        0.8       -5.4         6.4       -1.5         4.5        -4.7
Cambodia                                 2,720        ......
Cameroon                     4.710       6.570      3.9        -2.8        1.1       -5.6         5.3       -7.6        -2.7        -2.5
Canada                     145,745     334,215      3.5         1.5        2.3         0.3        2.4       -0. 1        5.2         1.8
Central African Republic       747         945      0.4         0.1       -2.0       -2.1        -2.0       -5.0         9.9       -12.8
Chad                           579         991      3.7         0.2        1.2       -2.3        12.4       -7.2        25.1        -1.3
Chile                       19,489      50,55       1.9         8.8        0.3         7.1        0.4        3.3         6.1        11.5
China                      103,442     366,169      9.7        10.9        8.1         9.6        7.8        12.3       11.0        15,5
Hon Kong, China     ..,03             93,004       6.7         5.9        5.3        4.2         5.0        5.8         4.0        11.3
Colombia                    23,456      58,348      2.6         4.6        0.7         2.7        4.2        8.3         0.5        20.8
Congo. Dem. Rep.            12.167       6.049      3.4        -7.0        0.0       -9.9         0.0      -19.6        -5.1        -5.0
Congo, Rep.                    797       1,403      2.7         5.8       -0.5         2.5        4.0       -9.9       -11.9        -3.2
Costa Rica                   3,156       5,430      2.9         3.6        0.0         1.4        1.1         2.3        5.3         2.4
C6te dIlvoire                6,388       7,232        .16       0.4       -2.2       -2.6        -0.1         0.9       -9.8        13.6
Croatia                         ..      12,647        .           ....
Cuba                             ..                   .....
Czech Republic                  ..      27,821        .         14..                   1.4          .        -2.6        2.3         0.9
Denmark                     37,050      93,823      1.8         3.0        1.8        2.6         1.1         1.6        4.0         2 4
Dominican Republic           5,109       9.847      1.9         4.5       -0.3        2.5        10.1       -3.2         5.2         8,9
Ecuador                      6,995      12,640      1.9         2.8       -0.7        0.5        -1.6       -0.9        -3.8         3.2
Egypt, Arab Rep.            15,848      51,192      4.1         4.2        1.5         2.1        2.7         1.9        0.0         0.4
El Salvador                  2,567       9,160      0.8         7.2       -0.2        4.7         0.1        2.0         2.2        11.8
Estonia                         ..       2,637        ..       -3.5         ..       -2.3          ..        4.5          ..       -10.1
Ethiopiab                    4,282       4.893      0.7         3.5       -2.5         1.6        4.4       -3.9         4.4        22.2
Finland                     27,761      67,324      3.8        -0.5        3.4       -0.9         3.4       -0.9         3.0        -5.4
France                    391,263      925.063      2.6         1.3        2.1         0.8        2.2        2.2         2.8        -2.1
Gabon                        1.119       2,626     -0.7        -2.4       -3.9       -4.9         0.2         2.0       -7.1         0.1
Gambia. The                    185         277      3.6         7.6       -0.1         3.4        2.5      -10.0         0.8         3.0
Georgia                         ..       4.302        .           ..                     ..
Germany                         ..   1,377,876        .           ..                     ..
Ghana                        3,730       5,043      2.8         3.5       -0.6         0.7        2.4         7.3        3.3         3.0
Greece                      32,706      85,184      2.4         1.4        1.9         0.8        2.7         1.2       -0.9         1.0
Guatemala                    6,217      13,731     .1. 1        4.5       -1.7         1.5        2.7         3.9       -1.8         4.0
Guinea                          ..       3.222        .         4..4        ..         1.7                   O1.           .        -0.S
Guinea-Bissau                   81        252      -0.8         7.1       -2.6         4.9        5.6       -1.1          ..        -6.6
Haiti.                       1,197       1,684      0.9        -0.6       -1.0       -2.6        -4.4       -2.8       .-0.6       -10.1
Honduras                     1.806       2,534      2.7         3.3       -0.7         0.3        3.3       -2.3         2.9         9.2
208   1998 World Development Indicators



4.9
Privarte consumption                   Private               General                Gross
consumption            government             domestic
per capita           consumprtion           Investment
average annual         average annual        average annual        average annual
$ milliona             % growth               % growth              % growth              % growth
1.980      1.996     1.980-90   ±.990-96    1980-90    1.990-96   1.980-90   1990-96    1.980-90    1990-96
Hungary                    13,562      28,772      0.8         0.2        1.2        0.5        2.5        -6.3       -0.4         8.1
India                     125,809    .233,232      4.6         47.7       2'5.5. ..  2.8        7.7         4.0 ...    6-5 ........8.8
Indonesia                  40,821     131,695      5.6         73.3       3.7        5.5 ...    46.6        2.7        6 7.        9 9
Iran, Ialamic Rep.         48,854                  2.8         2.2       -     -0.4-.                       8.6       -2.5       --0.8
Ira q   .... . . . . . . . . . . .                 . . . . . . . . . ..                                                ...  .  ..    . . . .
Ireland                    13,585      35,360      2.4         3.8        21         3.4       -0.3         2.5                   -2.4
Israel                     1,9         53,387    .. 5.3        7.7        35 5....   4.2        0.5         2.5        2.2       11.5
Italy                     273,819     667,582 ..... 3:0        0.3        2.9        0 1        2.5         0~.3.      19        -2'.2
Jamaica                     1,710       3,128      .4.5  ..... . 5.6 ...... 3.3       4.6   .  ...6.3      -2.3 .......-0-~  1..   .... 4.9
Japan                     623,286   3,080,624      3.7         2.0        3.2         1.7 2..  .4 . .22.5              5 3 ........0.2
Jordan                      3,1234                 2.2    .... 6.2 . ...-1.5    .     1.2        2.3        7 3       -1.5...... 11.9
K za.............s.-tan........ .      13,241...   ......... ....  5.0 . ...   .........  ...   ........   . ....   .. ..  -10.....-13.. 3.......
Kenya.4,506                             6,348    ... 4.7 .     31.1       1.1        0.4        2.6        12 1        0.... . .O8  1.1
Kore.,Dem. Rep.
Kuwait                      8,836      13,045     -1.4-5.5.                                     22.                   -5
Kyrgyz Republic                         1,522        .:       -1~5.                                       -11.7                  -7.8
Lao PDR
Latvia                                  3,358                -12.9                 -11 8        5-02.34                         -0
Lebanon                                13,263
Lesotho                       492..... 604        .1.9 ....   -3.0 ....  -0.7       -5          2.9         8.4 ...... .6~3..     10.7
Lithuania                               5,461                  0                     0                                 0.0        0
Macedonia, FYR                   .........1620                -5 4-6.0                                     -                     -24..3
Madagascar                  3,611       3,719     -0.6         0~7       -3,5-      -2:0         0.5       -2.1 4...... 9....... -3.0
Malawi      866       1,576      1.7         1 8       -1.6       -1.0        6.3       -1.4        -2 8 ....-.-5.3
Malaysia                   12,378      46,507      3.7         7 3..      1.0         4.8       2.7         7.7 .......2 6.       15.6
Mali.1,547                              2,064  ...1.9     .     .1   .-.6       .   -1.7         7..3....  -2~.0...   .7-.1 .......6.3
Mauritania                    481         790   .... 3.0       1.1        0.44      -1.4.-6.9               8 8       -4.1....... 4.0
Mauritius                     854       2,930   .  6.7  ........4.9  ... ..5'8  ....  37      ...3~3        4 .4 ...   9.0 .........0.1
Mexico                    126,745     222,549      1.0         03    -3-1.5                     2.09.8                -33         0.1
Moldova                      ~~~~~~~1,190           14.9                 -14..  ..........   ...  ... 8..-1.38~.8 ........... .. -21.3
Mongolia                                  621
Morocco                    12,788.     24,966   ... 3.7        2.8        1.5        0:8 ...... 55          1~0.       25..... .....  -0.1
Mozambique       ..,81                  1,168     ..-3         1.8   .   -1.2   .    2:6       -2.1        -0 .2   ...2.7          4.0
Myanmar                          .............  .   ..0.6      5.2            ..-4..131.-.7-2.
Namibia         ..............950       1,902     .13.3.                 -1.5.       175 ... .  3.7 ....  ..27.7      -3.9 ..... .   3.8
Nepal                       1,600       3,643      6.9         9.0        4.2   .    6.1         4.7        6.1        1.8 ......I.-5.2
Netherlands               104,571     236,978      1.7         2.1        1.2         1.4       2-.1 ..... -1......   3 1 ...._.-0.5
New  Zealand               13,801      36,867    ... 2.1  ...  ...3.0 ... .. 1.3  1...   J 6.    1..4 ....  0.4  ...... .0.2  .........8.1
Nicaragua                   1,770       1,661     -3.4         3.2       -6.2        0 1        3.0        -8.3       -4.7        11.2
Niger                       1,704       1,688     -32.2 I........I....-. 6.3                    9.8                   -2.2
Nigeria                    36,258      20,557     -2.6         3.2       -5.5         0.2       -3.5       -3.5       -8.5         0 1
Norway                     29,694      75,083      2.2         26.6.      1.9         2-0        23.3....   28         0.6
Oman                        1,657       4,732        .           .          ..
Pakistan                   19.688      47,628      4.7         6.1        1.6         3.1      10.3         13.3.      5~9 ......  4.2
Panama         1,709       4,201      ~~4.2       2.8        2.1         1.0        1.2        1.1       -8~9  .__15-0
Papua New Guinea            1,568       1,876      0.4..7.10-1.7                     4.7       -0 .1  .... -13        -0........O9 .........3 7
Paraguay                    3,467       7,045      2.4         6.1       -0.6         3.3       1.5....1... 9 2 ...   -0 8 ... .....3 1
Peru                       12,006      44,236      1.0         4.8       -1 2 ..      27.7     -1.4         4:9..     -4.5 ...    13.6
Philippines                20,910      66,998   ... 2.6        4.2        0 0         1.8        0.6        3 7       -2.1 ....    4 7
Poland                     38,182      86,502      1.1         4.9        0.4         4.6        1.2        4.6        0.9         6 1
P~ortugal       .19,166                65,262      2:3         2.2        2.2 ......21           4.92.3 ......         .           05
Puerto Rico                10,756           .      3.5         2.3        2'5         1~5        5.1        0.2        6~9 ~...._.3.7
Romania                         ..     24.917        .         1.0          .I.4..0.8                           ...... ..... ....   .. -7.5
Russian Federation              .     279,314        .         5.6                    5.7                 -13.8..                -13.2
1998 World Development Indicators 209



49r
Private consumption                   Private              General                Gross
consumption           government             domestic
per capita           consumption          investment
average annual        average arnnua        average annual       average annua
$ millions            % growth              % growth              % growvth            %k rowtrl-
1980       1996     1980-90    1990-96    1980-90    1990-96    1980-90    1990-96    1980-90    1990-96
Rwanda                      969       1,227       1.4       -6.2       -1.6       -4.6        5.2      -12.9       4.3        -2.4
Saudi Arabia             34,538      52,897         .          ..
Senegal                   2,365       4.031       2.5        1.3       -0.3       -1.3        3.0        -4.3       3.6        4.8
Sierra Leone                951         928       0.1        1.2       -2.0       -1.3        9.0         1.6     -6.7       -12.8
Singapore                 6,030      38.252       5.8        7.2        4.1        5.1        5.6         7.4       3.1        9.0
Slovak Republic                       9.333       3.8       -3.7        3.5       -3.9        4.8        -0.7       1.1       -1.0
Slovenia                             10,626        ..        5.4                   5.5         ..2.0                 -7.8
South Africa             39.543      76,867       2.3        1.6        0.1       -0. 1       3.5         2.6     -4.7         5.4
Spain                   139,348     346,651       2.7        0.9        2.4        0.7        5.3         2.0      5.7        -1.5
Sri Lanka                 3.230      10,302       3.8        6.0        2.4        4.7        7.3         5.3      0.6         6.4
Sudan                     5,447           ..      0.2         ..       -2.3                  -0.3          ..     -1.1
Sweden                   64,624     132,017       1.8       -0. 1       1.5       -0.7        1.5        -0.2
Switzerland              65,117     183,474       1.7        0.4        1.2       -0.4        3.0         0.9
Syrian Arab Republic      8,690      .    .-      3.4   -      .        0.1   .        .     -2.9          ..     -7.0
Tajikistan                            1.300         .          ..
Tanzania'                             4,870        ..        2.7                  -0.3         ..        -4.1        .       -21.0
Thailand                 21,175     100,112       5.9        7.9        4.1        6.6        4.2         4.3       9.4       10.3
Togo                        619       1,142       2.8        1.1       -0.3       -1.9       -1.7        -3.2       5.9      -1. 5
Trinidad and Tobago -  ,  2.860       3,418      -1.3       -0.3       -2.6       -1. 1      -1.7         0.4    -10.1        10.1
Tuni'sia                  5.380      11,931       2.9        3.7        0.3        1.8        3.8         3.9     -1.8         1.7
Turkey                   42.067     122,590      -4.1        3.4       -6.3        1.5        2.7         3.0      4.9         4.0
Turkmenistan..                                      .                                .
Uganda                    1,935       5,089       2.9        6.9        0.2        3.6        1.8         7.2      9.6        10.6
Ukraine                              25,524        .           ..
United Arab Emirates      5,116   .19,423         4.6                  -0.5                  -3.9         ..       -8.7
United Kingdom          320:290     701,563       4.1        1.5        3.8        1.1        1.1         1.0      6.4
United States         1.720.600   4,8,0           3.4.       2.5        2.5        1.5        2.8        -0.3
Uruguay                   7.681      14.597       0.5       10.0       -0.1        9.4        1.8         1.2     -7.8         6.0
Uzbekistan                    ..     16,698        ...                    ..                    .        -4.1       ..        -7.6
Venezuela                38,066      44,308       1.3        1.4       -1.4       -0.8        2.0        -1.2      -5.3        2.8
Vietnam                      ..      15,537        ..        8.1          .          ..
West Bank and Gaza            .           .         .          ..                    ..
Yemen, Rep.                  ..       4,209        ..       -2.8                  -6.8         ..        -1.6       ..        13.2
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)
Zambia                    2.145       2,907       3.5       -4.5        0.4       -7.1       -3.4       -15.0      -4.4        2.5
Zimbabwe                  2.488       4,757       3.2        2.5       -0.2        0.1        3.2        -1.9      2.7        -3.4
Low income              413.442     873,223       4.9        5.9        2.8        4.1        5.9         5.8      6.7        11.2
Endl.-Chin-a- &'I'ndi'a 1......... ,97,66 ......  ........ -.......9 . .1..... .."§.......8 . -0.4 ....j. 6 ..    -1.1         3J.7...
Mkiddle  inco-me ............... ........2',766,558                                            .
Upp-e-r ..m"iddle income  572,571  136709         1.6        35        -0.3        2.0        4.3         2.9      -1.3        5.8
-Low & miaddl income   I-~                         1     ~                --a
Europe & Central Asia . ..  759,734  ..  ..  ..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~......
'Latiin.A-merica &  Carib.  504,693  1,178,615    1.5   ......39.9   .  ... -05.5 ..... 2 .1  .4.3      ..2.7     .-1.6        5.9
South Asia  165.188    325.891       ~~~~       ~~~~       ~~~   ~~4.6  4.7  2 3  2.7  8.0   3.7       6.65
Sub - laharn-Afri'ca ..........1-5..8,8-4-1 ......2-0..3.7-8-5 1.... .4  i1.-16  -1.0      2.0        '0.3  . ... -3.7      3.1
a. General governmnent consumption figures are not available separate y: they are included in prvate consumption. b. Oats prior to 1992 include Eritrea c Data cover lra,nad Tanzana -vey
210   1998 World Developmernt Indcctors



I-~ ~~~~~ I
4.9           
Measures of consumption and investment growth are  conversion factors differ from the purchasing power  * Private consumption is the market value of all
subject to two kinds of inaccuracy. The first stems  parity conversion factors used to calculate private con-  goods and services, including durable products (such
from the difficulty of measuring expenditures at cur-  sumption per capita in table 4.10, which provide bet-  as cars, washing machines, and home computers)
rent price levels, as described in About the data for  ter estimates of comparative domestic purchasing  purchased or received as income in kind by house-
table 4.8. The second arises in deflating current price  power. Growth rates of private consumption per  holds and nonprofit institutions. It excludes pur-
data to measure growth in real terms, where results  capita, general government consumption, and gross  chases of dwellings but includes imputed rent for
depend on the relevance and reliability of the price  domestic investment are estimated using constant  owner-occupied dwellings. In practice it may include
indexes used. Measuring price changes is more diffi-  price data. Consumption and investment as shares of  any statistical discrepancy in the use of resources rel-
cult for investment goods than for consumption goods  current GDP are shown in table 4.8.        ative to the supply of resources. * Private consump-
because of the one-time nature of many investments  To obtain government consumption in constant  tion per capita is calculated using World Bank
and because the rate of technological progress in cap-  prices, countries may adjust current values by apply-  population estimates. * General government con-
ital goods makes capturing quality change difficult. (A  ing deflators that use a weighted index of government  sumption includes all current expenditures for pur-
classic example is computers-prices have fallen as  wages and salaries, or simply take a government  chases of goods and services (including wages and
quality has improved.) Many countries estimate  employment index as a measure of output. Neither  salaries) by all levels of government, excluding most
investment from the supply side, identifying capital  technique captures improvements in productivity or  government enterprises. It also includes most expen-
goods entering an economy directly from detailed pro-  changes in the quality of government services.  d[tures  on  national  defense  and  security.
duction and international trade statistics. This means  Deflators for private consumption are usually calcu-  * Gross domestic investment consists of outlays on
that the price indexes used in deflating production and  lated from consumer price series. Many countries  additions to the fixed assets of the economy plus net
international trade, reflecting delivered or offered  estimate private consumption as a residual that  changes in the level of inventories. Fixed assets cover
prices, will determine the deflator for investment  includes statistical discrepancies accumulated from  land improvements (fences. ditches, drains, and so
expenditures on the demand side.                other domestic sources; thus these estimates lack  on); plant, machinery, and equipment purchases; and
The data in the table on private consumption in cur-  detailed breakdowns of expenditures,    the construction of roads, railways, and the like,
rent U.S. dollars are converted from national curren-  Because the methods used to deflate consumption  including commercial and industrial buildings, offices,
cies using official exchange rates or an alternative  and investment can vary widely among countries,  schools, hospitals, and private residential dwellings.
conversion factor as noted in Primary data documen-  comparisons between countries in a given year, per-  Inventories are stocks of goods held by firms to meet tem-
tation. (Alternative conversion factors are discussed  haps even more than those over time, should be  porary or unexpected fluctuations in production or sales.
in Statistical methods.) These exchange rates and  treated with caution.
Data sources
National accounts data for
Government consumption has risen steadily in most regions                                                       developing countries are col-
:1987 $ biliions                                                                                                l ected from national statisti-
--  W              cal organizations and central
i.s .,  o,-n,,,/ /n,j  re-i:,n.:s                         ,-:    U      banks by visiting and resident
_             =7l                       '. Am: "C 3 ~nd t.-  World Bank missions. Data
for industrial countries come
EI, ,- ..  a  r,::                             -         from    Organisation  for
-   -   ---               Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) data
files. For information on the OECD national accounts
series see OECD, National Accounts, 1960-1995,
li 1;-: !.^;J m.| 1:9; I ||.] 1. : 199J 1|.|5 ~~volumes 1 and 2.
Source: World Bank staff estimates.
Ate, r6ine oramalicalwy since 1980, governmenn com,umprion in East Aiia and ihe Pacific begar' Lapedng o,l ,n 1995.
Laln Ame'ica and in. Ca,lonean. b cr,ma.il. Iegiotered M sub,lantial increae i, 1995. SuotSanaran Aii.cas
ga%ernment consumDlic.n na, no irncreased rmnh &,nce 1sso.
1s99  World Development Indicators     211



4.10 Structure of consumption in PPP terms
Private                                            Household consumption
consumption
per capita
Transport     Other
Breed snd   Clocthrng and  Fuel and     Heath                      and        0055cm-
All food      cereals     footwear      power        core       Education  comnmunicenorns  ptors
ppp          %%%%I 
1996        1996         1996         1996         1996         1996         1996         1996        1996
Antigua and Barbuda         4,616         33            9            3            2           12           17           6           27
Australia                  14.177         14            2            4            3           12            9          13           46
Austria                    14.293         13            2            7            4           13           11          13           41
Bahamas                     7,784         31            5            4            2           10           11           6           36
Bangladesh                    722         41           2 1           4           9             7           23           3           14
Belarus                     2.851         16            0            6           4            1b           21           3           35
Belgium                    15,107         15            2            6           3            14           11          11           40
Belize                      2,789         28            4           10            2            5           10          11           34
Benin                       1,074         45           13            8           3             3            8          14           17
Botswana                    3,067         25            9            4            1            7           22          21           19
Bulgaria                    3.462         15            0            5            5            9           24           6           36
Cameroon                    1,270         38            7           14            2            6            9           6           24
Canada                     15,176          9            2            5           4            11            9          11           51
Congo, Rep.                   865         36            5            3            1           10           15          18           17
OSte dIlvoire               1.302         35            6            9            ..8                      26          11           11
Croatia                     3,279        .17            1            3            4           12           13          10           41
Czech Republic              6,_63         15            1            4            6           10           16           5           46
Denmark                    15,295         10            1            4           3             9           13           9           52
Dominica                    2.777         32            5            6           2             9           16          11           23
Egypt, Arab Rep.            1,622         44           11            7           3             8            8           5           26
Fij i                       2,814         30            5            4           2             5           12           7           40
Finland                    12,402         11            2            3           5            12           11          10           49
France                     15,260         12            2            4            3           21            8          12           40
Gabon                       2,370         37            7            3            2            8            6          20           23
Germnany                   15,186         11            2            6            3           15            6          12           47
Greece                      9,486         28            2            5            2            7            6          15           37
Grenada                     2,955         26            8            4            1           24           14           4           26
Guinea                      1,399         32            6           19            2           14            9           9           15
Hong Kong, China           16,435         10            1           18           2            11            4          10           45
Hungary                     5,18     7  14              0            4      .    5            10           17           6           43
Iceland                    15,656         13            2            5            5           13           10          10           44
Indonesia                   1,766         45_          19            3           3             7            4          15           22
Iran, Islamic Rep.          3,619         23            6            7          12            13           11          11           23
Ireland                    10.943         14            3            6            3           11           13           6           45
Italy                      14.301         14            2            7            3           14            7           9           46
Jamaica                     2,125         26             7           B            1            9            8          24           24
Japan                      14,929         11            3            5            2           17            8           9           47
Kenya                         849         38           11            8           2             5           22          10           16
Korea, Rep.                 648           21            4            3           5            13           16          17           24
Luxembourg                 22,369         10            2            4           6             9            6          17           46
Malawi                        698         45           17           18            2            8            9           8           10
Mali                          646         48           13           13           ..2                        7          14           15
Mauritius                   6,371         24            4            8           3            10            5          19           30
Moldova                       666         28            1            5           7            11           25           3           20
Morocco                     2,441         45           11            9           2             5           10          10           16
Nepal                         804         37           24            8           5            15          20            2           13
Netherlands                14,228         11            2            6           3            16            8           9           47
New Zealand                11,716         12            2            4           3            11            913                     47
Nigeri'a                      700         48           15            8           6             3            4           5           27
Norway                     14,109         13            2            5          10            14           11           8           38
Pakistan                    1.078         40           10            6            5           12            7           4           27
Philippines                 2,735         33            9            3            1            3            3           4           52
Poland                      4,689         20            1            3            5           12           19           6           34
Portugal                    9,390         20            4            6            2            7           16          11           39
Romani a                    3.384         24            1            7            5            6           15           4           39
Russian Federation          2,752         18            1            7           11           13           22           7           22
21 2  1998 World Deveiopmnent Indicators



4.10
Private                                              Household consumption
consumption
per capita
Transport      Other
Bread and    Clothing and  Fuel and       Health                      and        consumn-
All food      cereals      footwear      power          core       Education  communications    ption
ppp                                                                                                         %
1996        1.996          1.996        1996          1996         1996          1996         1.996        1996
Senegal                      1,499          52            11           14            2             2            11            6           13
Sierra Leone                   332          48            13           12            3            13            14            8            2
Singapore                   15,043          14             2            7            3            11             7           18           4 2
Slovak Republic             .5594           17     ....... 2                                                                  432
Slovenia                     8,864          13             0            4            4            11            12           11           45
Spain                       10,395          17             2            7            2            11             8           12           43
Sri Lanka                    1.304          38            11            0            4             8             7           28           14
St. Kitts and Nevia          4,171          30             8            4            4            24             9            5           24
St. Lucia                    3,339          39             5            5            3            13             7            6           26
St. Vincent and Grenadinea   2,903          24             7            4            2            28            14            5           23
Swaziland                    2321           27             6            6            4            10            1 7          18           19
Sweden                      13,411          10             2            5            5            1 1            9           11           50
Switzerland                 16,577          12             2     .      6     .      4      .     13      .      8     .     11     .     45.
Thailand                     3,265          23             7            8            3            22            10           17           17
Trinidad and Tobago          4,593          20             3           11            4             9             7           15           35
Tunisia                      3,322          3 5            7            6            2             6             7           1 5          29
Turkey                       4,100          23             6            7            4              5            9            7           44
Ukraine                      1,470          21             1            5           14            13            26            4           17
United Kingdom              14,929           126.10.D                                                            8           11           52
United States               20,890           8             1            6            3            12             7           14           49
Vietnam                      1,140          40            17            5            4            1 7           10                        2 0
Zambia                         591          47             7            8             1             3           12           10           19
Zimbabwe                     1,544          28             7           11             2             9           23           14           12
1998 World Development Indicators      213



4.10
Cross-country comparisons of consumption expendi-  include government as well as private outlays. The  * Private consumption inc udes the consumption
tures must be made in a common currency. Butwhen  International Comparison Programme's (ICP) con-  expenditures of individuals. households, and non-
expenditures in different countries are converted to  cept of enhanced consumption, ortotal consumption  governmentaJ organizations. In the ICP goods and ser-
a single currency using official exchange rates, the  of the population, focuses on who consumes goods  vices accruing to households are Included n private
comparisons do not account for the sometimes sub-  and services rather than on who pays for them. That  consumptionwhethertheyarefinancedby ndividuals.
stantial differences in relative prices. Thus the  is, it emphasizes consumption rather than expend -  governments, or nonprofit institut ons. Thus private
results tend to undervalue real consumption in  ture. This approach, adopted in the 1993 SNA,  consumption as defined by the ICP ncludes govern-
economies with relatively low prices and to overvalue  improves international comparability because aggre-  ment expenditures on education. health. social secu-
consumption  in  countries  with  high  prices.  gate measures based on consumption are less sen-  rity. and we fare services. * Household consumption
Differences in the structure of prices also distort the  sitive to differences in national practices in financing  shows the percentage shares of selected compo-
apparent structure of consumption-for example,  health and education services.              nents of consumption computed from deta[ls of GDP
services (such as health care or education) tend to  Because national statistical offices tend to con-  converted using PPPs. * All food includes all food pur-
be relatively cheaper than goods in low- and middle-  centrate on the procuction  side of national  chased for household consumpton. * Bread and
income economies. Thus when domestic prices are  accounts, data on the detailed structure of con-  cereals comprise the main staple products-nce,
used to calculate consumption patterns, services  sumption in low- and middle-income economies are  flour, bread. all other cereals, and cereal prepara-
appear to be undervalued. The problem of making  generally weak. Consumption estimates are typica ly  tions. * Clothing and footwear inc ude purchases of
consistent comparisons of real consumption across  obtained through household budget surveys or  new and used clothing and footwear and repair ser-
countries has led to the use of purchasing power par  other, similar surveys. These surveys are carried out  vices. * Fuel and power exclude energy used fortrans-
ities (PPPs) to convert reported values to a common  irregularly and may be targeted at specific income  port (rarely reported to be more than 1 percent of total
unit of account.                              groups or geographic areas. In some countries sur-  consumption in ow\- and middle- ncome economies).
PPPs measure the relative purchasing power of  veys are limited to urban areas or even to capital  * Health care and education inc ude government as
different currencies over equivalent goods and ser-  cities and so do not reflect national spending pat-  well as private expenditures. * Transport and com-
vices. They are international price indexes that allow  terns. Urban surveys tend to show lower-than-aver-  munications cover all persona costs of transport.
comparisons of the real value of consumption expen-  age shares for food and higher-than-average shares  telephones, and the like. * Other consumption cov-
ditures between countries in the same way that con-  for gross rent, fuel and power, transport and com-  ers gross ent (including repair and maintenance
sumer price indexes allow comparisons of real  munications, and other consumption. Controlled  charges): beverages and tobacco: nondurable house-
values overtime within countries. To calculate PPPs,  food prices and incomplete accounting of subsis-  hod goods, household services, -ecreational ser
data on prices and spending patterns are collected  tence activities may also contribute to low measured  vices, services including mea s) supDlied by hotels
through surveys in each country. Then prices within  shares of food consumption.            and restaurants. ans purchases of carryoutfood: and
a region. such as Africa, or a group. such as the  The ICP collects price data from different outlets  consumer durab es. such as houserold appliances,
Organisation  for Economic  Co-operation  and  on several hundred consumption items that are care-  furniture. foor coverings. recreationaJ equipment, and
Development (OECD), are compared. Finally, regions  fully reviewed to ensure comparability. ICP surveys are  watches and jewelry.
are linked by comparing regional prices, to create a  conducted about every five years, but because not all
globally consistent set of comparisons. The result-  countries have participated in all surveys, regression  Data sources
ing PPP indexes measure the purchasing power of  methods are used to extrapolate results from earlier
national currencies in "international dollars" that  surveys and to provide a complete set of estimates        PPP data come from the ICP,
have the same purchasing power over GDP as the  in a given year. See Ahmad (1994) for an extensive             which s coorc nated by the
U.S. dollar has in the United States,         discussion of the ICP and its methods,                           regional econom c commis-
Because the goods and services that make up con-  Although PPPs are more useful than official                saons of the United Nations
sumption are valued at uniform prices, PPP-based  exchange rates in comparing consumption patterns,            and other nternat onal orga-
expenditure shares also provide a consistent view of  caution should be used in interpreting PPP results.      nizations. The World Bank col-
differences in the real structure of consumption  PPP estimates are based on price comparisons of  .            ects detai ed CP benchmark
between countries. In other woros, the shares shown  comparable items, but not all items can be matched        data from regional sources,
in the table reflectthe relative quantities of goods and  perfectly in quality across countries and over time.  establishes global cons stency across the regional
services consumed rather than their nominal cost.  Services are particularly difficult to compare, in part  data sets, and computes regress on-based estimates
Table 4.11 provides the corresponding data on the  because of differences in productivity. Many services,  for nonbenchmark countries. For detailed information
structure of prices within countries,         such as government services, are not sold on the  on the regional sources and compilation of bench-
Private consumption refers to private (that is,  open market in all countries, so they are compared  mark data see the Wor d Bank's Purchasing Power of
household) and nonprofit (nongovernmental) con-  using input prices (mostly wages). Because this  Cuirrencies: Comparing National Incomes Us/rng ICP
sumption as defined in the Lnited Nations (UN)  approach ignores productivity differences, it may  Data (1993h).
System of National Accounts (SNA). Estimates of pri-  inflate estimates of real quantities in lower-income
vate consumption of education and health services  countries.
214   1998 wor d Deve opmen: Indicators



Relative prices in PPP terms 4.11
International                                        Relative price level
price level                                      (price level of GDP =100)
Private consumption
Gross
ratio of PPP                                                                   Transport            fixed
rate to $  Private   All     Bread ann  Clothing and  Foal and  Health          and    Government  capital
exchange rate consumption  fond  cereals  footwear  power     care    Education communications oonrsumption  formation
1993      1993      1993     1993      1993      1993      1993      1993     1993      1993      1993
Antigua and Barbuda         86       106       105       107      178        187.     116        43..     154       63        112
Australia                   92       100        77        97       113        75       88        83       102       93        105
Austria                    119       100       102        97      108        101       92       82        115       90        102
Bahamas                    110       100        90        93      103        112      111       94        166      112         93
Bangladesh                  24       101      .154       153      122         61       37       17         66       52       201
Belarus                              101       149       151      135         13       67       36       114        78       119
Belgium                    108       101        95        89      125        114       72       80        110       90       102
Belize                      71        95        90        80        75       167       80       71        118       79       128
Botswana                    37       125       103       113      157        256      105       98        65       113       108
Bulgaria                    33        85       128       136      103         62       58       21       149        7 0      133
Cameroon                    50        93        87        98      102        173       88       60        97       123       141
Canada                      96       103        96        93      101         77      110      104        109      115        85
Congo. Rep.                 64        98       115       105      109        288       58       55         67       78        193
CSte dIlvoire               52        96       101       112       97                  89       60         78      116       151
Croatia                               83       116       106      118         65       85       38        119       68        183
Czech Republic              39        85       106        63      123         74       61       41        157       73       174
Denmark                    136       105       108       107      104        130      111       85       123        90        87
Dominica                    81       101       112       125       98        179       58       60        147       62       147
Egypt, Arab Rep.            35        90        88        97      124         80       54       49        92        92       106
Fij I                       54        90       100       112      124        146       89       66        140       59       170
Finland                    107       108       121       138      112         79       99       79       126        82        85
France                     116       101       102        95      124        124       71       94        116      101        97
Gabon                       80       126       147        95      131        284       90      119         79      152         91
Germany                    127        99        90        91      107        106       84       96        110      104       103
Greece                      80       105       104       126      161        149       80       68         98       74         98
Grenada                     76        96       120       110      109        191       47       53        189       65        142
Guinea                      33        97       106       118        75       173       37       68         94       80        127
Hong Kong, China            95        91        76        78        73        57       59      145         80      136       106
Hungary                     69        66        74        78..     87         50       50.      29        122       84.      114
Iceland                    123       103       120       109      136         42       89       68        115       87         94
Indonesia                   30        93        93        82       99         98       38       31         89       34       163
Iran, Islamic Rep.          24        79       105       115      113         17       35       47         38       68       182
Ireland                     97       100      -101        90      106        110      100       61       146        85       104
Italy                       97        99       105       100      125        122       82      102        108      105       101
Jamatca                     55       101       119       100      118        181        57      64         85       69        Ill
Japan                      161        99       130       135       113       Ill       61       83         90       86        104
Kenya                       21        90        91       123        85       140       45       41         71       72        196
Korea, Rep.                 70       112       137       173      157         66       61       72         53       95        87
Luxembourg                 115        95        93        84      128         86       80      109         97      119        109
Malawi                      34        87        98       109        54       148       31       50         73       79        279
Mali                        36        90        92       131       866.                59       31         90       63        179
Mauritius                   39        93        81        65        72       Ill       59       87         67      108        134
Moldova                     32        87       131       127       102        60       62       41        122       88        137
Morocco                     37        93        83        77       68        282       81       81         77      106        182
Nepal                       22        93       129       129      116         94       25       30         61       61
Netherlands                115        97        92        79      101        100        71      86        119       92        112
New Zealand                 82        98        91        93      102         65       96        74       100       78        119
Nigeria                     36       101       150       171        58        56       46       40         47       61        115
Norway                     126       106       117       114       108        50        97       87       139       98         88
Pakistan                    28       101       115       103       133       113        35       60       108       42        167
Philippines                 35        82       105       124       122       277        30       29       114       58        183
Poland                      ..        83        9         84       120        82        46       31       10        7          2
-:  ~~:       u:v       u::                 Fl i90  8                    140       7         12
Romanra                     33        82       132        74      106         59        59       22       116       78        132
Russian Federation          25        84       122        61       154         2        36       30        75       79        145
1998 World Development Indicators   216



Y,cE.         4.11
Internationall                                        Relative price level
price level                                      (price level of GDP = 100)
Private consumption
Gross
ratio of PPP                                                                    Transport             f-ixed
rate to $  Private    Al     Bread and  Cdothing and  Fuel and  Health           and     Government  capital
exchange rate consumption  food  cereals  footwear  power      care    Education comnmunications consurnpt on  formation
1993      1993      1993      1993     1993       1993      1893      1993      1993      1993      1993
Senegal                      48        90        87       119        74       227        75       45         79        81       237
Sierra Leone                 29       115       141       192       107       185        34       39         76        37       147
Singapore                    85        95        6 7       72        88        46        46       86        100        88       107
Slovak Republic              40        80        87        55       ill        68        53       33        123        74       124
Sloveni'a                    76        93       108       104       146        71        70       55        110        76       109
Spain                        92       102       100       112       120       Ill        83       76        125        85       102
Sri Lanka                    34        86       123       109       113        58        26       33         53        31       170
St. Kitts and Nevis          80        95       105       118       108       121        47       81        145        69       129
St. Lucia                    83       101       ill       140       107       157        49       61        114        77       Ill
St. Vincent and Grenadines   69        97       132       125       113       236        43       55        146        56       173
Swaziland                    35        92        84       100       138       187        53       66         54        91
Sweden                      126       103       103       103        86        86       103       86        110        93        93
Switzerland                 144      .106       108        96       102        70        89      102       -106      115         85
Thailand                     43       122       106        79       158        74        40       71        103        68        93
Trinidad and Tobago          59        98        89        98        87        38       106       98        108        87       129
Tunisia                      39        92        81        62       142       105        80      109         79       124       159
Turkey                       55       106       123       100       140       141        75       53        116        62       106
Ukraine                                86       145        65       187        21        56       29         64       60        134
United Kingdom               96       102        86        73        83       115        89       89        126        90        98
United States               100       100        88        82        84        90       145      125         89      113         94
Vietnam                      ..        98      .125       116        90       114        30       59                   39       266
Zambia                       43       113       126       185        98       282        29       46         89        34       213
Zimbabwe                     26       105        81        97        91       221        51       77         62        89
Health care services are relatively expensive In high-income economies ...
Relative price of health care lGDP 100)
150                                                         United States
120                                         o' enmark, .. Canada
60  ~ ~ ~ ~   ~    ~   ~   ~   ~   .'r~  v              ,Hong Kong
Singapore
30
0        10        20       30        40       so        60       70        80
Countries ranked by GNP per capita (low to nign)
Source: World Bank staff estimnates.
Price levels measured using purchaslng power parities demonstrate the systematic differences in the relative
prices of services and capital goods In developed and developing countries.
216   19981 World Development Inidicators



The Intemational Comparison Programme (ICP) col-  trast, Kenya's price level of 21 means that a bundle  v International price level is the ratio of a country's
lects data on prices paid for a large set of comparable  of goods and services purchased for $100 in the  PPP rate to its official exchange rate for U.S. dollars.
items in more than 100 countries. Purchasing power  United States costs only $21 in Kenya.     * Private consumption includes the consumption
parities (PPPs) computed from these data allow com-  The relative prices of components of GDP shown  expenditures of individuals, households, and non-
parisons of prices and real GNP expenditures across  in the table are calculated from their international  governmental organizations. * All food includes all food
countries. PPPs are used in table 1.1 to measure GNP  prices measured relative to each country's price  purchased for household consumption. * Bread and
at internationally comparable prices and in table 4.10  level of GDP. A figure above 100 indicates that the  cereals comprise the main staple products-rice, flour,
to evaluate the structure of consumption. This table  price of that component is higher than the average  bread, all other cereals, and cereal preparations.
presents information on the relative prices of compo-  price level of GDP. This is not the same as saying  * Clothing and footwear include purchases of new and
nents of GDP based on the most recent ICP data.  that the component is more expensive in that coun-  used clothing and footwear and repair services. * Fuel
A country's international price level is the ratio of  try than in the United States. It indicates only that  and power exclude energy used for transport (rarely
its PPP rate to its official exchange rate for U.S. dol-  the price for that component is higher than the gen-  reported to be more than 1 percent of total consump-
lars. PPPs can be thought of as the exchange rate of  eral price level prevailing in the country.  tion in low- and middle-income economies). * Health
dollars for goods in the local economy, while the U.S.  Relative prices for consumption items tend to be  care and education include government as well as pn-
dollar exchange rate measures the relative cost of  close to the overall price level of GDP. This is to be  vate expenditures. * Transport and communications
domestic currency in dollars. Thus the international  expected because consumption accounts for a large  cover all personal costs of transport, telephones, and
price level is an index measuring the cost of goods in  share of GDP. The data also indicate that the relative  the like. * Government consumption includes spending
one country relative to a numeraire country, in this  price of investment goods in developing countries  on goods and services for collective consumption less
case the United States. An international price level  tends to be higher than for other components of GDP.  spending on recreational and other related cultural ser-
above 100 means that the general price level in the  For example, Indonesia's relative price level of 163  vices, education, health, and housing. Expenditure on
country is higher than that in the United States. For  indicates that the price level of investment goods is  government final consumption consists of compensa-
example, Japan's international price level of 161  63 percent higher than the overall price level. This  tion of employees, consumption of intermediate goods
implies that the price of goods and services in Japan  reflects the fact that a large share of physical capital  and services, and consumption of fixed capital and indi-
is 61 percent higher than the price of comparable  must be imported from high-income economies with  rect taxes paid less proceeds from sales of goods and
goods and services in the United States. By con-  higher price levels.                         services to other sectors (such as fees charged by
municipalities and other government agencies, school
fees, fees for medical and hospital treatment and drug
sales, and sales of maps and charts). * Gross fixed
... but capital investment Is far more expensive in low- and middle-income economies      capital formation comprises expenditures on construc-
tion. producer durables, and changes in stocks.
Relative price of capital formation (GDP = 100)                                           Construction includes residential and nonresidential
buildings and roads, bridges, and other civil engineering
* .anlr,a                                                                          activities. Producer durables include machinery and non-
a*                                                                                  electrical equipment, electrical machinery and appli-
e 'C-t.:rf REoUbhiC
ances, and transport equipment. Changes in stocks
cover increases in the value of materials and supplies,
-.orks in progress, and livestock (including breeding
Tr,sir,  *       *              0        lsstock and dairy cattle).
I  -.    a, -       -.       ,:,,       -         .,,      Data sources
Countries ranked by GNP per
Source: World Bank staff estimates.                                                                           PPP data come from the ICP,
Prlfc levelm measured using purchaiing power parities nernonstale the slstematic J,tILrerces in trne olrl.e   which is coordinated by the
prices ol ser%ices and capital good, In developed ana developing coumnies.                                    regional economic commis-
sions of the United Nations.
The World Bank collects
detailed ICP benchmark data
from regional sources, estab-
lishes  global  consistency
across the regional data sets, and computes regres-
sion-based estimates for nonbenchmark countries.
1998 World Development indicators     217



4412 i Central government finances
Current              Total             Overall           Financing            Domestic              Debt
revenue'          expendilture       budget deficit     frmaraIiacigaditrs
(including                                                 payments
grants)                                                 -tl      Itrs
debt     Cx o f
P Y     current
38 of GDP           8 of GDP             of GDP           ¾/ c' GDP            % of GOcP       GOC      evonue
1980      1995      1 980    ±995      1980      1995   I   980      1999     1980      1-999     1995      1995
Albania                          ..     21.2       ..       31.0       .       -9.0       ..        1.9       .        7.1      35.3      11.1
Argentina                     15.6      12.9     18.2       14.5    -2.6       -1.1      0.0        1.3     2 6       -0.3        ..      11.3
Australia                     21. 7     24.5     22.7       27.4    -1.5       -2.5      0.2       0 7      11.3       1.8      22.7       7.0
Austria                       33.9      36.2     36.6       42.2    -3.3       -5.2      0.6        1.3     2.5        3.4      58.4      10.9
Azerbaijan                       .         .        .          .       .          .        .          ..
Bangladesh                    11.3        ..    10.0          ..     2.5         ..      2.5        ..      0.7
Belarus                          -.       -.       .           -.     -..                  ..
Belgiumn                      43.4      44.6    50.6       49.4     -6.1       -3.9      2.4      -3.3      5.7        7.2     127.9      19.4
Bolivia                         ..      17.5       ..      23.1       ..       -2.5       ..       5.4       ..       -2.8      62 9      14.1
Bosnia and Herzegovina
BotsWana                      31.8      42.8    31.8       38.0     -0.2        2.8      1.3      -0.4     -1.2      -2.4       11 5       1.7
Brazil                        22.6      25.6    20.2        37.4    -2.4       -9.4      0.0        ..      2.4          ...              75.6
Bulgaria                         ..     36.0       .       41.6       ..        5.3       -.      -0.6        .        6.1        ..      41.2
Burkina Faso                  11.8        ..    12.2          ..     0.2         ..      0.4         ..     0.0
Burundi                       13.9      15.7     21.5      24.9     -3.9       -3.7      2.0       1.7      1.9        2.0     105.0       7.7
Cambodia                         .         .       .           .       .          .        .         .        .
Carneroon                     16.4      13.0     15.7       12.7     0.5        0.2      0.7       0.3     -1.2      -0.3      139.6      23.0
Canada                       .18.7      20.8   .21.3       24.6     -3.5       -3.7      0.6        ..      2.9         ...               21.3
Central African Republic      16.5        ..    22.0          ..    -3.5         ..      2.1.                 5
Chile                         32.0      21.5    26.0        19.2     5.4        2.5     -0.6         .     -4.7         ..      19.0       3.4
China                                    5.7       ..        8.3      ..       -1.6                0 0        .        1.7
Hong Kong, China..                                 .                  ..                  .
Colombia                      12.0      16.3    13.4        14.4    -1.8       -0.5       -..                 .          ..               10.5
Congo, Dem. Rep.               9.4       4.9     12.4        7.6    -0.6        0.0      0.3       0.0      0.5        0.0     214.1       1.0
Congo, Rep.                   35.3        ..    49.4          ..    -5.2         ..      3.8         .      1 4
Costa Rica                    17.6      26.3     26.0       29.1    -7.4       -2.9      1.1      -1.1      6.3        4.0         .      21.4
MSe dIlvoi're                 22.9        ..    31.7          ..   -10.6          .      6.5        ..      4.4
Croatia                                 44.9       ..      46.65       .       -0.9       ..       0.8       ..        0.1      32.5       3.3
Czech Republic                  ..      36.68               39.9      ..        0.4       ..      -0.5       ..        0.1      15.3       3.2
Denmark                       35.5      40.6    39.4       43.4     -2.7       -2.0        ...                ....                        14.2
Dominican Republic            14.2      16.2    16.9       15.6     -2.6        0.6      1.4      -1.0      1.2        0.3                 5.6
Ecuador                       12.8      15.7    14.2       15.7     -1.         0.0      0.5        ..       .9         ...               21.4
Egypt, Arab Rep.              45.5      36.9    45.6       37.4     -6.3        0.3      2.1.     -1.2      4.2        0.8        ..      25.8
El Salvador                   11.4      12.6    17.1       13.7     -5.7       -0.1      0.3      -0.5      5.5        0.6      27.7      11.3
Estonia                         ..      34.2       ..      35.2       ..        0.0       ..       0.3       ..      -0.4         .        0.6
Ethiopia'                     16.3      11.8    19.5       18.1     -3.1       -5.9      1.2       2.7      1.9        3.2        ..      14.8
Finland                       27.2      32.7    28.1       42.7     -2.2       -9.8      0.6       0.0      1.4        9.9      66.1      14.5
France                        39.6      40.5    39.5       46.4     -0.1       -6.5      0.0       0.7      0.1        5.6         .       7.9
Gabon                         35.5        ..    36.5          ..     6.1         ..      10          ..    -5.1
Gambia, The                   23.4      24.5    32.1       21.5     -4.5        3.7      1.2       3.0      3.3       -5.8
Georgia                         ..         .       .           .       ...                 .. 
Germany                          ..     32.1       ..      33.9       ..       -1.8       ..       1.6       ..        0.2      37.3       7.6
Ghana                          6.9      1 7.9   10.9       22.1     -4.2       -2.6      0.7       1.4      3.5        1.2        ..      20.5
Greece                        25.3      21.9    29.3       33.6     -4.1       -9.6      1.6       1.1      2.6        6.5    114.9       57.8
Guatemala                      9.4       8.5    12.1         8.9    -3.4       -0.7      1.4        ..      3.0          ..               11.1
Guinea-Bissau                    .         .       .           .       .          .        .          .       .
Haiti                         10.6        ..    17.4          ..    -4.7          .        ..
Honduras                      14.6         .        ..                 ..                  ..                 ..
218   1998 World Development Indicators



4.12 W
Current             Total            Overall         Financing           Domestic            Debt
revenue'         expenditure      budget deficit    from abroad          financing        and interest
(including                                             payments
grants)
Total   Interest
debt     % of
% of    current
% of GDP          % of GOP           % of GDP          % of GOP           % of GDP       GOP     revenue
1980     1995     1980     1995      1980     1.995    ±.980    1995     1.980    1.995    ±1995     1995
Hungary                     53.4       ..      56.2       ..     -2.8       .       2.1 ....          0.7        7
India                       11.7     13.3      13.3     16.4    -6.5      -6.0      0.5     0.2       6.0      5.8      52.2     33.6
Indonesia                   21.3     17.8      22.1     14.7    -2.3.      2.2      2.1    -0.4       0.2     -1.9      30.9      8.9
Iran, slami Rep.21.6          24.5      357.7    23.2   -13.8       1.4     -0.6     0:.0.    14.4     -1.4                0.0
Iraq                                                       :!:
Ireland                     34.7     36.7      45.1     40.3. . -12.5     -20                                              ..    15.3
Israel                      50.4     38.5      70.2     44.7   -15.6      -4.7      7.9     0.2       7.8      4.6     113.9     15.9
J        41        1        E      -0         -        C 
Jamaica                     29.0       ..      41.5       ..   -15.5         ..       .       ...
Japan                       11.6     20.9      18.4     23.7    -7.0      -1.5                          .      1.5      44.7
Jordan               .... 17.9       28.6      413.3   _316.6   -9.3       1.1      5..7     1:5.5.... 3.6    -2.6      90-2     10-0
Kazakhstan
Kenya                       21.9     23.6      25:3.3... 29.8 .  . -4 .5... -3.4    2.4       .       2.1...                     31.7
Korea, Dem. Rep
Korea, Rep..               -17.4     20.1   -..170.0.   17.7    -2.2       0.3      0.8   -70.1 ......1.4     -02 9..0..30
Kuwait                      89.3       ..      27.7     51.4    58.7        ..        .
Lao PDR
Latvta               ~28.3                              32.2              -4.2        .     1.7                2   ... 2.5  16.0  3.6
Lebanon                              16 8        .      32.5       .     -15.7        .     2...              14.0      77.9     59.8
Lesotho                     34.2     55.0        .      50.7       .       6.4       .      6.6       4.8    -12.9
Lithuania  ..  23.7  ..     25.5       ..     -5.3       ..      4.1       ..       1~~      ~        ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.2  18..  ....
Macedonia, FYR  ..  ..  ..     ..      ..        ..       ..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . ...  ....
MLihaysia                   263      25.4      28.      22.9    -60        5.3      0.6    -0   ...8  .4      -.        428      11
M  .....l........10....  .  5.......... ..  2  .6 ....  ....  .  .... .-.5 ..  1 ...... .  41  1....   0.4... :21
M a ri a n a   -                   .        ...             .-   -    ...                         .. ..    .   . . . . . . .. . .   . . .
Mauragisc20.                         21.0227.2          1722.   1.        -1.2             -18 2      78       0.4      338.74    1.
Mexico      15.1     15.3      15.7     15.9    -3.0      -0.5     -0.4      5.4      3.4     -4.9      40.9     18.5~~~~~~~~~~~~~-5.9  3  7.
M aldow i .. . . .. . . .. . .....9             3 ..       ..      ..        ...                                     .. .. ..   ... ..
Mongolia                    26    2.3 254      2.5      21.5     6.0      -3.       0.6     8.7       5.4     01.4      428       127
Myanl  r160                           6 115.8           10.6      1.25    -4.1       1 20 0          -.4       4.
Neurtherans                 49.4     46.0     52.92     50.2 -.6.71       -.9.      0.0     31.2      4.6      1.7      63.0     10.4
Neicaragua                  23     .3 25.       53.4    33.2    -6.8      -0.6     30.6     0.2       3.2     04.5       0       1858
Mngoige                     14.4. ...1.4.            2~    .... .4                  4.03.             0.
Nigeria          ..        ..       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....  ...  ......8 
Panamao                     25.3     261       30.51     4.     -5.27       .       5.43     .        02       326
Papua New Guinea     23~~~~~~~.0.20     3..9.              19      -.        2.5    .-0.2     -0..5.     4.3      430       2.
Peruma                      17.1     15.2      19.5     17.   .2 -2.4       1.      0.6     2.2      12.8     -0.81      59      1.
Portbgal                     60      3.        33.1     44.15    8.       -5.5      1.       .        6         164.              4.
P u erto   Rico   ..      ..        ..   ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..  .. .  . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . ..  ..         ......
Nehrlands                   45.3     29.9      44.8     32.0     04 5     -25 9         0.0 3           .6      2.5     6.0      40.4
Russian Federatio ..185..240                                     ..    -44..1...                              .9.-1.
-6          3~6  .. ...   ...199 . worl  .........  Indicators  ....9



4.12
Current              Total             Overall           Financing            Domestic              Debt
revenue'          expenditure        budget deficit     from abroad           financing          and interest
(including                                                 payments
grants)
Total   Interest
debt      % of
% of     current
% of GDP            %of GDP            % of GOP            % of GOP            %of GDP         GDP      revenue
1980      1995      1980     1995      1980      1995      1980      1995     1980%     1995      1995      1995
Rwanda                        12.8       ..       14.3      25.8     --1.7     -7.4      2.6        ..      -0.9
Saudi Arabia                     .        ..                   .        .         ..                 ..
Senegal                       24.1                23.1        ..      0.9               -2.7        ..       1. 8
Sierra Leone                  15.1      9.4       26.5      16.4    -11.8      -6.1      3.5      5.7        8.3      0.4     114.1      20.4
Singapore                     25.4     25.9       20.0      15.9      2.1      14.3     -0.2       0.0      -2.0    -14.3      74.8       3.9
Slovak Republic
South Africa                  23.5     27.6       22.1     33.7      -2.3      -5.9     -0.2      0.4        2.5      5.6      57.4      22.3
Spain                         24.2     31.2       26.7      38.2     -4.2      -7.2      0.0      -4.3       4.2     11.5      52.8      14.8
Sri Lanka                     20.2     20.4       41.4      29.3    -18.3      -8.3      4.5      3.2       13.8      5.1      94.6      28.1
Sudan                         13.8       ..       19.6        ..     -3.3        ..      2.8        ..       0.5
Sweden                        35.0     38.4       39.3      49.5     -8.1     -11.1      3.2      -1.3       4.9     12.4      71.1      16.6
Switzerland                   19.5     23.2       20.1      26.8     -0.2      -1.0       -.       0.0        ..      1.0      22.5       4.0
Syrian Arab Republic          26.8     22.6       48.2      24.5     -9.7      -1.7     -0.2        ..       9.8
Tajikistan                       ..       .          ..                 .         ..                 ..
Tanzania                         .        ..                   ..                 ..                 ..
Thailand                      14.3     18.6       18.8      15.8     -4.9       2.9       1.1      0.2       3.7     -3.1       4.6       1.8
Togo                          30.3                30.8        ..     -2.0        ..       1.6       ..       0.4
Trinidad and Tobago    .      43.2     28.2    .3.9         29.2      7.4       0.2        ..      2.7        ..     -2.9      53.5      18.3
Tunisia                       31.3     30.1       31.6      32.8     -2.8      -3.2      2.3       2.9       0.5      0.3      57.7      12.4
Turkey                        18.1     17.9       21.3      22.2     -3.1      -4.1      0.4     -1.0        2.6      5.1      41.4      15.2
Turkmenistan...                                                ..       ....                        ...
Uganda                         3.2                 6.2        ..     -3.1        ..      0.0        ..       3.1
Ukrai'ne...                                                    ......
United Arab Emiratea           0.2      2.5       12.1      11.8      2.1       0.2      0.0       0.0      -2.1     -0.2
United Kingdom                35.2     36.4       38 .3     42.0     -4.6      -5.3      0.3        ..       4.3       -..              10.2
United States                 20.2     20.5       22.0     22.7      -2.8      -2.2      0.0      2.7        2.8     -0.5      51.3     16.1
Uruguay                       22.3     30.1       21.8     31.5       0.0      -1.3      0.9       1.1      -0.9      1.7      26.3       5.9
Uzbekistan...                                                  ..       ....                        ...
Venezuela                     22.3     16.6       18.7      18.8      0.0      -3.7       1.8     0.1       -1.9      3.5         .      29.03
West Bank and Gaza...                                                             ..        .       ...
Yemen, Rep.                            19.9         ..      24.7       ..      -5.5        ..     -0.2        ..      5.8        ..      17.1
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)...                                ..       .         ..       .        ...
Zambia                        25.0     21.2       37.1      25.0    -18.5      -7.2      8.8       4.2       9.7      3.0     161.8       8.7
Zimbabwe                      24.1     27.4       34.8      34.1    -10.9     -10. 7      2.3      7.2       6.6      3.5      69.5      23.4
Low income                       ..     9.9         ..      12.9 
Excl. China & India              .        ..                   .        .
Middle income                    ..       .          .         .        .         .        .      -.           .      0.4        ..      11.3
Lower middle income              ..   20.0          ..     22.6        ..      -4.9       ..        .          .        .         .      11.1
Upper middle incomne          21.1     22.3       20.3      29.0     -2.2      -6.6       0.9     0.6        2.4      0.1      37.3      11.4
Low & middle income              .     18.9         ..      21.9        .
East Asia & Pacific             ..    10.7          ..     11.5         .         ..     1.2     -0.2        0.3     -0.7         .      11.5
Europe & Central Asia           ..    25.5          ..     30.9        ..      -7.7        .         ..
Latin America & Carib.        19.3     19.8       18.8     24.5      -2.0      -5.8      1.0     -0.4        1.5      0.0        ..      12.7
Middle East & N. Africa          .       ...                   ..       .         ..     2.6      0.4        3.1      0.8        ..      11.2
South Asia                    12.4     14.2       14.2      17.6       ..      -6.2      2.1      2.8        4.7      3.7      66.2      28.8
Sub-Saharan Africa            20.0       ..       22.2        ..        .         .      2.4        ..       1.9 
High income                   23.1     28.0       26.3     31.3      -4.1      -3.4      0.4      0.5        2.9      1.8      60.7      11.4
a. Excluding grants. b. Data prior to 1992 inciude Eritrea.
220   1998 World Oeve opment Indicators



4.12
Tables 4.12-4.14 present an overview of the size   Centralgovemmentcan referto one oftwo account-  * Currentrevenueincludesallrevenuefromrtaxesand
and role of central governments relative to national  ing concepts: consolidated or budgetary. For most  nonrepayable receipts (otherthan grants)fromthe sale
economies. The International Monetary Fund's (IMF)  countries central government finance data have been  of land, intangible assets, government stocks, or fixed
Manual on Government Finance Statistics describes  consolidated into one account, but for others only bud-  capital assets, or from capital transfers from non-
the government as the sector of the economy respon-  getary central government accounts are available.  governmental sources. It also includes fines, fees,
sible for "implementation of public policy through the  Countries reporting budgetary data are noted in  recoveries, inheritance taxes, and nonrecurrent levies
provision of primarily nonmarket services and the  Primary data documentation. Because budgetary  on capital. * Total expenditure includes nonrepayable
transfer of income, supported mainy by compulsory  accounts do not necessarly include all central govern-  current and capital expenditure. It does not include gov-
levies on other sectors' (1986, p. 3).          ment units, the picture they provide of central govern-  ernment lending or repayments to the government or
Data on government revenues and expenditures are  ment activities is usually incomplete. A key issue is the  government acquisition of equity for public policy pur-
collected by the IMF through questionnaires distrib-  failure to include the quasi-fiscal operations of the cen-  poses. * Overall budget deficit is current and capital
uted to member governments and by the Organisation  tral bank. Central bank losses arising from monetary  revenue and official grants received, less total expen-
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).  operations and subsidized financing can result in siz-  diture and lending minus repayments. * Financing
Despite the IMF's efforts to systematize and stan-  able quasi-fiscal deficits. Such deficits may also result  from abroad (obtained from nonresidents) and domes-
dardize the collection of public finance data, statistics  from the operations of other financial intermediaries,  tic financing (obtained from residents) refer to the
on public finance are often incomplete, untimely, and  such as public development finance institutions. Also  means by which a government provides financial
noncomparable.                                  missing from the data are governments' contingent lia-  resources to cover a budget deficit or allocates finan-
Ingeneral, the definition ofgovernment excludes non-  bilities for unfunded pension and insurance plans.  cial resources arising from a budget surplus. It includes
financial public enterprises and public financial institu-  Government finance statistics are reported in local  alI govemment liabilities-otherthan those forcurrency
tions (such as the central bank). Units of government  currency. The indicators here are shown as percent-  issues or demand, time, or savings deposits with gov-
meeting this definition exist at many levels, from local  ages of GDP. Many countries report government  ernment-or claims on others held by government and
administrative units to the highest level of national gov-  finance data according to fiscal years; see Primary  changes in government holdings of cash and deposits.
ernment. Inadequate statistical coverage precludes the  data documentation for the timing of these years. For  Government guarantees of the debt of others are
presentation of subnational data, however, making  further discussion of government finance statistics  excluded. * Debt is the entire stock of direct, govern-
cross-country comparisons potentially misleading.  see the notes to tables 4.13 and 4.14.        ment, fixed term contractual obligations to others out-
standing at a particular date. It includes domestic debt
11°^Nh                                                                                          (such as debt held by monetary authorities, deposit
money banks, nonfinancial public enterprises, and
Prudent fiscal management is not a guarantee against financial crisis                       households) and foreign debt (such as debt to interns-
:iii'i.-' i-f.;l.';,,:'.,i;, . i  1991-96                                               tional development institutions and foreign govem-
uI.k ,t,:                                                                               ments). It is the gross amount of government liabilities
not reduced by the amount of government claims
.. -                                                                                              against others. Because debt is a stock rather than a
l.                  flow, it is measured as of a given date, usually the last
,                   day of the fiscal year. * Interest includes interest
.  I  I     payments on government debt-including long-term
*-            U       I |     *       -       g       *       *                           bonds, long-term loans, and other debt instruments-
-               |                                                                    to both domestic and foreign residents.
- *-- .   : ..  v- -  ..  --  .  ,         ,- ... -  . -  .-.  Data  sources
Data on central government
a. 1991-93. b. 1991-95._
Source: IMF. Govemment Finance Statistics.                                                                     financea are from the IMF'
Govemment Fnance Statistics
The flne Asian courirles shat e%oererrcedfinarcia errsi i n 1d997-Indonesia Lhe RepLolic of Korea. Malaw ia. tne  Yearbook (1996) and IMF data
Phmlrppures. and Thamand-ian srrall s,Cal surplIae* or modesr deflcint- in tie preceerurg period. mne problem, In ASia
did nor arise trom fical management b.t horn e%cE,Isle short term borrowimg bV the p-rh ate sector that helped to  files. Each country's accounts
lel an inestment bubole. Brzil. China. india. Mexico and Sirgapore are sliown lor reference                     are reported using the system
of common definitions and
classifications found in the
IMF's Manual on Government Finance Statistics (1986).
See these sources for complete and authoritative expla-
nations of concepts, definitions, and data sources.
1998 World Development Indicators      221



4.13 I Central government expenditures
Goods and             Wages             Interest          Subsidies and           Capital
services           and salaries,       payments           othesr current       expenditure
transfers
%  of tota I        8 of totalI         % of total          8  f total            oi total
ependiture       1.e,penditure         eXpenditu.re        exped it ure         expendo ture
1980e     1995      190       1995  I   1980e     1995     1980       1995     1980 e      1995
Albania                             26                  12                   8                  48        .          16
Algeria                                                                      ..
Angola.                                                                                .
Argentina                 57        22                  17         0        10        43        60        ..7
Armenia                              -                   -
Australia                 22        23                             7         6        65        67        7           4
Austri'a                  26        25        11         9         5         9        60        59        9           7
Azerbaijan....
Bangladesh
Belarus...                                                                                       .-
Belgium                   23        19        16        15       10        17         59        59        8           5
Benin
Bolivia             ~57                                 3.4                11         ..        13       ..19
Bosnia and Herzegovina                                                       -. 
Botswana                  47        52        29        26        2         2         19        29       32          16
Brazil                    20        13        16         7        8         52        64        40        8           2
Bulgaria                            24                   6.                36          ..       37       ..4
Burkina Faso              67                                      3                   13        ..       19
Burundi                   39        39        25        22        2         5          7        12       46          42
Cambodia...
Cameroon                  55        53        32        37        1         23        11        13       33           8
Canada                    22                  10                  12        18        65        ..1
Central African Republic  67                  54                   I                  16        ..6
Chad                                                                                   .
Chile                     41        29        29        19        3         4         46        52       10          16
China .
Hong Kong, Chi-na.......
Colomnbia                 36        29        23        19        4         11        36        43       31          18
Congo,Dem .  ,ep. .... 42                               58        8          1         8         2       20           3
Congo, Rep.                                                                                              45
Costa Rica                53        48        44        36        9         19        24        25       61 
M6e d1voire                ....                                                        ...               28
Croatia                             59                  25                  3          ..       30       ..8
Cubsa..                                                                      ..
Czech Republic             ..       15         -.        8                  3          -.       69         .12
Denmark                   22        19        13        11        7         13        65        64        7           4
Dominican Republic        50        38        39        27        6         6         12        12       31          42
Ecuador                   28        47        26        42        9        22         34         9       16          21
Egypt, Arab Rep.          38        31        19        17        6         25        36        24       20          19
El Salvador               50        48        40        38        3        10         16        25       15          12
Eritreea....
Estonia                             50                                      1          ..       43       ..7
Ethiopia'                 85        63        37        39        3        11          4        12   ~   15          19
Finland                   22        17        11         7        2        11         66        67       11           5
France                    30        24        20        16        2         7         62        64        5           5
Gabon...
Gambia,The                46        ..        23                  14                             ..      48          23
Georgia                                        .                             ..
Germany'        .34                 31         9         6        37                   5775
Ghana                     48        45        27        28       16         17        26        23       10          15
Greece                    45        29        29        23        8         38        35        20       16          13
Guatemala                 50        52        35        35        5         11         6        -12      42          26
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Haiti                     82         ..2                                     ..5                 .20
Honduras
222  1998 World O)eveloprment Indicators



SEE SJoleoIPUI IuetuCoIlaAea PIJOM 866T
S          6tP      CT         PlT       OP          UO!PeMGpGd ueiSSnN
ST  ST  IS~~~~~~~ T                   9Sgsa!di~
.:.....Pt         t    T    T         V .  tn
ST. T      Z..  k         T    o    c99.                 ewSeued
. T . ST . ES . PS . T            St~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~17  T  .  LTL  ue;s16
...... . TS  9~~~~~~~~.  ....  .  ..   ...SST...TI...
.....6T.ST         ST   ..   6T.       069      .
9 .   PS.ST~    ~~   ~~~~~               ~   ~~.T.6 OT.Tz 9 6S  pueleaZ MeN
...... ... 6" TI  516           TT   ST   ST        sp~uej)aiaq
..~~ ~ .. . . .. . ... . . .
~~:   .......  ........              'a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ebiqw~ez6pj
........  ~OPePoSpioij
tt ~P ..P.A.. ....  . .O....
LT . IT   §PS.tT                         6    Z         snfl!9IfeP
..6. ....  . .... T........... .SC~ev
CZ    SE   TZ   6T   ET   OT   9S   SS   Pt   59         aseiselej
.t.6                                   mISI
O S   ~ ~ .   .. . . .. . .. . . . . . . .
ST    SS   .   I~   ~    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~s. £S. 6Suou6qbj
. . . . .   . . . . V S.. .   .   .... . .   . . . .d . .   . . -1s
.. 6 .... S..T.T......I.
T  TZ            vS6        ...tuiede
........   ..... ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .   .   S
. I . 9T . T . I . T . 95 . PP.IS   .  dad  dwei~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i 'URild'q(  'a~~
6T                CT ~~~  . P         ST
ST .   . .. . . . .  .   .   .....
9661  06 V966   08 T  961 T96  966  086  E66  0861eis
air6ipudxe  ejnipuedx         EtllPedO  ihi Tex   ejrflLpuedxe
EC n;Iuedx  ;unno eqp  s;uw T  9se  ~St puES  LAJScldoLes  uj
Ie.;..... d...  pu.ep8n  sj; ~S~$         u  po
9-     £117          T   v    E     t    Z   9
.    ...  ......  ...  ......   .. .  .....S  ..
u  Tr.ir               6    T    6i7 Cr.pu



4.13
Goods and         Wages          Interest      Subsidies and      Capital
services       and salariesa    payments       other current    expenditure
transfers
% of total      %of tota.       % of total      % oftota         lof total
expenditure     expenditure     e perditu.re    experditure      expend tore
1980    1995    1980e   1995    1980'   1995    1980     1995   1980      1995
Rwanda               56       .      30               2               5       ..      35
Saudi Arabia                                  .       ..
Senegal              72               45              6       ..18            .8
Sierra Leone                 37              21              12      ..28             20       24
Singapore            58      59      29      30      15       6       6      11       22       23
Slovak Republic       .       ..                      ..
Slovenia              .       ..              ...
South Africa         47      27      20      26       S      1s      31      46       14        9
Spain                40      1 6      32     11       1      1.2     48      66       11        5
Sri Lanka            31      39      13      18       8      20      20      21       40       21
Sudan                46       .12             ..6             .268.                   23
Sweden               17      15       8       5       7      13      71      70        5        3
Switzerland          27      30       6       5       3       3      53      653       7        4
Syrian Arab Republic  .......                                 ....37                           38
Tajikistan.........
Tanzani a            52       ..19            ..7             .4              ..40
Thailand             55      57      21      32       8       2      14       7       23       33
Togo                 52       ..28            ..9             .12             -.      27
Trinidad and Tobago  34      51      28      33       3      16      24       21      39       10
Tunisia              42      38      29      32       5      11      24      31       30       20
Turkey               47      37      32      27       3      12      23       42      28        8
Turkmenistan          . 
U.gan wa              ...              ..             ..                      .13
Ukraire               .       ..              ..
United Arab Emirates  80     8 7      ..     35       ...12                   9        8        5
United Kingdom       32      30      14       9      11       9      53      56        5       5
United States        29      23      11       9      10      15      54      59        6       3
Uruguay              47      27      30     15        2       6      43      60        8       6
Uzbekistan........,
Venezuela            50      27      41      21       8      26      22      32       22       16
Vietnam.........
West Bank and Gaza............-
Yemen, Rep.           ..     67       ..     58              14       ..7              ..11
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.) .  .. 
Zambia               55      48      27      24       9       8      25      19       11       34
Zimbabwe             56      49      31      29       7      19      32       20       5       13
Low   income          .   ..........                                                   .  .   ...
Ex-cI. "Ch"i'na ..& ..I nd i'a..... ....... ....
Middle ,ncon'e
J.], --                     -       tt-                                      I 
Eas-t-As-ia'. & ..P"a"cifi"c ....... ..................45'  27.........       18258
Latiin-Am-e-ric-a &Cer'ilb.-  SO.6I. 2611                            24      26.2014
Middle  East &  . Africa ..  ..... .............. 5'5 ................... ..3-2 .......  332. 1
~''''h AS '  ........... 31                   . 412.2423                      21  .   17       18
.noe28.2I1I1                                         7       9      56.597 
Note: Includes expenditures finanted by grants in kind and other cash adjustments.
a. Part of goods and services. b. Data nrio' to 1992 include Eritrea. c. Data prior to 1990 refer to the Federal Republic of Germaoy before unification..
224 1998 Wor.d Deve.npment indicators



4.13
Government expenditures include all nonrepayable  plete. and coverage varies by country because func-  * Total expenditure of the central government
payments, whether current or capital, requited or  tional responsibilities stretch across levels of gov-  includes both current and capital (development) expen-
unrequited. Total central government expenditure as  ernment for which no data are available. Defense  ditures and excludes lending minus repayments.
presented in the International Monetary Fund's (IMF)  expenditures, which are usually the central govern-  * Goods and services include all government pay-
Government Finance Statistics is a more limited mea-  ment's responsibility, are shown in table 5.7. For  ments in exchange for goods and services, whether in
sure of general government consumption than that  more information on education expenditures see  the form of wages and salaries to employees or other
shown in the national accounts (see table 4.9)  table 2.9: for more information on health expendi-  purchases of goods and services. * Wages and
because it excludes consumption expenditures by  tures see table 2.13.                         salaries consist of all payments in cash, but not in
state and local govemments. At the same time, the  The classification of expenditures by economic  kind, to employees in return for services rendered,
IMF's concept of central government expenditure is  type can also be problematic. For example, the dis-  before deduction of withholding taxes and employee
broaderthan the national accounts definition because  tinction between current and capital expenditure may  contributions to social security and pension funds.
it includes government gross domestic investment  be arbitrary, and subsidies to state-owned enterprises  * Interest payments are payments made to domes-
and transfer payments.                         or banks may be disguised as capital financing sub-  tic sectors and to nonresidentsforthe use of borrowed
Expenditures can be measured either by function  sidies may also be hidden in special contractual pric-  money. (Repayment of principal is shown as a financ-
(education, health, defense) or by economic type  ing for goods and services. For further discussion of  ing item, and commission charges are shown as pur-
(wages and salaries, interest payments, purchases of  government finance statistics see the notes to tables  chases of services.) Interest payments do not include
goods and services). Functional data are often incom-  4.12 and 4.14.                          payments by government as guarantor or surety of
interest on the defaulted debts of others, which are
classified as government lending. * Subsidies and
A large portion of government spending goes to transfers and subsidies                     other current transfers include all unrequited, nonre-
payable transfers on current account to private and
Subsidies and transfers as % of                                                            public enterprises, and the cost to the public of cover-
centrai government expenditure, 1995
central,government0expenditure, 1995                                                     ing the cash operating deficits on sales to the public
by departmental enterprises. * Capital expenditure
:                                                                         is spendingto acquire fixed capital assets, land, intan-
|                                                                        gibe assets, government stocks, and nonmilitary, non-
': V                                                                                      financial assets. Also included are capital grants.
~~  ~~~  ~~~                                   ~~            Data sources ~~~~~~~~~~~~ Data on central government
expenditures are from  the
, (sW042~              a                         v-                 i +0, IMF's Govemment Finance
Statistics Yearbook (1996)
Source_ m,-,.-  j  j - f-and IMF data files. Each coun-
try's accounts are reported
In high4ncome economIes a large part of the central govemment's budget goes to subsidies and transfer paymests.  using the system of common
Subsidies and transfers are also quite high In some middie4lncome economies (Uruguay, Argentina, Chile) and transition
economles line Czech Republic. Poland. L3rnIa. Russia. Romanial.                                              definitions  and  classifica-
tions found in the IMF's Manual on Govemment
Finance Statistics (1986). See these sources for com-
plete and authoritative explanations of concepts, def-
initions, and data sources.
1998 World Development Indicators     225



4.14 Central government revenues
Taxes on             Social            Taxes on            Taxes on     (       Othier             Nuntax
income, profit,        security          goods and          international         taxes              revenue
and capital           txssrie                                 rd
gains               txssrie                                 rd
% of total         e3ta        of total                   I/ of tora S  of toy3orota                of otrota
current revenue  i  c ur ranotf revenue,  currant revenue  current reverLe    curent evenue       current revenue
1.980     1995      1980     1995      1980      1995      1980      1995    .1980      1995      1980      1995
Albania                                   8                 .15                 40                  14        _121
Algeria                                                                                   -
Angola
Argentina                       0        10        17       35        17        36        0          5       33         5       33          5
Armenia
Auatralia                     61         64         0         0       23        21        5          3        0         2       10         10
Austria                       21         21        35       40        26        23        2          0        9         7        8          9
Azerbaijan                                                                                - 
Bangladesh                    10                    0                25                  29                   4                 32
Belarus
Belgiumn                      39         35        31       34        24        25        C          0        2         3        4          3
Benin
Bolivia                                   3                   7                 40                   7                 IL                 33
Bosnia and Herzegovina- 
Botswana                      33        21          0         0        1         4       39         15        0         0       27        59
Brazil                        11         15        25       31       32         19        7          2        4         5       2128
Bulgaria                                 17                 21                  28                   8                  3                  22
Burkina Faso                  18                    8                 16         -.      44                   4                 11
Burundi                       19        19          1         7      25         41       40         26        8         1        6          7
Cambodia
Cameroon                      22         17         8         0       18        25       38         28        5         3        8         27
Canada                        53         48        10       19        17        19        7          2        0         0       14         11
Central African Republic      18                    6                 21                 40                   8                  9
Chad
Chite                         18         17        17         6       36        45        4          9        5         5       20         17
China                                    11                   0                 72                   9                  0                   8
Hong Kong, China
Colombi'a                     25         34        11         0       23        41       21          9        7         0       14         17
Congo, Dem. Rep.              30         33         2         0       12        19       38         33        5         8       12          8
Congo,Rep.                    49                    4                  8         ..      13                   3                 24
Costa Rica                    14         11        29        26       30        33       19         15        2         1        5         14
C6te dlvoire                  13         6.                           25                 43         ..        6                  8
Croatia                        ..        11         .       33         ..       42        .,9                 .1                            4
Cuba                                                .         ..                           ..
Czech Republic                 ..        15        ~        40         ..       32        ..4                           I                   8
Denmark                       36        39          2        4       47         41        0          0        3         3       12        13
Dominican Republic            19        16          4         4      22         34       31         37        2         1       22          9
Ecuador                       45        50          0         0      17         26       31         31        3         1        4         12
Egypt,Arab Rep.               19         19         9       10         9        13       20         10        7        10       37        39
El Salvador                   23        27          0         0      30         51       37         17        8         1        4          5
E'ritrea                       .                                                           ..
Estonia                        ..       20          ..      31         ..       39        ..0                           2        ..7
Ethiopia,                     21        22          0         0      25         23       34         23        4         3       16        2.9
Finland                       29        28         10       14       49         41        2          0        3         2        8         15
France                        18        18        41        44       31         28        0          0        3         4        7          6
Gabon                         40                    0         ..       5                 20         ..        2         ..      34
Gambia, The                   15        14          0         0        3        32       65         42        2         5       15          6
Georgia                         .         ..                                      ..                 ..
Germanve                      19         18        54       48        23        23        0          0        0         7        4          8
Ghana                         20         17         0         0       28        34       44         27        0         0        7         23
Greece                        17         33        26         2       32        59        5          0       10        -5       11         11
Guatemala                     13         19         0         0       31        46       36         23       12         3        5          9
Guinea-Bissau                   .         .         .         .        .         .         .. 
Haiti                         14         ..         0         ..      15         .       48         ..        9..               1
Honduras                      31          .         0         ..      24          .      37         ..        2         .7
2216   1999 World Development Indicators



4.14
Taxes on       Social        Taxes on      Taxes on        Other         Nontax
income, profit,  security     goods and    international    taxes         revenue
and capital     taxes         services       trade
gains
% of totalI   % of total     % of total    % of totalI    % of total    % of total
current revenue  current revenue  current revenue  current revenue  current revenue  current revenue
±980   1.995  1980   1995    ±980   1.995  .1980  1995   1.980   1995   1.980  1.995
Hungary          ~~19          15.           -38             7             5             16
India                  18     22      0      0      42     29     22     24      1      0      17     25
Indoneaia              78     46      0      6       9     33      7      4      1      1       5      9
Iran, aslamicRe.2.9                         7 6     4              2      3      5              8     7
I.a                        ...  . ... .12. ... ..                .. . ..
Ireland                34     40     13     14      30     32      9      5      2      4      11 
Isarel                 41     39     10     10      25     34      4      0      8      4      14     13
Italy                  30     33     35  .. 31      25  .. 26      0      0      4.     3       8      7
Jamaica                34             4             49 49          3             6              4
J.aan                  71     .36     0     27      21  .. 15      2      1      3      6       5     16  ..
Jordan                 13     11      0      0       7     26     48     25     10     10      22     27
Kazakhstan                           ..
Kenya                 29      28      0      0      39     46     19     16      1      1      13     10
K o e . e .  R ep...  .... . . ..    I           .. .. . ...  .. .. .   -.   .I   .. I  . - .  . . . . . .. . .. . . . ....  ...
Korea,Rep.             22     31      1      8      46     32     15      7      3     10      12     12
Kuwait                  2      .      0      ..      0      ..     1      .     -       .      97
Kyrgyz Republic         .             .      -              .      -      .      -
L a o.   P.   .   ................... .....
Latvia                  ..     7      .     35       ..    41             3      .0..                 13
Lebanon                 .      6      ..     05                    ..    4.            14             31
Lesotho                13     13      0      0      10     15     61     59      2      0      14     13
Lithuania ~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ...13  ..    30      ..     50     ..      3     .       0       ....  4 ...
Macedonia, FYIR                                                                  .............. .... .
Madagascar             17     15     11      0      39     26     28     55      3      2       2      2
Malawi                 34      ..     0      .      31      ..    22     ..      0      .      13
Malaysia              38      37      0      1      17     26     33     12      2      5      11     19
Mali                   18      .      4      ..     37      ..    18            15      ..8
M a u it ni             .....    . ..                ..   . . . ..         .. .. ..          . . . . . . . . .
Mauritiua              15     13      0      6      17     24     52     35      4      6      12     16
Mexico                 34     27     12     14      50     54      7      4    -11    -15       7     16
Mongolia               ..     33            15       ..    19      ..9           ..II.                24
Morocco                19     ..      5             35            21      ..     7             12
Mozambiquae.                   .                     .      .      .
Myanmar                 3     20      0      0      42     26     15     12      0      0      40     41
Namibia                 .     29      .0             ..    29             31     .              .
Neap                    6     12      0      0      37     40     33     30      8      4      16     15
Netherlanda            30     25     36     42      21     23      0      0      3      4      11      7
New Zealand            67     59      0      0      18     25      3      2      1      .1     10     12
Nicaragua               8     11      9      13     37     43     25     21      8      6       0      6
Norway                27      18     22     22      39     38      1      1      1      1       9     21
Oman                   26     21      0      0       0      1      1      3      0      2      72     73
Pakiatan               14     16      0      0      34     37     34     25      0      1      18     21
Panama                 21     20     21    ..16     17     17.    10     11.     4      3...   27     34.
Papua NewGuinea        60     50      0      0      12     10     16     24      1      2      10     14
Paraguay               15     10     13      0      18     36     25     12     19      6       9     35
Peru                   26     17      0      9      37     49     27     10      2      3       8     11
Philippines            21     33      0      0      42     286    24     29      2      4      1.1     8
Poland                  .     28      ..     25      ..    2       .8            .              .     10
Portugal         ~~19   25     26      25     34     37      5       0     9       3      7      10
Puerto  Rico           P.      .      ..             ..            ...           ..
Romania                 0     30     13     29       0     23      0      4      9      2      78     12
Ruasian Federation      ..    15      .     32       ..    36             9                            6
1998 World Development Indicatora 227



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l                ~~~~S..
11 - X
4.14
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) classifies gov-  instances the government budget may include trans-  * Taxes on income, proft, and capital gains are
ernment transactions as receipts or payments and  fers used to finance the deficits of autonomous, extra-  levied on the actual or presumptive net income of indi-
according to whether they are repayable or nonre-  budgetary agencies.                           viduals, on the profits of enterprises, and on capital
payable. If nonrepayable, they are classified as capital  The IMF's Manual on Govemment Finance  gains, whether realized on land, securities, or other
(meant to be used in production for more than a year)  Statistics (1986) describes taxes as compulsory,  assets. lntragovernmental payments are eliminated in
or current, and as requited (involving payment in return  unrequited payments made to governments by indi-  consolidation. * Social security taxes include
for a benefit or service) or unrequited. Revenues  viduals, businesses, or institutions. Taxes tradi-  employer and employee social security contributions
include all nonrepayable receipts (other than grants),  tionally have been classified as either direct (those  and those of self-employed and unemployed people.
the most important of which are taxes. Grants are  levied directly on the income or profits of individu-  * Taxesongoodsandservicesincludegeneralsales
unrequited, nonrepayable, noncompulsory receipts  als and corporations) or indirect (sales and excise  and turnover or value added taxes, selective excises
from othergovernments or international organizations.  taxes and duties) levied on goods and services.  on goods, selective taxes on services, taxes on the
Transactions are generally recorded on a cash rather  This distinction may be a useful simplification, but  use of goods or property, and profits of fiscal monop-
than an accrual basis. Measuring the accumulation of  it has no particular analytical significance. For fur-  olies. * Taxes on international trade include import
arrears on revenues or payments on an accrual basis  ther discussion of taxes and tax policies see the  duties, export duties, profits of export or import
would normally result in a higher deficit. Transactions  notes to table 5.5. For further discussion of gov-  monopolies, exchange profits, and exchange taxes.
within the same level of government are not included,  ernment revenues and expenditures see the notes  * Other taxes include employer payroll or labor
but transactions between levels are included. In some  to tables 4.12 and 4.13.                 taxes, taxes on property, and taxes not allocable to
other categories. They may include negative values
that are adjustments (for example, for taxes collected
on behalf of state and local governments and not sIlo-
Direct taxes account for a larger share of government revenue
in high-income economies                                                                    cable to individual tax categories). * Nontax revenue
includes requited, nonrepayable receipts for public
Direct taxes/current revenue 1i%), 1995                                                     purposes, such as fines, administrative fees, or entre-
i-, -;,n ee:.c:iv ,e ~preneurial income from government ownership of
-- :,re-                                        property, and voluntary, unrequited, nonrepayable
* LOu * j:ume                  receipts other than from  government sources.
^ ^ g + ^ *                   s                           Proceeds of grants and borrowing, funds arising from
2 *            * *        9                                 the repayment of previous lending by governments,
-        *  %                   *                                incurrence of liabilities, and proceeds from the sale
A  A4          +        *                                              of capital assets are not included.
100                       1,000                     10,000                     100,000     Data sources
GNP per capita 1o; iog scale)
Source: International Monetary Fund, government finance statistics data files.
Data on central government
Govemments of lowincome economies typically ralse a large share of their revenues through indirect taxes, such as  revenues are from the IMFs
tariffs and sales taxes. Nigh4income economies usually rely mere on direct taxes on Income, wages, and profits-taxes
that require a more sophisticated administrative apparatus but yield higher revenues. The figure shows the share of  Government Finance Statistics
current revenues raised through direct taxes, including social security taxes, plotted against GNP per capita. Although  Yearbook (1996) and IMF data
the clustering of points and thefitted curves confirm the general observation, there are many exceptions in each group.  files. Each country's accounts
are reported using the system
of common definitions and
classifications found in the
IMF's Manual on Govemment Finance Statistics (1986).
The IMF receives additional information from the
Organisation  for  Economic  Co-operation  and
Development (OECD) on the tax revenues of some of its
members. See the IMF sources for complete and author-
itative explanations of concepts, definitions, and data
sources.
1998 World Development Indicators     229



4.15 Monetary indicators and prices
Money and         Claims on        Claims on           GDP           Consumer            Food
quasi money      private sector   governments        implicit           price            price
and other         deflator          index             index
public entities
annual % growtn   annual growtn    annual growth    average annual   average annual   ave-age annual
of 142          an of M2        an 8 at M2         % growth         % growth         % growth
.1990    199e    1.990    1996     1990    1996    1990-90  1990~-96  1990-90  1990-96  1980-90  1990-96
Albania                     ..     43.8      ..      2.4      ..      35.4    -0.4    67.9       ..        .       .     50.9
Algeria                   11.4    -59.6     12.2     4.3      3.2      2.5     8.0     25.4     9.1     27.0      6.8    28.6
Angola                       ...              ...               ...            5.9  1,103.2       ....                1,401.0
Argentina              1,113.3     18.7  1,444.7     6.3  1,573.2      2.5   389.1     15.8   390.6     20.1   206.9     19.5
Armenia                     ..     32.8      ..     -1.9      ..      33.8     0.3   896.6        .
Australia                 1 2.8    1-0.6   1-5.3    1-0.9   -2.2       3.3     7.3      1.1.    7.9      2.4      7.4     2 2
Auntria                    9.7      2.6    12.1      6.8      1.6    -0.4      3.3      3.0     3.2      3.1      2.6     2.2
Azerbaijan                  ..     17.1      ..      2.5      ..      31.1      ..   589.9        ...             1.5   585.5
Bangladesh                10.2     10.8     9.2      5.0    -0.2       4.4     9.5     4.9     10.5      3.6    10.4      4.0
Belarus-                   -       52.4      ..     27.5      ..      30.2      ..   714.9       -.       .      2.4    784.4
Belgium                    4.1      6.8     3.5      5.1     4.8       1.1     4.4      2.8     4.2      2.4     4.0      0.6
Beni'n                    28.6     13.0    -1.3      8.9    12.4     -6.6      0.9    10.8       .
Bolivia                   52.8     24.2    40.7     15.3    17.5     -2.2    317.4    10.5    322.6     11.1   322.0     11.9
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana                 -14.0     30.4    12.6      2.1   -52.4    -25.3     13.1     9.7     10.0     12.4    10.7     12.9
Brazil                 1,289.2      6.8  1,566.4     3.7  2,704.2      9.2   284.5   675.4    371.1    643.9   238.2    646.5
Bulgaria                  50.4    117.8     1.8     76.4    88.9    238.1      1.2    80.3       .        ..       .    114.7
Burkina Faso              -0. 5     5.2     3.6      3.8    -.1.5      3.2     3.1     7.1      3.4      7.0    -0.5      5.4
Burundi                   10.4    .33.3    16.3      6.5    -5.3      11.1     4.4    14.3      7.1     12.6     6.1      6.7
Cambodia                    ..     40.4      ..     21.7      ..      -3.1      ..    44.7       .
Cameroon                  -1.7    -10.1      0.9     2.2    -3.0     -6.7      5.6     6.4      8.7      8.9     3.9
Canada                     7.8      5.0     9.2     11.9     0.5     -1.5      4.4      1.3     5.3      1.8     4.6      1.4
Central African Republic  -3.7      4.9    -1.6      0.1     2.3     -2.2      7.3     6.6      3.2      7.4     2.0      7.8
Chad                      -2.4     27.9    -1.3      2.3   -17.3      18.9     1.3     8.6      0.6      8.7      ..      5.3
Chile                     23.5     19.6    21.4     26.5    16.4     -1.7     20.9    13.6     20.6     12.5    20.8     12.4
China                     28.9     25.3    26.5     20.7     1.5       0.8     5.8    12.0       ..     13.5     6.8
Hong Kong, China          8.5     12.5      7.9    14.1    -1. 0      1%2     7.7     7.0       .         .     6.8      8.1
Colombia                  32.7     24.4      8.7    21.2    -7.5       0.9    24.7    23.0     22.7     23.9    24.5     21.3
Congo, Demn. Rep.        195.4    147.9    18.0     92.8   429.7      21.2    62.9  2,746.5    57.1  2,824.8
Congo, Rep.               18.5     15.7     5.1      7.8   -12.6       1.7     0.3      8.3     6.1     15.3     4.1     10.2
Costa Rica                27.5     47.6     7.3     19.6      8.2     32.0    23.5     18.4    23.0     17.6    23.0     16.3
COte dIlvoire             -2.6      3.9    -3.9      1.6    -3.0       2.1     2.6     9.8      5.4      9.4     6.0
Croatia                     ..     49.4      ..      3.8      ..      -1.9      .        ..   304.1    232.3   246.3    229.9
Czech Republic              ..      6.4       .      7.2      ..      -1.5     1.5     17.7      ..       .        .     11.2
Denmark                    6.5      8.1     3.0      3.9    -3.1     -1.6      5.5     1.8      5.5      1.9     4.8      1.6
Dominican Republic        39.1     21.2    20.8     17.2     0.8       6.0    21.6    12.3     22.4     10.9    22.5
Ecuador                  101.6     43.7    46.7     27.4   -22.4     -1.8     36.4    35.0     35.8     36.6    43.0     34.8
Egypt. Arab Rep.          28.7     19.8     6.3      05 53             2.5    13.7    11.3     17.4     12.4    19.0      9.5
El Salvad or              32.4     15.5     6.8     14.8     9.6     -0.1     16.4    10.8     19.6     12.6    21.4     15.5
Estonia                   71.1     36.4    27.6     33.0   -13.5       3.7     2.4   116.7       ..       .        .    116.2
Ethiopia'                 18.5      9.4    -1.0     19.9    21.7     -3.4      3.4     9.7      4.0      8.9     3.7     12.4
Finland                    5.0     -2.9    17.1     -1.0    -0.1     -2.3      6.8     1.8      6.2      1.8     5.8     -1.1
France                     3.3      4.0    15.7     -1.3     0.3       6.3     6.0     2.0      5.6      2.1     6.7      1.0
Gabon                      3.3     17.2     0.7     -1.2   -20.6     -2.9      3.7     9.8      5.1      6.6     2.8      5.1
Gamble, The                8.4      5.8     7.8      0.1   -35.4       2.8    16.7     5.4     20.0      5.7    20.4      5.6
Georgia                     ...               ......                           1.9  2,279.3       .
Germany#                  18.6      7.5    26.6     11.9     2.0       3.8      ..     2.9      2.2      3.3      ..      2.2
Ghana                     13.3     32.6     4.9     21.2    -0.8       8.4    42.0    26.9     39.1     29.8    33.1     27.5
Greece                    14.3     13.3     4.6      8.0    16.3       1.6    18.0     12.2    18.7     12.8    18.0     12.4
Guatemala                 25.8     13.8    15.0      7.3     0.5       2.0    14.6     13.0    14.0     12.7    14 6     13.2
Guinea                    23.3      3.6    13.1      2.0      7.3     10.4      ..     8.8       9.        .              P
Guinea-Bissau             65.3     48.4    57.4      8.8   109.9      11.9    56.9    47.8       ..     44.5
Haiti                      2.5      0.6    -0.6      6.1     0.4       1.5     7.S     25.0     5.2     26.8      4.1    19.2
Honduras                  21.4     41.2    13.0     30.6   -10.9     -8.5      5.7     20.0     6.3     19.6      S.1    19.1
230   i99s World Development lend nature



4.15
Money and          Claims on         Claims on           GDP             Consumer            Food
quasi money       private sector    governments         implicit           price             price
and other          deflator           index            index
public entities
annual % growth    annual growth     annual growth    average annual     average annual    average annual
of M2           as % of M12       as % of M2         % growth          % growth          % growth
1990     1996     1990     ±998     1990     1996    1980-90  ±1990-96  1980-90  1990-96  1980-90  1990-96
Hungary                    29.2      18.4    22.8     .5.5      2,0      -7.3     8.6     22.5      9.6     24.1      9.5_    24.4
India                      15.1     18.7      5.9     10.5     10.5 ..    9.3..   8.0      9.2      8.6,     9.9      .8.4    10.8
Indonesia                  44.6     27.2     66.9     23.9     -6:7     -0.4      8.5      8.1I     8.3 . ... 8.8      8.6     9.5
Iran, Islamic Rep.    .... 18.0     32.5     14.7     11.3      5.8      26.5    14.6     32.3..   18..2    29.3.    163.3.. 32.6
Iraq                                                                             10.3           .   ...  ......      14.3
I.reland                    8.9      13:6     0.6     .98       1.9      -2.6     6.6     .1.9      6.8 ...2.3        10.5     2.0
.Israel                   .19.4 .   15-.1    18.5     17.0      4.9       2.2   101.5    .12.2    101.7     12.1    102.4      9.6
Italy                      10.2      2.2     11.8  ~   0.8 .....1:.8     3.7     10.0      4..7     9.1      48.8     8.2      4.3
Jamaica                    21.5     10.9     12.5      8.8    -16.0       5.6    18.6     36.1     15.1     36.5     16.2 ..37.1
Japan                       8.2       2.3     9.7      1.2      1,5       0.4     1.7      0.7      1.7      1.1       1.6     0.8
Jordan  ..         ....... 8.3      .-0.9     4.7      34.4     1.0      -2.8.    4.2      4.0      5.7      4.2..    4.7      41.1
Kazakhstan                   ..        .        .        .        .        .        .    604.9        ...               ..   777.8
Kenya                      20.1     26.2      8.0     15.1     21.5       21.6   -9.0     16..6    11.1 .... .23.5            24.5
Korea, Dem. Rep.                                                                                                      ... ....
Korea, Rep.                1-7.2    15.8     36.1     27.5     -1.5      -0.7     5.9      5-8      4 .9     5-8 ......50O..... 671
Kuwait                      0.7     -0.6     .3.3    .. 10.0   -3.1    .-11.3    -2.4    .-2.0 .    2.9       2..3    1.6
1713
Lao PDR7.                           26.7      3.6     139.9     7.0    -17.9     37.5     11.1....              .......
Latvia                       ..     18.6       ..      3.4       ..      -0.3     0.0.   110.6                         ..     61.2
Lebanon                    55.1     26.4     27.6     11.3     18.5.     12.9     1.6     32.8     75.5     36.8
Lesotho                     8.4     18.1      6.8     -6.3    -17.4    -16.9     13.9      8.8     13.6     12..1    13.2     13.0
Libya                    .-20.3       1.8     0.9     -4.5      85.5    -2.5      0.2       ..
Lithuania                    ..     -3.0       ..     -4.8       ..       3.9i. 79.3.                                   ..   154.7
Macedonia, FYR                .        .        .        .        .         .       .    286.4                      242.1    197.0
Madagascar                  4.5     16.2     23.8      0.9    -14.8     -2.7     17.0     25.4     16.6     23.9     15.7     24.3
Malawi                     11.1     39.6     15.8      3.6    -2.8        6.8    149      33.2     16.9     34.2     16.3     39.7
Malaysia                   10.6      200.0   20.8.    26.3     -1..-.6            1.7      4.4      2..6 ..  4.2      1.3      4.8
Mali                       -4.9     24.5      0.1.    16.3    -13.4    -16.0      3.6     10.6        .        .        .      1.8
Mauritania                 11.5     -5.1     202      15.3      1.5    -60.6      8.6..    6.2.     7.1      7.0
Mauritius                  21.2       76     1.         .       0.8       2.2     9.4      6.5      6.9      7.2       7.4     7.5
Mexico                     75.8     26.2     64.0    -177      12.1      -.      71.5     18.5     73.8     18.2     73.1     17.3
Moldova                   358.0     14.8     53.3     13.5    447.0       9.6       .    307. 7   ..        .. ...  ..       230.3
Mongolia                   31.6    -17.2     402.2    13.2     38.5      37.3    -1.8    106.2     ..      ..
Morocco                   ..21.5     6.6     12.4      4.7     -4.9       1.2     7.2      4.0.     7.0      55 .5.   6.7.     8.4
Mozambi'que                37.2      19.0    22.0     19.2     -6.8    -25.6     35.9     47.2        .     48.5     24.4
Myanmar                    37.7              18... 12.8..     -23.4        .     12.2     21.9..   11.5     25.5     11.9     27.1
Namibia                    30.3     29.0     15.4     19.7     -4.7       8.4    13.3      9.6     12.6     11.2     14.9    -11.1
Nepal                      18.5.    12.2      5.7     1-25.5    7.3       2.2    11.1     10.1     10.2     10.4    -10.0.    10.5
Netherlands                 6.9       5.6     6.7     13.4      0.1       0.6     1.6 ......1.9 .  .2.0 .    26.6       .      1.6
New Zealand                74.0      17.6    76.6     14.8      0.1      -5.2    10.8      1.8     10.9       2.0     9.9      0.7
Nicaragua               7.677.8     40.6   4,932.9    -8.6 12,679.3    -56.7    422.6     70.9    536.0     63.2
Niger               ~~~~~~~~~~~~~-4.1  -6.6.  -5.1  1.0  1.4       5.0     3.0       7.'4    0.7       .2      -1.5
Nigeria                    32.7     20.1      7.8     13.1.    26.3    -52.9     16.5     37.6     21.5     48.8     21.6     36.2
Norway                      5.6       4.5     5.0     14.2     -0. 1     -4.9     5.6      1.7      7.4      2.1      7.8      0.9
Oman                       10.0      8A.1     9.6     13.7    -09        -.      -36       2...                .        ..     0.2
Pakistan                   11.6     20.1      5.9      9.1      7.7      15.4     6.7     11.3      6.3     11.1      6.6     11.9
Panama                     36.6       6.1     0.8     10.5     2.          .       .        .        .        . 1.9            1.4
Papua New Guinea            4.3      30.7     1.3     -0.3      7.2       5.7     5.3       6.6.    5.6       7.4.     4.6     6.8
Paraguay                   52.5     18.2     33.1     17.2     -9.5      -5.3    24.4     17.4     21.9     17.0      24.9    18 6
Peru                     6,384.9     :72. 2,123.7      37.8  2,127.1    -25.1   231.3     49.1    246.3     54.3        .     50.2
Philippines                22.5      23.2    15.7     363.3     3.4       3..7   14.9       9.0    14.4       9.5     14.1 ..8.7
Poland                    160.1     2.9.3   '20.8.    18.6     75.6       9.6    53.7     32..4    50.9.     37.5     52.4    32.7
Portugal                    9.4       6.1     7.4     10.9      3.2.     -1.3    18.1       7.0    17.1I      6.4     16.9     4.9
Puerto Rico                   ......                                               3.4      23...                      2.8      7.1
Romania                    26.4      64.1                     133.3    -68.6      2.5.. 132.7         ...              1.8   18.
Russian Federation           ..     33.0       ..     12.1       ..      58.8     24     340          ...               ..   390.9
1998 World Development indicators 231



W ~4.15
Money and          Claims on          Claims on            GDP             Consumer             Food
quasi money       private sector     governments          implicit            price              price
and other          deflator            Index              index
public entities
Ennua. % growth    annual growth      annual growth     average anna[a      vrg    a,oa       average annual
of M2            au % of M2 e      asa%of M2           % growth          % growth           % growth
1990     1996      1990     199      1990      1996    1960-90  1990-96  1980-90   1990-96  1980-90  1990-96
Rwanda                       5.6      10.9    7100.0     0.5     26.8      -16.6     3.6     19.5       3.9     22.6       6.1
Saudi Arabia                 4.6       7.7     -4.5     -1.0      4.2      -3.2     -3.7       1.1     -0.8      1.8      -0.4      1.7
Senegal                     -4.8      11.7     -8.4     11.2     -5.3      -3.7      6.5       8.4      6.2      7.6       5.3      8.3
Sierra Leone                74.0      29.6      4.9       6.2   228.7      32.4     63.7      37.7     72.4     37.5      71.0
Singapore                   20.0       9.8     13.7     17.1     -4.9      -4.6      2.2       3.4      1.6      2.4       0.9      2.1
Slovak Republic               ..      16.2       ..     11.6       ..       9.6      1.8     14.2        ...               1.6     18.1
Sloveni'a                  123.6      21.3     96.1     15.2    -10.4      -2.7        .        ..        ...           252.3      50.6
So uth Africa               11.4      14.3     13.~7    20..2      1.8      1.9     14.9      10.6     14.8     10.4      15.1     13.0
Spai'n                      13.6       2.9      8.4      6.5      5.3       1.4      9.3       5.0      9.0      4.9       9.3      3.7
Sri Lanka                   21.1      10.5     16.2      7.5       6.8      4.3     10.8      10.4     10.9     10.7      10.9     10.9
Sudan           ~46.8                 65.3     12.6     27.1     29.4      48.4     37.1      86.2    37.6     114.3      38.0-
Sweden                                                                               7.4       2.8      7.0      3.4       8.2     -0.5
Switzerland                  0.8       9.6    .11.7     -0.8       1.0      0.5      3.7       2.3      2.9      2.6       3.1      0.7
Syrian Arab Republic        26.1     -70.1      3.4       1.5    11.4       3.9     15.3       8.5    23.2      11.3      24.5      8.9
Tajikistan                     ...                .        .         ..                .    394.3        .
Tanzania                    41.9       8.4    .22.6    7-11.1    80.6      -2.4        .        ..     31.0     26.8      30.2     26.0
Thailand                    26.7      12.6     30.0     18.1      -4.0     -1.6      3.9       4.8      3.5      4.8       2.7      6.0
Togo                 ~~~9.5  -6.3        1.8      4.8      6.9       3.8      4.7      9.4      2.5     9.8         1.2
Trinidad and Tobago          62        5.8      2.7     10.5     -1.9      -6.5      4.1       6.5     10.7      7.0      14.6     14.7
Tunisia                      7.6      13.3      5.9       1.3      1.8     -1.3      7.4       5.1      7.4      5.3       8.3      5.0
Turkey                      53.2     117.3     42.9     73.4       9.7     35.9     45.3      78.2     44.9     80.2        ..     81.4
Turkmenistan                  ..     449.1       ..    666.5        ..   -520.5       ..1,074.2          .
Uganda                      60.2      17.3       ..     13.3        ..      0.5    125.6     20.4    102.5      16.9        ..     13.4
Ukraine                       ..      35.4       ..      4.7       ..      47.1       ..    800.5        ...               2.0
United Arab Emirates        --8.2      6.9      1.3      8.8     -4.8       1.7      0.7        ..        .
United Kingdom                                                                       5.7       3.3      5.8      3.0       4.6      2.6
United States                4.9       6.1~     1.1      7.1      0.7       0.7      4.3       2.5      4.2      3.0   ~   3.8      4.0
Uruguay         .115.8                33.6     58.5     25.8     28.0       2.3     61.3     49.8     611     53.7       62.0      48.7
UzbeKistan                    ..         .        .        .        .         .        .    546.5        .
Venezuela.                  71.2      69.1     17.0     33.9     42.8     -20.4     19.3      46.7     20.9     50.6      29.7     48.1
Vietnam                       ..      24.8       ..     14.7        ..      6.4    210.8      22.7       .
West Bank and Gaza             .         .        .         .       .         .        .         .       .
Yemen, Rep.                 1�1.3      8.1      1.4     -0.6     10.2     -10.8       ..     27.1        ...               2.6
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)
Zambia                      52.3      35.0     21.2     22.7    175.3      52.8     42.4      86.8     72.5     93.3      42.8     98.4
Zimbabwe                    15.1      33.3     13.5     19.1       5.0     13.3     12.1      26.4     13.8     26.8      14.6     33.5
a. D ata pr oor to 199 2 i nclIu de E r trea. b. Data pri or to 199 0 refe r to th e Fed eralI Re pu blIic of Ge rm a ny b efo re u nifi cati on,
232   1a9s World Development ldnccatora



4.15
Money and the financial accounts that record the sup-  uation duringthe reporting period. The valuation offinan-  * Money and quasi money comprise the sum of cur-
ply of money lie at the heart of a country's financial  cial derivations can also be difficult.  rency outside banks, demand deposits other than
system. There are several commonly used definitions  The quality of commercial bank reporting also may  those of the central government, and the time, sav-
of the money supply. The narrowest, Ml, encom-  be adversely affected by delays in reports from bank  ings, and foreign currency deposits of resident sectors
passes currency held by the public and demand  branches, especially in countries where branch  other than the central government. This definition of
deposits with banks. M2 includes Ml plus time and  accounts are not computerized. Thus the data in the  the money supply is frequently called M2; it corre-
savings deposits with banks that require a notice for  balance sheets of commercial banks may be based  sponds to lines 34 and 35 in the International
withdrawal. M3 includes M2 as well as various money  on preliminary estimates subject to constant revision.  Monetary  Fund's (IMF) Intemational Financial
market instruments, such as certificates of deposit  This problem is likely to be even more serious for non-  Statistics (IFS). The change in money supply is mea-
issued by banks, bank deposits denominated in for-  bank financial intermediaries.             sured as the difference in end-of-year totals relative to
eign currency, and deposits with financial institutions  Controlling inflation is one of the primary goals of  the level of M2 in the preceding year. * Claims on pri-
other than banks. However defined, money is a liabil-  monetary policy. Inflation is measured by the rate of  vate sector (IFS line 32d) include gross credit from the
ity of the banking system, distinguished from other  change in a price index. Which index is used depends  financial system to individuals, enterprises, nonfinan-
bank liabilities by the special role it plays as a medium  on which set of prices in the economy is being exam-  cial public entities not included under net domestic
of exchange, a unit of account, and a store of value.  ined. The GDP deflator, the most general measure of  credit, and financial institutions not included else-
The banking system's assets include its net for-  the overall price level, takes into account changes in  where. * Claims on governments and other public
eign assets and net domestic credit. Net domestic  government costs, inventory appreciation, and invest-  entities (IFS line 32an + 32b + 32bx + 32c) usually
credit comprises credit to the private sector and  ment expenditures. The GDP deflator reflects changes  comprise direct credit for specific purposes such as
credit extended to the nonfinancial public sector in  in prices for all the final demand categories, such as  financing of the government budget deficit, loans to
the form of investments in short- and long-term gov-  government consumption, capital formation, and inter-  state enterprises, advances against future credit
ernment securities and loans to state enterprises;  national trade, as well as the main component, private  authorizations, and purchases of treasury bills and
public and private sector deposits with the banking  final consumption. It is usually derived implicitly as the  bonds. Public sector deposits with tne banking system
system are netted out. DomestMc credit is the main  ratio of current to constant price GDP. It may also be  also include sinking funds for the service of debt and
vehicle through which changes in the money supply  calculated explicitly as a Laspeyres price index in which  temporary deposits of government revenues. * GDP
are regulated, with central bank lending to the gov-  the weights are base period quantities of output.  implicit deflator measures the average annual rate of
ernment often playing the most important role. The  Consumer price indexes are constructed explicitly,  price change in the economy as a whole for the peri-
central bank can regulate lending to the private sec-  based on surveys of the cost of a defined basket of  ods shown. The least-squares method is used to cal-
tor in several ways-for example, by adjusting the  consumer goods and services. Indexes of consumer  culate the growth rate of the GDP deflator.
cost of the refinancing facilities it provides to banks,  prices should be interpreted with caution. The defini-  * Consumer price index reflects changes in the cost
by changing market interest rates through open mar-  tion of a household and thegeographic (urban or rural)  to the average consumer of acquiring a fixed basket of
ket operations, or by controlling the availability of  and income group coverage of consumer price sur-  goods and services. The Laspeyres formula is gener-
credit through changes in the reserve requirements  veys can vary widely across countries. Moreover, the  allyused. * Foodpriceindexisasubindexofthecon-
imposed on banks and ceilings on the credit provided  weights are derived from household expenditure sur-  sumer price index.
by banks to the private sector.                veys, which for budgetary reasons tend to be con-
Monetary accounts are derived from the balance  ducted infrequently in developing countries, leadingto  Datasouices
sheets of financial institutions-the central bank, com-  poor comparability over time. Consumer price indexes
mercial banks, and nonbank financial intermediaries.  should be distinguished from retail price indexes,           The IMF collects data on the
Although these balance sheets are usually reliable, they  which are used in a few countries. Retail price indexes  financial systems of its mem-
are subject to errors of classification and valuation and  are based on prices at retail outlets weighted by sales  ber countries. The data in the
differences in accounting practices. For example,  turnover, so the weights may differ by country and              table  are  published  in
whether interest income is recorded on an accrual or a  over time. In addition, the basket of goods chosen         the  monthly  International
cash basis can make a substantial difference, as can  varies by country. Although a useful indicator for mea-     iFnancial Statistics and the
the treatment ofnonperforming assets.Valuation errors  suring consumer price inflation within a country, the  .,. j  annual International Financial
typically arise with respect to foreign exchange transac-  consumer price index is of less value in making com-  .  *'4.. Statistics Yearbook. The World
tions. particularly in countries with flexible exchange  parisons across countries. The food price index  Bank receives data from the IMF in electronic files that
rates or in those that have undergone a currency deval-  should be interpreted with similar caution.  may contain more recent revisions than the published
sources. GOP data are from the World Bank's national
accounts files. The discussion of monetary indicators
draws from an IMF publication by Marcello Caiola, A
Manual for Country Economists (1995).
1998 World Development ledicators     233



4.16 Balance of payments current account
Goods and services             Net income             Net             Current             Gross
current           account          international
transfers          balance            reserves
Exports           Imr,ports
$M mllions         $ mli lions        $ mill ons        $ Ti ions          $ mT nons$ millios
1980     1998      1980     1996     1980      1998     1980     1996      i98o     1998     1980      1996
Albania                      378       373      371     1,111        4      72         6      559       16      -107       ..       323
Algeri a                  14,128    13,960   12.311         ..  -1,869       ..      301         ..    249              7,064     6,296
Angola                         -.    5,201        ..    3,017        .-   -735         -.     245        ..     -340
Argentina                  9.897    27,032   13,182    27.905   -1,512  -3.591        23      334   -4.774    -4,130   9.297     19.719
Armenia                        ..      368       ..       888        ..     44         ..     185               -291        ..      168
Australia                 25,752    7848     27,053    79,450    273   -1,01        -416      107   -4,450   -15,870   6,366     17,452
Austr ia                  26,650    97,310   29.921   100,172     -528    -552       -66     -788   -3.865    -4,202  17,725     26,633
Azerbaijan                     ,.      757        ..    1.443        ..     60         .,      80        ..     -666       ..       211
Bangladesh                   885     4,508    2,545     7,614       14      -6       802     1,475    -844    -1.637     331      1,869
Belarus                        ..    6,017        ..    6,922        ..     65         ..      62        ..     -909       ..       469
Belgium,                  70,498   190.732   74,259  .1902          61   6,944    -1,231    -4,217  -4,931    14,387  27.974     22.610
Ben in                       226      544       421       477        8     -41       151      149      -36        36      15        266
Bolivia                    1.030     1,280      833     1.759     -263    -186        60      287        -6     -378     553      1,302
Bosnia and Herzegovina          -.                          ...
Botswana                     645     2.610      818     2,023      -33     -32        55      -27     -151       342     344      5.098
Brazil                    21,869    53.950   27.826    63,293   -7,018 -11,105       144     3,621 -12,830   -24,300   6.875     59.685
Bulgaria                    9.302    6.081    7.994     5,813     -412    -395        58      104      954       -23       8. 64
Burkina Faso                 210      360       577       483       -3     -29       322      255      -49        15      75        343
Burundi                        ..       50        ..      277       ..      -9        ..      151        ..6             105        146
Cambodia                       ..     806        ..     1,294        ..     45         ..     235         .     -298       ..       266
Cameroon                    1,792    2,159    1,829     1,857     -628    -595       102       74     -564      -220     206          3
Canada                    74,973   234,311   70.399   211,509  -10,764 -20,311        95      318   -6.095     2.608  15,462     21,562
Central African Republic     201       196      327       244        3     -23        81       83      -43       -25      62        232
Chad                          71      308        79       411       -4      -7        24      191       12       -38      12        164
Chile                      5,968    18.709    7,052    20,086   -1,000  -2,016       113      472   -1,971    -2,921   4.128     15,520
Chinat                    23,637   171,680   18,900   154,127      451 -12,437       486     2.129   5,674     7,243  10.091-   111.728
Hong Kong, China              ..        .        .         .        .       .         .        .        ..                 .    63.833
Colombia                    5.328   14,516    5,454    16.878     -245  -2.925       165      532     -206    -4,754   6,474      9,690
Congo, Dem. Rep.           1,658     2,001    1,905         ..    -496       ..      150         ..   -593         ..    380         83
Congo, Rep.                 1,021    1.584    1,025     2,133     -162    -455        -1      -30     -167    -1.034      93         91
Costa Rica                 1,195     3.980    1,661     3,901     -212    -186        15      154     -664      -143     197      1.001
C6te dIlvoire              3.577     5,110    4.145     4,017     -553    -915      -706     -381   -1,626      -204      46        622
Croatia                        ..    8,008        ..   10.194        ..    -45         ,,     779        .,   -1.452        .     2.440
Czech Republic                 ..   29,874        ..   33,834        ..   -722         ..     364        ..   -4,299       ..    13,065
Denmark                   21.989    64,359   21.72 7   56,166   -1.977 -4,447       -161   -1.826   -1,875     1,920   4.347     14.754
Dominican Republic         1.271     3,936    1,919     4.609     -277    -596       205    1,158     -720      -110     279        357
Ecuador                    2,887    ,5,748    2,946    4,4463     -613  -1,282  ,     30    ,290      -642       293   1.257      2,011
Egypt. Arab Rep.      ,    6,246 ,1,5,245 ,9,157       18,951 ,   -316     539 ,   2.791    3,666     -138       499   2.480     18,296
El Salvador                1,214     2,202    1,170     3,673      -62     -87        52    1,389       34      -322     382      1,110
Eritrea                        ..     200                 5 67       ,,     -7         .      244        ..     -131
Estonia                        ..    3,172        ..    3.730        ..      2         ..     109        ..     -447       .        640
Ethiopia'                    569      783       782     1,646        7     -44        80      446     -126      -461     262        733
Finland                   16,802   47.815    17,307    38,277     -783  -3.651      -114   -1,098   -1.403     4,790   2,451      7,507
Franca                   153,197  362,954   155.915   331,050    2,680  -5,095    -4,170    -6.297  -4,208    20.511  75,592     57,020
Gabon                      2.409     3,398    1.475     1,848     -426    -770      -124     -198      384       100     115        249
Gambia, The                   66      220       179       294       -2      -3        26       30      -87       -48       6        102
Georgia                        ..     479         .       798       ..     -87         .      190        ..     -216
Germany                  224,224   604,077  225,599   576,283      914  -4,469   -12,858  -36.397 -13.319    -13,072 104,702    118,323
Ghana                       1,210    1,728    1.178     2,393      -83    -140        81      482       30      -324     330        930
Greece                     8.122    15,238   11,145    25.633     -273  -2.161     1.087     6,022  -2,209    -4,654   3.607     16.762
Guatemala                   1,731 ,  2,796 ,1,960     ,3,540       -4     -230       110      523     -163      -452     753        948
Guinea                         ..      761        .       948        ..    -93         .      102        ..     -177       ..87
Guinea-Bissau                 17        23       75        80       -8     -16       -14       46      -80       -26       ..12
Haiti                        306       192      481       782      -14     -10        89      463     -101      -138      27        115
Honduras                     942     1.775    1.128     1,852     -152    -226        22      243     -317      -201     159        257
tData for Taiwan. China   21.495  126,126    22,361   121.082       48   2.814       -95    -2,202    -913     5.656   4,055     93.047
234   1998 World Development Indicators



4. 16
Goods and services            Net income            Net             Curfent            Gloss
current           account         international
transfers          balance          reserves
Exports           Imports
$ millions        $ millions        $ millions        $ millions        $ millions         $ millions
1980     1996     1980     1996     1980     1996     1980     1996     1990     1996     1980     1996
Hungary                    9,671    19,188    9,152   20,342   -1,113  -1,456      63      921.    -531    -1,689              9,832
I.nd.ia                   11,265    43,855   17,378   53,087      356  -4,429   2,860     9,780   -2,897   -3,881    12,010   24,889
Indonesia                 23,797    56,130  21,540._53,244.-3,073      -5,778     250.     839.-566        -7,023..   6,803   19,396
Iran, Islamic Rep.        13,069    18,953   16,111   15,1-13     606    -4 78   -.2         -4   -2,438    3,358    12,783.
Ira q.                                                                   . . ..7 ..       . .. .   . .
Ireland                    9,610    54,063  12,044    46,566     -902  -8,279   1,204     2,184   -2,132    1,402    3,071     8,338
Israel                     8,668    28,421  11,511    38,566     -757  -2,491   2,729.    6,338    -871    -6,298    4,055.11,418
Italy                     97,298   320,752 110,265   257,467    1,278 -14.967   1.101    -7,280  -10,587   41,040   62,428    70,566
Jamaica                    1,363     3,275    1,408    3,640     -212    -320     121      535      -16      -245      105 ..   880
Japan         .146,980             468,002 156,970   446,679      770  53,553  -1,530    -8,993  -10,750   65,884    38,919  225.594
Jordan                     1,181     3,663   .247      5,420       36    -282   1,481     1,834      281     -.0       ,4       ,5
..206.1,745.....                     ..    2,055
Kazakhstan                     .     6,966   .   ..    7,546        .    -222       .       50         .     -752        . .   1,961
Kenya                      2,007     3.027    2,846    3,441    -194     -221     157      561     -876       -7       539      776
Korea, Dem. Rp..
Korea, Rep.               21,924   155,110  25,687   175,763   -2,102  -2,526     592      119    -5,273  -23,060     3,101  34.158
Kuwait                    21,857    16,309    9.823   12,769    4,847   4,916  -1,580    -1,683   15,302    6,773     5,425    4,452
Kyrgyz Republic                ..      548. .. ...     .950.    .  ..:    -80...-78-404                                  'i.. ...5,229
Lao PDR                       ..       457       .       660        .      -6       .      106         .     -106        .      176
Latvia                        ..     2,628       .     3.171        .      41       .       87         .     -415        .      746
Lebanon                        .     1,413       .     7,596         ... 290        .     2,550        .   -3,343     7,025    9,337
Lesotho                       90       205     475       874      266     330     175      471       56       108       50      461
Libya                     22,084         . .12.671         .      -65       .. -1,134        .     8,214    2,550   14,905
Lithuania                      .     4,211       .     4,986        . .   -91       .      144         .     73..               841
Macedonia, FYRI. ,302                            .     1,8-16             -84       .      236         .     28.                268
Madagascar        .          516       803    1,075    1,002      -44    -163      47      210     -556      -153        9      241
Malawi                       313       469     487       873     -149     -86      63      124     -260      -450       76      230
Malaysia 14.098 91,387 13,526 86,595 -836 -4,236 -2 148 -266 -7,362.5,755 27,892
Mali                         263       535     520       746      -17     -36     150      23-1    -124      -164       26      438
Mauritania                   253       550     449       5-10     -27     -48      90        76    -133        22      146      145
Mauritius                    574     2,701     690     2,767      -23     -40      22      123     -117        17      113      919
Mexico                    22,622   106,900  27,601   100,288   -6,277 -13,067     834     4.531  -10,420   -1,923    4,175    19,527
Moldova                        .       906             1,238        .     -27               59         .     -300        .      314
Mongolia                     475       481   .1,272      52-1     -11     -25       0        77     -808       39        .7.    161
Morocco                    3,233     9,247    5,207   10,980     -562.-1,399    1,130     2,416   -1,407     -627      814     4,054
Mozambique                   399       480     844     1,055       22    -140      56      339     -367      -445        .      344
Myanmar.539                          1,120     806    -1,669      -48    -11       9       478     -222      -1 73     409      315
Namibia                        .     1,591             1,868        .      97              263         .       84        ..:    194
Nepal                        224     1,003     365     113.33136                             4       -93     -56       272      628
Netherlands               90,380   224,733  91,622.20137~       1,535   3,644  -1,148    -6,647    -855    20,414    37,549   39,607
New Zealand                6,403    18,876    6,934   18,712     -538  -4,665      96      553     -973    -3,948      365     5,953
Nicaragua                    495       807     907     1,299     -124    -300     124      357     -411      -435       75      203
Niger                        617       315     956       457      -33     -47      97       31     -276      -152      132       83
Nigeria                   2071.14,743        20,014    9,836   -1,304  -2,639    -576      824     5,178    3,092    10,640    432
Norway         .27264               63,870  23,749    49,509   -1,922  -1,638    -515    -1,488    1,079   11,246     6,746   26,954
Oman                       3,757     7,352    2,298    5,423     -257    -56     -260    -1,659      942     -265      704     1,497
Pakistan                   2,958    10,317    5,709   15,174     -281  -1,956   2,163     2,695     -869   -4,208     1,568    1,307
Panama                     3,422     7,426    3,394    7,530     -397    -18       40      12      -2          6        1        6
Papua New Guinea           1,029     2,966    1,322    2,260     -179    -465     184       72      -289      313      458      607
Paraguay                     701     3,936    1,314    4,951       -4     306     0.3       42      -618     -668      783      882
Peru                       4.631     7,268    3,970    9,947     -909  -1,575     147      647      -101   -3,607     2,804   10,990
Philippines                7,235    34,330    9,166   33,317     -420   3,662     47       880    -1,904    -1,980    3,978   11747
Poland                    16,061    37,390   17,842   41.273   -2,357  -1,075     721     1,694   -3,417   -3,264      574    18,019
Puerto  Rico                   .         .        .        ..               *       .         ..
Romania                   12,087.9.648       13,730   12,593     -777    -309       0      593    -2,420   -2,571     2,511    3,143
Russian Federation             .   102,450       ..   86.001        .  -5,213       .      164         ..  11,399        ..   16,258
1998 World Development Indicators 235



W ~4.16
Goods and services            Net income            Net             Current            Gross
current           account         international
transfers          balance          reserves
Exports           Im ports
$millions         $ millions        $millions         $ millions        $ millions        $" mil  n
1980     1996     1980     ±.996    1 980    1996     1980     1996     1980     1996     1980     1996
Rwanda                       165       86      319      363       2       -13     104      291       -48       1       187     155
Saudi Arabia             106.765   60,22.1  55,793   47.407     526     3,214   -9,995  -15,813   41,503     215    26,129    8,491
Senegal                      807    1.588    1,215    1,821     -98     T-168   .120.       382     -386     -58        2 5    299
Sierra Leone                 275     Il1       471      296     -22       -56       53       47     -165     -89        31      27
Singapore                 24,285  156,052   25,312  142,461    -429     1.702     -106   -1,010   -1,563  14,283     6,567   76,847
Slovak Republic               ..   10,889       ..   13,134       :7      -47       ..      201        ..-2,090         ..    3,895
Slovenia                      ..   10.497       ..   10.674               155        .       6 2       .      3 9        ..   2,297
South Africa              28,627   33,309   22,073   32.716  -3,285    -2,552     239       -74    3,508  -2.033     7.888    2,341
Spain                     32,140  146,404   38,004  141,304  -1.362    -5,928    1.646    2.584   -5,580   1,756    20,474   63.699
Sri Lanka                  1,293    4,861    2,197    6,074     -26      -203     274      764      -655    -653      283     1,985
Sudan                        810      609    1,597    1,341     -70      -868     293       143   -564.1  -1,457        49     107
Sweden                    38,151  101.620   39,878   84.809  -1,380    -8,303   -1,224   -2,61 6  -4,331   5,892     6,996   20,843
Switzerland               48,595  121,738   51,843  109,064   4,186    11,597   -1,140   -3,801    -201   20.470    64,748   69,183
Syrian Arab Republic       2,477    6,131    4.531    6,071     785      -399    1,520     624       251     285      828
Tajikistan                     ..     772       ..      808               -68       ..       20        ..    -84
Tanzania                     673    1,363    1,221    2,183     -14      -124       22       20     -540    -924        20     440
Thailand                   7,939   71.416    9,996   83,482    -229    -3,385      210      760   -2,076 -14,690     3,026   38,645
Togo                         550      490      691      444     -40       -45       86       30      -95     -57        85      93
Trinidad and Tobago        3,139    2,900.2.434       2,110    -306    .-30        -42       -4      357     294     2,813     564
Tunisia                    3,262    8,151    3,766    8,582    -259      -965     410       860     -353    -536       700    1.689
Turkey.3,621.45,354                          8,082.8,331 ,-1,118       -2.920    2.171    4,447   -3,408  -1,450     3,298   17,819
Turkmenistan                        1,691             1.532                         ..        4        ..     43
Uganda                      329      726       441    1.601      -7       -46      -2      421     -!21     -500         3     528
Ukraine                            20,346            21,468              -572       ..     509         ..-1,185         ..    1,972
United Arab Emirates                                                                 .        ..       .       ..    2.355    8.350
United Kingdom           146,072  339,301  134,200  347,532    -418    15,027   -4,592   -7,247    6.862    -451    31,755  46,700
United States            271,800 848,664   290,730  956,004  29,580      -897   -8.500  -40,489    2,150-148,726   171,413 160,660
Uruguay                    1,526    3.799    2,144    3.962    -100      -206        9       74    -709     -296     2,401    1,892
Uzbekistan                          4,161  .      .   5,175               -69        .       8         ..-1.075
Venezuela                 19,968   25,258   15,130   14,837.    .   .9 -1,735     -439      138    4.728   8,824    13,360   16.020
Vietnam                             9,695            12,870              -505       ..    1,045        ..-2.636         ..    1,324
West Bank and Gaza                                                                   .        .        .
Yemen, Rep.                         2,409             3.044              -617       ..    1,182        ..    -70        ..    1,036
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.) ..                         .                            .        .        .
Zambia                     1,609    1,296    1,765             -205               -155        ..    -516       ..      206     163
Zimbabwe                   1,610    3,092    1,730    2,515     -61      -294       31       40     -149    -425       419     834
WE'T"9M               P      '11-YIT
Low income                80,994  308,987  110,030  340,761.......
Exi hna & India        68,382   93.703   83.939.    .1.013     .
Middle i'n"come           640,017 1,309,634  575,683 1,365,247
Lw & middle income       633.124 1.623,10  671,73   .9,6
East Asia&  .......Pacific.... 7",2"8"4  447,383  85.129  422.216
Europe ....Ceta Asi..
Latin America & Carib. 121.191  320.894  142,086  316,469
Middle East & N. Africa  205,272 .169,488 ...148.981  160.504  ..  . ...      ...                             ...
Higtb income               -   ..          i'Ia
a. Inclodes Luxembourg. b, Data prior to 1992 include Eritresi. c. Data prior no 1990 refer no the Federal Republic of Germany before uflificatnon.
236   1998 World Development Indicators



swLLYAHl
4.16
The balance of payments is divided into two groups of                  _                       * Exports and imports of goods and services com-
accounts. The current account refers to goods and                                              prise all transactions between residents of a country
services, income, and current transfers. The capital  Current account balances for the three   and the rest of the world involving a change in owner-
and financial account refers to capital transfers, the  biggest traders                        ship of general merchandise, goods sent for pro-
acquisition or disposal of nonproduced, nonfinancial  $ billions                               cessing and repairs, nonmonetary gold, and services.
assets, and financial assets and liabilities. This table  Germany                              * Net income refers to employee compensation paid
presents data from the current account with the addi-  ?n                                      to nonresident workers and investment income
tion of gross international reserves from the capital                                          (receipts and payments on direct investment, portfo-
and financial account.                                .                                        lio investment, other investments, and receipts on
The balance of payments is a double-entry account-                                           reserve assets). Income derived from the use of intan-
ing system that shows all flows of goods and services  . .                                     gible assets is recorded under business services.
into and out of a country; all transfers that are the            I -                           * Net current transfers are recorded in the balance
counterpart of real resources or financial claims pro-  1   | |            1   l1  l l         of payments whenever an economy provides or
vided to or by the rest of the world without a quid pro                                        receives goods, services, income, or financial items
quo, such as donations and grants; and all changes in  1980   1984    1988   1992    1996      without a quid pro quo. All transfers not considered to
residents' claims on, and liabilities to, nonresidents                                         be capital are current. * Current account balance is
Japan
that arise from economic transactions. All transactions                                        the sum of net exports of goods and services,
are recorded twice-once as a credit and once as a                                              income, and current transfers. * Gross international
debit. In principle the net balance should be zero, but                                        reserves comprise holdings of monetary gold, special
in practice the accounts often do not balance. In these  ;"                                    drawing rights, reserves of IMF members held by the
cases a balancing item, net errors and omissions, is  r                                        IMF, and holdings of foreign exchange under the con-
included in the capital and financial account.                   |         ltrol of monetary authorities. The gold component of
Discrepancies may arise in the balance of pay-                                              these reserves is valued at year-end (December 31)
ments because there is no single source for balance   ' *                                      London prices ($589.50 an ounce in 1980 and
of payments data and therefore no way to ensure that  ..                                       $369.25 an ounce in 1996).
the data are fully consistent. Sources include cus-    1980   1984    1988    1992   1996
toms data, monetary accounts of the banking system,  Unlted States                              Data sources
external debt records, information provided by enter-  a?
prises, surveys to estimate service transactions, and  . g | .                                                     More information about the
foreign exchange records. Differences in collection           I        | | |     I |  |                            design and compilation of the
methods-such as in timing, definitions of residence                    I I       I I I                             balance of payments can be
and ownership, and the exchange rate used to value                                                                   |||||, foundi in the IMF's Balance of
transactions-contribute to net errors and omissions.                   |           l                               Payments Manual, fifth edi-
In addition, smuggling and other illegal or quasi-legal                                                            tion  (1993),  Balance  of
transactions may be unrecorded or misrecorded.                                                             .       Payments Textbook (1996a),
The concepts and definitions underlying the data  -:'                                                           and Balance of Payments
1980    1984   1988    1992    1996
here are based on the fifth edition of the International                                       Compilation Guide (1995). The data come from the
Monetary Fund's (IMF) Balance of Payments Manual    Source: Intemational MonetaryFund, balance of  IMF's balance of payments database, Balance of
payments data files.
(1993). The fifth edition redefined as capital transfers                                       Payments Statistics, and Intemational Financial
some transactions previously included in the current  The United States has run deficits and Japan and  Statistics (IFS). The World Bank exchanges data with
account, such as debt forgiveness, migrants' capital  oerma ohave. unosurpl o eourses efhIbr t oteater  the MF through electronic files that in most cases are
transfers, and foreign aid to acquire capital goods.  wariabhIlty In tnelr cufrent account balances, wshich  more timely and cover a longer period than the pub-
respond to changes In demand and the terms of
Thus the current account balance now reflects more  trade.                                     lished sources. The IFS is also available on CD-ROM.
accurately net current transfer receipts in addition to
transactions in goods, services (previously nonfactor
services), and income (previously factor income).
Many countries maintain their data collection systems
according to the fourth edition. Where necessary, the
IMF converts data reported in earlier systems to con-
form with the fifth edition (see Primary data docu-
mentation). Values are in U.S. dollars converted at
market exchange rates.
1998 World Development Indicators     237



ydEE*          4.17.External debt
Total             Long-term                  Public and publicly                  Private            Use of IMF
external               debt                     guaranteed debt                noniguaranteed            credit
debt                                                                             external
debt
IBRD loans ann
Total             IDA credits
$ millions           $ millions          $ millions           $ r [lions           $ millions          $ mnillions
1980      .1996      1980      199e      1980       ±.996     ±980      1996       1980      1996      1.980      1.996
Albania                             ..     781          ..       673                 673         ..      137        ..0                  .54
Algeria                        19,365   33,260     17,040     30,808    17,040    30,808      253      1,939        0           0        0      2,031
Angola                              ..10.612            ..     9,400   .       .   9,400         0       115        ..0                  ..0
Argentina                      27,157   93,841     16,774     75,348    10,181    62,392      404      5,372    6,593     12,956         0      6.293
Armenia                             .      552           .       434         ..      434         ..      184        ..0                  .        117
Azerbaijan                           .     435          ..       245         ..      245         ..       64         .0                  .        175
Bangladesh                      4,230   16,083      3,594    15,403      3,594    15,403      981      5,759        0          0      424         517
Belarus.                                 1.071          ..      695          ..      665         ..      121         .        30         ..       274
Benin                             424    1.594        334      1,449       334     1,449       52       520         0          0       16          99
Bolivi a                        2,702    5,174      2,274      4,523     2,162     4,236      239       904        92        265      126         276
Bosnia and Herzegovina              ..       .           .         .         .          .        .         .         ..                  .45
Botswana                          147      613        143        607       143       607       66         80        0          0        0           0
Brazil                         71,520 179,047      57,961   143,541    41,375     94,567    2,035      5.876   16,605     46,953        0          68
Bulgaria                            *.   9,619                 8,348,3                                  453         ..       196         ..       586
Burkina Faso                      330    1.294        261      1,160       281     1,160       77       636         0          0       15          81
Burundi                           166    1,127        118      1,081       118     1,081       37       588         0          0       36          38
Cambodia                            ..   2.111          ..     2,023         ..    2,023         0       108        ..0                  0         69
Cameroon                        2,588    9.515       2,251     8,184     2,073     8,001      298      1.033      178        183       59          72
C a n a d a            ..       ..   ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. .. ..   . . . . . ..   ....  .....
Central African Republic          195      928        147        844       147       844       29        422         0         0       24          28
Chad                              284      997        259        914       259       914       36        433         0         0       14          65
Chile                          12.081   27.411      9,399     20,421   .4.705      4,890      184      1,103    4.693     15,531      123           0
China                           4,504 128,817       4,504   103,410      4,504   102,260         0    15.195         0     1,150         0          0
Hong Kong, China                   .        ..                    .         .          .       .          .        .
Colombia                        6.941   28.859      4,604     22,975     4,089    14,814    1.012      2.187      515      8.162         0          0
Congo, Dem. Rep.                4.770   12,826      4,071      9,262     4,071     9,262      246      1.370        0          0      373         433
Congo, Rep.                     1.526    5,240       1,257     4,665     1,257     4,665       61        253        0          0       22          38
Costa Rica                      2,744    3,454       2,112     3,062     1.700     2,889      183        248      412        13        57           1
C6te dIlvoire                   7.462   19,713      6,3       14,720     4,327    11,367      314      2,323    2,012      3,353       65         503
Croatia                             ..   4,634          ..     3,960         ..    3,101         ..      195        ..       859         ..       209
Czech Republic                      -.20,094            ..   14,145          ..   12,017         ..     435         ..     2,128         ..0
Denmark                             .                    ..                             .       .          .        .
Dominican Republic              2.002    4,310      1,473      3,520     1,220     3,515       83       261       254          5       49          96
Ecuador                         5.997  1449         4,422    12.755.3.3900        12,435      146      1,005    1,122        320        0         145
Egypt, Arab Rep.               19,131  31,407.14,693         29,045    14,428     28,918      728      2,165      265        127      411          16
El Salvador                       911    2,894        659      2,298      499      2,297      114       302       161          2       32           0
Eritreea.                                   46          ..        46         ..       46        ..        27        ..0                 ..0
Estonia                             ..     405           .      220          .       217        ..        62         .4                  ..78
Ethiopia'                         624   10,077        688      9,483      688      9,483      304      1,555        0          0       79          92
France                              .         ..                    ..                  .       .          ..
Gabon                           1,514    4,213      1,272     3874       1.272     384         19         92        0          0       15         120
Gambia, The                       137      452          97       412        97       412       16        166        0          0       16          18
Georgia                           .     .1,356                 1,100         ..    1.100         ..      157        ..0                  ..       192
Germany                             .         ..                    .        .          .        .         .         .
Ghana                           1,398    6,202      1,162      4,955     1.152     4.684      213      2,574       10        271      105         543
Greece                              .         ..                    ..                  .        .         ..
Guatemala                       1,166    3,785        831      2,887      549      2.766      144        200      282        121        0           0
Guinea                          1,133   3,240       1.019      2,981     1.019     2.981       87       863         0          0       35          82
Guinea-Bissau                     140      937        133        856       133       856         5       2'16        0         0         1          8
Haiti                             303      897        242        836       242       836       66        442         0          0      46          25
Honduras                        1.473    4,453      1,168      3,981       976     3,855      216        774      191        126       33          58
238    1998 World Development Indicators



4.17
Total             Long-term                Public and publicly                 Private           Use of IMF
external              debt                    guaranteed debt               nonguaranteed           credit
debt                                                                          external
debrt
IBRD loans and
Total            IDA credits
tmillions          $ millions          $ millions          $ millions          $ millions          $ millions
1980     1996       1980      1996      1980      1996      1980      1996     1980      1996      1980      1996
Hungary                       9,764   26,958      6,416    23,428     6,416    18,423        0     1,650        0     5,005        0        171
India                        20,58-1 89,827      18,333    81,788    17,997    74.406   5,969    26,384      336      7,382      977      1,313
Indonesia                    20,938 129,033     18,163     96,803    15,021   60,108    1,606    11,874     3,142    36,694        0          0
Iran, Islamic Rep.            4,500   21,183      4,500    16,153     4,500    15,917     62     .   87         0  .    236        o      .
Irean.
Jamaica                        1,913   4,041      1,505     3,306     1,30      3.183 .. . 176       515       75       123      309        161
Jordan                         1,971   8,118      1,486.7,182         1,486     7,137     102        844        0        45        0        340
Kazakhstan                        ..   2,920           ..   2,147         .     1,932       ..      490        -.       215        .        552
Kenya                         3,8       ,9         ,8        ,2        ,52.5.647          528      2,375     437        375      254        337
Koree, Oem. Rep         ~~~      ~~    ~    ~~     ~~     ~~~.. .. ....  ... -I.................                  ..........  ..
Korea, Dm Rep.
Kyrgyz Republic                   ..     789           .      640         .      640        ..      197         .                  .        140
Lao PDR                         350    2,263        333     2,186   .333        2,186       6       335         0         0       16         67
Latvia                            ..     472          ..      298         .      298        ..       75         .0                 ..       130
Lebanon......               .... 510   3,996        216     2,343      216      1.933      27       132 0...   ..       410        0          0
Lesotho                          72      654         58       612        58      612       24       216         0         0        6         34
Libya..                                    ....
Lithuania                          .   1,286           .      856         .       792        .      101                  64                 273
Macedonia, FYR                    ..   1,659           ..   1,387         .       863       ..      203         ..      524       ..68
Madagascar                     1,249   4,175        919     3,589      919      3.589     152      1,153        0         0       87         73
Malawi                          831    2,312        635     2,092      635      2.092     156      1,388      0. ...      0     .. 80       119
Malaysia                       6,611  39,777      5,256    28,709     4,008    15.701     504       907     1,248    13,008        0          0
Mali                            727    3,020        664     2,776      664      2,77      121       915         0         0       39        165
Mauritania                      843    2,363        717     2,073       717     2.073      38       368         0         0       62        107
Mauritius                       467    1,818        318     1,399      294      1,153      55       140        24       246      102          0
Mexico                       57,378 157,125      41,21    1378        395     9348      203      12,568.7,300        2340                132    .
Moldova                            ..    834           .      560         .       560       ..      142         ..0                .        248
Mongolia                          ..     524           ..     474                474        ..       68         .0                 ..... ....  44
Morocco                       9,247   21,767      8,013    21,165     7,863    20.774.... 578      3,764     150        392      457 ....     3
Mozambique                         .   5,842           .    5,475         .     5,433        0     1,076        .        43       .0        181
Myanmar                        1,500   5,84.      1,390     4,804     1,390     4.804     146       742         .         0      106          0
Namibia                            ...                                    .         ..       .         ..       0
Nepal                           205    2,414        156     2,349       156     2,349       76     1,049        0         0       42         39
Netherlands                                                                                                                        ..........
New Zealand
Nicaragua                      2,189   5,929      1,668     5,122     1,668     5,122     135       379         0         0       49         29
Niger                           863    1,557        687     1,460       383     1,350       66      609      305        110       16         53
Nigeria                        8,921  31,407      5,368    25,731     4,271    25,431     554      3,110    1,097       300        0          0
Norway                             .                             .        .         .        .         .        .
Oman                            599    3,415        436     2,649       436     2,646       14        19        0         3        0           0
Pakistan                      9,931   29,901      8,520    25,690     8,502    23,694   1,151      6,486       18     1      .9  674      1,396
Panama                         2,975   6,990      2,271      .5211    2,271     5,136     133        199        0        75       23        131
Papua New uinea        .        719    2,359        624     227         486     1,522     110       375       139       752       31         51
Paraguay                        955    2,141        780     1,398       630     1,377     124        172      151        21        0           0
Peru                           9.386  29,176      6,828    21,793     6,218    20,415     359      1,633     610      1,378      474        924
Philippines                  17,417   41,214      8,817    32,839     6,363    27,937     960      4,859    2,454     4,902    1,044        405
Poland                                40,895           ..  40,819         .    39,217        0     2,175..602....
Portugal                                               .         .        .          ..                         ..
Puerto.Rico                                                                                                     :                              :
Romania                        9,762   8,21        .7131    6.825     7,131     6,456     807      1,009        0       369      328        651
Rusaian Federation                 ..124,785           ..100.463          .   100,463        0     2.509        ..0                0     12,508
1998 World Development Indicators       239



4.17
Total              Long-term                  Public and publicly                  Private            Use of IMF
external               debt                     guaranteed debt                  nonguaranteed            credit
debt                                                                              external
debt
8BRD oars ana
Tota              IDA credits
$ millions           $ mni[lions          $ millions           $ -n ions            $ millions           $  illions
1980      1996       1980      1996       1980      1996       1980       1996      1980      1996       1980      1996
Rwanda                           190     1.034         150       977        150       977        58       536         0          0        14         24
Saudi Arabia..                                                      ......                                            .
Senegal                        1,473     3,663       1,114      3.142     1,105     3,103       156     1,217         9         39      140         326
Sierra Leone                     469     1.167         357       892        357       892        43       260         0          0        -59       171
Singapore                          .          ..                    .         .          .        .          .        .
Slovak Republic                    ..    7,70        4..        4.437         ..    3,891         0       250         ..       546         0        319
Slovenia                           ..    4.031            ..    3,972         ..    2,038         0       155         ..     1,935         0           1
South Africa                       ..   23.590            ..   13.907         .    10,348         0          0        ..     3,559         0        884
Sri Lanka                      1,841     7.995       1,231      6,898     1,227     6,818       129     1~556         3         80      391         531
Sudan                          5,177    16.972       4.147      9.865     3,822     9,369      236      1~250       325        496      431         893
Sweden                                        .           .         .                    .        .          .        .
Switzerland...                                                      .....                         ....
Syrian Arab Republic           3,552    21.420       2,921    16,698      2,921    16,698      257        426         0          0         0           0
Tajikistan                                 707            ..      672         ..      672         ..        30        .0                   .22
Tanzania                       2,452      7.412      1,963      6,149     1,879      6,104     440      2.298        84         45      171         206
Thailand                       8,297    90,824      5,646    53,210       3,943    17.039       703     1.707     1,703     35,171      348            0
Togo.1,049                                1.463       8961      1,285       896      1,285       47       576         0          0        33         90
Trinidad and Tobago              829     2,242         713   .1,949         73       1,871       57         79        0         78         0         24
Tunisia                        3,526     9,887       3,390      8.877     3,210     8,689       337     1.657       180        188         0        237
Turkey.19,131                           79.789      15.575    58,591     15,040    48,172     1,347     4.385       535     10,419    1.054         662
Turkmenistan                               825            .       538         ..      538         ..         3         .0                  ..0
Uganda                           689     3,674         537     3.151        537     3,151        47     1.849         0          0       89         417
Ukraine                                  9.335            ..    6,629         ..    6,451         ..      859         ..       178        ..      2.262
United Arab Emirates..                                              .         .          .        .          .        .
United Kingdom
United States                                             .         .         .          .        .          .        .
Uruguay       ...60                      5 *99       1,338     4,232      1,127     4,097        72       446       211        135         0           9
Uzbekistan                               2,319            ..    1,990         ..    1,990         ..      155         ..0                  ..       238
Venezuela                     29,345    35.344.       .    .795 30,266   10,614    28,452       133     1.408     3.181      1,814         0      2.196
Vietnam                                 26,764            ..  22.344          ..   22,344         2       412         ..0                  0        539
West.Bank and Gaza                                        .          .        .          .        .          .        .
Yemen, Rep.                    1,684     6,356       1,453      5,622     1,453      5,622      137       893         0          0        48        121
Yugoslavia. FR lSerb./Mont:j    848      349C.       556        129       4,581     8,480     1,359     1.178    11.005      2,759      760          81
Zambia                         3,261      7.113      2,227      5.323     2,141      5.307      348     1.510        87         16      447       1,198
Zimbabwe                         786      5.005        696      3.766       696      3,338        3       848         0        428         0        437
Low income                   106,308    537,017      87,607   451,688    82,516    435,298   14,028    97.656     5,091     16,392     5,803      13.097
Endl. China & India           81,223    318,374      64,770   266,490    60,015    258,631    8,060    56.077     4,755      7,860     4.826      11,784
Middle income C497,014                1,558,411     357,693 1,198,409   294,517    961,800   18,179    82,958    63,1'76   236,609     5,761      47.010
Lower middle income          251,877    881,547     191,656   685,473   165.166    578,201   11,413    50,277    26,491    107,273     5.516      25.626
Upper middle income          245,137    676,863     166,037   512,935   129.351    383,599    6,766    32,662    36,686    129,336       245      21,384
Low & middle income          603.321 2,095.428      445,300 1,650,097   377.032  1,397,096   32.208   180.615    68,268    253,000    11,564      60,107
East Asia & Pacific           64,600    477,219      48,438   356,170    39,688    263,394    4,077    36.704     8.751     92,776     1,551       1,175
Europe & Central Asia C75,503           370,172      56.283   297,042    44.743    270,109    3,513    18.070    11,540     26,933     2,143      20,053
Latin America & Carib.       257,263    656,388     187,253   517,632   144.795    406,990    8,134    36,400    42,458    110,642     1,413      23,892
Middle East & N. Africa       83,793    212,389      61,734   162,197    61.139    158.468    3,053    12.226       595       3,729      916       2,748
Sooth Asia                    38,015    152,098      33,053   137,971    32.696    128,513    8,306    41,295       357       9,458    2,508       3,795
Sub-Saharan Africa            84,148    227,163      58,539   179,085    53.973    169.621    5,125    35.921     4,567       9,463    3.033       8,445
High  incoern                       ..                    ..                   ..                 ...
a. Oats prior to 1992 include Eritrea. b. Duts refer no tte former Yugoslav a. c. Includes duos for G bra tar not included in other tables.
240    1998 World Denelopment indicators



F =            =~~~~~~~~~~FI
Data on the external debt of low- and middle-income  * Total external debt is debt owed to nonresidents
economies are gathered by the World Bank through its  repayable in foreign currency, goods, or services.
Debtor Reporting System. World Bank staff calculate  Total external debt is the sum of public, publicly guar-
the indebtedness of developing countries using loan-by-  anteed. and private nonguaranteed long-term debt,
loan reports submitted by these countries on long-term  use of IMF credit, and short-term debt. Short-term
public and publicly guaranteed borrowing, along with  debt includes all debt having an original maturity of
information on short-term debt collected by the coun-  one year or less and interest in arrears on long-term
tries or from creditors through the reporting systems of  debt. * Long-term debt is debt that has an original or
the Bank for International Settlements and the  extended maturity of more than one year. It has three
Organisation  for  Economic  Co-operation  and  components: public, publicly guaranteed, and private
Development (OECD). These data are supplemented by  nonguaranteed debt. * Public and publicly guaran-
information on loans and credits from major multilateral  teed debt comprises long-term external obligations of
banks and loan statements from official lending agen-  public debtors, including the national government,
cies in major creditor countries and by estimates from  political subdivisions (or an agency of either), and
World Bank country economists and International  autonomous public bodies, and external obligations
Monetary Fund (IMF) desk officers. In addition, some  of private debtors that are guaranteed for repayment
countries provide data on private nonguaranteed debt.  by a public entity. * IBRD loans and IDA credits are
In 1996, 34 countries reported their private nonguar-  extended by the World Bank Group. The International
anteed debt to the World Bank; estimates were made  Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
for 28 additional countries known to have significant pri-  lends at market rates. Credits from the International
vate debt. Forestimates oftotalfinancial flowsto devel-  Development Association (IDA) are at concessional
oping countries see table 6.8.                 rates. * Private nonguaranteed external debt com-
Despite an ongoingeffortto standardize the report-  prises long-term  external obligations of private
ing of external debt (see, for example, International  debtors that are not guaranteed for repayment by a
Working Group of External Debt Compilers 1987), the  public entity. * Use of IMF credit denotes repurchase
coverage, quality, and timeliness of debt data vary  obligations to the IMF for all uses of IMF resources
across countries. Coverage varies for both debt instru-  (excluding those resulting from drawings on the
ments and borrowers. With a widening spectrum of  reserve tranche). These obligations, shown for the
debt instruments and investors and the expansion of  end of the year specified, comprise purchases out-
private nonguaranteed borrowing, comprehensive cov-  standing under the credit tranches, including enlarged
erage of long-term external debt becomes more com-  access resources, and all special facilities (the buffer
plex. Reporting countries differ in their ability to  stock, compensatory financing, extended fund, and
monitor debt, especially private nonguaranteed debt.  oil facilities), trust fund loans, and operations under
Even public and publicly guaranteed debt is affected  the structural adjustment and enhanced structural
by coverage and accuracy in reporting-again,   adjustment facilities.
because of monitoring capacity and, sometimes, will-
ingness to provide information. A key part that is often  Data sources
underreported is military debt.
Variations in reporting rescheduled debt also affect            The main sources of external
cross-country comparability. For example, rescheduling  (uI,,al   debt information are reports
underthe auspices ofthe Paris Club of official creditors  Dr'eIel qp' I I'!I  to the World Bank through its
may be subject to lags between the completion of the  [ F ilil 't  Debtor Reporting  System
general rescheduling agreement and the completion of              from member countries that
the specific, bilateral agreements that define the terms  t       have received IBRD loans or
of the rescheduled debt. The World Bank estimates the  -          IDA credits. Additional infor-
effects of the general agreements and then revises the  A   -  K   mation has been drawn from
data when countries report their bilateral agreements.  the files of the World Bank and the IMF. Summary
Other areas of inconsistency include country differences  tables of the external debt of developing countries are
in treatment of arrears, reporting of debt owed to the  published annually in the World Bank's Global
Russian Federation, and treatment of nonresident  Development Finance and  Global Development
national deposits denominated in foreign currency.  Finance CD-ROM.
199S  World Development Indicators   241



4.18 External debt management
Present value of           Total debt service             Public and        Short-term
debt                                                   publicly           debt
guaranteed
debt service
% of                            % of
exports of                       exports of        % of centra½
0cof   goods and        of              goods and         government          % of
GNP     services       GNP               services        current revenue     tocal dent
1996     1996     1.980     1996     1980      1996  I1980       1996     1980      1996
Albania                  32      101        ..      1.2        .3.5              ...                 .7.0
Algeria                  71      228       9.9      9.7      27.4     27.7        ...             12.0      1.3
Angola                  310      219        ..     20.1        ..     13.3        ...              0.0      11.4
Argentina                31      323       5.5      4.8      37.3     44.2      6.1       ..      38.2     13.0
Armenia                  27      114        ..      3.0       ..      10.7       ...0.3
Australia                 .         ..                ..
Azerbaijan               10       .45       ..      0.3       ..1.3              ...3.6
Bangladesh               30      166       2.1      2.2      23.7     11.7      7.9       ..       5.0      1.0
Belarus                   4       21        ..      0.6       ..2.0              ....9.5
Belgium                   .        ..                 ..
Benin                    57 -    2150      1.4      2.0       6.3      6.8        ...             17.3      2.9
Bolivia                  570-    2700     12.6      6.5      35.0     30.9       ..      23.9     11.2      7.2
Bosnia and Herzegovina   53      408        .         ..
Botswana                 11       17       1.6      3.1       2.1      4.9      4.2       ..       2.7      1.0
Brazil                   26      292       6.5      3.4      63.3     41.1     16.3       ..      18.9     19.8
Bulgaria                 89      151       0.2     14.1       0.5     20.65.             29.2      0.0      9.2
Burkina Faso             310     2410      1.3      1.9       5.9     10.8      8.4       ..      10.6      4.1
Burundi                 .47      538       0.9      2.7       ..      54.6      4.8      13.8      7.2      0.7
Cambodia                 54      191        ..      0.3       ..       1.2       ...              14.3      0.9
Cameroon                106      399       4.6      6.3      15.3     23.6     17.0       ..      10.7     13.2
Canada.........
Central African Republic  51     242       1.3      1.2       4.9      6.3       .         .      12.6      6.0
Chad                     51      181       0.8      2.7       8.3      9.5       ...               4.0      1.8
Chile                    48      166      10.2      8.7      43.1     32.3     15.6      21.7     21.2     25.5
China                    17       76       0.5      2.0       ..8.7              ...0.0                    19.7
Hong Kong, China.
Colombia                 40      206       2.9      6.6      16.0     34.6     13.2       ..      33.7     20.4
Congo, Dem. Rep.        127      693       3.8      0.8                2.4     29.2       ..       6.8     24.4
Congo, Rep.             260      342       7.1     18.0      10.6     21.3     11.7       ..      16.2     10.2
Costa Rica               37       83       7.7      6.5      29.1     14.1     23.9       ..      21.0     10.8
C6te dIlvoire           1710     2990     14.6     13.8      38.7     26.2     37.4       ..      14.2     22.8
Croatia                  24       58        .       2.4       ..5.5              ..2.9              ..     10.0
Czech Republic           42       70       1.6      4.8       ..       8.3       ..      10.0    100.0     29.6
Denmark                   .        ..                 ..                 ..
Dominican Republic      33       108       5.9      3.5      25.3     11.4     16.3       ..      24.0     16.1
Ecuador                  78      246       9.0      7.4      33.9     22.6     37.2       ..      26.3     11.0
Egypt, Arab Rep.         35      117       5.8      3.4      13.4     11.6       ...              21.1      7.5
El Salvador              26       78       2.7      3.0       7.5      9.5     10.3      23.6     24.1     20.6
Eritrea                   3        6        ...                .0.0              ...                         .0l
Estonia                   9       14        ..      1.0        .1.3               .1.4              ..     26.4
Ethiopia'               149     1.093      ..       5.8       7.6     42.2      4.6       ..       6.9      5.0
France                    .        ..                 ..                 ..
Gabon                   .86      123      11.2     .7.8      17.7     11.1     26.2       ..      15.1      5.2
Gambia, The              64      113       1.9       ..       6.3     12.7      1.4       ..      17.0      5.0
Georgia                  26      209        ..      0.3        ...                ..                 .4.7
Germany                   .        ..                 ..                 ..
Ghana                    560     2080      3.6      7.6      13.1     26.4     10.0       ..       9.4     11.4
Greece                    .        ..                 ..                 ..
Guatemala                23      110       1.8      2.3       7.9     11.0      6.0       ..      28.7     23.7
Guinea                   61      298        ..      3.0       ..      14.7       ...7.0                     5.5
Guinea-Bissau           248     2,312      4.5      4.2       ..      48.7       ...               3.7      7.8
Haiti                    20      297       1.8      1.0       6.2     13.8     13.2       ..       4.6      4.0
Honduras                 92      200       8.5     14.1      21.4     28.8     26.0       ..      16.5      9.3
242  1.998 World Development Indicator$



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S 6T  t.V4VSW.'T        'T    969        - .T 1      L              p ~'~1d'3
1:66  666  566 .~~~~~~~~          ~  ~~L617.SC617 . aOT  STE  56.j6
68t'   'T0:T        ..6-:2          . 09.. T  L 9....!l....8
956. ...  .... ....   .....069.....-u
T9  LE    eau!nE) mON eAPPJnde
tl'ZZ   Z'R,   VLT   L'6  6'6   t,'9  L'17  St,9*9  p91
VT  t~~~~5  £.....   9~6f, ..  -T tT 1  1:..  Va   170  9
T'CT   9'TZ  C,9F6T      1796             966   65            WNf
T£6   t'    EV    97 L6      6 .   6  6   L '  Zg:O  T9z           e
...   .. ...  ..........66.A.....
96    V'S .    .6.LT         T9  .       01:  7T9
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09'VT T'T       9T     8-95...~-    : 66  6V.96.9s....
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lIS  501  nUAP WSifO  SOIJ;       dN      SOiASS dN
t o%7uIuJA6 6             so1'J %PP           pOZJ 
T wT p:cAIoIIqn..d                                           lqdedqAX
U U. T                                                               emuG1



4.181
Present value of                  Total debt service                     Public and              Short-term
debt                                                                 publicly                 debt
guaranteed
debt service
% of                                     % of
exports of                                exports of            % of central
%of      goods and           % of                 goods and              government                 5/ o
GNP       services            GNP                   services            ocurent revenue           total debt
1996        1996        1980       1996        1980        1996        1980        1996       1980        1996
Rwanda                         47,        682         0.7         1.4         4.2        20.3         2.9          -.        13.7         3.2
Saudi Arabia............
Senegal                        53         150         8.9         5.4        28.7        15.9        30.1          ..        14.9         5.3
Sierra Leonie                   78        516         5.6         6.4        23.8        52.6        22.7        70.8        11.3        9.0
Singapore.........
Slovak Repu.blic                41         66                     7.0            .       11.9          ...                      .       38.3
Slovenia                       21          36           ,.        5.1           .8.7                    ...1.4
South Africa                    18         67           .         31..                   11.1           .                       .       3.
Sri Lanka                      41          97         4.5         3.1        12.0         7.3        10.3        13.0       11.9          7.1
Sudan                         260       1,964         3.9          ..        25.5         5.0         9.3          ..       11.6        36.6
Sweden                           .           ..                     ..                      ..
Switzerland                      .           ..                     ..                      ..
Syrian Arab Republic          120         301         2.9         1.5        11.4         3.8         8.6          ..       17.8        22.0
Tajikistan                     24          69           -.        0.0           ..        0.1          -....                              1.9
Ta nzanial                    .114        499           -.        4.5        23.5        18.7         8.1          ..       13.0        14.3
Thailand                        56        131         5.0         4.8        18.9        11.5         9.5         6.3       27.8        41.4
Togo                           80         191         4.8         4.0         9.0        10.8        11.0          ..       11.5         6.1
Tiidad and Tobago .           46          80         3.9         9.5         6.8        15.6        8.4          ..        14.0        12.0
Tunisia                        53         106         6.4         8.0        14.8        16.5        15.6        23.1         3.9         7.8
Turkey                         47         184         2.3         5.9        28.0        21.7         8.5        25.2       13.1        25.7
Turkmenistan                    18         39           ..        4.1           ..       10.6          ...                      .       34.8
Uganda                         321        2941        4.6         2.5        17.3        20.0         6.7          ..9.1                 2.9
Ukraine                        18          48           ..        2.9          ..         6.1          ....4.8
United Arab Emirates             .
United  Kingdom                                                      ........  . ..         .
United States                    .           ..                     ..                      ..
Uruguay                        33         143         3.1         3.7        18.8        15.6         8.8         9.7       19.4        28.1
Uzbekistan                       9         56          ..         1.2          ..         8.1          ...                      .3.9
Venezuela                       51        147         8.7         6.9        27.2        16.8        19.1        22.5       53.0         8.2
Vietnam,                       123        322                     1.5           ..        3.5           ...                             14.5
West Bank and Gaza               .           ..                     ..                      ..
Yemen. Rep.                     88        160           ..        1.6           .         2.4          ...                  10.6         9.7
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)0    ..                   5.2          ...                      .        10.9          ..       11.6        15.8
Zambia                        161         389        11.4        .9.8        25.3        24.6        29.6        50.4       16.0         8.3
Zimbabwe                        57        154          1.2        9.2         3.8        21.2         3.9          ..       11.5        16.0
Low income                            1.6        ~~~~        ~~~~       ~~~~~~~~~                                  ~   ~~~2.  9.4  13.3  12.1  13.5
Middle income                           ~~~~        ~~~~       ~~~~    ~   ~~~~3.7  5.1  13.5 . 18 3           26.9        20.1
Eta s"t A"S i'a ..& 'Pa"cifi"c .......................2.3         43         11.5        13.0                               22.6        25.1
Eu'r op"e ..& ...Ce'nt'r"al"A"s ia 1.....................   .6    3  7        6.8        11.4                               22.6~       14.3j
Latiin-f Ae r i'ca  arib                              6.5         6.         36.3        32.                                26.7        17.5
Middle East& N. Africa                  ~~~~        ~~~~        ~~ ~~2. 5  32  5.  14                          25.22.
S§o u"th ..A"s i'a ............. .............. ............1.33.1           11 7 _      22.0                                 6.5        6.8
Sub-Sah ra    .......................Africa.............3'.6"  5.0        9814.2                                        26.6        17.4
a. Data are Prom debt sustainabillty analyses undertaken as part of tee Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Deot Initiative. Present value estimates for thtese countries are for pub. v and publicly
guaranteed debt only, and export figures excnlde worker remittances. b. Data prior to 1992 include Eritrea. c. Data refer to mainsand Tanzania onip. d. Data refer to the former Yugos avia.
244   1998 World Development Indicators



4.18
The indicators in the table measure the relative bur-                                        * Present value of debt is the sum of short-term
den on developing countries of servicing external                                            external debt plus the discounted sum of total debt
debt. The present value of external debt provides a  All regions except Asia have reduced    service payments due on public, publiclyguaranteed,
measure of future debt service obligations that can  their reliance on short-term debt       and private nonguaranteed long-term external debt
be compared with the current value of such indicators  %                                     over the life of existing loans. * Total debt service is
as GNP and exports of goods and services. In this  ?O                                       the sum of principal repayments and interest actually
table the present value of total debt service in the  ,                                      paid in foreign currency, goods, or services on long-
most recent year (1996) is presented as a percent-                                          term debt, interest paid on short-term debt, and
age of average GNP in 1994, 1995, and 1996 or the                                            repayments (repurchases and charges) to the IMF.
average of exports in the same three-year period. The  i'                                    * Public and publicly guaranteed debt service is the
ratios of total debt service and public and publicly  l,,                                    sum of principal repayments and interest actually paid
guaranteed debt service compare current obligations                                          on long-term obligations of public debtors and long-
with the size of the economy and its ability to obtain                                      term private obligations guaranteed by a public entity.
foreign exchange through exports. Because worker     9N                                      * Short-term debt includes all debt having an origi-
S-AP  ECA  LAC  MNA  SAS  SSA
remittances are an important source of foreign                 * 1980 0 1996                 nal maturity of one year or less and interest in arrears
exchange for many countries, they are included in the  Source: World Bark 1998.              on long-term debt.
value of exports used to calculate debt indicators. The
ratios shown here may differ from those published                                             Data sources
elsewhere because estimates of exports and GNP
have been revised to incorporate data available as of                                                           The main sources of external
February 1, 1998.                                                                                 l    ;It ij I  debt information are reports
The present value of external debt is calculated by                                         Dev   1l   It-p  i  to the World Bank through its
discounting the debt service (interest plus amortiza-                                            FilliIt t"     Debtor Reporting  System
tion) due on long-term external debt over the life of                                                           from member countries that
existing loans. Short-term debt is included at its face                                            *            have received IBRD loans or
value. Data on debt are in U.S. dollars converted at                                                            IDA credits. Additional infor-
official exchange rates. The discount rate applied to                       * ie mation has been drawn from
long-term debt is determined by the currency of repay-                                      the files of the World Bank and the IMF. Data on GNP
ment of the loan and is based on the Organisation for                                        and exports of goods and services are from the World
Economic Co-operation and Development's (OECD)                                               Bank's national accounts files. Summary tables of the
commercial interest reference rates. Loans from the                                          external debt of developing countries are published
International  Bank  for  Reconstruction  and                                                annually in the World Bank's Global Development
Development (IBRD) and credits from the International                                        Finance and Global Development Finance CD-ROM.
Development Association (IDA) are discounted using
an SDR (special drawing rights) reference rate, as are
obligations to the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
When the discount rate is greaterthan the interest rate
of the loan, the present value is less than the nominal
sum of future debt service obligations.
The ratios in the table are used to assess the sus-
tainability of a country's debt service obligations, but
there are no absolute rules that determine what val-
ues are too high. Empirical analysis of the experience
of developing countries and their debt service perfor-
mance has shown that debt service difficulties
become increasingly likely when the ratio of the pre-
sent value of debt to exports reaches 200 percent
and the ratio of debt service to GNP exceeds 20 per-
cent. Still, what constitutes a sustainable debt burden
varies from one country to another. Countries with
fast-growing economies and exports are likely to be
able to sustain higher debt levels.
1998 World Development Indicators    245



-- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .  $r, -       2t4'
*   0
.
A ~ i>g
-~~



T  he state grew everywhere in the 20th century-in vem different ways,
shaped by two world wars, the Russian revolution, the 1930s' depression, and
decolonization. Today state involvement in economic activities ranges from 0
percent (Somalia) to 100 percent (Democratic People's Republic of Korea).
Few would deny that "without an effective state, sustainable development, both
economic and social, is impossible" (World Bank 1997g). But the diversitv of
experience makes it difficult to draw conclusions about what makes states and
markets effective-and what size state is right for any set of social and economic
circumstances and objectives.
Ratios of government spending to total GDP in 1996 range from less than
10 percent up to about 50 percent (table 5.1). The average for the OECD was
46 percent, having risen steadily since World War I. More than half of this goes
for transfer payments and subsidies, the trappings of the modern welfare state.
Investment spending by the state accounts for less than 5 percent.
Governments of different persuasions are looking for wavs to freeze and
eventually reduce this spending without losing votes. The market is often the
most acceptable and efficient solution-with private health and unemploy-
ment insurance, private contributions to higher education costs and the care
of the elderly, and even private prison services among reforms initiated in the
1990s. Industrial and agricultural subsidies are also being cut back, thus direct-
ing private investment where profitability does not depend on the profitability
of handouts.
The challenge for the developing world is to provide as good an institutional
framework for development as its capabilities will allow. Governments should not
intervene where markets can operate more efficiently. But thev do, everywhere.
State-owned enterprises, prominent in many low-income economies, rarely
operate as efficiently as private firms. They also absorb a large share of the econ-
omy's resources. Their investments may be financed with government guaranteed
external loans, adding to debt burdens. They are heavy users of domestic credit,
often granted on preferential terms, crowding out private borrowers and giving
the state-owned firms a competitive cost advantage. Their loan servicing is gener-
allv poor, and many are far in arrears on payments for goods and services pur-
chased from other public sector entities. Many state-owned enterprises benefit
from tax reductions or exemptions, distorting competition and further reducing
the income to government. More often than not, thev are a drain on the budget,
and so constrain official allocations to more worthy social causes (table 5.8).



Containing corruption and making government more effective      In many developing countries local business people believe the
Until recentlyapreoccupation with shrinking the size of the state  state to be both incompetent and corrupt (box 5a). They invest
led many development economists to neglect the vital task of    less and operate less efficientlv than they would in a more sup-
understanding how to improve the state. One lesson from suc-     portive policy environment. The main reason for this underper-
cessful states is that they use market-like mechanisms to improve  formance is that, to survive, they must divert time and money
their efficiency.                                               from  their businesses into negotiations with bureaucrats and
The World Bank's World Development Report 1997 showed that   unreliable institutions.
an effective state is vital for development. Using data from 94 coun-
tries over three decades, the study shows thatitis notjust economic  The need for bedker gofi 7rnmcea.,
policies and human capital but the quality of a country's institu-  Corruption, the abuse of public pover for private gain, is a prob-
tions that determines economic outcomes. Institutions determine  lem in every country. And the way it undermines the legitimacy of
the environment in which markets operate. A weak institutional  government has become a central issue for discussion in the 1990s.
environment allows greater arbitrariness on the part of state agen-  A series of widely publicized scandals helped to put the problem at
cies and public officials.                                      the center of international concerns. Politicians and bureaucrats
If laws are applied arbitrarily, or not applied at all, the mar-  were prosecuted for taking bribes in several OECD countries, in
ket will consider them irrelevant. Similarly, if rules are changed  the former Soviet Union, in Asia, and in Latin America. The crimes
frequently or unexpectedly, they lose credibility. The wider the  involved illegal payments for public contracts for infrastructure,
discretionary controls of politicians and bureaucrats, the greater  defense, manufacturing, and services projects. They also involved
the opportunities for briberv. In these circumstances, noncom-  campaign finance excesses-and protection money for the drug
pliant behavior may be the most efficient way to operate.        trade and other organized crime pavoffs.
Governments with poor records in enforcing law and order        Transparency International-an anticorruption nonprofit
can soon ruin even a thriving economy. If such countries attract  group-has developed a corruption perception index that draws
investors, it is into areas that the state cannot afford to develop  on surveys by Gallup International, the World Competitiveness
on its own. Infrastructure projects and those that exploit natural  Yearbook, Political & Economic Risk Consultancy in Hong Kong,
resources are usually set up under one-off, all-inclusive agree-  DRI/McGraw Hill Global Risk Service, Political Risk Services in
ments that insulate the investor from the deficiencies of the reg-  Syracuse, New York, and data gathered from Internet sources.
ulatory system.                                                     Low-income countries often have weaker markets and weaker
International investors can stay away from states perceived to  institutions. As a result they may be more corrupt. And the con-
be incompetent and corrupt. Local business communities can-     nection runs both ways: countries are corrupt because they are
not. They must operate within the system, with all its faults, or  poor, and they are poor because they are corrupt. Corruption
not operate at all. The credibility of the state in the eyes of local  damages economic performance by depressing investment in an
entrepreneurs has a direct bearing on economic performance.     unpredictable policy environment. On a corruption perception
index with a range of zero to 10, a 2.4-point improvement led to
a 4-point increase in a country's investment rate and a real rise in
per capita income (Mauro 1997).
A credible stae promotes private sector developmentpecaianom(Muo19)
Reducing entrenched corruption requires far-reaching pol-
A survey of 3,600 firms in 60 countries prepared for the World Bank's  icy reforms, starting with strengthening institutions and liberal-
World Development Report 1997 conciuded that the credibility accorded  izing  markets. Other measures include clearly separating
by the private sector to state institutions was linked to cross-country
differences in economic growth and Investment. Entrepreneurs were  executive and judiciary powers, revising public pas scales, and
asked about their perceptions of the stability of laws and policies-and  launching tax and tariff reforms.
of the institutions set up to administer them. They were also asked
about crime and corruption.                                     Since the early 1990s the World Bank has been promoting
The predictability of rulemaking. The fewer surprises, the better.  good governance in its country assistance strategies and lending.
Worst off were entrepreneurs in the Commonwealth of Independent  Its research programs have improved understanding of the causes
States (CIS), where 80 percent found their business seriously hampered
by unpredictable changes in rules and policies.             and effects of corruption in developing countries. And it has estab-
The continuity of institutions. Business communities in the CIS, the  lished a framework for addressing corruption as part of a broader
Middle East and North Africa. and Sub-Saharan Africa were beset by
institutional upheavals stemming from political changes. Entrepreneurs  promotion of good governance practices (World Bank 1997c).
in both industrial and developing countries worried about crime against  A two-part strategy aims to help countries match the state's
persons and property. And few respondents in developing countries  role to its capability and improve the quality of its institutions.
trusted the system of law enforcement.
Freedom from corruption. Of the 3,600 firms, 40 percent had to  This requires taking stock of a state's capabilities and ranking the
resort to bribery in the normal course of business-30 percent in Asia,  economic and social fundamentals that can be supplied effi-
60 percent in the CIS. More than half the respondents knew that the
bribes would not bring forth the necessary permits, but would lead to  ciently with existing resources. States can improve their capabili-
yet further bribes to other officials.                      ties by reinvigorating their institutions. This means not only
building administrative or technical capacitv but also instituting
rules and norms that provide officials with incentives to act in the
collectivc interest while restraining arbitrary actioni and corrup-
248   1998 World Development Indicators



tion. An independent judiciary, institutional checks and bal-   State enterprises have shrunk most visibly in the former
ances, and effective watchdogs can restrain arbitrary state action  socialist countries and in some middle- and high-income
and corruption. Competitive wages for civil servants can attract  economies. In Sub-Saharan Africa, by contrast, reforms could
more talented people and increase professionalism and integrity.  have done much for macroeconomic stabilization, but the gov-
ernments in power saw the risks as too great. Sell-offs met least
Privatization                                               resistance in the wake of economic crises, as in the former Soviet
Since the 1980s the privatization of public sector enterprises has  Union and Latin America. Although proceeds from privatization
been central in economic policy reforms-helping economies   provide governments with valuable revenues at no immediate
better match the state's role to its capabilities. The process was  cost to taxpayers, governments (and therefore taxpayers) lose an
accelerated by far-reaching changes in political systems and by  asset that might have provided future cash flows, and govern-
information technology that facilitated the globalization of pri-  ments often provide guarantees to the new owners that later cost
vate business operations. Governments of former socialist coun-  taxpayers.
tries opened the way for greater private participation by lifting  The privatization of infrastructure has proceeded worldwide
restrictions on local and foreign private investments in their  at great speed since the 1980s. Today, more than 25 countries in
economies. Developing countries elsewhere took steps to reduce  Sub-Saharan Africa are transferring all or part of their telecom-
the state's involvement in production and trade. Technological  munications monopolies from the state to the private sector (table
advances have fundamentally changed the nature of the telecom-  5a). Most had looked at what was happening elsewhere and liked
munications sector. What was once seen as a public good with a  what they saw-faster growth, new technology, lower costs, and
single dimension (the telephone call) is today a broad array of  better services. Privatizations were most likely to succeed if they
services (fixed, wireless, facsimile and other value-added) that  had support at the highest government levels-and from the
can be efficiently and effectively provided by the private sector.  workforce.
Some important lessons: First, the ownership change from    The state monopolies being transformed into private-led,
states to markets must be seen as politically desirable. Second, it  competitive markets in Africa and Latin America show how impor-
must be politically feasible-benefits to the reforming govern-  tant it is to establish lines of authority-and to set clear policies,
ment must outweigh the foreseeable costs, including the poten-  rules, and procedures-before calling for tenders. For sales strate-
tial loss of political support. Third, the reforms must be credible.  gies, privatization's long-run benefits deserve more emphasis than
The proposals must include adequate compensation for losers,  cash up front. Allowing competition is the best solution. Even
particularly with forced layoffs and evictions. Equally, the reforms  though the government gets less revenue from the sale of firms
must protect investors' property rights. Enterprise reform is  and licenses, it acquires growing future flows of tax revenues from
unlikely to succeed if these three conditions are not present  the successful businesses. Phased privatizations that commit a gov-
(World Bank 1995b).                                         ernment to sell only enough shares to give the private partner a
Privatizaton of state-owned telecommunications companies in 1997, selectod countries
t                  Price paid
Countrr                        CompanV name              sold               CS millions)     TIpe of sale
u nl:la                      re':lr                    >- "   2             L.-, a. I-I     rns,.u.r,l lclvrlrinu
:. 1- .] |  1-  1: l T-l.- :.,1,  ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~  ! | |         _~C  16:^      Tefe,..Li ;e
Sr e*.:e  Fr- ,rr, 7      rle-rilTs :-<; .        _ .  L           Ir     Irrn .i raD.ic  . rrInm
IIITEL                     iu9                    5               e ,lu   parTr.er
,.:ll.Tr 51r.,                T-5 :.rm rr                ,.                  1 2::1         sTua[egl: Coal, p'Lr.Er
,,  I, ,; iF,  _rc  f.S:1;1 I   T.-,-I  7.-;,  ; .,,,  J9            IrJ F           .,,,Ic . al,,l.5,Lc
a. With this sale of the state's   e,;  r   T- l,A  -1-i1I  ..  '- E . -, ,r .:.-:   '. . 0  r.:r.r  .1.  . led.
Source: International Telecomr.,  ...  ' !1h.
1998 World Development Indicators  249



controlling interest have also proved successful. If the partly pri-
vatized utilitv is making satisfactory profits, and if share prices
increase, the remaining government shareholding may be sold at
higher prices than the original shares, providing the government
with a windfall. Of course, the downside is that share prices may
fall, resulting in revenue losses for the government.
Private monopoly should not succeed public monopoly, but
some infrastructure businesses, such as water distribution, may
inevitably be monopolistic. Even so, privatization may still be
desirable-regulated private monopoly may be better than pub-
lic monopoly. Governments should ensure that there are no bar-
riers to new market entrants; the usc of limited-duration
concessions is one way of limiting market power. The rules of
competition must be clear, with the amount of discretion reflect-
ing the government's capacity and credibility to regulate such
matters as tariffs and service obligations. The climate for infra-
structure projects can be greatly improved if the state agrees to
abide by an international treaty, such as the 1997 WNorld Trade
Organization Agreement on Basic Telecommunications.
Many private infrastructure firms may need to be permanently
regulated to facilitate an efficient market. As new technologies
(wireless, satellite, Internet) enter the market, the agenda of reg-
ulatory agencies is likely to change. Few developing countries had
fully operational regulatory systems in 1997, though scvcral Latin
American and Eastern European states were creating them. The
problem is that if newly privatized utilities are poorly regulated,
then the supply and quality of telecommunications, water, or
energy may be as unsatisfactory as it was when provided by a state
entity-and possibly worse. One unsuccessful privatization acts as
a disincentive to investors. Governments that change the rules
unpredictably-or fail to abide by them for one privatization-
have difficulty finding buyers for the next privatization.
In telecommunications, wireless services create a competitive
market where consumers have a real choice (table 5.11). The
push of new technology has also improved competition in other
infrastructure sectors so that regulatory requirements at the start
of a privatization program run the risk of being overtaken by
events unless adapted to the new technological developments.
International cooperation in regulatory standards will help
achieve this flexibility.
A parallel need has been created by the globalization of bank-
ing and financial services. Since the 1980s regulators have coop-
erated internationally to fight fraud and the laundering of
proceeds from crime and corruption. Recent financial scandals
and bank liquidity crises helped push governnients normally pro-
tective of their authority closer to agreement on common stan-
dards and supervision systems-essential for an efficient
international financial market and for the flow of investment
funds. Here again, better-regulated markets-where investment
decisions are not distorted by corruption-attract the greatest
private capital flows.
250  1998 World Development Irdicators



A recent survey of local entrepreneurs in 69 countries found that many states are performing their core functions
poorly; they are failing to ensure law and order, protect property, and apply rules and policies predictably. Because
investors do not consider such states credible, growth and investment suffer.
Local entrepreneurs were asked to rank each of several indicators on a scale from 1 (no problem) to 6 (extreme problem); survey results
for four indicators are shown below
Regional average                                     Regional average
1        2          3         4         5        6   1         2         3         4         5         6
C~rfr5 lr  _                         r,i _! :hl!' 4.0
E3aterr, Eur                                                                        N 
01 IrOeCir,derT                            4     J                      __ 4                     3.9
L: L n)er.V 3  _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _4_                                                          5
an. In.r Crnorea                            K
r.1,ooie E 3 .
.in; Pior!. Afc                                                                         RIM       M ,  -~4.6
OEC A                                                        _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
I- 43
OECD
World 3.7                                               World 4.0
Regional average                                     Regional average
1         2         3        4          5        6  1          2         3         4         5        6
Central and _  _      _      _       _    _     49                                           4
Eastem Europe                                       4
Commonwealth
of Independent                                       5.2 
StatesX 
Latin America                   4_5
and the Caribbean
Middle East                               4.2                                23
and North Africa
South and                               41_'                  __3_4
Southeast Asia                              4                                             3
Sub-Saharan                                    747                                            K~
Africa =.....
High-income                                    4427_  4
World 4.6                                     World 3.9
252   1998 World Development Indicators



Countries must establish mechanisms that give state agencies the flexibility and the incentive to act for the common
good-while at the same time restraining arbitrary and corrupt behavior in dealings with businesses and citizens.
th and development in Sub-Sa       n
Local entrepreneurs were asked to rank corruption on a scale from 1 (no problem) to 6
4         (extreme problem); survey results are shown below
Corruption
Regional average
1              2              3               4
Central and                                                     4.3
Eastern Europe
Commonwealth of
Independent                          ;                            e 4.4
States
Latin Americ and      e   Ae   vMq!               Z   ?                      .
the Caribbean3
Middle East and North Africa   1     *                                        4.3
South and A                                       3 6
Southeast Asia    j1                 H       K.
Sub-Saharan Africa                                                           4.7
-         High-income                             2 8
OECDD
World 4.2 e
Source for both pages: World Bank, World Development        P
Report 1997: The State in a Changing World. and Aymo
Brunetti, Gregory Kisunko, and Beatrice Weder,
Institutional Obstacles to Doing Business," World
Bank Policy Research Working Paper 1759.
1998 World Development Indicators 253



5.I Credit, investment, and expenditure
Private              Foreign direct investment            Credit to         Private non-          Central
investment                                                private sector      guaranteed          government
debt            expenditure
% of gross          % of gross
domestic            domestic                                                ft of externa
fixed investment     investment           % of GDP            % of GDP             debt              ft of GDP
±980      1999      1980     1996      ±980      1996      ±980      1996     ±980      1996      1 980     1995
Albania                          ..        .         .      16.3       ..       3.4        ..       3.9        ..      0.0         ..     31.0
Algeria                       67.4      74.8      2.1        0.0      0.8       0.       42.2       5.5       0.0      0.0
Angola                           ..     68 .9       ..      39.7       ..       4.5        ..         .         .      0.0
Argentina                               85.8      35         7.9      0.9       1.5      25.4      18.6     24.3      13.8      18.2      14.5
Armenia                                 33 .6       ..       9.4       ..       1.0        ..       7.3        ..      0.0
Australia                                         4.6       18.9      1.2       1.6      51.9      77.4        ...              22.7      27.4
Austria                                           1.1        1.1      0.3       1.7      74.2      99.3        ...              38.6      42.2
Azerbaijani.                                               67.3        ..      16.5        ..       1.0        ..      0.0
Bangladesh                    58:9      62.5      0.0        0.3      0.0       0.0       8.1      20.6      0.0       0.0      10.0
Belarus                         ..         .        .        0.4       ..       0.1         .       6.9        ..      2.8
Belgium                          .         ..       .         ..        .        ..      29.1      67.5        ...              50.6      49.4
Benin                           ..      61.7      2.0        0.5     .0.3       0.1      28.6       9.1      0.0       0.0
Bolivia                       51.3      41.9     10.3       17.9      1.5       6.4      15.5      52.8      3.4       5.5        ..      23.1
Bosnia sod Herzegovina           7
Botswana                      62.1        ..     30.5        6.3     10.8      .1.5.     11.3      11.1      0.0       0.0      31.8      38.0
Brazil                        89.7      86.2.     3.5        6.8      0.8       1.3      42.5      30.7     23.2      27.3      20.2      37.4
Bulgari'a                     85.9      85.0      0.0        8.6      0.0       1.2        ..     36.9         ..      2.0        ..      41.6
Burkina Faso                    ..      57.9      0.0C       0.0      0.0       0.0      16.7       7.0      0.0       0.0      12.2
Burundi                        8.1      15.7      0.0        1.0      0.0       0.1       9.8      15.8      0.0       0.0      21.5      24.9
Cambodia                         ..     68.6       ..      45.4         .       9.4        ..       5.3       0.0      0.0
Cameroon                     .77.8      9.5.5     9.2        2.4.     1.9       0.4      29.5       8.3      6.9       1.9      15.7      12.7
Canada                           .         ..     9.4       10.5      2.2       1.1      68.7      88.8        ...              21.3      24.6
Central African Republic      46.5      41.8      9.5        8.4      0.7       0.5      13.9       4.3      0.0       0.0      22.0
Chad                           4.8      3-5.8     0.0        8.0      0.0       1.5      24.4       5.0      0.0       0.0
Chile                         72.2      80.0      3.7       199.9    _08.8      5.5      46.8      55.2     38.8      56.7      28.0      19.2
Chins                         43.4      47.0      0.0       11.6      0.0       4.9      53.4      94.7      0.0       0.9        ..       8.3
Hong Kong, China             85.1      86.8       ..         .         .        ..              16.1.7        .
Colombia                      58.3      47.8      2.5       18.7      0.5       3.9      30.5      41.4      7.4      28.3      13.4      14.4
Congo, Dem. Rep.       ~      42.4        ..      0.0        0.5      0.0       0.0       2.8       1.0      0.0       0.0      12.4       7.6
Congo, Rep.                      ..     91.4      6.6        06       23         .3      15.5       8.0      0.0       0.0      49.4
Costa Rica                    61.3      75.1      4.1       19.7      1.1       4.5      27.9      17.6     15.0       5.6      25.0      29.1
CSte dIlvoire                 53.2      69.1      3.5        1.4      0-.9      0.2      40.8      19.7     27.0      17.0      31.7
Croatia                                 59.6       ..      12.4        ..       1.8        ..     30.1         ..     18.5        ..      46.5
Cuba
Czech Republic                                    0.0        7.6      0.0       2.6        ..     59.0       0.0      10.6        ..      39.9
Denmark                                           1.1      14.1       0.2       0.4      42.1      33.4        ...              39.4      43.4
Dominican Republic            68:4      66,5      5.6       12.3     .1.4       3.0      30.8     26.6      12.7       0.1      16.9      15.6
Ecuador                       59.7      78,3      2.3      13.4       0.6       2.3      22.8     33.5      18.7       2.2      14.2      15.7
Egypt, Arab Rep.              30.1      59.1      8.7        5.7      2.4      0.9       15.2     41.5       1.4       0.4      45.6      37.4
El Salvador                   44.8      78.0      1.2.       1.5      0.2      0.2       33.8     36.8      17.6       0.1      17.1      13.7
Eritreea.                               52.7        .          .        .         ..                  .        .       0.0
Estonia                         ..      80.2       ..      12.9        ..       3.5.        .     18.1         ..      0.9          .     35.2
Ethiopia                                63.9      0.0        0.4      00         .1      20.1     21.7       0.0       0.0      19.5      18.1
Finland                                    0... .O.2         5.1      0.1       0.9      48.5     61.5         ...              28.1      42.7
France                                            2. 0       8.5      0.5       1.4     104.8      81.7        ...              39.5      46.4
Gabon                         80.1      72.0      2.7      -.5.7      0.7      -1.1      15.8       6.6       0.0      0.0      36.5
Gambia, The                   35.4      63.1      0.0       10.2      0.0       2.2      24.2     10.6       0.0       0.0      32.1      21.5
Georgia                      . . ....   73.7        ..       4.6       ..       0.2        ..        .          .      0.0
Germany                          ..        .         .       2.2       ..      -0.1        ..    104.9         ..        .         .      33.9
Ghana                            ..     26.3      6.2       10.1      0.4       1.9       2.2       6.6      0.7       4.4      10.9      22.1
Greece                           5.        .       .9.       7.0      14.4      0.7      43.9      35.7        ...              29.3      33.6
Guatemala                     63.8      81.3      8.9        3.8      1.4       0.5      16.2      18.9     24.2       3.2      12.1       8.9
Guinea                           ..     57.7       ..       4.7         .       0.6        ..      4.8       0.0       0.0
Guinea-Bissau                   ..      32.5      0.0        1.7      0.0       0.4        ..       0.1      0.0       0.0
Haiti                           ..      27.6      5.3      .0.0       0.9      0.2       15.7     14.3       0.0       0.0      17.4
Honduras                      62.1      62.7      0.9        5.8      0.2       1.9      28.8     26.7      13.0       2.8         .
254   1998 World Development Indicators



5.1                    I
Private             Foreign direct investment          Credit to         Private non-        Central
investment                                             private sector      guaranteed        government
debt            expenditure
% of gross         % of gross
domestic           domestic                                              % of external
fced investment     investment          % of GDP           % of GDP            debt             N of GDP
1980     1996      ±980     ±996     1980      1996     1980    ±1996      1980     1996     1980      1995
Hungary                         .        ..     0.0      16.5 ..  .0.0      4.4      48.3     22.3      0.0     18.6      56.2
India                        55.5     66.1      0.2..     2.7     0.0       0.7     25.4      23.7      1.6       8.2     13.3 ..  16.4
.n.o.e..                   .      605....1.0       ..11.1     0..2      35.5 .    8.8     55.8  .  15.0.  ..28.4.     22.1  .. ..14.7
Iran, Islamic Rep.00                                        .     00..              43.8      23.2..             1.1      35.7     23.2
I raq                                                             0 .   ...   .   ... .. . 0-  ....  ...  .  ..  0 0.0 . ...  0 0. .   .   ...  11...  ..7..
ireland......                                     23....6   1.7      3.5... 44.0       78.3.                       45.1      40.3
Israel                                          1.0       73      0.2       1.7     68.3      66.8                        70.2     44.7
Italy                                           0.5       25      01         .3     55.9     52..1.4.3                             48.6
Jamaica                                         6.5 ..   14.9     1.0..     4.0      219.9.   31..1     3:9       3.0     41.5..
Japan                                           0.1       00       .0       0.0    132.7    207.1                  .      18 4     2
Jordan.                      51.4     77.1.     2.3.    .. 0.6.   0.9       0.2      51.0     71.5      070       0.5     41.3     31 6
Kazakhstan                     ..     98.8       ..       6.4      ..       1.5         .      7.1               7 4
Kenya                        54.7     44.5      3.7       0.7     1.1       0.1     29.5     34.6      1-2.9     5.4      25.3     2908
Korea, Dem. Rep.
Korea, Rep.                 7..2.     76.0..    0.0       1.3     0.0       0.5     50.9      74.8                        17.0... 17.7
Kuwait                         .         ..     00         .      00         ..     33.1     3.                            77      5.
Kyrgyz Republic                ..     87.5              13:8        ..      2.6.                                  0 0 .  ....7 .. .1  .....
Lao PDR                                       .......   18.4                5.6..   5.         9.1      0.0      0.0...           ....
Latvia           ....   .... .        89-3       ..     34.9                65.. .....657.3               .      0.0               32.2
Lebanon                               71.8                2.0       .       0.     164       638         .0     10.3        .      32.5
Lesotho                               36.8      2.9      3.0      1.2       3.2       9.8     17.5      0.0        0.050.7
Libya                         8:3            -13.9         ..    -3.1        ..     11.2.....
Lithuania.                            86.3               9:3.... .2:0              ..         11.9               5'0 .....         25~5
Macedonia, FYR                                    .       4.6               0.7..                .31
Madagascar                            42.5     -0.2       24.4    0.0       0.2.    19.2       9.4      0.0      0.0        .      17.2
Malawi           ....       -21.4.   .84.3      3..1     0.3      0.8       0.0     20.7       4.2      0.0      0.0      34.6
Malaysia        ......   ...-62.6     69.8     12.5     11.0      38.8      4.5     49.9    129.5      189.9.. 32.7       28.5     229.9
Mali                           .      54.4      0.9       3.3     0.1.      0.9     23.0      13.0      0~.0    ... 0.0   20.6
Mauritania                     .      68.3     10.6.      2.1     3.8.      0.5     31.0      23.6      0(.0    .... 010.0 .............
Mauritius                    64.0     64.8      0.5       3.3     0.1       0.9     21.6      44.7      5.1     13.5      27.2     22.6
Mexico                       57.0     79.1      4.1     10.9      1.1       2.3     19.7     21.6      12.7     12.9      15.7     15.9
Moldova                          ...  78.5.   .....       8.0   ..          22.2   ..          7.3               0'0  .    ..  .    ...
Mongolia                                 .-               2.3       .       05..              12.3               0           .     2.
Morocco                      44.0     57.8      2.0      4.1      0.5       0.8     27.0     45.8       1:6 ...1.8        33!1
Mozambique                   27.0     65.3      0.0       3.5    0.0:       17.7              17.8               0.7
Myanmar                      206.6 . 60.6.                                            5.5       ..15.8                             10.6
Namibia                      4270 ... 62.2      0.0  .. 214.4     0.0       4.2        .      50.5      0.0      0.0 .   ..        381.5
Nepal                        60:2.    67:8.  ... 0-0.0....  1:9.9  .. 0.0   0.4       8.6     24.6      0:0 ..... 0 0     14.3     17.5
Netherlands  ....        . .  .               -6.0      18.7      1.3       2.0     93.6     105.7-                       52.9     50.8
New Zealand..,.                 ..              3.7.    3    .5 . 0.8       0.4      18.4     93.3                        38.3     32.9
Nicaragua                             38 6.     0.0       8.2     0.0       2.3     48.3      28.6      0.0       0.0     30.4     33.2
Niger                                 50.6      5.3       0.0     19        00      16.9       3.1     3.3       70184
Nigeria                               62:5     -5.4     23.2     -1.2       4.3      12.2     10.6     123.3      1.0
Norway                ~~   ~   ~~~~~~~           ~~~~~..  ...  0.4... ..  0.1  2.5  51.4  72.3                   344 4.. 39.0
Oman                         34.1        .      7.4       4.0     1.6       0.4      13.7     29.2      0 0 .....041      38.5     42.4
Pakistan                     36.1     52.5      1.4       5.7    .0.3 .     1.1      24.0.. 26.7        0 2       6 7     17.5     23.2
Panama                         ..     8.       44         99     -12        2.9      58.1     8.         . .1             30.5     24.7
Papua New Guinea             586.6    85.8.    11.8      16.2     3.0 .     4.4      17.6     18.2     19.3      31.9     34.4     29.4
4                        i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 4   ..~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~..   ..................
Peru                         75 6     82.9      0.4      25.0     0.1 ..    5.9 ...129        19.6      65.5      4'7.7... 19.5..  .17.2
Philippines690                        8.       -1.1       6.9    -0.3       1: .7 .  42.2     54.2     14.1     1-1.9     13.4     17..9
Poland                         .      81.9      0.1      16.4     0.0       3:3'      6.4     15.5                3'9  ...         430O
Portugal                        .        .        .       8.3     0.5       06       5.       64.3.                       33.1     44.1
Puerto Rico..                            .        ..        .
Romania                        ..     73.8       ..       2.9               077        ..               0        4.5.     44:8     32.0
Russian Federation             ..     91.1       ..       2.5               06         ..      74.                .                24.0
1998 World Development Indicators 255



@5.~51
Private              Foreign direct investment           Credit to         Private non-          Central
investmnent                                              private sector      guaranteed         government
debt            expenditure
% of gross         %of gross
domnestic          domnestic                                               Ik of externa.
fioed investment     investment           % of GDP           % of GDP             debl              A f GDP
1980      1999     1980      1996      1980     1996      1980     1996      1980      1996     1980      1995
Rwanda                          ..     70.0      8.7        0.6      1.4      0.1        5.7      7.1       0.0      0.0      14.3      25.8
Saudi Arabia                     .        ..    -9.4       -7.7     -2.0     -1.5       22.8     63.8         .
Senegal                       62.1     70.3       3.1       5.3      0.5      0.9      42.3      15.8       0.6       1.1     23.1
Sierra Leone                    ..     64.4      -9.0       5.7     -1.5      0.5        7.2      2.5       0.0C      0.0     26.5      16.4
Singapore                     75.6        ..    22.8       28.6     10.5     10.0       81.0    108.8         ..              20.0      15.9
Slovak Republic                                    ..       3.9       ..      1.5          .     31.7       0.0       7.1
Slovenia                        ..     26.7        .        4.3       ..       1.0         .     28.5        ..     48.0
South Africa                  50.8        ..     -0. 1      0.6      0.0       0.1      60.3    137.1        ..     15.1      22.1      33.7
Spain                                             3.0       5.2      0.7      1.1       78.2     74.9                         26.7      38.2
Sri Lanka                     77.4         .      3.2       3.4      1.1      0.9       17.2     25.2       0.2       1.0     41.4      29.3
Sudan                         38.9        ..      0.0        ..      0.0        ..      14.9      5.3       6.3       2.9     19.6
Sweden                                            0.9      41.2      0.2      2.2       78.0     37.1                         39.3      49.5
Switzerland                      ..       .         .         .        .      1.2     113.7     161.7         .         .     20.1      26.6
Syrian Arab Republic          36.1        ..      0.0        ..      0.0      0.6        5.7     10.9       0.0      0.0      48.2      24.5
Tajikistan                                         ..       4.7       ..       0.8        ..        ..                0.0-
Tanzania                                           ..      14.2       ..       2.6        ..      3.4       3.4       0.6
Thailand                      68.1      77 6      2.0       3.1      0.6       1.3      41.7    100.0      20.5      39.8     18.8      15.8
Togo                          28.3      78.2    13.1        0.0      3.7       0.0      27.5     19.2       0.0       0.0     30.8
Trinidad and Tobago             ..     88.0       9.7      38.1      3.0       5.9      28.7     46.3       0.0       3.5     30.9      29.2
Tnisia                       4.        510       91        68       2.        1.6      46.4     63.5       5.1       1.9     31.8      32.8
Turkey                           ..~    81.4      0.1       1.7      0.0       0.4      13.6     22.8       2.8      13.1     21.3      22.2
Turkmenistan                     ..       .         .         .        .       2.5         .     1 7.5       ..       0.0
Uganda                           ..    63.9      0.0       12.1      0.0      2.0        3.9      4.7       0.0      0.0       6.2
Ukraine                                            ..       3.5       ..      0.8          -      1.4        ..       1.9
United Arab Emirates..                                        .        .        .      22.9      50.0         ...             12.1     111.8
United Kingdom                                  11.2         ..      1.9      2.8       27.6    124.1                         38.3      42.0
United States                    .        ..     3.1        5.4      0.6      1.0       80.3    115.4         ...             22.0      22.7
Uruguay                       67.9     71.1     16.5        7.7      2.9      0.9      37.2      30.3      12.7      2.3      21.8     31.5
Uzbekistan                      ..        .         .       1.4       -.       0.2        ..        .         .      0.0
Venezuela                     51.5      31.5      0.3      16.3      0.1       2.7      48.2      986      10 8       l.4     18J. 7    48.8
Vietnam                         ..     76.3        ..      23.0       -.       6.4        ..      8.2       0.0       0.0
West Bank and Gaza               .         .       .          .        .         ..                 .         .
Yemen, Rep.                            67.6        ..       6.6       ..       1.7         .      3,4        ..       0.0               24.7
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)                      0.0                0.0        ...                 .      59.5     20.5
Zambi'a                         ..     48.7       6.8      11.4      1.6       1.7      19.9      9.3       2.7       0.2     37.1      25.0
Zimbabwe                      77.1     90.4       0.1       4.7      0.0      0.8       33.2     35.4       0.0       8.6     34.8      34.1
Low income                    48.5     53.2       0.0       9.8      0.0      3.3       32.3     82.3       4.8       3.1       ..      12.9
Exci. China & India  ..  63.2    -0.1      10.6~~~~            ~ 0.0 2.  17.4     177.
Mide .cm   .................  .......~ .i 7 .1 . 1.1... i   .  7.8  0.3  1.8     30.4      35.. 0. '' .. .. 12.7  15.2
'Lo"w"er ..mijddle income        ..    75. 0      1.5       6.5      0.4      1.6       29.9     34.8        ..        ...             22.6
UOp'p er ..m i'ddile i'ntom .er. ..........66.8  811.3  0.8  92.2.. ...0.2    2.0      .30.7     35.1                   ......20.3.    29.0
L'ow...&' mniddle'in"c"o ..m"e59.8     666        08        8.5      02       2.2       16.7     18.7                             ... 21.9
E'a'st ..A's i"a ..& ..P"a"c'ific  50.......... .5"C   56.  1.1i  10.4  0'.4.. ... 4.0.....  41.5.85.4     1-3.-5 . ....19.4            ill115
Eu6r'o pe' &   Ceta   As ia      ....  84.5..   0......6.1 ........5.. 7........0 ..... .0  1 ..3...  1 7.0  15.7  15.3  7.3    ..      30.9
L~atin-r.. Aer'i c'a &Ca"rib".  70.6   80.2      3.4       10.4      08       21        32.5     27.5      18.      169       18.8      24.5
MIddeEat&N. Afric'a            .               3.1        33       07       0.7      28.6      37.5       0.7      1.
So'uth Aaia                   54.4     64.4     06.4         .        " ....      ... 2.9..0.1.0.7  23.6   2 .9..  0.9  8.2   14.2      17.6
Sub-Saharan Afria       ..     64.6      0.0        6.       0.0      1.1      31.3      68.1       5.        .2      2.
Hihincome                     .         ..     2.9       54       0.7       0.9 :    82.7      82.9        ...              26.3     31.3
256   1998 World Development Indicators



5.1
The indicators in the table measure the relative size  Monetary Fund (IMF), supplemented by data on net for-  * Private investment covers gross outlays by the pri-
of states and markets in national economies. There  eign direct investment reported bythe Organisation for  vate sector (including private nonprofit agencies) on
is no ideal size for states, and size alone does not  Economic Co-operation and Development and official  additions to its fixed domestic assets. Gross domes-
capture theirfull effect on markets. Large states may  national sources. The data suffer from deficiencies  ticfixed investment includessimilaroutlays bythe pub-
support prosperous and effective markets; small  relating to definitions, coverage, and cross-country  lic sector. No allowance is made for the depreciation
states may be predatory toward markets. The     comparability. (Seethenotestotable6.8foradetailed  of assets. * Foreign direct investment is net inflows
resources of a large state may be used to correct  discussion of data on foreign direct investment.)  of investment to acquire a lasting management inter-
genuine market failures-or merely to subsidize     Data on domestic credit to the private sector are  est (10 percent or more of voting stock) in an enter-
state enterprses making goods or providing services  taken from  the banking survey of the IMF's  prise operating in an economy other than that of the
that the private sector might have produced more effi-  International Financial Statistics or, when the  investor. It is the sum of equity capital, reinvestment
ciently. A large share of private domestic investment  broader aggregate is not available, from its mone-  of earnings, other long-term capital, and short-term
in total investment may reflect a highly competitive  tary survey. The monetary survey includes monetary  capital as shown in the balance of payments. Gross
and efficient private sector-or one that is subsi-  authorities (the central bank) and deposit money  domestic investment (used in the denominator) is
dized and protected. Thus, like other indicators in this  banks. In addition to these, the banking survey  gross domestic fixed investment plus net changes in
book, the indicators here provide an important but  includes other banking institutions such as savings  stocks inventories. * Credit to private sector refers
incomplete picture of what they measure-in this  and loan institutions, finance companies, and devel-  to financial resources provided to the private sector-
case the roles of states and markets.           opment banks. In some cases credit to the private  such as through loans, purchases of nonequity secu-
Because data on subnational units of govern-  sector may include credit to state-owned or partially  rities, and  trade  credits and  other accounts
ment-state, provincial, and municipal-are not   state-owned enterprises.                        receivable-that establish a claim for repayment. For
readily available, the size of the public sector is mea-                                        some countries these claims include credit to public
sured here by the size of the central government.                                               enterprises. * Private nonguaranteed debt consists
While the central government is usually the largest                                              of external obligations of private debtors that are not
Foreign direct Investment has retreated
economic agent in a country and typically accounts   in East Asia                               guaranteed for repayment by a public entity. Total exter-
for most public sector revenues, expenditures, and   $ billions                                  nal debt is the sum of public and publicly guaranteed
deficits. in some countries-especially large ones-                  Eal O15 3 nBr] F,fc         long-term debt, private nonguaranteed long-term debt,
state, provincial, and local govemments are impor-    '       3t.r. AmorIC3 ar                  IMF credit, and short-term debt. * Central govern-
tant participants in the economy. In addition, 'central  r. iojie Elai an         -              ment expenditure comprises the expenditures of all
government" activities can vary depending on the       ,,   rr.rr,cn                             government offices, departments, establishments,
accounting practice followed. In most countries cen-  .'/                                       and other bodies that are agencies or instruments of
tral government finance data are consolidated into                    . io            m &ea     the central authority of a country. It includes both cur-
one overall account, but in others only budgetary cen-        _……                       =       rent and capital (development) expenditures.
tral government accounts are available, which often  S-ar,ran Ar,ca
omit the operations of state-owned enterprises (see    1990     1992      1994     1996           Data sources
Primary data documentation).                         Source: World Bank 1998.
When direct estimates of private gross domestic                                                              U    Private investment data are
The surge In net foreign direct Investment (FDI)
fixed investment are not available, such investment  f      d      9      benspurrer3bythre                  ,      from the International Finance
is estimated as the difference between total gross   malnfacton: Increasingilberalkzationofdeveloping  . . .        Corporation's Trends in Private
economies, strong growth In GDP and trade of the
domestic investment and consolidated public invest-  main developing economy recipients ef FDI, and                  I Investment  in  Developing
ment. Total investment may be estimated directly     falting costs and Improving quality of communi              -   Countries 1997 and World
cation and transportatlon servkes.                   .i
from  surveys of enterprises and administrative         F    t levesd off In s997 to $.20 blarn after                Bank estimates. Data on for-
records or indirectly using the commodity flow       severalyeasofrapidgrowAh. TheratloofFDItoGDP                    eign direct investment are
In developing economies quadrupled from 0.6 per-
method. Consolidated measures of public invest-      centIn99Ito2.5percentin997,whilenorminal                        based on estimates compiled
ment may omit important subnational units of gov-    levels quintupled.                          by the IMF in the Balance of Payments Statistics
The deceleration In ±997 reflected a reversal in
ernment. In addition, public investment data may     East Asia and the Pacific, where flows fell 9 per-  Yearbook, supplemented by World Bank staff estimates.
include financial as well as physical capital invest-  cent, to $53 billion. In contrast, flows to Latin  Data on domestic credit are from the IMF's Intemational
America and the Cadbbean Increased t0 percent,
ment. As the difference between two estimated quan-  to $42 billion.                            Financial Statistics, and data on government expendi-
tities, private investment may be undervalued or                                                ture are from the IMF's Govemment Finance Statistics
overvalued and subject to large errors over time.                                                Yearbook. Extemal debt figures are from the World
(See the notes to table 4.9 for further discussion on                                            Bank's Debtor Reporting System as reported in Global
measuring domestic investment.)                                                                  Development Finance 1998.
Statistics on foreign direct investment are based on
balance of payments data reported by the International
1998 World Development Indicators     257



El ~5.2 1Stock markets
Market capitalization     i   Value traded     Turnover ratio  Listed dormestic  IFC Investable
companies           index
value of shares
traded as ft of                     ftS cange in
$ millions       ft of GDP         %of GDP          capita.r zatoo                     price ondes
1990     1997     1990    1999     1990     1996     1990    1997     1990     1996     1996    1997
Argentina                 3,268    59,252    2.3     15.2      0.6      1.5     33.6    49.5      179     147      18.7    17.4
Armeni'a                      ..        7      .      0.2       ..      0.1       .       08        ..      10
Australia               107,611   311,988   36.4     79.5     13.3     37.1     31.6    52.2    1,089    1,135
Austria                   11.476   33.953    7.2     15.0     11.7      9.1    110.3    61.8       97     106
Azerbaijan...                                  .......... 
Bangladesh                  321     4.55-1   1.4     14.3      0.0      2.3      1.5    24.2      134     186
Belarus                       .         .      .        ..                ..
Belgium                  65,449   119,831   33.8     45.3      3.3      9.9       .        .      182     139
Bolivia                      ..      114       .      1.6       ..      0.0       .      0.6       ..      10
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana                    261      326     6.6      6.6      0.2      0.6      6.1     9.0        9      12
Brazil                   16,354   255,476    3.4     29.0      1.2     15.0     23.6    85.8      581     551     29.8     21.8
Bulgaria                      ..        7      .      0.1       ..      0.0       .      0.1       ..      15
Burksina Faso                 .         ..                                ..
Burundi                       .         ..                                ..
Cambodia                      .         ..                                .       .
Cameroon                      .         ..                                .       .
Canada                  241,920   486,268   42 6     83.9     12.5     45.8     26.7    62.2    1,144    1,265
Central African Republic
Chile                    13,645    72,046   44,9     888       2.6     11.4      5.3    10.5      215     291    -17.1      3.6
China                     2,028   206,366    0.5     14.0      0.2     31.4   158.9    231.0       14     540     36.3    -25.0
Hong Kong, China        83,397  449,381   111,5    216.6     46.3     76.2    43.1     44.2     284      561
Colombia                   1.416   19,530    3.5     20.1      0.2      1.6      5.6    10.2       80     189      5.9     30.4
Congo, Dem. Rep.              .         .      .        ..                ..               ..
Congo, Rep.                   .         .      .        ..                ..               ..
costa Rica                  311      782     5.5      8.7      0.1      0.2      5.8     3.5       82     114
C6te dI~voire               549      914     5.1      8.6      0.2      0.2      3.4     2.2       23      3
Croatia                       ..     581       .      3.2       ..      0.3       .      0.0       ..       61
Czech Republic               ..    12,786      .     32.9       ..     15.4      ..     47.9       ..    1,588    16.9    -22.0
Denmark                  39,063    71,688   30.3     41.1      8.6     19.9    28.0     54.2     258      237
Dominican Republic            .         .      .        .        .        .       .        .        .
Ecuador                      69     1,946    0.5     10.2       ..      0.6      0.0     5.2       65      42
Egypt, Arab Rep.          1,765   20,830     4.1     20.9      0.3      3.6      ..     33.5     573      646
El Salvador                  ..      450      ..      4.3       ..      0.1      ..        .        .      49
Finland                  22,72.1   63,078   16.9     50.9      2.9     18.1       .        ..      73   ~  71
France                  314,384   591.123   26.3     38.4      9.8     18.0       .        ..     578     686
Gabon                         .         .      .        ..                ..
Gambia, The                   .         .      .        .        .        .       .
Georgia                       .         .      .        ..                ..
Germany                 355,073   670,997   22.9     28.5     22.1     32.7   139.3    123.2      413     581
Ghana                        76     1,492    1.2     23.5      0.0      0.3      0.9     1.1       13      21
Greece                   15,228    34,164   18.4     19.7      4.7      6.7     36.3    73.8      145     224      0.3     33.7
Guatemala                    ..      168      O.11               .       .,0      .      2.5       ..       9
Gu)nea-Bissau...                               .........
Honduras                     40      338     1.3      8.5       ..      0.0      0.0     0.0       26     111
258   1998 World Development Indicators



5.2
Market capitalization           Value traded       Turnover ratio    Listed domestic    IFC Investable
companies             index
value of shares
traded as % of                         % change in
$ millions         % of GDP           % of GOP          capitalization                        price index
1990     1997      1990     ±.996     1990     1996      1990     1997      1990     1996      1996     1997
Hungary                       505     14,975     1.5     11.8       0.4      3.7       6.4      73.4       21       45      99.9.    60.0
India                      38,567    128,466    12.9    .34.4.      7.3     30.7      65.9  ..41.6.     .6,200   8,800..    -2.0      5.8
Indonesia                    8,081    29,105.7.1.        40.3       3.5..   14.2      75.8     64.2      _125    253_' _16.4        - 
Iran, Islamic Rep.         34,282     1 7,008   28.0        .       4.3        .      30.4      22.2       97      220
Ireland                         ..    12,243       ..    17.6                                                       76 67  ..24.5...7
Israel                      3,324     45,268     6.0     39.6      10.1   -100.0      95.8     26.7      216.      655        .      21.7
Italy                     148,766    258,160    13.6     21.4       3.9       8.5     26.8     43.8      220       244
Jamaica                       911       1,887   21.4     42.6       0.8       0.9      3.4       2.5       44       46,
Japan                    2,917,679  3,088,850   98.4     67.2      54.0.    27.2      43.8      37.1               - 53.    13.41
Jordan                       2,001      5,446   49.8     62.7      10.1       4.1     20.0      9.7      10          8       11      12.6
Kazakhstan                      .           .      .         .        .         .        .         .        .
Kenya                         453      .1,846    5.3     20.0       0.1j.    0.7       2.2      3.7       54        56.
Korea, Dam. Rep.,.                         .       .        ..        .         .        .
Korea, Rep.               110,594     41,881    43.6     28.6      29 9     36.6..    61.3    172.3      669       760     -38.7.   -68 9
Kuwait                          ..    18.81 7      ..    51.1        ..     24.0         .        .     2,071    2.334                  7
Kyrgyz Republic                    ..     ..  5  ..   . ..  0.3              00          ..     3.7                 27 27
Lao PDR...                                                                               .
Latvia                          ..        48.             279        ..      03          .     14.6        ..       34
Lebanon                                                                        .........             ...
Lesotho
Libya                                                                 ....
Lithuania                             --900 ....        .11.6                068                            .       6
Macedonia, FYR........
Madagascar                                                                     7                    .     ..            .   ...
Malaysia                   48,611     93,608  113:6   ..309:6      25.4   .174:9.9  . 24.6 ...72.6       282       621      24.1    -72.9
.au it ni . I.                           ...............  ..
Mauritius                     268       1,676   10.1     39 .0       .        .         .       5.4       13.       40
Mexico                     32,725    156,595    12.5     3.         46      129        41      3.7       199       193      169.9    4.
Moldova                          .          .      .         ..                 ..
M on oli .. . .       . . .. ..           .      ..                  ..                 .
Morocco  ..    . ..          . 966    12,177     3.7     23.6     0..2        1.2        .     10.2        71       47.
Mozambique         ..         ..     ~~~~~~~~~                  ~   ~   ~~....  .. ....   ..... ....
Myanmar                         ...                .        ..        .         .        .
Namibia                        21        473     0.7     14.6       0.0       1.2      0.0      12.1        3       12
Nepal                            .....  -.208      ..     4.7         .       0.1        .       2.3       ..       90  ....    ... .
Netherlands               119,825    378,721    46.4     96.5      15.6    .86.5,     29.0     92.4      260.      217
New Zealand                  8.835    38,288    24.5     58.8       5.4      15.2     17.3     28.1       171      158 
Nicaragua                        .          .      .         .        .         .        .
Nigeria                      1,372      3,646    4.8     11.1       0.0       0.2      0.9       3.9     131       183
Norway                     26,130     57,423    217.7   .364.4     1.       22.7 ..  .54.4      70.3      112      158          .. ..
Oman                          945      2,673     9.0     164.4       1.1.... 1.8      12.3      213.3      55      143
Pakistan                     2,850    10,966     7.1.    .16.4      0..6    .9.3      .8.7    103.7      487       782     -19 3     26.9
Panama                        226        831     3.4     10.5       0.0       0.1      0.9       1.1       13       16
Papua New Guinea                 .          .      .         .        .
Paraguay                        ..       383       ..     4.0         .      0.3        ..     11.3        ..       60
Peru                          812     17,586     2.5     20.2       0.3      6.2      19.3.    25.6      294       231 -..   02.2    12.5
Philippines                 5,927     31,361    13.4     96.2       2.7     30.4      13.6     34.8       153      216      13.1    -61.6.
Poland                        144     12,135     0.2      6.2       0.0.      4.1     89..7    78.4         9       83      71.8    -18.5
Portugal                    9.201     38.954    13.7     23.7       2.5       6.9     16.9      66.8      181      158      26.2     44.4
Puerto Rico  ..  ..   ..        ..        ..       .. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. .......
Romania                         ..        61       ..     0.2        ..       0.                 7:2.               17
Russian Federation            244    128.207     0.0      8.5        ..       07    ..          19.4       13       73
1998 World Development indicators     259



Market capitalization              Value traded        Turnover ratio      Listed domestic      IFC Investable
companies              Index
value of shores
traded a's % of                            % change ~
Smillions           N of GDP             % of GDP           capita. zat or                            price inoes
i990     '1997       1990      199       1990       1996      1.990     1997       1990      1996      1996       1997
.Rwanda                                                                     ..         ..        .
SaUdi Arabia                       ..    40,961        ..      32.7         ..       5.0                15.6         ..        69
Senegal...                                             ...                   .....
Sierra Leone                        .          .       .          .         .          .         .          ..
Singapore                     34,308    150,215     91.6     159.7       54.2      45.4         ..      28.7       150       223
Slovak Republic                           1 826         .      11.5         ..     12.2         ..     109.4         ..      816
Slovenia                           ..       663        ..       3.6         ..       2.2        ..      68.8        24         21
South Africa                 137,540    232,069    128.9      191.3        7.6     21.5         ..      18.3       732       626      -19.2     -13.8
Spain                        111,404    242,779     22.6       41.7       8.3      42.8                            427       357
Sri Lanka                        917      2,096     11.4       13.3       0.5        1.0       5.8      15.6       175       235       -8.6      22.3
Sweden                        97,929    24 7,21 7   43.2       98.8       7.8      54.7       14.9      64.4       258       229
Switzerland                  160.044    402.104     70.1      137.0      29,6     133.9        0.0      94.0       182       213
Syrian Arab Republic                .          .       .          .         .          .         .          ..
Tajikistan                         .. .. ....                        .       ..                  .          ..
Tanzania                            .          .       .          ..                   ..                   ..
Thailand                      23.96      23.538     27.9       53.9      26.7      24.0       92.6      39,2       214       454      -41.1     -78.8
Trinidad and Tobago              696      1,405     13.7       25.7       1.1        2.0      10.0       8.3        30         23
Tunisia                          533      4.263      4.3       21.8        0.2       1.4       3.3        6.8       13         30
Turkey                        19,065     61,090     12.7       16.5       3.9      20.3       42.5     113.5       110       229       42.3     109.9
Turkmenistan
Uganda
Ukraine
United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom               848,866 1,740,246      87.0     151.9       28.       50.5       33.3      36.8     1.701      2,433      23.0~
United States              3,059.434 8,484,433      55.1     115.6       31.5      97.0       53.4      92.8     6,599     8,479       20.31
Uruguay                           38        266      0.5        1.5       0.0        0.0       0.0       1.7        36         18
Uzbekistan                         ..       128        ..       0.5         .       0.3         -.         ...                  4
Venezuela                      8.361     14.581     17.2       14.9        4,6       1.9      43.0      31.0        76         88     11 7.7     25.7
West Bank and Gaza                  .          .        .         .         .          .         .          ..
Yemen, Rep.
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)     434          ..,                                                           .       24         25
Zambia                             ..       229        ..       6.8         ..       0.1         -        1.0         .5
Zimbabwe                       2,395      1.969     35.2       48.1       0.7        3.4       2.9      17.1        57         64      72.4     -46.8
Lo income                      47.424   265.322       8.3      19.5        3.4      27,4     100.9      205.2     7.261    11,150
Exci. China & India             8,857    28,962        .          ..         .         ...                 ..     1,061     1,810
Middle incomne                328.104  1,461.083     21.6      40.0       10.1      15.0        ..       39.5     4.195     8,895
Lower mciddle income           73,734   436.341       9.8      25.8          .       9.4        ..      34.5      1,859     3,664
Upper middle income          254,370   1.024,742    23.3       51.6        3.5      19.6      29.6       43.5     2.336     5.231
Low & middle income           375.528  1.726.405     18.5      34.4        5.5      18.4        ..       85.1    11,456    20,045
East Asia & Pacific            86.515   692.427      16.3      49.1        6.6      37.7    :118.3      208.5      774      2,084
Europe & Central Asia          19.065   103,563       2.1      19.5         ..       6.0        -.       45.5      110      3,42a
Latin America & Carlo.         78.506   481,799       7.4      27.4        2.1       9,9      29.5       39.0     1,748     2,191
Middle East & N. Africa         6.210    51,373        ..      24.2         ..       2.6        ..       14.4      817      1,184
South Asia                     42,655   139,879     11.6       29.7        6.0      24.7      54,5       23.1     6.996    10.102
Sub-Sarnaran Africa           142,577   257,364      56.3     123.1        4.1      13.3        ..        8.1     1,011     1,056
High income                 9,023.827  18.451,257    56.4      78.5       32.5      54.6      48.8       75.1    17,733    22,359
a.Data refer to the Nikkel index. hoData refer to she FT 100 ondes. cOData refer to the S&P 500 indes,
260    1998 World Deseiopment Indicators



5.2
Financial market development is closely related to  developing countries. The IFC Investable (IFCI) index  * Market capitalization (also known as market
an economy's overall development. At low levels of  series includes country indexes (shown in table 5.2),  value) is the share price times the number of shares
development, commercial banks tend to dominate   regional indexes, and the Composite index. The IFCI  outstanding. * Value traded refers to the total value
the financial system. As economies grow, special-  Composite index tracks 1,426 stocks with a market  of shares traded during the period. * Turnover ratio
ized financial intermediaries and equity markets  value of more than $769 billion in 31 emerging mar-  is the total value of shares traded during the period
develop.                                         kets. The IFCI Composite index is the broadest index  divided by the average market capitalization for the
A variety of measures are needed to gauge a country's  available, designed to measure returns on emerging  period. Average market capitalization is calculated as
level of stock market development Single measures suf-  market stocks that are legally and practically open to  the average ofthe end-of-period valuesforthe current
fer from conceptual and statistical weaknesses such as  foreign portfolio investment. It is a widely used  period and the previous period. Listed domestic com-
inaccurate reporting and different accounting standards.  benchmark for international portfolio management  panies is the number of domestically incorporated
The stock market indicators presented in the table  purposes. See IFC's The IFC Indexes: Methodology,  companies listed on the country's stock exchanges
include measures of size (marketcapitalization and num-  Definitions, and Practices booklet for further infor-  at the end ofthe year. This indicatordoes not include
ber of listed domestic companies) and liquidity (value  mation on the IFCI indexes.               investment companies, mutual funds, or other col-
traded as a percentage of GDP and turnover ratio). The                                            lective investment vehicles. * IFC investable index
percentage change in stock market prices in U.S. dollars                                          price change is the U.S. dollar price change in the
comes from the International Finance Corporation's                                                stock markets covered by the IFCI index.
Emerging stock markets
Investable (IFCI) index, an important measure of perfor-  have been volatile
mance. Regulatory and institutional factors that can                                                Data sources
boost investor confidence, such as the existence of a  % change
'0
securities and exchange commission and the quality of                                                             3    Data are from   the  IFC's
investor protection laws, influence the functioning of               I                                         '       Emerging  Stock   Markets
stock markets but are not included in this table.      .    I                                                          Factbook 1997, with supple-
Stock market size can be measured in a number      -                                              m7g5*.        -   mental data from I FC. IFC col-
of ways, each of which may produce a different rank-   '                                              ;     ilects data through an annual
ing among countries. Market capitalization in U.S.                                                                   . survey of the world's stock
dollars gives the overall size of the stock market and                                                                 exchanges, supplemented by
as a percentage of GDP. The number of listed domes-                                                  WC *      '       information  provided  by
tic companies is an additional measure of market         Composite  Latin    Asia  Deveioping     Reuters and IFC's network of correspondents. GDP
emerging America        Europe, the
size. Market size is positively correlated with the abil-  markets                  Middle        data are from the World Bank's national accounts
index                   Cast, and
ity to mobilize capital and diversify risk.                                         Africa        data files. About the data is based on Demirgoc-Kunt
Market liquidity, the ability to easily buy and sell            * 1996 0e1997                   and Levine (1996b).
securities, is measured by dividing the total value   Source: IFC Emerging Markets Database.
traded by GDP. This indicator complements the mar-
The Intemational inance Corporation's Investable
ket capitalization ratio by showing whether market    (IFCI) index covers 3± emerging markets. The
size is matched by trading. The turnover ratio-       figure shows the percentage change (in U.S. dollar
terms) in emerging market stock prices for the
shares traded as a percentage of market capitaliza-   composite index, Latin America, Asia. and devel-
tion-is also a measure of liquidity as well as of     oping Europe. the Middle East. and Airica
It was a rollercoaster year for emerging markets
transactions costs. (High turnover indicates low     in 1997. A stock market boon In Latin America and
transactions costs.) The turnover ratio also comple-  Eastern Europe was accompanied by substantial
portfolio equityflows, but the onrset of the East Asian
ments the ratio of value traded to GDP, because       financlalcrisisIn July997-andItseffectsonother
turnover is related to the size of the market and the  regions later In the year-led to a general retreat
value traded ratio to the size of the economy. A small.  from new investments In emerging markets
liquid market will have a high turnover ratio but a
small value traded ratio. Liquidity is an important
attribute of stock market development because, in
theory, liquid markets improve the allocation of cap-
ital and enhance prospects for long-term economic
growth. A more comprehensive measure of liquidity
would include trading costs and the time and uncer-
tainty in finding a counterpart in settling trades.
The IFC has developed a series of indexes for
investors interested in investing in stock markets in
1a998 World Development Indicators     261



5.3 Portfolio investment regulation and risk
Entry and exit regulations     Composite Institutional Euromoney          Moody's             Standard & Poor's
ICRG risk    Investor    country          sovereign           sovereign long-term
rating      credit      credit-         long-term               debt rating
ratinga   worthiness        debt rating
rating
Fore gn    Domestic     Foreign    Domestic
Repatriation  Repatriation                                    currency    currency    currency    currency
Entry     of income    of capita[  December   September   September    January     January     January     January
1996        1996        1996        1997        1997        1997        1998        1.998       1998        1998
Albania                       ...                      .52.8                  11.6        21.7
Algeria                       ...                      .59.0                  24.5        37.2
Angola                        ...                      .44.8                  13.6         22.7        .
Argentina                     Free        Free         Free       75.5        41.3        63.2         Ba3         Ba3         BB          BBS-
Armenia                                               ...                         .       25.6
Australia                                              .83.5                  73.3        91.5         Aa2         Aaa         AA          AAA
Austria                                               ..82.5                  86.5        94.4         Aaa         Aaa         AAA         AAA
AzerbaiUan                    ...                      ..                        .        25.1         .
Bangladesh                    Free        Free        Free        66.0        28.5        44.6        .
Belarus                       ......                                          14.2        29.1        .
Belgium                       ...                      .78.5                  81.3        92.2        Aal         Aal          AA+         AAA
Benin                                                                ..       17.4        25.0         .
Bolivia                                                           68.5        26.2        44.1         .
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana                      Free        Free        Free        81.0        51.2        53.4         .
Brazil                        Free        Free        Free        71.3        39.5        56.7         51                      BB 5-       86+
Bulgaria                      Free        Free        Free        56.5        22.2        37.8        83
Burkeina Faso                                         ..60.3                  19.7        33.8
Buru ndi
Cambodia                                              ...                         .       20.3
Cameroon                                              ..58.8                  18.8        32.5
Canada                                                ..84.8                  82.1        95.4         Aa2        Aal          AA+         AMA
Central African Republic                              ...                         .       13.7         .
Chad                           ..                     .               ..                  23.1         .
Chile                         Rel. free   Free        Delayed r   80.3        63.5        78.2        ...A-                                AA
China                         Speciel     Free        Free        75.0        57.8        71.3        43           .           BBB+
Hong Kong. China            ...                       .82.5                  63.9        85.5        ...A+-                               AA-
Colombia                      Auth. only  Free        Free        58.8        47.2        60.3         Baa3       ..BBS-                   4+
Congo, Dem. Rep.              ...                      .35.3                     .            .        .
Congo, Rep.                                           ..52.0                   7.0        27.7
Costa Rica                    Free        Free         Free       74.3        36.0        50.3         Bel                     B B         SBB-
C6te dilvoire                  Rel. free  Free         Free       63.8        20.1        37.0         .
Croatia                       Free        Free         Free          ..       33.6        52.7         Baa3       ..           55-         A-
Cuba                          ...                      .59.3                  11.3          9.5        .
Czech Republic                Free        Free        Free        76.5           ..       71.7         Saal       ..A
Denmark                       ...                      .85.3                  82.6        95.1        Aal         Aea          AA+         AAA
Dominican Republic            ...                      .74.3                  24.8        42.8        ...                       +          BB
Ecuador                       Free        Free        Free        62.0        26.3        37.1        51
Egypt, Arab Rep.              Free        Free        Free        71.3        39.7        55.4                    ..BBS-                  A-
El Salvador                   ...                      .73.5                  27.5        54.2        B..                       B          SBBBr
Eritreea..                                             ....                                   ..
Estonia.                                   .           ..                     36.9        56.5        ...                      BBB         A
Ethiopia                                              ..66.3                  17.1        25.2         .
Finland                                                           86.0        76.6        92.8        Aal         Aaa         AA           AAA
France                                                            81.3        88.4        93.0        Aaa         Aaa         AAA          AMA
Gabon                                                 ..68.3                  24.5        36.4
Gambia, The                                           ..71.5                     ..       24.7         .
Georgia                                               ...                      9.5        17.0
Germany                                               ..80.5                  91.3        95.4         .Aaa                    MAA         MAA
Ghana                         Free        Free        Free        63.5        31.5        45.6
Greece                        Free        Free        Free        76.3        53.0        77.8         Seal       A2
Guatem'ala                                            ..73.5                  26.8        51.0         .
Guinea-Bissau                                          ..43.8                    ..       15.4
Guinea                                                ..          S.5         14.9        28.7         .
Haiti                                                 5. 4.0                  14.0        23.6         .
Honduras                                              ..59.5                  18.9        41.2         .
26 2  1998 Worlt Development Irticators



5.3i1
Entry and exit regulations   Composite Institutional Euromoney       Moody's            Standard & Poor's
ICRG risk  Investor    country         sovereign          sovereign long-term
rating     credit     credit-        long-term              debt rating
rating'  worthiness       debt rating
rating
Foreign   Domestic     Foreign   Domestic
Repatriation  Repatriation                               currency    currency   currency   currency
Entry    of income   of capital  December  September  September    January   January     January    January
1996       1996        1996       1997       1997       1997        1998       1998       1998       ±998
Hungary                     Free       Free        Free       75.8       49.7       70.0        Baa3                  888-       A-
India                       Auth. only  Free       Free      638.8       46.9....   61.4        .                     88+        8BB+
Indonesia                   Rel. free  Restricted  Restricted  66.3      51.8       68.9        Baa3                  888-       A-
Iran, Islamic Rep.     ..      ..   ..                        70.8       27.5       33.1......
Iraq                                                          32.3        7.93.
Ireland                                                       66.0..     76.7.      93.8        Aal   ... s-......
Israel                                                        67.5       52.9       76.6        A3         .           -A-
Italy....                                  .....              81.3       754.4.     86.9        Aa3        Aa3        AA         AAA
Jamaica                     ReL. free  Free        Free       73.5       29.7       39 .3       .....
Japan                       ...                    .87.3                 915.5       930.        ..   ... .Aaa ..     AAA        AAA
Jordan                      Free       Free      ..Free       74~8.8 .   34:9        53-4       Ba3                   88- ...    888-
Kazakhstan                  ....                                 .       2.         459         B3B-                             BB+
Kenya                       Rel. free  Free        Free       62.3       28.6       40.5
Korea, Dem. Rep.            ...                    .38.3                  4.75_
Korea, Rep.                 Rel. free  Free        Free       79.3       69.7       80-3        .                      +         888-
Kuwait                   .    ....      ...     ..         ....  76.5    55.0       76.2..A                                      A+
Kyrgyz Republic             ...                    ..                       .       20.7        . 
LaoP D R   ..   ..        ..            ..         ..       24.8~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~11  ..... .............. ....   . .   ..
Latvia                      Free       Free        Free          .       32.6       57.7         ..                   88         A-
Lebanon                                                       61.3       32.4       5.           18-                             8
Lesotho                     ........                                    .           32.1.....
Libya                       .           ..                    63.0       27.8       16.5
Lithuania                   Rel. free  Free        Free          .       31.1       56.7        Ba2                   888-.      888±
Macedonia, FYR              ...                    ..                       .       23.3
Madagascar                                                    61.8                  28.4
Malawi               ~   ~   ~~~       ~    ~   ~~~~~~        ~~.. .. . --.. .. .   66'.5  21.0  30.5   ..........: ..... ...
Malaysia                    Free       Free        Free       76.3       66.7       79.4        AlAPAA
Mali                        ..          .          .. 1.5.7.4.4.2                               ...
Mauritani'a                 .           ..                       ..                  97
Mauritius                   Free       Free        Free          .       51.9       71.3        8aa2
Mexico                      Free       Free        Free       70.8       43.5       63.5        8a2        Baa3       88         888+
Moldova                     -.         ...6.                                                     a
M ongol.i.a  .. .. ...... . ....  ....  ..    ...    ...   ..  65.8                 38.4
Morocco                                                       67.5       40.9       53,8             ....   ......              ...
Mozambique                                                    48.        14.62,
M yanm ar....                     . ...... ...  ..... .... .. .. 61-.0   21.0       32.2                                .......    . ...
Namibia                     Free        Free       Free       81.0          .       33.0        .
Nepal...                                                         .       25.9        36-.6 
Netherlands                 .           ..                    86.5       90.6        98.0        .AAA                            AAM
New Zealand             ....       ...         .....  ........  81.8..   73.1       92.2        Aal        Ass        AA+        AMA
Nicaragua                                .   ...   .52.8             ..135.5        25.1        -
Niger                      ...                     .30.6
Nigeria                     Free       Free        Free       57.0      -15.3       30.6                              -
Norway                      .           ..                    91.0       8.         96.6        Aaa        Aaa        AMA        AMA
Oman                        Rel. free  Free        Free       74.5       53.0        66.7        ..                   88-
Pakistan                   .Free        Free       Free       60.5       27.2+      44.5        82                    8+
Panama                      Free       Free        Free       72.8       33.6       57.2        Bal                   BB8+        B8+
Papua New Guinea                                              68.5       32.3       47 0.. ..
Paraguay                    ...                    .72.8                 33.5       48.8        .8                                888-
Peru                        Free       Free        Free       64.8       33.7...    50 1                              88BB888-
Philippines                 Special..   Free       Free       72.3   ..  44.3       64 6        Bal.                   BB++.      A-
Poland                      Free        Free       Free       78.'3      50.2       66.7        Baa3                  888-       A-
Portugal                    Free        Free       Free       82.3       71.2       91.1        Aa3        Aa2        AA-.        AAA
Puerto  Rico.........                                                                           ...
Romania                     ...                    .60.3             3    4.1       50.5.8a3.88                                   888-
Russian Federation          Free       Free        Free       66.0       27.5       49.7        Ba2                   B8-
1998 World Devalopment Indicators 263



5.3 
Entry and exit regulations    Composite Institutional Euromoney         Moody's            Standard & Poor's
ICRG risk   Investor    country          sovereign          sovereign long-term
rating      credit     credit-         long-term              debt rating
rating'   worthiness       debt rating
raig  Foreign    Domestic    Foreign    Domestic
Repatriation  Repatriation                                  currency   cLJrrency   currency   currency
Entry     of income   of capital  December  September   September    January    January     January    January
1996        1996       1996        1997        1997       1997        1998       1998        1998        1998
.Rwanda                      ...                     ..                        .       20.5        .
Saud[ Arabia                 ...                     .76.8                  54.8        74.3       .
Senegal                                              764.0                  21.2.      34.5
Sierra Leone  ...                                               46.8        .6.5        19.1       .
Singapore                                           ..92.5                  84.2       93.7        ...AAA                             AMA
Slovak Republic              Free        Free        Free       75.5        44.8       60.4        Baa3        ..BBB-                 A
Slovenia                     Closed      Restricted  Restricted   ..        36.9       73.0        A3         ..A                     AA
South Afri'ca                Free        Free        Free       73.8        46.4       67.8        Baa3        Baal        BB+        886+
Spain                                               ..79.5                  75.5       91.3        Aa2         Aa2         AA4        AAA.
Sri Lanka                    Rel. free   Restricted  Restricted  64.3       32.1       46.3
Sudan                        ...                     .37.5                   9.1        13.7
Sweden                                                          813         7.          07         Aa3         Aal         A+AA
Swi.tzerland                 ....86.3                                       92.2       93.7                                AA .  A    AMA
Syrian Arab Republic                                            67.5        24.3       36.8        .
Tajiktistan                                                        ...                  25.6
Tanzania                                                        63.3        18.7        32.6
Thailand                     Rel. free   Free        Free       71.3        59.9        66.8       Baa3        ..BBS                  A
Togo                         ...                     .58.3                  16.9        30.7       .
Trinidad and Tobago          Rel. free   Free        Free       77. 5       42.9       51.0        Bal                     SBB+       BBB±
Tunisia                      ....7.5                                        47.9       59.9        Baa3                    SSS-       A
Turkey                        Free       Free        Free       52.3        38.6        52.8       BI.                     B
Turkmenistan                  ...                    ..                        .       24.6
Uganda                       ...                     .63.5                  20.1       36.9
Ukraine                                              ...                    19.8       29.7
United Arab Emirates                                ..77.8                  60.1       77.3
United Kingdom                                                  83.3        88.4       97.6        Aaa         Aaa        MAA         AMA
United States                ...                     .80.8                 9.         100          ..Aaa                  MAA         MAA
Uruguay                      ...                     .68.3                  43.4       58.5        Baa3       ..BBS-                  BSB+
Uzbekistan                   ......                                         19.5       39.4
Venezuela                    ReL. free   Free        Free       70.8        35.4       52.2        Ba2        ..
Vietnam                                                         66.8        32. 5      50.3
West Bank and Gaza
Yemen, Rep.
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)                                    54.8          ..        17.5
Zambia                       Free~       Free        Free       64.3        16.0        24.0
Zi mbabwe                    Free        Free        Free       63.3        33.8       40.9
Low income                                          ..61.5                  18.8       32.3
Excl. China & India                                 ..61.3                 18.7        32.2
Middle income                                        ..70.8                35.4        53.4
Lower middle income                                             66.0       32.4        50.3
Upper middle income                                             75.5       48.1        66.7
Low & middle income                                             66.0        28.6       45.6
East Asia &Pcfc66.6                                                        32.5        50.3
Europe & Central Asia                                           66.0       38.6        52.8
Latin America & Carib.                              ..70.8                 33.6        50.6
Middle East & N. Africa                              ..70.5                34.9        53.4
South Asia                                          ..65.2                  30.3       45.5
Sub-Saharan Africa                                              62.3        18.1       31.6
High income                                                     82.4        76.7       92.2
Note: For explanations of the terms used to describe entry and exit regulations see Dehinitions.
a. This copyrighted maeorial is reprinted vvith permission from Institutional Investor, Inc., 488 Madison Avenue, New York. NY 10022 b. After one your.
264   1.998 World Development Indicators



As investment portfolios become increasingly global,  banks. Responses are weighted using a formula that  - Regulations on entry into emerging stock mar-
investors and governments seeking to attract foreign  gives more importance to responses from banks with  kets are evaluated using the following terms: free (no
investment must have a good understanding of coun-  greater worldwide exposure and more sophisticated  significant restrictions), relatively free (some registra-
try risk. Risk, by its nature, is perceived differently by  country analysis systems. Countries are rated on a  tion procedures required to ensure repatriation
different groups. This table presents information on  scale of 0 to 100, and ratings are updated every six  rights), special classes (foreigners restricted to cer-
country risk and creditworthiness from several major  months.                                 tain classes of stocks designated for foreign
international rating services.                    Euromoney country creditworthiness ratings are  investors), authorized investors only (only approved
The information on the regulation of entry to and  based on analytical, credit, and market indicators.  foreign investors may buy stocks), and closed(closed
exit from  stock  markets is reported  by the  The ratings, also on a scale of 0 to 100, are based  or access severely restricted, as for nonresident
International Finance Corporation (IFC) for emerging  on polls of economists and political analysts supple-  nationals only). * Regulations on repatriation of
markets only. In many economies certain industries  mented by quantitative data such as debt ratios and  income (dividends, interest, and realized capital
are considered strategic and are not open to foreign  access to capital markets.               gains) and repatriation of capital from emerging mar-
or nonresident investors. Or foreign investment in a  Ratings of sovereign foreign and domestic cur-  kets are evaluated as free (repatriation done rou-
company or in certain classes of stocks may be lim-  rency debt by Moody's Investors Service are pre-  tinely) or restricted (repatriation requires registration
ited by national law or corporate policy. The regula-  sented for obligations that extend longer than one  with or permission of a government agency that may
tions summarized in the table refer to "new money"  year. These long-term ratings measuretotal expected  restrictthetimingof exchange release). * Composite
investment by foreign institutions; other regulations  credit loss over the life of the security; they are not  International Country Risk Guide (ICRG) risk rating
may apply to capital invested through debt conversion  intended to measure other risks in fixed income  is an overall index, ranging from 0 to 100, based on
schemes or to capital from other sources. The regu-  investment, such as market risk.          22 components of risk. * Institutional Investor
lations shown here are formal ones. But even formal  Standard & Poor's ratings of sovereign long-term  credit rating ranks, from 0 to 100, the chances of a
regulations may have very different effects in differ-  foreign and domestic currency debt are based on cur-  country's default. * Euromoney country credit-
ent countries because of the prevailing bureaucratic  rent information furnished by the issuer or obtained  worthiness rating ranks, from 0 to 100, the riskiness
culture, the speed with which applications are  by Standard & Poor's from other sources it considers  of investing in an economy. * Moody's sovereign for-
processed, and the extent of red tape. The effect of  reliable. The ratings reflect several risk factors, such  eign and domestic currency long-term debt rating
entry and exit regulations may also be influenced by  as the likelihood of default and the capacity and will-  assesses the risk of lending to governments. Aaa
graftand corruption, which are impossibleto quantify.  ingness of the debtor to make timely payments of  bonds arejudgedtobeofthebestqualityandCbonds
Most risk ratings are numerical or alphabetical.  interest and repayments of principal in accordance  of the lowest quality. Numerical modifiers 1-3 are
For numerical ratings, a higher number means lower  with the terms of the obligation. The ratings measure  applied to classifications from Aa to B, with 1 indicat-
risk. For alphabetical ratings, a letter closer to the  the creditworthiness of the debtor and do not take  ing that the obligation ranks at the high end of its rat-
beginning of the alphabet means lower risk. Readers  into account exchange-related uncertainties for for-  ing category. * Standard & Poor's sovereign foreign
should refer to the data sources for more details on  eign currency debt.                      and domestic currency long-term debt ratings are cat-
the rating processes of the rating agencies. Risk rat-                                         egorized as investment grade (AAA through BBB) and
ings may be highly subjective, reflecting external per-                                        speculative grade (BB through C). Ratings from AA to
ceptions that do not always capture the actual                                                 CCC may be modified by the addition of a plus (+) or
situation in a country. But these subjective percep-                                           minus (-) sign to show relative standing within the rat-
tions are the reality that policymakers face in the cli-                                       ing category.
mate they create for foreign private inflows. Countries
that are not rated by credit risk rating agencies typi-                                         Data sources
cally do not attract registered flows of private capital.
Note that the risk ratings presented here are not                                                                  Data on emerging stock mar-
endorsed by the World Bank but are included for their                                                              kets' entry and exit regula-
analytic usefulness.                                                                                              tions are from  the IFC's
&nerging
Political Risk Services' Intemational Country Risk                                            sr-o. Marke       Emerging   Stock  Markets
Guide (ICRG) collects information on 22 components                                              FiLhtoA 1iA    x   Factbook 1997. Information
of risk, groups it into three major categories (politi-                                                            on country risk and credit-
cal, financial, and economic), and converts it into a                                                              worthiness are from several
single numerical risk assessment ranging from 0 to                                               f                 sources:  Political  Risk
100. Ratings below 50 are considered very high risk,                                           Services' monthly International Country Risk Guide;
and those above 80 very low risk. Ratings are                                                  the monthly Institutional Investor; the monthly
updated every month.                                                                           Euromoney; Moody's Investors Service's Sovereign,
Institutional Investor country credit ratings are                                            Subnational and Sovereign-Guaranteed Issuers, and
based on information provided by leading international                                         Standard & Poor's Sovereign List in Credit Week.
1998 World Development Indicators     2s5



5.4 Financial depth and efficiency
Domestic credit           Liquid              Quasi-liquid          Interest rate         Spread over
provided by            liabilities           liabilities            spread                 LIBOR
banking sector
Lendlng minis          Lencing rate
deposit rate         mr uo L BOR
percenitage           percentage
% of GDP              % of GDP              % of GDP               points                 paLnts
1990       1996       1990       1996       1990       1996        1990       1996       1990       1996
Albania                       ..       44.9         ..       52.5         ..       23.6        2.1        7.2        16. 7      18.4
Algeria                     74.7       42.4       73.6       12.9       24.9       12.9
Angola.........
Argentina                 ..32.4       26.0       11.5       20.8        7.1       14.4         ..        3.2          ..5.0
Armenia                     62.3        9.1       83.5        7.9       42.9        1.9         ..       34.2          ..       60.8
Australia                  104.4       88.7       63.4       63.7       51.1       45.9        6.8         ..        12.2
Austria                    123.0      130.9       89.4       91.7       75.7       75.2
Azerbaijan                  57.2       11.3       33.5        9.8       11.6         2.7        ...                     .      156.5
Bangladesh                  32.5       30.7       31.8       37.5       22.8       26.6        3.9        6.7         7.7        8.5
Beiaruas.                              16.1         ..       15.2         ..        6.5         ..       31.9          ..       58.8
Belgium                     77.2      154.1       48.6       82.2       29.6       62.2        6.9        4.4         4.7        1.7
Benin                       22.4       10.8       26.7       24.8        5.9        8.0        9.0         ..7.7
Bolivia                     33.3       57.5       26 .5      46.5       19.5       33.2       18.0       36.8        33.5       50.5
Boania and Herzegovina
Botswana                   -49.7      -37.7       23.6       28.4       14.7       21.9        1.8        4.1        -0.4        9.0
Brazil                      87.2       36.8       25.6       28.0       17.9       22.7
Bulgaria                   126.8      150.6       73.4       73.8       53.6       59.T        9.9       48.8        43.4      118.0
Burkina Faao                13.7        6.7       21.3       23.1        7.5        5.4        9.0         ..7.7
Burundi                     24.5       21.1       18.2       17.8        6.5        5.1         ...4.0                           9.2
Cambodia                      ..        6.9          .       1.1.                   7.1         ..       10.0          ..       13.3
Cameroon                    31.2       16.4       22.6       12.6       10.1        5.8       11.0       10.5        10.2       10.0
Canada                      86.6      102.1       74.9       78.7       60.3       6-1.1       1.3        1.7         5.7        0.6
Central African Republic    13.1       11.2       15 .6      23.2        1.9        1.7       11.0       10.5        10.2       10.0
Chad                        14.4       15.3       20 .7      19.9        0.8        0.9       11.0       10.5        10.2       10.0
Chile                       72.9       59.6       40.6       40.8       32.7       32.1        8.6        3.9        40.5       11.9
China  ..90.0                          98.0       79.2      112.2       41.4       67.0        0.7        2.6         1.0        4.6
Hong Kong, China          132.1      156.7     .181.7      175.3      166.8      160.7        3.3        3.9         1.7        3.0
Colombia                    36.2       45.5       29.8       38.6       19.3       27.3        6.8       10.8        36.9       36.5
Congo, Dem. Rep.            25.3        1.6       12.9        2.2        2.1        2.2          .
Congo, Rep.                 29.1       16.2       22.0       15.1        6.1        2.5       11.0       10.5        10.2       10.0
Coata Rica                  29.9       33.1       42.7       32.9       30.0       23.8       11.4        9.0        24.2       20.8
CMe d'lvoire                44.5       29.1       28.8       27.2       10.9        9.5        9.0         ..7.7
Croatia                       ..       46.4         ..       35.2         ..       24.2      499.3       16.9     1,153.9       17.0
Czech Republic                ..       78.6         ..       91.4         ..       55.1         ..        5.8          ..7.0
Denmark                     65.1       58.7       60.9       59.6       30.3       29.3        6.2        5.9         5.6        3.2
Dominican Republic          31..3      29.5       25.7      .27.0       13.1       16.9         .
.Ecuador                   .17.2       31.7      .23.3       33.3       12.9       24.3       -6.0   ~   13.0        29.2       49.0
Egypt, Arab Rep.           108.8       82.8       87.9       81.7       80.7       62.3        7.0        5.0        10.7       10.1
El Salvador                 32.0       41.4       30.6       44.2       19.6       33.4        3.2        4.6        12.9       13.1
Eatonia                     65.0       20.1     -136.2       27.0       93.5        6.4         ..        7.6        26.6        8.2
Ethiopia                    67.5       45.1       42.2       42.1       12.6       17.7        3.6        4.5        -2.3        8.4
Finland                     84.3       63.8       55.2       58.6       46.6       26.5        4.1        3.8         3.3        0.6
France                     106.3      102.1       64.6       67.7       38.7       44.0        6.0        3.1         2.2        1.3
Gabon                       20.0       15.0       17.8       14.4        6.6        5.0       11.0   ~   10.5        10.2       10.09
Gambia, The                  3.6        8.2       21.8       26.6        9.3       12.9       15.2       13.0        18.2       20.0
Georgia...
Germany                    110.0      136.7       64.4       68.1       44.2       45.4.       4.5    ~   7.2         3.3        4.5
Ghana                       13.2       21.4       14.1       17.3        3.4        5.6...
Greece                     103.8       84.2       90.1       82.5       72.5       64.2        8.1        7.5        19.3       15.4
Guatemala                   17.4       19.4       21.2       24.7       11.8       15.7        5.1       15.1        15.0       17.2
Guinea                       5.5        8.2        9.3        8.9        1.2        2.0        0.2        4.0        12.9       15.5
Guinea-Bissau                0.7        0.1        0.3        0.2        0.1        0.1       13.1        4.5        37.4       46.2
Haiti                       32.9       27.4       31.4       48.0       15.9       26.2          .          ..
Honduras                    40.9       26.0       33.6       34.0       18.8       21.1        8.3       13.0         8.7       24.2
266   1998 World Development Indicators



5.4
Domestic credit           Liquid             Quasi-liquid        Interest rate          Spread over
provided by            liabilities         liabilities            spread                LIBOR
banking sector
Lending minus         Lending rate
deposit rate         mines LIBOR
percentage            percentage
% of GDP              % of GDP             % of GDP               points               points
1.990      1996      1990       1996       1990       1996      1990       1996       1990       1.996
Hungery                    82.6       49.1     .43.8      .42:9.... 19.0        24..1       4.1       6.5        20.5      26.6
India                      54.7      49.8       45.8       494.4      2.        32..3        .          .8.2               10.4
Indonesia                  45.5       54.6      40.4       52.5       291.1     42.7.       3.3 ....  2.0....    12.5      13.7
Iran, Islamic Rep.        .70.8      45.7    ... 57.6      40.8   .. 311.1      22.2         .
Iraq
Ireland          ....I.....58.0     .84.5       45..1      75 6       32.8       6-1 5      5:0 ...I ....5.6      3.0       0.3
Israel                    101.3       79.4      67.0       73.9       60.6      67.8       12:.0      6 2        18.1      15.2
Italy                      90.6      95.0       71.0       62.0      35.7       29.4        7.3       5.6         5.8       6.5
Ja~maica           ..      34.8       33.5     .51.0       53.4       37.8      36.4        6.6      18!8.8.     22:2.2.   38.5
Japan                     266.8      295.1     187.5      203.3      159.6     167.6        3.4,      2.4        -1.4      -2.9
Jordan                    117.9       86.1     131.2       91.6       77.8      61.9        3:3       3.5 ....    1.74.0
Kazakhstan                   ..        9.5         .
Kenya                      52.9.     .52.8 ..   43.3       50:6      29 3.      35.6        5:.1     16.2        10.4      28.3
Korea, Dam. Rep.
Korea, Rep.                65.3      74.5       54.3       84.0      45.5       73.8        0.0       13.3        1.7       3.3
Kuwait                    243.0      103.2     196.8       92.7      158.4       77.8       0.4       2.7         4.1       3.3
Kyrgyz Republic              ..                               .          ....                        27.9                  53.1
Lao PDR                     5.1        8.7       7.2       14.3        3.1       9.9        2.5      11.0        20.0      21.5
Latvia                       ..       13.0.                235.5    .            8-3.14.0
Lebanon                   132.6     104.2      193.7      141.6      170.9     133.0       23.1       9.7 ..     316.6     19.7
Lesotho...... 30.1                  -15.2       38.8     ..34.7       22.4 ...  . 18.1      7.4.     ..5.0       12.1      12.2
Libya.......                                                                                1..13
Lithuania                    ..       1517.4                             .       5.8            .    18..7.                16.1
Macedonia, FYR               ..         ...                              .         .
Madagascar                 26.8       14.6      18.2       21.4        5.4       8.5        5.3      13.8        17.5      27.2
Malawi                     19.9        9.1      21.3       17.2       118.8      9.0        8.9      19.0        12.7      39.8
Malaysia                   77.9      131.9      66.3     -121.5      44.3       91.8        1.3       1.9        -1.1       3.5
Mali                       13.4      10.1       20.0       23.3        54.4      5.6. .    9.0 ......             7.7
Mauritania                 54.7       14.0      28.5       16.5.       7.0...   .. 5.6     5.0.   ..5:            1.7
Mauritius                  45.1      63.9     .. 63..3     76.2     _49.1      .63.4       5.4       10.0         9.7      15:3
Mexico                     42.5      40.6       24.9       37.7       187.1      28.3
Moldova                    62.8       22.0      70.3       16.3       35.4       4.7                11.2 ....      :....  31.2
Mongolia                   68.5       17.5      52.4       22A.4      13.8.     11.0         .       55.5                  86.4
Morocco                    60.1       74.8      61.0       72.1 ...   18.4      27.3        0.5                   0.7       5.3
Mozambique                 29.5        2.8      46.1       34.6        9.1       5.2
Myanmar                    32.7         .       27.9          .        7.8        ..        2.1       4.0        -0.3      11.0
Namibia                    19.2      .60.1      23.1    .... 486.6 ... 135.5 .. 28..4..  .. 10.6      6.6        17.4      13.6
Nepal                      28.9       36.0      32.2       383.3..    18.5      23.9         ..6.1                          7.4
Netherlands               107.5      124.6      84.1.      84.3       60.1       57.1       8.4       2.4         3.4       0.4
New Zealand                74.4      89.7       65.4       79.5       32.2      41.3       44.4       3:8         7.7       6.8
Nicaragua                 206.6      144.8       5.7       40.6        2.3      31.2       12.5       8.4        13.7      15.2
Niger                      1.6.2       8.8      19.8       12.3        8.3       3.4        9.0         .         7.7
Nigeria                    23.7       16.3      23.6       18.6       10.3       6.7        5.5       6.7        17.0      14.2
Norway                     89.5       74.6      59.9       56 .6      277.0    .17.8        4.6       2.9         5.9       1.6
Oman                       16.6       29.2      28.9       32.5       19.3      22.4        14.42.4               1.4       3.7
Pakistan                   50.9       52.5      39.8       4.         10.0      21.3.
Panama                     52.7       74.4      43.6       70.5  ..   35.0      59.5 ..     3.6 ...   3.4         3.7       5.1
Papua New Guinea           35.8..  .. 28.0      35.2       36.4       240.0.    20.7        6.9       1.1         7.2       7.8
Paraguay                   14.9       28.2      21.4       31.2       12.8      22.6        8.1      11.7        22.7      23.4
Peru                       16.2       12.1      19.9       18.8        9.5       13.2   2,335.0      11.2     4,766.2      20.6
Philippines                26.9       72.2      36.8       58.7       28.2      48.1        4.6       5.2        15.8        9.3
Poland                     19.5       35.4      34.0       37.2       17.2      23.6..    462.5       6.1       495.9       20.6
Portugal                   73.6       99.7      65.1       81.7       39.7       53.4       7.8       5.4        13.5        6.2
Puerto  Nico   ..  ..   ..        ..         ..         ..        ..         ..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....... .   .... .....
Romania                    79.7.       4.2      60.4       27.1       32.7       17.3  ............
Russian  Federation   ..             .24.8                 16.3          .........  7.5.      ...  ....  91.8..           141.3
1998 World Development Indicators 267



@5.~54
Domestic credit            Liquid               Quasi-liquid          Interest rate          Spread over
provided by             liabilities            liabilities             spread                 LIBOR
banking sector
Lending minus           Lending rate
deposit rate          -ninus LIBOR
percentage             percentage
1990 % fGP1996         1990 % fGP1996         1990 % fGP1996         1990 oit   1996        1990 pcns1996
Rwanda                       17.0       10.6        14..8      17.5.        7.0        6.3        6.3         ..4.9
Saudi Arabia                 58.7       38.0        47.9       51.2       21.9        24.6          .
Senegal                      33.7       21.8        22.9       21.2        9.7         8.2        9.0         ..7.7
Sierra Leone                 26.3       52.3        14 .5       9 .9        4.0        3.8       12.0       18.2        44.2        26.6
Singapore                    74.1       78.0       120.9      112.5       98.4        92.1        2.7        2.9         -1.0        0.7
Slovak Republic                         60 1.          .       70.6                   40.7         ..        4.6           ..8.4
Slovenia                     36.8       36.0        34.2       36.7        25.8       28.6      179.9        8.7       847.5        18.2
South Africa                102.7      160.2        47.1.      47.2       28 .9       20.0        2.1        4.6         12.7       14.0
Spain                       109.0      105.9        76.6       80.5       45.3        53.0        5.4        2.4          7.7        3.0
Sri Lanka                    43.0       35.0        35.2       41.3       22.9        31.2       -6.4        0.2          4.7       10.8
Sudan                        29.9      -18.9        29.4       24.0         4.2        9.4          .
Sweden                      155         68.2        46.6       45.5          ...                  6.8        4.9          8.4        1.9
Switzerland                 179.0      183.4       146.7      147.3      119.9       119.0       -0.9        3.6        -0.9        -0.5
Syrian Arab Republic         56.6       45.7        54.7       53.4       10.5        13.9          .
Tajikistan                      .           ..                    ..                     ..
Tanzania                     39.2       17.4        22-.6      24.3         7.2       11.0         ..       23.6           ..       31.7
Thailand                     90.7       98.8        74.7       79.5        65.8       70.4        4.3        5.9          8.2        9.6
Togo                        -21.3       25.8        36.1I     .25.8        19.1        9.1        9.0         ..7.7
Trinidad and Tobago          58.5       54 .2       54.6       49.7       42.7        37.2        6.9        9.1          4.6       10.3
Tunisia                      62 .5      65 .4       51.5       48.4        26.7       27.1          .
Turkey                       25.9       34.4        24.1       32.3        16.4       27.2          .
Turkmenistan                   ..        1.7          ..        9.7          ..        0.8 
Uganda                       17.7        4.6         7.6       10.7         1.4        3.3        7.4        9.7        30.4        14.8
Ukraine                      83.2       15.0         0.0        0.0         0.0        0.0         ..       46.3           ..       74.4
United Arab Emirates        .35.2       48.6        470        56. 7      38.2        42.2          .
United Kingdom              123.0      131.0                                            ..        2.2        2.9          6.4        0.4
United States               114.4      137.5        68.6       61.1       51.8        43.5          ...1.7                           2.8
Uruguay                      60.7       39.8        61.2       38.2       53.3        32.1       76.6       63.4       166.1        86.0
Uzbekistan                      .          ..                     ..                     ..
Venezuela                    37.4       19.9        41.1       22.3       29.4        10.4        0.5        4.1         19.9       26.2
Vietnam                      15.9       20.8        22.7       20.3         9.3        8.3         ..       10.4           ..       22.3
West Banlk and Gaza             .           ..                    ..                     ..
Yemen. Rep.                  62.0       29.0        56.3       40.5       10.7        16.6
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)    .           ..                    ..
Zambia                       64.5       56.2        23.8       17.9       12.6        11.2        9.5       11.7         26.8       48.3
Zimbabwe                     53.8       55.3        54.0       50.7       39.2        32.3        2.9       12.7          3.4       28.7
Low Income                   64.6       73.6        54.4       80.8       30.0        48.6
Excl. China & India          37.9       32.6        28.3       30.0       12.6        16.3
Middle Income                60.6       46.0        36.6       35.4       24.0        26.3
Lower mididle income         52.0       45.3        44.4       38.9       30.1        30.0
Upper middle income          65 .8      46.7        30.~6      32.0       19.6        22.8
Low & middle income          61.7       53.9        41.7       48.4       25.7        32.7
East Asia & Pacific          76.5       88.2        66.7       92.9       41.6        61.6
Europe & Central Asia          ..       31.9          ..       28.9          ..       18.0
Latin.America & Carib.       59.7       35.7        23.5       26.9       17.6        21.7
Middle East & N. Africa      69.4       70.0        58.6       60.5       30.4        44.0
South Asia                   52.4       48.3        43.4       47.3       27.0        30.3
Sub-Saharan Africa           59.6       84.5        37.0       38.5       18.5        15.8
High income                 138.9      157.9        77.5       78.1       73.2        74.9
268 1998 World Development Indicators



-r   - i -   -   - -   - -   -  -.   -  - - - - - - - -
5.4                   0
Households and institutions save and invest inde-  the margin between the cost of mobilizing liabilities  * Domestic credit provided by banking sector
pendently. The financial system's role is to interme-  and the earnings on assets. Small margins are cru-  includes all credit to various sectors on a gross basis,
diate between them   and  cycle funds. Savers    cial for economic growth because they lower interest  with the exception of credit to the central government,
accumulate claims on financial institutions, which  rates andthusthe overallcostof investment. Interest  which is net. The banking sector includes monetary
pass these funds to their final users. As an economy  rates reflect the responsiveness of financial institu-  authorities, deposit money banks, and other banking
develops, this indirect lending by savers to investors  tions to competition and price incentives. The inter-  institutions forwhich data are available (including insti-
becomes more efficient and gradually increases   est rate spread, also known as the intermediation  tutions that do not accepttransferable deposits but do
financial assets relative to GDP. This wealth allows  margin, is a summary measure of a banking system's  incur such liabilities as time and savings deposits).
increased saving and investment, facilitating and  efficiency. It may not be a reliable measure of effi-  Examples of other banking institutions include savings
enhancing economic growth. As more specialized   ciency to the extent that information about interest  and mortgage loan institutions and building and loan
savings and financial institutions emerge, more  rates is inaccurate, banks do not monitor all bank  associations. * Liquid liabilities are also known as
financing instruments become available, reducing  managers, or the government sets deposit and lend-  broad money, or M3. They are the sum of currency and
risks and costs to liability holders. As securities mar-  ing rates. The spread over LIBOR reflects the interest  deposits in the central bank (MO), plus transferable
kets mature, savers can invest their resources   rate differential between a country's lending rate and  deposits and electronic currency (MI), plus time and
directly in financial assets issued by firms.    the London interbank offered rate (ignoring expected  savings  deposits, foreign  currency transferable
The ratio of domestic credit provided by the bank-  changes in the exchange rate). Interest rates are  deposits, certificates of deposit, and securities repur-
ing sector to GDP is used to measure the growth of  expressed as annual averages,                 chase agreements (M2), plus travelers checks, foreign
the banking system because it reflects the extent to  In some countries financial markets are distorted  currency time deposits, commercial paper, and shares
which savings are financial. Liquid liabilities include  by restrictions on foreign investment, selective credit  of mutual funds or market funds held by residents.
bank deposits of generally less than one year plus  controls, and controls on deposit and lending rates.  * Quasi-liquid liabilities are the M3 money supply
currency. Their ratio to GDP indicates the ease with  Interest rates may reflect the diversion of resources  less MI. * Interest rate spread is the interest rate
which their owners can use them to buy goods and  to finance the public sector deficit through statutory  charged by banks on loans to prime customers minus
services without incurring any cost. Quasi-liquid lia-  reserve requirements and direct borrowing from the  the interest rate paid by commercial or similar banks
bilities are long-term deposits and assets-such as  banking system. And where state-owned banks dom-  for demand, time, or savings deposits. * Spread over
certificates of deposit, commercial paper, and  inate the financial sector, noncommercial considera-  LIBOR (London interbank offered rate) is the interest
bonds-that can be converted into currency or     tions may unduly influence credit allocation.    rate charged by banks on loans to prime customers
demand deposits, but at a cost.                    The indicators in the table provide quantitative  minus LIBOR. LIBOR is the most commonly recognized
No less important than the size and structure of  assessments of each country's financial sector, but  international interest rate and is quoted in several cur-
the financial sector is its efficiency, as indicated by  qualitative assessments of policies, laws, and regu-  rencies. The average three-month LIBOR on U.S. dol-
lations are needed to analyze overall financial con-  lar deposits is used here.
ditions. In addition, the accuracy of financial data
Interest rate spreads vary dramatically     depends on the quality of accounting systems, which  Data sources
are weak in some developing economies. Some of
%                                           these indicators are highly correlated, particularly                  Data on credit, liabilities, and
the ratios of domestic credit, liquid liabilities, and               interest rates are collected
quasi-liquid liabilities to GDP, because changes in               -  from central banks and finance
liquid and quasi-liquid liabilities flow directly from               ministries and are reported in
changes in domestic credit. Moreover, the precise                    the print and electronic ver-
definition of the financial aggregates presented              Pw     sions of the   International
varies by country. Data on domestic credit and liquid                 Monetary Fund's International
and quasi-liquid liabilities are cited on an end-of-year            RFnancial Statistfcs.
basis.
: . ' ;. .' > , -:      The indicators reported here do not capture the
*:       ,c-  .    _.             activities of the informal sector-which remains an
Soo.rce: 7ir, -                             important  source  of finance   in  developing
economies. Personal credit or credit extended
The spread between tanks' deposlt and lenoing ratas  through community-based pooling of assets may be
pmo%ldes information 3bout the efficl6nc, of the ff
nnclal sector. compeUtion betwLon ins¶tutians. the  the only source of credit available to small farmers,
adquac of marf, for prudenaloprpses. tne costs  small businesses, or home-based producers. And in
ol resernt raquiremnents and omr naniung regiiations.
ared the eitecriTensss of monetar, palict   financially repressed economies the rationing of for-
mal credit forces many borrowers and lenders to turn
to the informal market and self-financing.
1998 World Development Indicators      269



5.5 Tax policies
Tax        Taxes on       Domesitic taxes      Export           Import            Highest marginal
revenue     income,           on goods           duties           duties              tax rate
profits, and     and services
capital gains
% of value                                           Ircmxd al    Corporate
S of        95 of         added of indaustry    S of             Sof          rate   oor ncomie  ate
GDP        total taxes      and services       eorsimports                      %    exceeding $  %
1996     1980     1996    1980     1996  I 1980p     1996.   1980     1996     19%97   1997     1997
Albania                   216.6       ,.    10.7       ..     19.0       .        .        .     210.0
Argentina                  11.9      0.0    11.2      2.8      5.0     0.0      0.2      0.0      8.5     33     120.000    33
Australia                  23.0     67.6    71.5      5.4      5.4     0.5      0.0      8.5      4.5     47      39,582    36
Austria                    33 .1    22.8    22.7      9.1      8.6     0.2      0.0      1.6      0.4     50      63.903    34
Azerbaijan                   ..       .        .        .        .       .        .       .         .     40        1,757   32
Bangladesh                   ..     14.8      ..      5.7       ..     3.9       ..     16.4
Belarus..                             .....                              ...                        .
Belgiumn                   43.3    40.2     35.9        .        .                .        .        ..    55      75,507    39
Bolivia                   211.8       ..     7.6        ..               ..     0.0      ..       5.1     13           ..   25
Beanie and Herzegovina
Botswana.                  17.5    45.5     51.3      0.3      2.0     0.1      0.0     21.8     17.1     30      16,680    15
Brazil                       ..     13.6      ..      9.0        .     0.0       ..     16.5       ..     25      20,789    15
Bulgaria                   25.2       ..    25.4       M.96              .        .       .       5.5     40       2,630    36
Burkina Faso                 ..     20.1       .      2.9       ..     3.6       ..     20.7 
Bururdi                    11.2     20.4    25.1     10.1     12.0    24.4      7.1     21.5     13.4
Cambodia                      .        .       .        ..               ..               ..
Cameroon                    9.4     23.7    23.4      4.1      5.4     7.5      5.1     21.3     19.7     60      14.313    39
Canada                     18.5     60.8    54.7        .        ..    1.1      0.0      4.6      1.7     29      43,178    38
Central African Republic      .     1 7.7     ..      6.0       ..     9.2       ..     23.9 
Chad                          .
Chile. ...18.3                      22.0.   21.9     12.4                                          ..     45       6.588    15
China                       5.2       ..    12.0       ..      5.1      ..3.2                             45      12.051    30
Hong Kong, C.i17
Colombia                   13.6     28.9    40.8      3.4      7.6     6.7      0.0     12.3      8.7     35      49,934    35
Congo, Bern. Rep.           4.5     34.5    35.8      1.8      2.6    10.7      0.4     18.3      9.6
Congo, Rap.                         63.8      ..      3.1.       .     0.1       ..     14.0                           ..   45
Costa Rica                 22.5     14.6    12.9      6.6     10.1     6.7      2.5      6.8      9.2     25      24,559    30
Cdte dilvoire                ..     14.0       ..     7.9       ..     8.         .     28.9       ..     10       4.489    35
Croatia                    42.8       ..    12.4       .      27.1      ..10.0                            35       4,675
Czech Republic             34.1.      .     15.2       ..     13.9      ..        .        .      4.0     40      27,660    39
Denmark                    35.3     40.6    45.4       .         ..      .       ..      0.1      0.1     60           .    34
Dominican Republic         14.7     24.8    17.2      3.8      6.3     6.2      0.0     15.0O    27.1
Ecuador                    13.9    46.6     5665      2.5      4.6     3.0      0.0     16.3      8.3     25      61,861    20
Egypt, Arab Rep.           22.6     29.6    30.3      5.2      6.1     5.3      0.0    25.9      20.3     32      14.749    40
El Salvador                11.6    23.8     28.8      5.5      7.6    10.3      0.0     4.1       6.5     30      22,857    25
Estonia                    31.0       ..    17.5       ..     17.7      ..       .        .       0.2     26          ..    26
Ethiopia                     ..     25.4       .      9.2        .    3.1.3      ..     16.4
Finland.                   27.8     30.9    32.5       ..        .       .        .      19       0.2     38      65.352    28
France                     38.8     19.1    19.5     12.8     11.7       .       ..      0.1      0.0      ...              33
Gabon                        ..     60.2      I.18              ..     14         ..    31.7        .      55.              40
Gambia, The                  ..     18.1       .      1.2       ..     0.5       ..     18.5 
Germany                    29.3     19.4    17.1       .         ..      .       ..      0.0      0.0     53      77,400    30
Ghana                        ..     22.0      ..      4.6       ..    30.5       ..     14.5       ..     35        9,173   35
Greece                     19.7     19.5    36.8       .         ..      .        ..       ...            45      68,820    40
Guatemala                   7.7     14.4    20.7       ..      5.2     9.8      0.0      7.6      9.2     30      30,002    30
Guinea-Bissau                 .       .        .        ..               ..               ..
Honduras                     ..     32.9      ..      5.1       ..     7.5       ..      7.8       ..     40     196.382    15
270   1998 World Development Indicators



Impor
Tax         Taxes on       Domestic taxes         ExpotIport                           Highest marginal
revenue       income,           on goods            duties            duties                tax rate
profits, and      and services
capital gains
9t of value                                              Individual   Corporate
% of          % of          added of industry      % of               % of          rate   on income   rate
GOP        total taxes        and services        exports           imports          %    exceeding $  S
±.996    ±.980    1,996     1.980    ±.996    1.990     1.996    1.980     1996   1.997      1.997    1.997
Hungary                        ..     22.1        ..       .        ..      0.1       ..      16.6               42      6,614      18
India                       10:.5     21.9.    29.3      8.9 ......6~.0 .   1..8     0.1      26.4     27.8      40      3,359      40
Indonesia                   148.8. . 82.0      58O.0.    2.4 ......60O     2.~2.     0.1 ...  .5.7      2 6      30     20,982      30
Iran, Islamic Rep.            6.7     12.2     29.0      1.0      I1.7.2..5                                       4     7,03        1
Ireland                     34.7      38.6     42.1    ..             ..                       6.2      3.9      48     15,732..... 36
Israel                      33.4      47.3     42.7     17.4 .....                             4.6_ _      .. _  50     57,730      36
Italy                       40.7      32.1     34.8        ...                                 0.1      0.0      51    196,005      37
Jamaica                        .      35.1              15.62.25                                                         149        3
Japan                                 74.7         .... .2.5                            ......  2.3 . .          50    258,398      38
Jordan                       21.0    .170      156       16    6            .9                21.2   ..13.8
Kazak�hstan                                                                                               .      40           .     30
Kenya                       21.3     .333.3I.. 30.7     14.8     18.7       1.4      0.0      10.7     14 2      35        374..... 35
Korea, Dam. Rep.               ..        .        .        ..II..                      ..
Korea, Rep.                  18.6     25.5     33.3      9.4       7.5       .                 7.7      4.7      40     94,764      28
Kuwait                        1.2    .636.6  .. 15.4     0.2       0.0                    ....30...     3.4       0)                55
Kyrgyz Republic                .
Lao PDR... .
Latvia                       25.5        .      8.1        .       6                                    1.8      25                 25
Lebanon                     11.6                9.1        .        .         ..                       11.2
Lesotho                               15 6        .       .          .      351.
Libya
Lithuania                   22.0               13.8              14.2         .      0.0.               1.8      33                 29
Macedonia, FYR                 :                  1'                                   ::
Madagascar       .........    8:2.2   . 17.1   188..   . 8.4       3.3      3~0      0:9.     17.6 ..... 28.6
Malawi                         .      389         ..    117.7       .       0.0        .      16                 38      2,763      38
Malaysia                     20.1     41.9     45.3      57.7      7.3 ..   91.      0 6.      9.1      3. 1     30     58,893      30
M ali                                 20.5               7.9         . ... 30..                80... ...  .   ........... ........  ......  ..
Mauritania                      :        .
Mauritius                    16 3     17 3     15.7      4.8       6.1      86       00       16..2    14. 1     30      2,764      35
Mexico                       12.8     36.9     32.4      8.3       8.7      0.6      0.0      10.1      3.7      35     21,173      34
Moldova ~~~~~~~~~......                                                                            ...
Mongolia              . .1. 8.7 .          .- 292                  7.,3     M.                           5.0
Morocco        ...... .. ..           220.0 .9~9                            2.3               22.3        .      44      6,814      35
Mozambique                      .        .        ...                         .
Myanmar                       37.7     4.9     3 .4     127..2....                         .  1. 3  . . 45 7 7..    .....     ..........
Namibia..                                .        ..       .                                                     35     17,152      35
Nepal                        10.4      66.6    15.3      8.0       90.,     5.4      1:2      16.0.    10.4
Netherlands                 42.6      33.1     27.7.    10.6     108.                            ..........      6 0    55,730      36
New  Zealand....         I... 328.8   750.0 ..  67..7    6.9  ... ...  .....01 1..... 0.0  ....  4.4    40.  . ..  33   21,848      33
Nicaragua                    23.9      8.9     11.8     11.3     -16.4      3.9      0.0       8.0    -11.7      30     20,202      30
Nigar                          .      28.1        .      4.5                26                17.0
Nigeri'a                                     .             .         .                                           25        754      30
Norway                      32.5      30.3     22.3     15.2     .159      .01       0.0       0~8      1.0             .    ..     28
Oman                          8.5     92.4     77.4      0.2                           .       1-.40                                5
Pakistan                    15.3      16.8     203       8.6      10.8      1.9      00       2.         8        5      745        4
Panama                       17.2     29.0     29.7      5.2       5.2               1.4         .      8.7      30    200,000      30
Papua New Guinea            .189.9    67.5    .58.3.... 4.2        3~2      1.4      27.7      8.0.    16.0      35     14,900      25
Paraguay                       .      16.6        ..     2.7        ..      0.5                8.4                0                 30
Peru                         14.0     28.1.... 23.9      7.1       8.1     10.9      0.0      17.1      13.0     30     49,923      30
Philippines                  16.7     236.6    37..1...  7.-8      6-.4     10        0 0     13.4     12.2      35     19,016      35
Poland                       36.0_       .     28.3        .     12.3        .       0.0         .     10.7      44     14,542      40
Portugal                     32'1     20.9     27.3        .         .      0.0      0: 0      44        0.0     40     39,247      40
Puerto Rico.                                      ..       .        ..        .        ...                       33     50,000      20
Romania                      26.4      0.0     34.0.               9~0                         0.0       6.0     60      3,600      38
Russian Federation          .17.4               578. .. 1..8 78                      4.3         .......  3.1    35      8,587      35
1998 World Development Indicators 271



5.5
Tax        Taxes on      Domestic taxes       Export          Import           Highest marginal
revenue      income,         on goods          duties           duties              tax rate
profits, and    and services
capital gains
% of value                                          Individual  C orpo rate
% of   % of        ~~~~~~added of industry  % of         % of         rate  on ir-Come  rate
GDoPf     totalI tafxes    and services  i    euports          M ants        fe6  erc'eecng $  'A1
1998    1980     1996    1980     1996  I1980      1996    1980     196     199 7    1997    1997
Rwanda                       ..   20.7       ..     5.3..              .....
Saudi Arabia                 ..      .        .       .        .       .       ..                .      0          .    45
Senegal                     ..     21.4      ..     7.5       ..     3.1       ..     26.9      ..     50     24.141
Sierra Leone               7.7    25.0     16.3     4.1      4.7    10.8      0.0     19.8    17.8
Singapore                 16.2    47.0     41.5     4.1      5.3       .       ..      0.9      ..     28    285,836    26
Slovakr Republic                                                                                ..     42     33.861
Sloveni'a..                          ...              ...              ....
South Africa              25.9    64.0     54.3     64.4    11.8     0.1      0.0      3.0     2.5     45     21,440    35
Spain                     28.9     25.2    31.9       ...                              6.0     0.0     56     79,896    35
Sri Lanka                 16.9     16.4    15.9     8.0     14.6    22.0      0.0      9.6     9.2     35      5.293    35
Sudan                       ..     17.2      ..     6.0       ..     3.3      -.      33.5       .
Sweden                    37.2     21.1    12.7       ...                              1.5     1.0     30     30,326    28
Switzerland               21.5     15.1    12.7       .        ..      .       ..      4.0     4.9     13    460,382    46
Syrian Arab Republic      18.4    24.7     28.9     1.8       ..     1.7      ..      11.6 
Tajikiatan                   .        ..                               ..                ..
Tanzania                    -.     35.2       -.                    11.2       ..      9.2      ..     35     14.075    35
Thailand                  16.9     19.3    35.0     8.6      8.5     4.4      0.1     11.1     6.6     37    158,479    30
Togo                        ..     38.6      ..     6.4       ..     3.3       ..     15.2       .
Trinidad and Tobago       24.2     85.7    58.7     1.6       7.9      .       ..      9.8     5.3     35      8,103    35
Tunisia                   24 .9    19.2    18.8     8.7       7.2    1.0      0.2     18.8    19.6
Turkey                    15.2     61.8    38.6     5.1     11.4       .       ..      8.9     .3.2    55     14.877    25
Turkmenistan                 .        ..                               ..-.                      .      . 
Uganda                      ..     118              4.6       ..    55.8      ..      15.8      ..     30      4,800    30
United Arab Emirates       0.6      ..      0.0     0.0        .       .       .         .       .
United Kingdom            33.6    43.4     38.9               ..     0.0      0.0      0.1     0.1     40     44,692    33
United Statea             19.4     61.6    58.2     0.9       ..       .       .       3.0     2.6     40    271.050    35
Uruguay                   29.2     11.5    14.2    11.2     11.3     0.0      0.1     19.2     6.1      0          ..   30
Uzbekiatan                   .       .        .       ..               ..                ..
Venezuela                 14.5     79.4    54.1     1.0      5.9       .       .       9.6    10.2     34         ..    34
Vietnam                                                                        ..       .        .     50      6,278    25
Weal Bank and Gaza..                 .        ..      ...              ....
Yemen, Rep.                9.9       ..    35.2      ..       2.9     ..       .         .    20.3
Yugoalavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)
Zambia                    16.7     41.1    39.6    12.5      9.6     0.0      0.0      7.2     6.0     30      1,376    35
Zimbabwe                     ..    57.9      ..     8.4       ..       .        .     16.4      ..     40      5.597    38
272   1998 World Development Indicators



_5.5
Taxes are compulsory. unrequited payments made to  missing here is a measure of the uniformity of these  * Tax revenue compises compulsory, unrequited, non-
governments by individuals, businesses, or institu-  taxes across industries and along the value added  repayable receipts collected by central governments for
tions. They are considered unrequited because gov-  chain of production. Without such data no clear infer-  public purposes. It includes interest collected on tax
ernments provide nothing specifically in return for  ences can be drawn about how neutral a tax system  arrears and penalties collected on nonpayment or late
them, although they typically are used to provide  is between subsectors. 'Surplus" revenues raised by  payment of taxes and is shown net of refunds and other
goods or services to individuals or communities. The  some governments by charging higher prices for  corrective transactions. * Taxes on income, profits,
sources of the revenue received by governments and  goods produced under monopoly by state-owned  and capital gains include taxes levied by central gov-
the relative contributions of these sources are deter-  enterprises are not counted as tax revenues.  ernments on the actual or presumptive net income of
mined by policy choices about where and how to    Export and import duties are shown separately  individuals and profits of enterprises. Also included are
impose taxes and by changes in the structure of the  because their burdens on the economy (and hence  taxes on capital gains, whether realized or not, on the
economy. Tax policy may reflect concerns about dis-  growth) are likely to be high. Export duties, typically  sale of land, securities, and other assets. Social secu-
tributional effects, economic efficiency (including cor-  levied on primary (particularly agricultural) products,  rity contributions based on gross pay, payroll, or number
rections for externalities), and the practical problems  often take the place of direct taxes on income and  of employees are not included, but social securty con-
of administering a tax system. There is no ideal level  profits, but they reduce the incentive to export and  tributions based on personal income after deductions
of taxation. But taxes influence incentives, and hence  encourage a shift to other products. High import  and personal exemptions are included. * Domestic
the behavior of economic actors and country compet-  duties penalize consumers, create protective barriers  taxes on goods and services include all taxes and
itiveness.                                     -which promote higher-priced output and inefficient  duties levied by central governments on the production,
The level oftaxation is typically measured bytax rev-  production-and implicitly tax exports. By contrast,  extraction, sale, transfer, leasing, or delivery of goods
enue as a share of GDP. Comparing levels of taxation  lower trade taxes enhance openness-to foreign com-  and rendering of services, or on the use of goods or per-
across countries provides a quick overview of the fis-  petition, knowledge, technologies, and resources-  mission to use goods or perform activities. These
cal obligations and incentives facing the private sec-  energizing development in manyways. The economies  include general sales taxes, turnover or value added
tor. In this table tax data measured in local currencies  growing fastest over the past 15 years have not relied  taxes, excise taxes, and motor vehicle taxes. * Export
are normalized by scaling variables in the same units  on tax revenues from imports. Seeing this pattern,  duties include all levies collected on goods at the point
to ease cross-country comparisons. The table refers  many developing countries have lowered tariffs over  of export. Rebates on exported goods-that is, repay-
only to central government data, which may consider-  the past decade and, given the successful completion  ments of previously paid general consumption taxes,
ably understate the total tax burden, particularly in  of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on  excise taxes, or import duties-should be deducted
countries where provincial and municipal govemments  Tariffs and Trade (GATT), this trend is expected to con-  from the gross receipts of the appropriate taxes, not
are large or have considerable tax authority.  tinue. In some countries, such as members of the  from export duty receipts. * Import duties comprise all
Low ratios of tax collections to GDP may reflect  European Union, most customs duties are collected  levies collected on goods at the point of entry into the
weak administration and large-scale tax avoidance or  by a supranational authority; these revenues are not  country. They include levies for revenue purposes or
evasion. They also may reflect the presence of a siz-  reported in the individual countries' accounts.  import protection, whether on a specific or ad valorem
able parallel economy with unrecorded and undis-  The tax revenues collected by governments are the  basis, as long as they are restricted to imported prod-
closed incomes. Tax collection ratios tend to rise with  outcomes of systems that are often complex, con-  ucts. * Highest marginal tax rate is the highest rate
income, with more developed countries relying on  taining many exceptions, exemptions, penalties, and  shown on the schedule of tax rates applied to the tax-
taxes to finance a much broader range of social ser-  other inducements that affect tax incidence and thus  able income of individuals and corporations. Also pre-
vices and social security than less developed coun-  influence the decisions of workers, managers, and  sented are the income levels above which the highest
tries are able to provide.                      entrepreneurs. A potentially important influence on  marginal tax rates apply for individuals.
As countries develop, they typically expand their  both domestic and international investors is a tax sys-
capacity to tax residents directly, and indirect taxes  tem's progressivity, as reflected in the highest mar-  Data sources
become less important as a source of revenue. Thus  ginal tax rate on individual and corporate income.
the share of taxes on income, profits, and capital  Figures for individual marginal tax rates generally refer      The definitions used here are
gains is one measure of a tax system's level of devel-  to employment income. For some countries, the high- i  .   from the Intemational Monetary
opment. In the early stages of development govern-  est marginal tax rate is also the basic or flat rate, and  U   Fund (IMF) Manual on Govern-
ments tend to rely on indirect taxes because the  other surtaxes, deductions, and the like may apply.              ment Finance Statistics. Data on
administrative costs of collecting them are relatively                                                            tax revenues are from print and
low. The two main indirect taxes are international                                                                electronic editions of the IMF's
trade taxes (including customs revenues) and domes-                                                                Govemment Finance Statistics
tic taxes on goods and services. The table shows                                                 "-' ' - '         Yearbook. Data on individual and
these domestic taxes as a percentage of value added                                            corporate tax rates are from Price Waterhouse's Individual
in industry and services. Agriculture and mining are                                           Taxes: A Worldwide Summary(1997) and Corporate Taxes:
excluded from the denominator because indirect tax-                                            A Worldwide Summary (1997).
ation of these sectors is usually negligible. What is
1998 World Development Indicators     273



5.6 Relative prices and exchange rates
Exchange ratte    Official  Ratio of   Real        Purchasing             Interest rate                Key
arrangements      exhange official to effective   power parity                                     agricultural
rate    parallel exchange      conversion                                        producer
exchange     rate         factor                                           prices
rate
~ocal                          Ocal correnroy                                 toiheat   Maize
currency                           units to       Deposit  Lend ng    Reae.     $ per     $ per
Classification Structure  uni ts to $  1990 = 100    international $     %         s        %      metric toe  metric ton
1996      1996     1996      1996      1996      1990      1996     1996      1996      1996      1995     1995
Albania              .....       IF       U      104.5       1.0        ..        .           .    16.8      24.0      8.2      347       178
Algeria                        MF         U       54.7      0.4         ..      4.9        17.9      ..         .        .      399       336
Angola                           P        U   59,515.0        .          ..   22.3 38,483.348.5       .         .
Argentina                        P        U        1.0       1.0        ..      0.3         0.9     7.4      10.5     10.0        93        66
Armenia                         IF        U      414.0        .         ..     0.0         82.4    32.2     66.4     -18.9
Australia                        F        U        1.3      1.0      .93.4      1.4         1.3      ..         .        .      158        176
Austria                         FL        U       10.6      1.0       86.2    13.4         13.7     1.7         .        ..     270       159
Azerbaijan                      IF        U    4,301.3        .          ..     0.1     1,367.0      ..    162.5     -63.0
Bangladesh                       P        U       41.8      0.8         ..     9.0         10.6     7.3     14.0       8.0      186
Belarus                        MF         U.         .        .         .      0.1      3,974.9    32.3     64.3      12.3
Belgium                         FL        U       31.0      1.0     108.0     36.2         36.3     4.0       7.2      5.3
Benin                            P        U      511.6        ...            109.3        160.1       ...                ,..              187
Bolivia                         IF        U        5.1      1.0      95.4      0.9          1.5    19.2     56.0      35.4      187       137
Bosnia and Herzegovina           P        U
Botswana                         P        D        3.3      1.0         ..     0.8          1.3    10.4     14.5       4.2        ..      151
Brazil                         MF         0        1.0      1.0         ..     0.0          0.7    26.4        .         ..     165       122
Bulgaria                        IF        U      177.9      0.8         ..      1.1        45.3    74.7    123.5       4.7       55        61
Burkina Faso                     P        U      511.6        ...            106.8        127.6       ...
Burundi                          P        U      302.7      0.8     100.6     47.8         89.7      ..     15.3      -5.9
Cambodia                       MF         D    2,624.1       1.0                             ..     8.8     16.8      11.0
Cameroon                         P        U      511.6        ..      67.3   146.5        175.9     5.5      16.0     -0.9
Canada           ..IF                     U        1.4      1.0      82.7       1.3         1.2     4.3       6.1      4.8       94        85
Central African Republic         P        U      511.6      1.0      64.5     96.2        111.0     5.5     16.0       4.2        ..      543
Chad                             P        UJ     511.6        ...             74.1         99.7     5.5      16.0      5.4      318       127
Chile                          ME         0      412.3      0.9     123.8     97.5        176.8    13.5      17.4      9.7      215       168
China                          MF         U        8.3      1.0         I. .1               1.7     7.5      10.1      3.8      126        98
Hong Kong, China               ME         U        7.7      1.0     .           6.1         7.8     4.6       8.5      3.0
Colombia                       MF         U    1,036.7      0.9     143.9    115.0        336.9    31.2     42.0      20.7      216       185
Congo, Dem. Rep                  IF       U    7,024.4        ..      82.6      0.0     7,299.4       ...
Congo, Rep.                      P        U      511.         ...            194.4        261.9     5.5      16.0     11.2        ..      200
Costa Rica                     MF         U      207.7      1.0     102.2     34.1         64.0    17.3      26.3      8.6         .      176
C6te dilvoire                    P        U      511.6        ..      70.4   158.7        221.0       ...
Croatia                        MF         U        5.4      0.6          .       ..5.1              5.6      22.5     16.6
Czech Republic                   P        U       27.1      1.0         ..     5.8         13.1     6.5     12.5      -1.5      104       118
Denmnark                        FL        U        5.8      1.0     105.6.     8.8          8.5     2.8       8.7      6.7      182
Dominican Republic             ME         0       13.8      1.0     117.7      2.6          5.0       ...                ...              311
Ecuador                        ME         D    3,189.5      1.0     128 .8   195.2      1,018.1   41.5      54.5      19.4      186       182
Egypt, Arab Rep.               ME         M        3.4      1.0         ..     0.8          1.4    10.5     16.6       6.0      157       142
El Salvador                    ME         U.       8.8      0.9         ..     3.6          5.6    14.0     18.6      10.3        ..      164
Eritrea           ~MEl`.                                      .          .        ..                  .        .
Estonia                          P        U       12.0      0.8         ..     0.1          7.7     6.1      13.7     -6.8
Ethiopia                        IF        U        6.4      0.6         ..     0.9          1.3     9.4     13.9      12.5
Finland                         FL        U        4.6      1.0       68.3     6.2          5.9     2.4       6.2      5.1      199
France                          FL        U        5.1      1.0      95.7      6.5          6.3     3.7       6.8      5.4      170       165
Gabon                            P        U      511.6       ..      63.9    265.5        348.1     5.5     16.0       9.7
Gambia, The                     IF        U        9.8      0.9      94.0      2.1          2.4    12.5     25.5      18.1
Georgia                        MF         U                              ..    0.0        576.6
Germany                         FL       U.        1:.5     1.0     122.2        ..2.0              2.8      10.0      8.9      167       168
Ghana                           IF        U    1,637.2      1.0         ..    91.2        323.7    34.5        ..        .         .      144
Greece                         ME         U      240.7      1.0     105.4    130.4        226.4    13.5     21.0      11.1      273       213
Guatemala                       I F       U        6.0      1.0         ..     1.2          2.3     7.7     22.7      12.3      203       176
Guinea                           I F      U    1,004.0      1.0          .  *226.5        326.9    1 7.5    21.5      15.5
Guinea-Bissau                    P        D      511.6        .         ..   654.9      6,233.1    47.3      51.8      2.3
Haiti                           IF        U       15.7      0.7         ..      1.6         5.0       .         .        .         .      328
Honduras                       ME         D       11.7      1.0         ..      1.3         3.6    16.7      29.7      7.0        ..      211
274   1998 World Development Iedicutors



5.6
Exchange rate    Official  Ratio of  Real        Purchasing            Interest rate              Key
arrangement     exchange official to effective  power parity                                  agricultural
rate    parallel exchange     conversion                                     producer
exchange   rate          factor                                        prices
rate
local                        local currenicy                              Wheat    Maize
currency                         unist         Deposit  Lending    Reel     $ per    $ per
Classification Structure  units to $  1990 = 100    itrainal $%                         %     metric ton  metric ton
1996     ±.996    1996     ±.996     1996      1990     1.996    1996     1996     1996      1995     1995
Hungary                       MF        U     152.6      1.0     128O.0     31.1 ... 96.6     26.1     32.6 ...4..6 ..... 89        95
India              ...       .. IF ... U.. .    35.4     0.9                 5.7.     8.3              16.0      8.4.     134      104
Indonesia                     MF        U    2,342.3 ... . 1.0         .  564.6     776.7     17:3.3 .. 19.2 .... 9-.7  ..  .... 7   ...  168 ..
Iran, Islamic Rep.            MEF       0    1,750.8     0.3              161 3     745.0        .                        153      138
Iraq                           PDo0               3.3    0.0              ...     . ....  .. ...  ... ...             .... ..........
Ireland                       FL        U        0.6     1.0      72.1       0.7 ...  0.6 ...    0.3-   6        4.8      141
Israel                        MF        U        3.2     1.0..... .1.8                2.8.    145.5    207.7     9..7       . ...
Italy                 ~~~~FL    U    1,543.0      1.0      79.0  1,412.1   1,612.6     6.5     12.1      7..3     196       189
Jamaica                       IF        U       37.1     0.9         .       4.0     22.3     25.2     44.0     15-.8 ......  .....383
Japan                         IF... ..... 11 U 108.8     1.0     124.4     191.5    171.8      0.3      2.7      27.7...
Jordan                         P        U        0.7     1.0                 0.3      0.3      6.0      9:5      4.2      212      137
Kazakhstan                     IF       U       67.3 ...      ....    ....0.0. .O.   26..5 
Kenya                         IF        U      57.1      1.0 .   ..          8.1     16.6     176      3.       22.0       97      140
Korea, Dem. Rep.
Korea, Rep.                   MF   ...U..     804.5... 1.0                 534.5    649.0      7:5      8.8      5.2   ........ 569
Kuwait                         P        U        03                          0.2      0.2      6.0      8:8.8    3.1
Kyrgyz Republic               MF        U       12.8                  .      0.0      2.4     30.7     58.6     20.3        .
Lao PDR                       MF        U     921.1      1.0              176.7     289.5     16~0.0   27.0 ..  12.5         ....
Latvia                        ME    ... U ....   06                          00 0..   O.3     11.7     25.8 . .. 9.7 ..    73.
Lebanon                       IF        U    1,571.4     1:0.0...       .....       844.5     15.5     252.2    15.0
Lesotho                        P        U        43_.3   1.0   ....996       0.8      1.1     12.7    .17j.7     5..2              177
Libya                          P        U        0.4     0.2                            .        .        .
Lithuania                      P        U        4.0       .                           .9      8.4     2.       -3.6
Macedonia, FYR                ME        U.     40.0        ...
Madagascar                     IF       U    4,0613.3    0.9         .    417.2   1,312.6     19.0     32:8.     .9..6            ......
Malawi                        IF        U       15.3     0.5      82.3       1.1      4.8     26.3     45.3      1.3       85       47
MaJaysia                      MF.       U.       2:5     1.0     107.0       1.0      1.1      7-.1     9.0 0......O.8.. ..... ......
Mali                          MF        U     511.6        ...            128.5     187.2
Mauritania                    IF        U     137.2        ..               27.2     33.7
Mauritius                     MEF       U     .. 17.9   .0.9         .       6.0      7.5     10.8     2078.8 ... 14.0 ... .. .283
Mexico                        IF        U        7.6     1.0         .       1.3      3.4     25.1        ..       .      181      194
Moldova                        IF       U        4.6      ....0..0.1.3                        25.4     36.7     13.1.........   . ....
Mongolia                      IF        U     5484.4     1.0.                2.3 ...114.2     36.4     91.9 .....58.5 ....
Morocco                        P        U        8.7     1.0     113.2       3.2      3.5 ..  ..       1.00      9.6      274      246
Mozambique                     IF       U   11,293 7.7   .0.9  ........  ....  230..2  ..1,933..1   ...          ...... ....     ...
MyanmarP                          ..... D .     .5.9   ...0:.0 ...   ...           .  ......  ... 12.5  ... 16 5.5 .  16..5
Namibia                        P        U        4.3       ...               1.2      1.7     126.6    19.2      8.4      199.. .  197
Nepal   ..........             P ....   U.      56.7     0.8         .       6.8     10.4..            1  9      5.9
Netherlands                   FL        U        1.7     0.9      97.2       2.2      2.1.     3.5      5.9      4..4
New Zealand                    IF       U        1:.5    1.0     107.2       1.5      1-.5.    8.5     12.3 .....10.2
Nicaragua                     MF        U        8.4 ...I  1.0    80.6       0.0      1.8     12~3.3.  20.7      8.1...... 216
Niger                          P        U     511.6        .         .      96.7    116.7        .
Nigeria                        P        D0      21.9     0.3     149.2       3.6     19.7... 13.5      20.2    -23.6      580      254
Norway                        MF        U        6.4     1.0     106.1      10.3      9.9      42.2      71.1. .2.4       394.
Oman                           P        U        0.4     1.0         .       0.3      0.2      6.9      9.2      5.5
Pakistan                      MF        U       36.1     0.9         .       6.2     10.1    .......                      126
Panama                         P        U        1.0       ...               0.4      0.4      7.2     10.6      8.8        .      257
Papua New Guinea               IF       U        1.3 ...  1.0     93.0       0.4      0.5     12.2     13.3      9.68
Paraguay                       IF       U    2.062.8     0.9     118.8     462.7  1,144.1     17.2     28.9     15.~8     119      145
Peru                          IF        U        2.5     1.0         .  ...  0.   1   1.4.    14.9     26.1     15.2      28       20
Philippines                   IF        U       26.2     0.9     129.9      63.0      8.9      9.7.. .14.8       5.3        .      194
Poland                        MF        U        2.7     1.0     211.0       0.3      1.6.    20.0     26.1..    6.5      153
Portugal                      FL        U     154.2      1.0     115.4      92.4    119.4      6.3     11.7      8.1      187      179
Puerto  Rico..                          ...                .                                                       .........
Romania                       IF        UY.3,084.2       0.8         .       9.1  1,045.7        .                        127       86
Russian Federation            MEF       U    5120.8      1.0         .       0.7  3,577.0     55.1    14.       69.6
1998 World Development Indicators 275



5.6
Exchange rate     Official  Ratio of  Real        Purchasing             Interest rate               Key
arrangement     exchange official to effective   power parity                                    agricultural
rate    parallel exchange      conversion                                      producer
exchange    rate          factor                                          prices
rate
local                         [ocal currency                                Wheat     Maize
currency                          unite to       Deposit  Lending    Real     $ per     $ per
CJassification Structure  unite to $   1990 = 100   international $              %        %      metro c on  metroc ton
1996     1996      1996      1996     1996      1990      1996     1996      1996     1996      1995     1995
Rwanda                          IF       U      306.8      0.9        ..      39.8      95.3      10.9       .         ..     267       172
Saudi Arabi'a                  FL        U        3.7      1.0      93.1       2.6       2.5..                ,
Senegal                         P        U      511.6        .         ..    142.5     182.6        ..       .         .         .      140
Sierra Leone                    IF       U      920.7      1.0     106.3      54.1     359.5      14.0     32.1      4.8
Singapore                      MF        U        1.4      1.0        ..       1.6       1.6       3.4      6.3      3.7
Slovak Republic                 P        U       30.7      0.9         ..      7.4      14.5       9.3     13.9      8.0      109       125
Slovenia                       MF        U      135.4      0.9         .         ..    105.1      15.0     23.7     12.6      194       144
South Africa                   IF        U        4 .3     1.0      90.3       1.2       1.9      14.9     19.5     10.3      217       164
Spain                          FL        U      126.7      1.0      91.5     105.1     121.1       6.1      6.5      5.0      227       222
Sri Lanka                      MF        U       55.3      1.0        ..      11.5      18.1      16.0     16.3      4.8        ..      180
Sudan                          MF        U    1,250.68       .         .         .         ..        .        .        .      209
Sweden                          IF       U        6.7      1.0      79.1       9.5       9.7       2.5      7.4      6.4      142
Switzerland                     IF       U        1.2      1.0     111.7       2.1       2.1       1.3      5.0      4.8      880       520
Syrian Arab Republic            P        M       11.2      0 .2        ..     10.4      14.0
Tajikistan                      IF       U    2,204.3        .         ..      0.0      57.7
Tanzania                       IF        U      580.0      1.,0        ..        .         .      13.6     37.2     11.9
Thailand                        P        U       25.3      1.0        ..       9.9      11.4      10.3     14.4      9.4        ..      142
Togo                            P        U      511.6       ..      73.6      72.6     191.8        ...                          .      112
Trinidd and obagoIF              U        6.0      1.0      85.2       3.2       3.8       6.9     15.8     11.2        ..      371
Tunisia                        MF        U        1.0      1.0         ..      0.4       0.4        ..       .         .      291
Turkey                         MF        U   81,404.9      1.0         ..  1,525.1 39,421.8       80.7        .        ..     169       196
Turkmenistan                   MF        D      404.4        .         ..      0.0     907.1..                .
Uganda                          I F      U    1,046.1      0.9      87.7     118.2     302.3      10.6    20.3      14.0
Ukraine                        MF        U        1.8      1.0         ..      0.0       0.7      33.6    79.9       9.6
United Arab Emirates           FL        U        3.7      1.0        ..       3.6       3.7..                .
United Kingdom                  IF       U        0.6      1.0      91.5       0.6       0.6       3.0      6.0      2.6      186
United States                   IF       U        1 .0      ..      96.6       1.0       1.0        ..      8.3      6.2      127        89
Uruguay                        MF        U        8.0      1.0     160.4       0.6       5.8      28.1    91.5      55.7      153       154
Uzbekistan                     MF        M          .        .         .       0.0       9.3..                .
Venezuela                      MF        U      417.3      0.9     117.9      16.5     151.3      27.6     31.7    -37.7        ..      222
Vietnam                        MF        U   10,962.1        .         ..    479.4   2,185.9      17.9     28.3      7.4
West Bank and Gaza              .         .         .        ..                                      .        .
Yemen, Rep.                    IF        U       94.2       ..46.1                                   .                 ..     367       416
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)
Zambia                         IF        U    1,203.7      0.9      97.7      15.6     500.3      42.1     53.8     13.5
Zimbabwe                        IF       U       10.0      0.9         ..       .8       2.9      21.6     34.2      9.9      224       139
Note: Exchange rate arrangements are given for the end of the yearin 1996. Exchange rate classifications: FL = flexibility limited. IF~ independent floating. MxF = mnanaged flouting, P= pegged.
txchange rate structures: 0 - dual exchange rates, M - multiple exchange rates, U = unitary rate.
276   1998 World Development Indicators



5.6
In a market-based economy the choices households,  the official exchange rate would buy in that country. The  * Exchange rate arrangement describes the arrange-
producers, and governments make about the alloca-  alternative approach isto convert national currency esti-  mentthat an IMF membercountry has furnished to the IMF
tion of resources are influenced by relative prices-  mates of GNP to a common currency by using conver-  under Article IV, Section 2(a). Dxchange rate classification
the real exchange rate, real wages, real interest  sion factors that reflect equivalent purchasing power.  indicates how the exchange rate is determined in the main
rates, and commodity prices. Relative prices also  Purchasing power parity (PPP) conversion factors are  market when there is more than one market pegged (to a
reflect, to a large extent, the choices of these agents.  based on price and expenditure surveys conducted by  single currency or composite of currencies), flexibility lim-
Thus relative prices convey vital information about  the International Comparison Programme (ICP) and rep-  ited, or floating (managed or independent). Exchange rate
the interaction of economic agents in an economy  resent the conversion factors applied to equalize price  structure shows whether counthes have unitary, dual, or
and in relation to the rest of the world.         levels across countries. See the notes to tables 4.10  multiple exchange rates. * Official exchange rate refers
The exchange rate is the price of one currency in  and 4.11 for further discussion of the PPP conversion  tothe actual, principal exchange rate and isan annual aver-
terms of another. Official exchange rates and     factor.                                           age based on monthly averages (local currency units rela-
exchange rate arrangements are established by gov-   Many interest rates coexist in an economy, reflect-  tive to U.S. dollars) determined by country authorities or on
ernments. Parallel, or "black market,' exchange rates  ing competitive conditions, the terms governing loans  rates determined largely by market forces in the legally
reflect unofficial rates negotiated by traders and are  and deposits, and differences in the position and sta-  sanctioned exchange market. * Ratio of official to paral-
by their nature difficult to measure. Parallel exchange  tus of creditors and debtors. In some economies inter-  lel exchange rate measuresthe premium people mustpay,
rate markets often account for only a small share of  est rates are set by regulation or administrative fiat. In  relative to the official exchange rate, to exchange the
transactions and so may be both thin and volatile. But  economies with imperfect markets or where reported  domestic currency for dollars in the black market. * Real
in countries with weak policies and financial systems,  nominal rates are not indicative of effective rates, it  effective exchange rate is the nominal effective exchange
they often represent the "going" rate. The parallel  may be difficult to obtain data on interest rates that  rate (a measure of the value of a currency against a
rates reported here are collected by Currency Data &  reflect actual market transactions. Deposit and lend-  weighted average of several foreign currencies) divided by
Intelligence, Inc., from a variety of sources, some  ing rates are collected by the International Monetary  a price deflator or index of costs. * Purchaslingpower par-
within the country and some outside but doing busi-  Fund (IMF) as representative interest rates offered by  ity conversion factor is the number of units of a country's
ness with entities based in the country.          banks to resident customers. The terms and condi-  currency required to buy the same amounts of goods and
Real effective exchange rates are derived by   tions attached to these rates differ by country, how-  services in the domestic market as $1 would buy in the
deflating a trade-weighted average of the nominal  ever, limiting their comparability. Real interest rates  United States. * Deposit Interest rate is the rate paid by
exchange rates that apply between trading partners.  are calculated by adjusting nominal rates by an esti-  commercial or similar banks for demand, time, or savings
For most industrial countries the weights are based  mate of the inflation rate in the economy. A negative  deposits. * Lending interest rate is the rate charged by
on trade in manufactured goods with other industrial  real interest rate indicates a loss in the purchasing  banks on loans to prime customers. * Real Interest rate
countries during 1989-91, and an index of relative,  power of the principal. The real interest rates in the  is the lending interest rate adjusted for inflation as mea
normalized unit labor costs is used as the deflator.  table are calculated as (I - P) /1( + P), where i is the  sured by the GDP deflator. * Key agricultural producer
(Normalization smooths a time series by removing  nominal interest rate and P is the inflation rate (as  prices are the domestic producer prices per metric ton for
short-term fluctuations while retaining changes of a  measured by the GDP deflator).                wheat and maize converted to U.S. dollars using the offi-
large amplitude over the longer economic cycle.) For  The table also shows prices for two key agricul-  cial exchange rate.
other countries, prior to 1990, the weights take into  tural commodities, wheat and maize. Prices received
account trade in manufacturedJ and primary products  by farmers, as used here, are important determi-  Data sources
during 1980-82; from January 1990 onward weights  nants of the type and volume of agricultural produc-
are based on trade in manufactured and primary   tion. In theory these prices should refer to national                  Information on exchange rate
products during 1988-90, and an index of relative  average farmgate, or first-point-of-sale, transactions.              arrangements is drawn from the
changes in consumer prices is used as the deflator.  But depending on the country's institutional arrange-              IMFs Exchange Arrangements
An increase in the real effective exchange rate rep-  ments-that is, whether it relies on market wholesale               and  Exchange   Restrictions
resents an appreciation of the local currency.    prices, government-fixed prices, or support prices-                   Annual Report 1997. Official
Because of conceptual and data limitations, changes  the data might not always refer to the same selling                and real effective exchange
in real effective exchange rates should be interpreted  points. These data come from  the Food and                      rates and deposit and lending
with caution.                                     Agriculture Organization (FAO), and most originated                   interest rates are from the IMF's
The exchange rate is often used as a basis for con-  from official country publications or from FAO ques-  InternationalFinancial Statistics. Estimates of parallel mar-
verting prices in different currencies because it is  tionnaires. As the data show, prices received by farm-  ket exchange rates are from Currency Data & Intelligence,
observable in the market and available universally. But  ers often are not equalized across international  Inc.'s Global Currency Report. PPP conversion factors are
because market imperfections are extensive and    markets (even after adjusting for freight, transport,  from the ICP and World Bank staff estimates. Real interest
exchange rates reflect at mostthe relative prices of trad-  and insurance costs and differences in quality).  rates are calculated using World Bank data on the GDP
ables, the volume of goods and services that a U.S. dol-  Market imperfections such as taxes, subsidies, and  deflator. Agricultural price data are from the FAO's
lar buys in the United States may not correspond to what  trade barriers drive a wedge between domestic and  Production Yearbook.
a U.S. dollar converted to another country's currency at  international prices.
199S World Development indicators       277



ci~            ~. Defense expenditures and trade in arms
Military expenditures                    Armed forces                           Arms trade
personnel
% of            %of central           TotalI             % of               Po"f"             0/' o f
GNP         government expenditure  thousands         labor forcE ~     total exports      to:al rmoorts
1985     1995      1985     1995      1985     1995      1985     1995  I   1985     1995     1985      1995
Albania                       5.3      1.1      10.9      3.2        ..       52        ..      3.2       0.0      0.0       0.0       0.0
Algeria                       2.5      3.2       6 .3     6.9       170      120       2.9      1.4       0.0      0.0       5.1       2.2
Angola                       19.9      3.0         .        ..       66       82       1.7      1.7       0.0      0.0     118.0      13.7
Argentina                     3.8      1.7      12.4     27.0       129       65       1.1      0.6       1.0      0.3       6.5       0.2
Armenia                        ..      0.9                           ..       60         .      3.3        .       00                  4.5
AuStralia                     2.7      2.5       9.4      6.8        70       56       0.9      0.6       0.6      0.1       3.6       1.5
Austria                       1 .3     0.9       3.3      2.2        40       45       1.1l     1.2       0.9      0.1       0.1       0.1
Azerbaijan                     ..      2.8        ..        .. .           .87          .       2.7         .      0.0        ..       0.0
Bangladesh                   1.7       1.7      13.0      9.9        91      115       0.2      0.2      0.0       0.0       2.2       0.9
Belarus                        ..      0.6         .        ..        .      115        ..      2.1        ..      4.0        ..       .0
Belgium                       3.1      1.7       5.3      3.5       107       47       2.7      1.1       0.7      0.1       0.7       0.2
Benin                         2.2      1 .2       8. .6               B        6       0.3      0.2       0.0      0.0       3.0       0.0
Bolii                        3.3       2.3      22.6      9.5        26       26       1.2      0.9       0.0      0.0       0.7       0.7
Bosnia and Herzegovina                                               ..       50        .       2.4        ..      0.0        .       20.0
Botswana                     2.5       5.3       5.6     12.7         3        8       0.6      1.3       0.0      0.0       1.7       0.0
Brazil                        0.6      1.7       2 .1     3.9       496      265       0.9      0.4       1.3      0.0       0.4       0.3
Bulgaria                    14.1       2.8      32.5      6.3       189       66       4.2      2.0       4.7      2.6       7.3       0.0
Burkina Faso                  1.9      2.9      18.7     12.0         9        9       0.2      0.2       0.0      0.0       6.0       0.0
Burundi                      3.0       4.4      20.8     24.8         9       22       0.3      0.7      0.0   00            2.6       0.0
Cambodia                       ..      3 .1.                .        35       90       0.9      1.6       0.0      0.0        ..       3.2
Cameroon                      1.9      1.9       6.3     10.2        15       22       0.4      0.4       0.0      0.0       1.7       0.6
Canada                        2.2      1.7       8.6      7.1        83       70       0.6      0.5       0.6      0.1       0.1       0.1
Central African Republic.     1.8      2.5       6.4        .         5        5       0.4      0.3       0.0      0.0       0.0       0.0
Chad                          2.0      3.1       6.1       ..        16       30       0.6      1.0       0.0      0.0      12.0       4.5
Chile                         4.0      3.6      11.4     17.5       124      102       2.6      1.6       2.1      0.0       0.7       2.4
China                         4.9      2.3      23.6     18.5     4,100    2,930       0.7      0.4
Hong Kong, China              .         .         .        .         .
Colombi'a                     1.6      2.6      10.3     16.2        66      146       0.6      0.9      0.0       0.0       0.5       0.4
Congo, Dam. Rep.              1.2      0.3       9.8      3.7        62       49       0.4      0.3       0.0      0.0       5.0       0.0
Congo, Rep.                  4.0       2.9       9.2       ..        15       10       1.8      0.9       0.0      0.0       6.7       1.6
Costa Ri'ca                   0.7      0.6       2.6      2.7         8        6       0.8      0.6       0.0      0.0       1.6       0.0
Cdt dvoire                   1.2       1. 1        ..     4.2         6       15      0.2       0.3      0.0       0.0      1.1       0.0
Croatia                        ..     10.5        ..     32.0        ..       60        ..      2.7        ..      0.0         .       1.5
Cuba                         4.5       1.6         .        ..      297       70       7.0      1.4       0.1      0.0      27.4       0.0
Czech Republic                 ..      2.3        ..      6.6        ..       668               1.2        ..      0.6         .       0.0
Denmark                      2.3       1.8       5.2      4.1        29       27       1.0      0.9       0.1      0.0       0.6       0.2
Dominican Republic            1.2      1.4       6.0      9.1        22       22       0.9      0.7       0.0      0.0       0.7       0.3
Ecuador                       2.6      3.7      16.9     18.3        43       58       1.4      1.4       0.0      0.0       4.0       6.2
Egypt, Arab Rep.            12.6       5.7      22.1     13.7       466      430       2.9      2.1       4.9      0.0     30.9       16.2
El Salvador                  5.7       1.1      29.1      7.4        48       22       2.9      1.0       0.0      0.0     12.5        0.7
Eritrea                        ...                 .        .         ..                 ..                 .      0.0        ..0.0
Estonia                       ..       1.1        -.      2.9        ..        6        ..      0.7       ..       0.0        ..       0.2
Ethiopia                     6.7       2.2      28.9      9.2      240       120      1.2       0.5      0.0       0.0     80.6        0.0
Finland                      1.7       2.0       5.4      5.1        40       32       1.6      1.2      0.0       0.0       0.6       0.1
France                       4.0       3.1       8.8      6.6       563      504      2.3       2.0       7.0      0.6      0.1        0.1
Gabon                         2.8      2.6       6.6      9.6         7       10       1.7      2.0       0.0      0.0      11.7       0.0
Gambia, The                    ..      4.6               16.2         1        1       0.3      0.2       0.0      0.0     10.8        0.0
Ge.org.ia                      ..      2.4        ..        .         .        5        .       0.2         .      0.0        ..       4.0
Germany,                     3.2.      1.9      10.3      5.0       495      352       1.3      0.9        ..      0.2        ..       0.1
Ghana                        1.0       1.4       7.2      5.8        15        7      0.3       0.1       0.0      0.0       0.0       0.0
Greece                        7.0      5.5      13.6     10.8       201      213       5.0      4.8       0.7      0.1       2.9       2.2
Guatemala                     1.6      1.3      17.0     14.2        43       36       1.6      1.0       0.0      0.0       2.6       0.2
Guinea                         ..      1.5                           28       12       1.1      0.4       0.0      0.0      20.8       0.0
Guinea-Bissau                 2.9      2.6       4.7       ..        11        7       2.5      1.Z       0.0      0.0      41.0       0.0
Haiti                         1.5      2.9       7.5     21.6         6        0       0.2      0.0       0.0      0.0       2.3       0.0
Honduras                     3.5       1.4      14.0      6.7        21       16       1.4      0.8       0.0      0.0       3.4       0.8
278   1998 WNorldt Deveolomn    indicators



Military expenditures                   Armed forces                   A'rmls trade
personnel
Exports           Imports
% of           % of central         Total             % of              % of              % of
GNP        government expenditure  throusands       labor force      total exports    total imports
1985    ±1995     1985     1995     1985     1995     1L985    1595     1985     1.995    1985     1995
Hurigar                     7.2      1.5      15.3     4.6      117       71      1.8      1.1       2.6     0.2       1.0      0.2
India                       3.5      2.4      15.7    12.7     1,260   1,265      0.4      0.3      0.1      0.0      16.3      1.2
Indonesia                   2.4      1.8      10.3     89.9.    278      280.     0 4...   0:3.     0.0      0.0       1.6      0.4
Iran, Islamic Rep.          7.7      2.6      34.1.. 1-3.6      345      440.... 2 5.      23.      0.       113.6.  1.2        2.2
Iraq..    ...              41.2    ... .  .. ... .......  .......  788   390     19.5  ..  .7.2   ... 0.2    0.0     46.4       0.0
Ireland                     1.7      1.3       2.9     3.4       14       13      1.1      0.9       0.0     0.0       0.1I     0.0
Iarael                     20.3      9.6      27.2    21.1      195      185     1-1.9     8.5     10.8      4.1      10.9      1.1J
Italy                       2.2     ..1.8     .46      3.9      504  .... 435     2.1      1.7      1.7  ....  0.1 ....  0.3.   0.1
Jamaica             ....    09.9..   0.8       1.8     14.4        2.      3      0.2 .... 0.2 ..   0.0      0.0       0.9      0.0
Japan                       1.0      1.0       5.6     4.2      241      240      0.4      0.4       0.1     0.0       0.8      0.2
Jordan                     15.5      7.7      39.7    21.7       81      112     12.3      10.2     0.0       0.0     22.9      1.9
....ha. a  .... . .... . .... ..   0 .9   . .. .. . .. ..   .... .......  2 8    ..      0,3        . ..... 0.4  ....   .... .7  2
Kenya                       2.3      2.3       8.4     6.2 ...  ...19  ....22....  0.2     0~2      0.0      0.0       0.7  .....  0.3
Korea, Dem. Rep.           20.0     28.6        ..       .      784    1,040      8.5      88      25.        .       21        5.
Korea, Rep.                 5.0      3.4   ..26.6     13.6      600      655      3.4      3.0      0.6      0.0       1.5      0.8
Kuwait                      5.7     11.6      13.6    25.5       16       20.     2.4      2.4      0.0      0.0       6.2     11.6
Kyrgyz... Republic ...  .... .... ..  0.7...   ....13....0.7...                                              2.5.               0.  0.''
LaoPDR                 ...  7.4      4.2        .     22.3.      54       50      2.9       2.1     0.0      0P.0     48.8      0.0
Latvia  .... . .. .....            ....0.9                         ..      7 .. . .        .0.5       .      0 00:3
Lebanon                              3.7         .     9.7       21       55      2.2      4.2      0.0      0.0       2.3      0.5
Lesotho                     5.3      1.92 5                       2        2      0.3      0.2      0.0      0.0       0.0      0.0
Libya                      12.0      6.0                  ...    91       76      8.2      4.9.     0.8      0.0      39.0      0.0
Lithuania                            0:5               2.1            ..  12.        ....-.. 06              00  .....          072
Macedonia, FYR                       3.3        .        .                16..1:6                             00..              0:0
Madagascar                  1.9      0.9       8.0     5.0       27       21 ...  0.6..     03.3.    0.0     0 .... 00...... 7.5 .... 1.0
Malawi                      2.0      1.6       5.8     3.5        6....   10      0.2      0.2      0.0      0.0       1.8      0.0
Malaysia                   .3.8      3.0      10.7    12.4.     110      122.     1.8     ..1.5      0.0  0   .01.     3.8      1.0
Mail .........             2.9      1.8       8.1  .   .....      8.      8  ..  0.2  .. . 02.2    0.0      0.0       3.3      0.0
Mauritania                  6.9      3.2   .. 25.0     9.3       16..     10      1.9       1.0     0.0      0.0       0.0      0.0
Mauritius                   0.2      04.4.     0.8     1.6         1.      I.1.   0.3 ..   0.2       0.0     0.0       0.0      0.0
Mexico                      0.7      1.0       2.6     5.1 .... 140..    175      0.5      0.5       0.0 0...0 ~ .    .0.2      0.0
Moldova                       ..     2.1        ....          .... .....  12        .      0.6        .      5.6        .0
Mongolia                    8'3      2.4      13.1     7.0       38       21      4.2       17      0.0      0.0       0.5      0.0
Morocco                     6.0      4.3      20.0    13.8      165      195      2.1       1.9     0.0      0.0       3.1      0.6
Mozambique                  9.9      5.4      38.0       .        35      1        .        .       0.0      0.0      63.70.
Myanmar                 .. .1.9     ..2.9     18.7    12.0         9.      9.     0.0       0.0 0...0..'     0.0..   .17.7     10.5
Namibia..                            2.1        .       .          .       8        ..      1.2              0..                0.8
Nepal             ..   .   ...  1.1  ..   . 0.9 ...   ...6.2  . ...5.8   25   40..  0.3     0.4      0.0      0.0      1.1      0.0
Netherlands                 3.0      2.1       5.4     4.4      103       67       1.7      0.9     0.2       0: 1.. .. 0.8     0.1
New Zealand                 2.0      1.3       4.5     33.3      13       10.     0.9 ....0.6.      00        0.0      1.3      0.3
Nicaragua                  17.4      2.2      26.2     5.3       74       14       6.7     0.9       0.0      7.7     29.0      0.0
Niger                       0.8      1.2       5.0     7.9 .... -.5  ..    9.      02.2    0.2       0.0  0. . 0...   0 .0 0.....  'D. .0.O:
Nigeria1                              8        9.4     3.5      134       89       .        .        .       0.0       38.       00
Norway                      31       2:7       7.5     6.5       36 ...   3 8     1.8      :1.7     0.2      0.0       1.2      04
Oman              ...      24.4     16.7      42.3    33.9       25       36       6.9      6.5      0.0 ..... ......4.4       10.8
Pakistan                    6.2      6.1 ...  28.1    25.3      483      587       1.4      1.3      1.5      0.3      8.0      4.2
Panama                      2.0      1.4       6.4     5.3        1 2     12      1.5      1.1      0.0       0.0      0.7      0.0
Papua New Guinea            1.5      1.4       4.5     5.6         3       5      0.2      0.2       0.0      0~.0  ~1.0 0......00
Paraguay                    1.1      1.4      11.9     7.3       14       12 .     1.0  0....07      0.0      0.0 ...  4.0      0.0
Peru                        6.7      1.7      36.3     9.3      18       115       2.0      1.3      00       .0       3.8 ...  3:0
Philippines                 1.4      1.5       9.5     8.5       115     110       0.5      0.4      0.2      00       0 7      0 3
Poland                     10.2   .... 2.3    40.7     5.4      439      278        .       2.0    11.3       0.2      4.2      0.3
Portugal                    2.9      2.6       6.5     5.9      102       78..     2.2 ...1.6 ..I .3.7        0.0      3.1.     0.3
Puerto  Rico                  .        ..                ..                                   ..
Romania           .....    .6.9..... 2.5      20.0    11.2      237      209       2.2      20.0     3.6      0.3      0.4 .... 0.0
Russian Federation           ..     11.4        .     38.1         ..  1,400        .       1.8       ..      4.3 ..    .....   0.00
1998 World Development Indicators   279



U, ~5.7
Military expenditures                   Armed forces                         Arms trade
personnel
Exports           mnports
% of           % of central         Total             % of              % of              Shof
GNP        governmen expenitur    thousands         labor force      total exports     Total imports
1985     1995     ±985    ±1995     1985     1995     ±985     1995     ±985     1995     1985     1995
Rwanda                      1.7      5.2       9.4    23.3         5      33       0.2      0.8      0.0      0.0      0.0      0.0
Saudi Arabia.              22.7     13.5      27.0    41.0        80     175       2.1      2.8      0.0      0.0     30.1     31.3
Senegal                     2.8     .1.6       8 .8               18      14       0.6      0.4      0.0      0.0      0.6      0.4
Sierra.Leone                0.8      6.1       5.0    28.9         4      14       0.3      0.8      0.0      0.0      0.0      0.0
Singapore                   5.9       4.7     17.0    24.0        56      60       4.7      4.1      0.2      0.0      0.5      0.2
Slovak Republic              ..      3.0         .     6.8        ..      52        .       1.9        .      0.8       ..      3.1
Sloveni'a                    ..      1.5         ..    3.5         ..     10        ..      1.0       ..      0.1       ..      0.3
South Africa                3.8      2.2      11.6     6.7        95     100       0.8      0.6      0.5      0.4      0.2      0.6
Spain                       2.4      1.6       6.9     5.6       314     210       2.1      1.3      2.4      0.1      0.6      0.6
Sri Lanka                   2.9      4.6       8.4    15.7        22     110       0.4      1.5      0.0      0.0      1.6      3.1
Sudan                       3.2      6.6        ..    37.6        65      89       0.6      0.9      0.0      0.0      7.8      8.4
Sweden                      3.0       2.8      6.1     5.8        69      51       1.6      1.1      0.6      0.4      0.3      0.0
Switzerland                 2.4      1.6        ..     6.0        23      29       0.7      0.8      1.2      0.1      2.4      0.0
Syrian Arab Republic       21.8      7.2      42.0      ..       402     320      13.9      8.0      0.0      0.0     37.8      1.5
Tajikiatan                   ..      3.7                                   8        ..      0.4       ..      1.4       ..      0.0
Tanzania                    3.8       1.8     12.8      8.4       43       35      0.4      0.2      0.0      0.0      3.8      0.0
Thailand                    4.2       2.5    .19.7    15.2       235     288       0.8      0.9      0.0      0.0      2.1      1.6
Togo                        2.6       2.3      6.9    10.          7      12       0.6      0.7      0.0      0.0      0.0      0.0
Trinidad and Tooago          ..      1.7        ..     4.0         2        3      0.4      0.6      0.0      0.0      0.0      0.0
Tunisia                     3.6      2.0       8.8     6.3        38      35       1.5      1.0      0.0      0.0     11.2      0.5
Turkey                      4.6       4.0     17.9    17.6       814     805       3.8      2.9      1.5      0.3      4.4      2.0
Turkmenistan                  ..      1.7       ..       ..               21        ..      1.1        .      0.0       ..      4.2
Uganda                      2.0      2.3      15.6    13.3        15      52       0.2      0.5      0.0      0.0      3.1      0.0
Ukraine                      ..      2.9        ..     7.8         .     476        ..      1.8       .       1.4       ..      0.0
United Arab Emirates        6.7      4.8      43.5    38.4        44      60       6.1      5.3      0.0      0.0      3.4      1.8
United Kingdom              5.1      3.0      12.6     7.2       334     233       1.2      0.8      1.6      2.1      0.7      0.1
United States               5.1      3.8      25.7    17.4     2,244    1,620      1.9      1.2      6.3      2.7      0.5      0.1
Uruguay                     2.9      2.4      10.6     7.3        30      25       2.4      1.7      0.0      0.0      0.0      0.2
Uzbekistan                   ..      3.8        ..      -.         .      21        ..      0.2        .      0.3       ..      0.0
Venezuela                   2.1      1.1       9.2      6.3       71      75       1.2      0.9      0.0      0.0      6.5      0.8
Vietnam                    19.4       2.6       ..    10.9     1,027     550       3.5      1.5      2.7      0.0     94.3      2.7
West Bank and Gaza            .        .         .        .        .        .       .         .       .
Yemen), Rep.                 ..     15.7        ..    29.4        ..      68        ..      1.5               3 .0       .     13.9
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)  3.7     ..      54.8      ..       258       ..      5.7       ..      4.2       ..      0.2
Zambia                       ..      2.8        ..    12.6        16      22       0.6      0.6      0.0      0.0      4.6      0.6
Zimbabwe                    5.7      4.0      14.4    10.5        46      40       1.2      0.8      0.0      0.0      0.0      0.0
Note: Data for somne countries are based on partial or ascertain data or roagh estimates; see ACDA 1997.
a. Data prior to 1990 refer to the Federal Republic of Germany before unification. b. U.S. Arms Control and Disarmnament Agency aggregate mneasures.
280   1998 World Development Indicators



5.7
Although national defense is an important function of  military grants in kind, pensions for military person-  * Military expenditures for NATO countries are
government, and security from external threats con-  nel, and social security contributions paid by one part  based on the NATO definition, which covers military-
tributes to economic development, high levels of  of government to another. Official government data  related expenditures of the defense ministry (includ-
defense spending place a burden on the economy  may omit parts of military spending, disguise financ-  ing recruiting, training, construction, and the
and may impede growth. Determining the appropriate  ing through extrabudgetary accounts or unrecorded  purchase of military supplies and equipment) and
level of defense spending is not easy, but concerns  use of foreign exchange receipts, or fail to include  other ministries. Civilian-type expenditures of the
about perceived vulnerability and risk play an impor-  military assistance or secret military equipment  defense ministry are excluded. Military assistance is
tant role. Comparisons between countries should  imports. Current spending is more likely to be  included in the expenditures of the donor country,
take into account the many factors that influence  reported than capital spending. In some cases a  and purchases of military equipment on credit are
such perceptions including historical and cultural tra-  more accurate estimate of military spending can be  included at the time the debt is incurred, not at the
ditions, the length of borders that need defending,  obtained by adding the value of estimated arms  time of payment. Data for other countries generally
the quality of relations with neighbors, and the role  imports and nominal military expenditures. This  cover expenditures of the ministry of defense
of the armed forces in the body politic.       method may understate or overstate spending in a  (excluded are expenditures on public order and
Although the traditional secrecy shrouding data on  particular year, however, because payments for arms  safety, which are classified separately). * Armed
defense spending and trade in arms is gradually lift-  may not coincide with deliveries.      forces personnel refers to active-duty military per-
ing, data from governments are often incomplete and  Data on armed forces refer to active-duty military  sonnel, including paramilitary forces if those forces
unreliable. Even in countries where parliaments vigi-  personnel, including paramilitary forces. These data  resemble regular units in their organization, equip-
lantly review government budgets and spending,  exclude payments to civilians from the defense bud-  ment, training, or mission. * Arms trade is exports
defense spending and trade in arms often do not  get and so are not consistent with the data on mili-  and imports of military equipment usually referred to
receive close scrutiny. Finance ministries also may  tary  spending. Moreover, since they exclude  as "conventional," including weapons of war, parts
not exercise due oversight, particularly in countries  payments to personnel not on active duty, they under-  thereof, ammunition, support equipment, and other
where the armed forces have a strong political voice.  estimate the share of the labor force that works for  commodities designed for military use. See About
For a detailed critique of the quality of such data, see  the defense establishment. Because governments  the data for more details.
Ball (1984) and Happe and Wakeman-Linn (1994).  rarely report the size of their armed forces, such data
The International Monetary Fund's (IMF) Govern-  typically come from intelligence sources. The ACDA  Data sources
mentFinanceStatistics isthe primarysourcefordata  attributes its data to unspecified U.S. government
on defense spending. It uses a consistent definition  sources.                                                   Data on military expenditures,
of defense spending based on the United Nations'  The Standard International Trade Classification                armed forces, and arms trade
classification of the functions of government and the  (SITC) does not clearly distinguish trade in military     are from the ACDA's World
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) definition.  goods. For this and other reasons, customs-based          Military  Expenditures  and
The IMF checks data on defense spending for broad  data on trade in arms are of little use, so most com-         Arms Transfers 1996 (1997).
consistencywith other macroeconomicdata reported  pilers rely on trade publications, confidential govern-
to it but is not always able to verify the accuracy and  ment information on third-country trade, and other
completeness of such data. Moreover, country cov-  sources. The construction of defense production
erage is affected by delays or failure to report data.  facilities and licensing fees paid for the production of
Thus most researchers supplement the IMF's data  arms are included in trade data when they are spec-
with independent assessments of military outlays by  ified in military transfer agreements. Grants in kind
organizations such as the U.S. Arms Control and  are usually included as well. Definitional issues
Disarmament Agency   (ACDA), the   Stockholm  include treatment of dual-use equipment such as air-
International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), and  craft, use of military establishments like hospitals
the International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS).  and schools by civilians, and purchases by non-
However, these agencies rely heavily on reporting by  government buyers. ACDA data do not include arms
governments, on confidential intelligence estimates  supplied to subnational groups. Valuation problems
of varying quality, on sources that they do not or can-  arise when data are reported in volume terms and
not reveal, and on one another's publications. Data  the purchase price must be estimated. Differences
presented in this table are from the ACDA.     between sources may reflect reporting lags or differ-
Definitions of military spending differ depending  ences in the period covered. Most compilers revise
on whether they include civil defense, reserves and  their time series data regularly, so estimates for the
auxiliary forces, police and paramilitary forces, dual-  same year may not be consistent between publica-
purpose forces such as military and civilian police,  tion dates.
s99s World Development Indicators     281



5.8 State-owned enterprises
Economic    Investment     Credit    Net financial  Overall    Employment  Proceeds
activity                             flows from    balance                from
government     before                privati-
transfers              zation
8 of gross   % of gross
domestic    domestic
% of GDP    investment    credit      %of GDP     'I, of GDP   % of tora  $ mi I 0ns
1985-90 1990-95 1985-90 1990-95 1985-90 1990-95 1985-90 1990-95 1985-90 1990-95 1985-90 1990-95 1990-96
Algeria                ..    .      .     .      .   38.5    ...          ...        7.20   .     18.5
Argentina             2.7   1.3   9.4    3.0                 .     ..   -0.6  -0.1   2 6    .. 16,323..7
Armenia                .     ..     .     ..     ...         ...          ...         ...         79.2
Australia              .     ..   15.0    ..-b.
Azerbaijan             ..    .      .     .      .   65.4    .      .     .
Bangladesh'           3.1   3.4  33.5   23.5  17.4   12.0   ..   -0.7  -3.9   -3.6    .     ..    66.1
Belgium               2.8    .    7.8     .     ..    0.5    .     .      .
Bolivia              13.9  13.8   25.9  26.0  12.3    6.1  -7.60  -8.2  7.90   7.2   2.30   .     89.7
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana              5.6   5.6 1  16.50  23.201  9.4  6.0  -0.30  -030 1  2.60  -6.2  6.301  5.603
Brazil                7 .6  8.0   13.0   8.6  14.0    4.2  -0.6b  -2.2  0.90   3.3    .     .. 22402.1
.Bulgaria                                       ..   38.9    .     ..     .     .     .     ..   434.3
Burkina  Faso          .     ..     .     ..    ...          ...          ...         .     ..    12.0
Burundi               7.3   ..    41.1    ..   9.3   12.0   2.7    ..     .     .   32.111         4.2
Cambodia               ..    .      .     .      .    1.2    .      .     .
Cameroon             18.0    ..     .      .  13.0    7.5   1.3    ..     .     .     .      .    82.1
Central African Republic  4.1  ..   .     .   12.5   11.1    .     ..   -3.1    .
Chad                         ..     .     .   32.5   15.9    ..     .     ...
Chile                14.4   8.1   15.3   6.1   2.0    1.7  -8.60  -4.8e  8.70  4.8e   .     .   1,107.3
Chinaf                            29.2  24.9                 .     ..     .     ..   7.7   7.4  10,411.4
Hong Kong. China..                        ...                      .     ...
Colombia              7.0   ..    13.5   ..    5.2    1.5  -0.6    ..   0.6                 .   4,606.3
Congo, Dem. Rep..                 18.8   ..    1.0    5.0    ..     .
Congo, Rep.1.0               .                12 .8   8.1
Costa Rica            8.1    .    8.5   11.0     .     ..  -1.9    ..   1.9                 ..    77.7
CMe dilvoire                 ..   21.40   .      .      .    ..    .      ..                     261.1
Croatia                            ..     .      .    4.2                      ..     .      .   417.6
Cuba                                .     ..     ...         .     ..     ...                   1,412.0
Czech Republic                     ..     .      .   22.4    .     ..     ...                    659.1
Denmark
Dominican Republic                11.6b   .   15.0   11.1    ..    .     ..     .
Ecuador              10.2   ..    12.7   ..    0.3    0.5   0.3   ..   -1.2    ..     .      .   191.9
Egypt, Arab Rep....              65.5    ..   21.5   18.5  -0.7   ..   -2.6    ..   13.8
El Salvador           1.80   .    7.1    ..    3.2    0.0   0.10   .   -0.3 3
Estonia                ..    .      .     .      .   23.5    .     ...          ..    .     ..   359.5
Finland..                    ....
F r a n c e         1 1 .2.....                       .  ........
Gabon                  .     ..5.2                    3.3    .     ..     .     ..  25.1
Gambia. The           3.8    ...                        .   2.90
Georgia..                    .      ..    .      ...
G er a n ............... ....  ....
Ghana                 8.5   ..    18.5   ..   12.4   10.0   0.40   .     .          34.31   .   1,368.9
Greece               11.5    ..   20.2    .      .     .
Guatemala             1.9   ..    8.0    ..     .       .   0.21        0.0
Gui nea                ..    .      .     .      .    0.8    .
Guinea-Bissau          .     ..     .     ..  13.2    8.9    .     ..     ...                      0.7
Haiti                  .     ..  11.3    ..    7.7    3.9    .     .      .
Honduras              5.5   ..   15.1     ..    .       .   0.0   ..   -0.9                 ..    79.4
282  1998 World Development Indicators



5.8
Econolmic       Investment          Credit         Net financial       Overall        Employment     Proceeds
activlity                                          flows from         balance                         from
government          before                        privati-
transfers                       zation
% of gross        % of gross
domestic          domestic
% of GDP         investment         credit          % of GDP          % of GDP         % of total   $ millions
1985-90 1990-95 ±985-90 1990-95 ±985--90 1990-95 ±98.5-90 ±990-95 1985-90 ±990-95 19855-90 ±990-95 ±990-96
Hungary                         .       ..       .        ..       ...              ...              ...               ...         8,135.4
India                        13.4  ....13.4   35.4 .....32.4 .. ..  .......       0*39    -0:9.... 59-2 . ..  . -1.29  8.59  8.19   6,890.0
Indonesia                    14.5       .      8.9     157.7' ...    ...  3.4 ... 1.3..   .. ..   -0.5     -2.6      0.9     1.1    5,745.7
Iran, Islamic Rep......
Iraq
Ireland                                          " 
Israel
Italy                                         12.9
Jamaic                                  23.6...I..3.3               1.8        ........... -1 4                           .    478.7
Japan                            .       .     5.8  .  ..        2 8   . . .. . 2 .0              .. . .. .  . .. . . .:  .. .   . ..   . ... . .. .. . ..   . .. .. ..
Jordan.                                                   .      9.5      7.7       .                                                 22.6
Kazakhstan                    .        .       ..  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....  ...  .1,659.1
Kenya                        11.6   ..        20:4               5.2 ....  3:2    072  .....  ........7...............7.9  . ..   7.8 .  . 334.1
Korea, Dem. Rap.
Korea,  Rep .                10.3. .....      14.3  .   ..     ...    .......    -0  2.            0  7  ....1~9        . ...... .... ......
Kuwait.                                                                                                ...... ..
Kyrgyz Republic                                                                                                                      279.0
L atv . ...ia  .. . .   . .. ..    . . .   . . . . .. .. . . .. .   . .   5 3... .   . . . ..   ... . .   . .   .. . . . . .   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  3 9 20.. .. .. .
Lebanon
Lesotho.........
Libya
Lithuania                                                          .       .                                                   .    1,672.1
Macedonia, FYR
Madagascar
M alawi                       4.31       :.. ..  .9 2  .. .. ..   12.8   .10 2.2   0,88 .     . ....  -1.2 1 ....  .I. ..  ....  ...............  17.9
Malaysia,                            ......-  ...      25..9       ..                                ..    -1.9       .        .    7,443.8
M ali   ~            . .. . . I. . .   .. . .  1  .   . . ....... .....4                                                          3.7.
Mauritania                                    19 301..                                               .
Mauritius                     1.9                                                -0 3
Mexico,               .....   6:7 .....49     14:6     �10-.5 ..  65      0.9    -2.4     -3 1     2.4      3.0 ... 3.5      2.1  24,929.3
M oldova                        7.....   . ..... ........   .... ....    38 :9~ .......                        ...   ......            3.1
M ongolia                       ':  .   ....  .....                 .....  32:8~.     .    ...
Morocco ...                  16..8  ..    .   19.3        ..                      0                                            ...... 1,507.8
Mozambique                               .       .        .      8.9       5.9      .                                  .98.5
Myanmar                                       37.1        ..                                 .
Namibia                                  :.... 11.9     ....              1.3     2:51       .    -1.0
Nepal                                         50:0               7.4       30.... .3:                                                 13.9
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua                                                       43.2     131        ..                                               141.5
Niger  .  ......5.1                     ...                                                        04.1 ....    .......
N igeria.                                 .. ......  O ..   .. . ..... ... .. .  .. . .. .0.5  . . . ...  .... ... ..I ...   .7       3 8 .2
Norway                                        25.120                      12
Oman                                                   13 0~~~~.:  .7                                                 .      86.5
Pakistan                                      28.8     25.9                                          ..                             3,268.1
Panama  82   102         .                      -08               16                               ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~302.9
Papua New Guinea                               7.8                                  .                 ..                             447 2
Paraguay                      4.8     4.5     11.2      5.1     16.6      7.9     0.2     -0.4    -2.0       1.2      .                44.0
Peru                          6.4     5.7 .  ...97.7    44 4......                3.      -3.1  .   1.5 3..0..       2 5       ..   9,524.6
Philippines                   2.3     2.2      8.4      9.9      8.5      3.9       .        .    -2.2     -3.7      0.8       ..   3,666.9
Poland.                                  .                      76.0      2.        .                         ...                   3,803.8
Portugal                     15.1       .     16.6        .     12.2      6A.4   .... ...  .   ....   .  ...........    .......  .  ..   .....
Puerto Rico
Romania                          .I....75.2                                         .. .........410.6
Russian Federation                                                ..     20.3       . 
1998 World Development Indicators 283



5.8
Economic        Investment          Credit        Net financial       Overall        Employment     Proceeds
activity                                          flows from         balance                        from
government          before                        privati-
transfers                      zation
% of gross       % of gross
domestic         domestic
% of GDP        investment          credit          S of GDP         S of GDP         S of total   $ millions
1995-90 1990-95 1995-90 1990-95 1955-90 1990-95 1995-90 1990-95 1985-90 1990-95       19s5-90 1990-95 1.990-96
Rwanda                          ..      .        .        .       .        ..     .4       ..     1.0.
Saudi Arabia                   -.       .        .        .       .     12.9       ...              ...
Senegal                       6.9             28.2       ..       .        .     4.5       ..    -1.0       ..    20.40
Sierra Leone                                                    0.4      0.1     0.1
Singapore
Slovak Republic                                                  ..     27.9      *.       *        .1,865.0
ISlove.ia   ........  .....  .....                                                                                                 377.2
South. Africa                14.9      ..     16:5                .        ..      .       ..       ...                           1,317.3
Spain                           .       .01                                .       .       .
Sri Lanka                       .       ..    26 8                .        ..    2.8      1.4      ..12.4                          398.2
Sudan                                                          165       5.0
Sweden                                        10.3       .
Switzerland
Syrian Arab Republic..                                    .
Tajikistan..                            .       ......                                              ...
Tanzania                     12.9      ..     30.0       ...                                .    -7.4       ..    21.4       ..      66.1
Thailand                                      11.5    10.4      1.5      2.3    -0.3    -0.4     -0.3     -0.8     1.0n           1,773.7
Togo                                          10.7       ..       .        .     1.6       ..       .        .       .       .      24.7
Trinidad and Tobago           9.11      .     16.4       ... .10.8       6.5     0.0       0. 70             .
Tunisia                         .       ..    31.0       ..       .        .     7.6       ..       .        .       .        .     149.0
Turkey                        6.5     5.1     27.1    15.1      6.0      4.7     1.6      1.0    -3.2     -6.6     3.7      2.9   2,777.4
Turkmenistan
Uganda                                                           ..        .                                 .       .       .     138.7
Ukraine                                                          ..     4.                                   .       .       .      31.5
United Arab Emirates            .
United Kingdom                3.4      ..      6.5b
United States                 1.1      ..      3.6       .        .        .       .       .
Uruguay                       5.0      ..     14.2       ..    11.1     11.1    -3.2       ..     3.3                        ..       4.0
Uzbekistan                      .       ..      .        ..       ...              ......                                          424.0
Venezuela                    22.3      ..     50.9       .      1.1      4.2   -11.1       ..     9.3                        ..   6,503.1
Vietnam                         ..      .        .       .        .     44.0       ......                                             2.6
West Bank and Gaza..                    .        ..       .       ..        .      ..       .
Yemen, Rep.                                                      ..      3.0
Yugoslavia. FR (Serb./Mont.)
Zambia                       32.2      ..        .        .       .         .      .        .       .        .       .        .      89.7
Zimbabwe                     10.8    11.3       .        ..    29.7      7.5       .       ..       .        ..      .       ..      25.0
Note: Averages forea perod hove been colculated only when three or more years' date are available. Figures in italics refer to or uverage for the per[od 1990-96
a. Selected maior state-owned enterprises only. b. Includes financial state-owned enterprises. c. Dote for 1985-90 refer to the 10 uargent state-owned enterpr ses For 1990-95, data refer
to 210 enterprises. d. As a percentage of formel sector employment. e. Nonoperating revenue betore 1989 is split between current transfers and grunts. Since 1989. a] nonoperat ng revenue
is classified es torrent transfers. f. Dato refer to industrial state-owned enterprises. g. Dote refer to central public enterprises only. h. Data prior to 1991 huse not oven shown doe to lock of
consistency. i. Dote for economic activity and employment refer to nonfinancial enterprises in both the controlled and the noncontrolled sectors. Data on nvestment up to 1986 refer to nonfi-
nancial enterprises in both the controlled and the noncontrolled sectors. Since 1987 financial enterprises in the noncontrolled sector ore included. Duty on overall balances hetore transfers
end net financial flows from government refer only to nonfinancial enterprises in the controlled sector.
284   1998 World Development Indicators



5.8
State-owned enterprises are government-owned or -con-  of the relative efficiency of state enterprises and private  * Economic activity is the value added of state
trolled economic entities that generate most of their rev-  firms because not enough data are available on owner-  enterprises, estimated as their sales revenue minus
enue by selling goods and services. This definition  ship by economic sector. Data in the table are period  the cost of their intermediate inputs, or as the sum
encompasses commercial enterprises directly operated  averages for 1985-90 and 1990-95. The updating of  of their operating surplus (balance) and wage pay-
by a govemment department and those in which the gov-  data has necessitated revisions to earlier years in order  ments. * Investment refers to fixed capital forma-
ernment holds a majorty of shares directly or indirectly  to ensure consistency over the time senes.  tion by state enterprises. * Credit is credit extended
through other state enterprises. It also includes enter-  Data on proceeds from privatization are included in  to state enterprises by domestic financial institu-
prises in which the state holds a minority of shares, if  the table because privatization-that is, the transfer of  tions. * Net financial flows from government is the
the distribution of the remaining shares leaves the gov-  productive assets from the public to the private sector-  difference between total financial flows from the gov-
ernment with effective control. It excludes public sector  has been one of the defining economic changes of the  ernment to state enterprises (including government
activity-such as education, health services, and road  1980s and 1990s. Direct sales are the most common  loans, equity, and subsidies) and total flows from
construction and maintenance-that is financed in  privatization method, accounting for 60 percent of pri-  state enterprises to the government (including divi-
other ways, usually from the government's general rev-  vatization transactions in 1996. Direct sales enable gov-  dends and taxes). Taxes paid by state enterprises are
enue. Because financial enterprises are of a different  emments to attract strategic investors who can transfer  treated as a transfer of financial resources to the gov-
nature, they have generallybeen excluded from the data.  capital, technology, and managerial know-how to newly  ernment. * Overall balance before transfers is the
The definition of a state enterprise varies among  privatized enterprises. Share issues in domestic and  sum of net operating and net nonoperating revenues
countries and within countries over time. In excep-  international capital markets are the second most com-  minus net capital expenditure. Net operating rev-
tional cases governments include noncommercial  mon method, accounting for about 33 percent of priva-  enues (or operating surplus or balance) refer to gross
activities, such as agricultural research institutes, in  tization transactions in 1996.         operating profits, or operating revenues, minus the
their data on state enterprises. But more often they  Large sales proceeds do not necessarily imply  costs of intermediate inputs, wages, factor rentals,
omit activities that clearly are state enterprises. The  major changes in the control or stock of state-owned  and depreciation. * Employment for many countries
most common omissions occur when governments    enterprises, however. For example, selling equity  refers to the share of full-time state enterprise
use a narrow definition of state enterprises-for  may not change effective control. It may only gener-  employees in total employment, butfor some it refers
example, by excluding those with a particular legal  ate revenue, with no gains in efficiency. A prelimi-  to employment only in selected state enterprises,
form (such as departmental enterprises), those  nary analysis suggests that the increase in proceeds  including financial ones, and for others it refers to
owned by local governments (typically utilities), or  is due to a larger number of countries privatizing a  employment as a share of total formal sector employ-
those considered unimportant in terms of size or  few firms rather than to a radical restructuring of  ment. Thus the data on state enterprise employment
need for fiscal resources. Accordingly, data on state  ownership in many countries (Haggarty and Shirley  are not directly comparable. v Proceeds from priva-
enterprises tend to underestimate their relative  1997).                                        tization include all sales of public assets to private
importance in the economy.                      fm         =ll                                   entities through public offers, direct sales, manage-
Although attempts have been made to correct for dif-                                          ment and employee buyouts, concessions or licens-
ferences in definitions and coverage across countres,  State enterprses still play a sizable    ing agreements, and joint ventures.
inconsistencies remain. These cases are detailed in the  role in many developing economies
country notes in Bureaucrats in Business (World Bank                                              Data sources
% of GDP
1995b). The state enterprises covered in the table are
limited to central or federal government enterprises                                             Data on state enterprises were collected from World
because data on local government-owned enterprises   !                                           Bank member country central banks, finance min-
are extremely limited. Another weakness in the data is  -                                        istries, enterprises, and World Bank and International
that many state enterprises do not follow generally                                              Monetary Fund reports. These data were then col-
accepted accounting prncipals, so accounting rules can                                           lated into a database for the World Bank Policy
vary by country and enterprise. In many case small state              ; |                        Research Report Bureaucrats in Business: The
enterprises are not audited by internationally accredited  I  I                                  Economics and Politics of Government Ownership
accounting firms, so there may be no independentcheck              (. -               f          (1995b). Updates to this database have been made
on their record keeping and reporting.               .. . .                                      for several economies. Data on privatization are from
To assess the importance of government ownership,                                             the World Bank's Global Development Finance 1998.
0 19585-90 0 1990-95
the table includes three measures of the economic size                                           Data on credit are from the International Monetary
Source: Table 5.8.
Of state enterprises: share in economic activity, invest-                                        Fund's International Financial Statistics.
ment, and employment. Indicators that measure the per-  Desphe more than a decade of divesnhures and The
growing canserssus that The pnvate sactor should
formance of state enterprises and their etfect on the  plav a uirger role. the shale ot state-owned en-
macroeconomy and growth include credit, net financial  termilses In GDP continues to rise In some caun-
flows from government, and overall balance before trans-  rrles.
fers. These indicators do not, however, allow for analysis
1998 World Development Indicators      285



5.9 Transport infrastructure
Roads                           Railways                           Air
Passenger-     Goods
Goods        kmn per    transported
transported     Rpp      ton-k~m per PPP  Aircraft   Passengers    Air freight
Paved roads   Normalized    millioni     $ million    $ ma ,ffior  departures    tarred       mnillions
road index        ton-km        of GDP       of GDP      thousands    thousands     ton-kmn
1996         ±.996        1996         1996          1996         1996         1996         ±.996
Albania                   30.0          110             3            -..1                                  29            0
Algeria                   68.9          165        20,000        12,987       1 7681          45         3,494          16
Angola                    25.0           -.2,187                     -                         8          207           62
Argentina                 29.1          115             ..132                                            7,779         177
Armenia                  ±00.0          100            18                                      2          358           12
Australia                 38.7          128       128,000                                    371       30,075         1,834
Austri'a                 100.0          136        64 .400      51.084        79,531         118        4,719          192
AzerbaiUjan                 -..                    11,459            -                        19        1,233           28
Bangladesh                 7.2           64             .-13                                            1,252          136
Belarus                   70.1           85           350      262,101       619,342          26          596            2
Belgium                     .                         428       30,112        32.214         165        5,174          591
Benin                     20.0          82              -.-                       -1                       75           16
Boli'via                   5.5           59             ..-                        -32                  1,783           47
Bosnia and Herzegovina    52.3
Botswana                  23.5          314             -.-                        -4                     104            0
Brazil                     9.3          145       384.000        1.265        50,730         483       22.004         1.645
Bulgaria                  91.9           99            39      136,587       202.772          14          718           24
Burkina Faso              16.0           96                          .             -3                     138           16
Burundi                    7.1          108                          .             -1                       9            0
Cambodia                   7.5
Cameroon                  12.5           59                     13,165        33,723           4          362           42
Canada                                   -.       182,000        2,076       266.190         306       22,856         1,781
Central Afric an Republic                 .             -.--                                   1           75           16
Chad                       0.8          '15             -..                                    2           93           16
Chile .13.8                              56      .      .. .     4,344         6,096          94        3.622          806
China                       ...                   463,000       88,980       360,363         43        5,7             ,8
Hong Kong, Chins        100.0           ..14..-                                               -----
Colombia.                 11.9           41             ...                        .195                 8,342          311
Congo, Dem. Rep.            --.                         .705                   4,387           -            --
Congo, Rep.                9.7           62             --       69,853       54,139           5          253           17
Costa Rica                17.0          211             ...                        -21                    918           45
C8te dIlvoire              9.7          .86             --7,822               13,484           5          179           16
Croatia                   81.5           --4                    49,544       103,711          15          727            2
Cuba                      55.9           ...                                       .14                    929           44
Czech Republic           1000             .           686       71,434       196,511          27        1,394           22
Denmark                  100.0          103             ..      39,515        14,713        -108        5,892          172
Dominican Republic        49.4         136              -.-                       .1                       30            0
Ecuador                   13.3          76         54,300            ...22                              1,873           24
Egypt, Arab Rep.          78.1          149             ..     327,998        27,908          41        4,262          198
El Salvador               19.9          80          4,273            ...21                              1,800           16
Eritrea                   21.8.........                                                                                   -
Estonia                   53.2          65             11       45,250      540,949            5          149            1
Ethiopia                  15.0          55             ..25                                               743          118
Finland                   64.0           79           374       33,706        70,489         103        5.597          237
France                   100.0          143         1,275       47,243        39.290         542       40,300         4,811
Gabon                      8.2          38              ..9,441               61,672           7          431           35
Gambia, The               35.4          251             .            ..                         .-
Georgia                   93.5           ..7                                      ..2                     205            2
Germany                   99.1           ..       294,160                     39,068         567       40,116         6.036
Ghana                     24.1          106             ...                       .3                      197           30
Greece                    91.8          155           201       13,406         1,913          92        6,396          119
Guatemala                 27.6           62             ..5                                               300           26
Guinea                   -16.5          146             ..1                                                36            1
Guinea-Bissau             10.3            .             .1                                                 21            0
Haiti                     24.3
Honduras                  20.3          135             .                                     13          498            2
286  1998 World Developrnent Indicators



in-      FJ  I ' 1111_u  I "Ii±ar- I~ .4 II1 W-U
Roads                      ~~~~~Ralways                              Air
Passenger-       Goods
Goods          km per       transported
transportedi       PPP        ton-km per PPP    Aircraft      Passengers      Air freight
Paved roads     Normalized       million        $ million      $ million     departares       carried         millions
%road indet           ton-km          of GDP          of GDP       thousands       thousands       ton-km
1996           1996            1996           1996            1996           1996           1996            1996
Hungary                       43.1            147               39         88,789        103,268              25          1,563             29
India                    .... 502.2.          566                .        231,700        1 77,267            151        13,255             565
Indonesia                     45.5            211                .         23,842           6,843            311         16,173            749
Iran, Islamic Rep.            50.0_ . . ....                               22,281          34,136             63          7,610            110
Ireland                       94.1            276                -         19,499           9,314             95          7,677            102
Israel                       100.0            100                .          2,685         11,827              50          3,695          1,113
Italy                        100.0             60                -         43,529          18.432            307        25,838           1,459
Jamaica                       70.7            797-                                                    ..      18          1,388             25
Japan.                        74..1            77   ..... 89.50 7                           8,896            564         95,914          6,801
Jordan                       100~.0 . ...... 98.                                           47,815             17          1.299            297
Kazakhstan                    80.5            171             803                               .             10           568              17
'Ken'ya                       13.'9           115                .         13,587          46,448             14           779              48
Korea, Dem. Rep.               6.4              .                                ..6                                       254               3
Korea, Rep.                   76.1            151              410         52,691          24,665            207         33,003          6,551
Kuwait                        80.6              ..              -.               ..                           19          2,133            334
Kyrgyz Republic               91.1              -              110                                            13           488               2
Lao PDR                       13.8            273               ....4                                                       125              1
Latvia                        38.3            161               30        157.014       1,115,793             17           407               2
Lebanon                       95.0...                                            ..                           10           775              80
Lesotho                       17.9            137               ..-                             -117                                         0
Libya                         57.2                                                                             6           639               0
Lithuania                     87.      46                       89         53,960        491,829               7242
Macedonia, FYR                63.8             79                3..                            .              5,          287               1
Madagascar                    11.6            158                                                             17           542              25
Malawi                        18.5            327               ..         10,172          10,172              4           153               3
Malaysia                      75.1...                                       6,159           6,867            188        15,118           1,415
Mali                          12.1             90                .               ..                            1             75             16
Mauritania                    11.3             54                                               .5                         23517
Mauritius                     93.1            110                ..                                            9           718             137
Mexico..                   .. 37.4            106                           2,674         52,983             223        14,678             169
Moldova                       87.3             91L              41_.4190o1
Mongolia                       7.8              .                2              .                             10           662               3
Morocco                       50.4            144           54,671         18,995          5.5,334            32          2,301             5 7
Mozambique                    18.7            141              230              ..4                                        163               5
Myanmar                       12.2                                                                            15           334               1
Namibia                       121.1.          362                .          4,234        131,387               7           237              29
Nepal                         41.5             76                .               ..                           28            755             18
Netherlands                   90.173 .                                     44.295           9,816
New Zealand                   58.1            100...                                                         187          9,597            745
Nicaragua                     10.1             65                .1                                                          51              9
Niger                          7.9             27                                                              1             75             16
Nigeria                       18.8            106                .580                           1              6           2215
Norway                        72.0            106              244              .                            279         12,727            177
Oman                          30.0            212                .               ..                           18          1,620            106
Pakistan                      57.0            283                .         93,400         25,084              70          5,375            427
Panama                        33.6            128                                                             17689                          9
Papua New Guinea               3.5.            27                                                             27            970             18
Paraguay                       9-5.4213                                                                                                      0
Peru                          10.1             39                .          2,007           5,176             35          2,328             14
Philippines                                    ..:              ... .                                         65          7,263            384
Poland                        65.4            156            1,640         85.254        290,148              36          1.806             70
Portugal                      86m.0   ...    . 94              369         33,497          13,832             80          4,806            211
Puerto Rico                  100.0               .               ..                             ..
Romania                       51.0            108          616,044        175.264         230,933             17            913             15
Russian Federation           _78.8              .           18,000        340,048       1,790,023            465         22,117            854.
1998 World Development Indicators 287



5.9
Roads                                 Railways                                  Air
Passernger-       Goods
Goods          km per        transported
transported        PPP        rtDn_m per PPP     Aircrsat      Passengers      Air freight
Paved roads    tNormalized        m ilion        $ iis          $ sTlicin      derartures       carried         miillions
%roadindses            ton-km          of GDP          of GDP        thousands      throusands        topr-km
196     1996            1996           1996                    1996           :1996           1996            1996
Rwanda                          9.1            119...
Saudi Arabia                   42,7            142                ..875                       4,384            101         11,706             863
Senegal                       .29.3            106                ..         14,~302        30,61 7              5            155              16
Sierra Leone                   11.02           100                ...                             .0                           15               0
Singapore                      97.4               ......57                                                                 11,841           4,115
Slovak Republic                98.5              ..34,745                    93,911        298,678               3             63               0
Slovenia                       82.0            100                5          27,278        115.97 5              8            393              23
South Africa                   41.5            3(00.                         34,034        336,265              90          7.183             335
Spain                          99.0            104              589          25,645         15,998             333         27,759             740
Sri Lanka                      40.0            469            3,020          83,699           4,027              9          1,171             159
Sudan                          36.3               ......11                                                                    491              46
Sweden                         76185                              ..         35,735        103,765             183          9,879             250
Switzerland                       ..                        410,000               ..                           218         10,468           1.511
Syrian Arab Republic           23.0               ...                        11,108         29,013               9            599              16
Tajikistan                     82.7                                               .               .3                          594               3
Tanzania                        4.2              69               ..6                                                         224               3
Thailand                       97.5            173                ..92                                                     14.078           1,348
Togo                           31.6            180                ..1                                                          75              16
Trinidad and Tobago            51.1            217                ..14                                                        897              22
Tunisia                        78.9            172                ..         23,325          53,910             14          1.371              18
Turkey                         25.0             53          135,781          13,978          17,619             83          8,464             207
Turkmenistan                   81.2               ....                                                           9            523               2
Uganda                            ...                              .2,168                   12,829               1            100               1
Ukraine                        95.0             96        1.254,540        329,444         910,955              28          1,151              17
United Arab Emirates         100.0              32                ...                             .38                       4.063             851
United Kingdom               100.0              64            1,689          26,728         11,465
United States                  60.8           '112                ..1,387                  365,655           8,032        571,072          21,676
Uruguay                        90.0            167                ..         22.273         18,789               7            504               4
Uzbekistan                     87.3               .                ,...12                                                   1,566               8
Venezuela                      39.4_           108 ... .....                                                    83          4,487             117
Vietnam                        25.1                                          24.649         20,223              29          2,505               2
West Bank and Gaza
Yemen, Rep.                     8.1
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.l   58.3              ..100
Zambia                         18.3            189                 ..        34,856          60,312
Zimbabwe                       47.4            144                 ..        22.994        200,217              10            654             153
Low income                      19           108.0                                                           1,040         87,460
Exci. China & India             18           105.8                                                             396         22,435
Middle income                   55               ..3.604                                                                  222.117
Lower middle income             53           109.1                                                           1,995        125.563
Upper middle income             57                                                                           1,6109        96,554
Low & middle income.            32           110.1                                                           4,648        309.577
East Asia & Pacific               ...1,305                                                                                110,432
Europe & Central Asia           82            99.8                                                             869         47,754
Latin Amnerica & Carib.         26           107.9                                                           1,519         76,532
Middle East & N. Africa         54                ..371                                                                    36,896
South Asia                      42           282.8                                                             284         22,305
Sub-Saharan Africa              17           107.1                                                             298         15,658
High income                       ...14,102                                                                             1,079,094
288    1998 World Deveilopment indicators



5.99@
Transport infrastructure-highways, railways, ports  meters per million dollars of GDP PPP (see tables  * Paved roads are roads that have been sealed with
and waterways, and airports and air traffic control  4.10 and 4.11 for a discussion of PPP) and the nor-  asphaltorsimilarroad-buildingmaterials. * Normalized
systems-and the services that flow from it are cru-  malized road index. While the rail traffic indicators  road index is the total length of roads in a country com-
cial to the activities of households, producers, and  are normalized by a single indicator-the size of the  pared with the expected length of roads, where the
governments. Because performance indicators vary  economy-the normalized road index uses a multi-  expectation is conditioned on population, population
significantly by transport mode and by measurement  dimensional regression function to estimate a coun-  density, per capita income, urbanization, and region-
focus (whether on physical infrastructure or the ser-  try's "normal,"  or expected, stock  of roads  specificdummyvariables.AvalueoflOOis"normal."If
vices flowing from that infrastructure), highly spe-  (Armington and Dikhanov 1996). Normalizing vari-  theindexismorethan1C0,thecountry'sstockofroads
cialized  and  carefully specified  indicators are  ables include population, population density, per  exceeds the average. * Goods transported by road are
required. The table provides selected indicators of  capita income, urbanization, and regional differ-  the volume of goods transported by road vehicles, mea-
the size and extent of roads, railways, and air trans-  ences. The value of the normalized road index shows  sured in millions of metric tons times kilometers trav-
port systems and the volume of freight and passen-  whether a country's stock of roads exceeds or falls  eled. * Railway passengers measures the total
gers carried.                                   short of the average for countries with similar char-  passenger-kilometers per million dollars of GDP mea-
Data for most transport sectors are not interna-  acteristics.                                sured in PPP terms (see tables 4.10 and 4.11 for a dis-
tionally comparable. Unlike demographic statistics,                                              cussion of PPP). * Goodsttransported by rail measures
national income accounts, and international trade                                                the tonnage of goods transported times kilometers trav-
data, the collection of infrastructure data has not                                              eled per million dollars of GDP measured in PPP terms.
been 'internationalized."  Data on roads are col-                                                * Aircraft departures are the number of domestic and
lected by the International Road Federation (IRF) and                                            international takeoffs of aircraft. * Passengers carried
data  on  air transport are collected  by the                                                    include both domestic and international aircraft pas-
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).                                               sengers. * Air freight is the sum of the tons of freight,
National road associations are the primary source of                                             express, and diplomatic bags carried on each flight
IRF data; in countries where such an association is                                             stage (the operation of an aircraftfrom takeoff to its next
absent or does not respond, other agencies are con-                                             landing) multiplied by the stage distance.
tacted, such as road directorates, ministries of
transport or public works, or central statistical                                                 Data sources
offices. As a result the compiled data are of uneven
quality.                                                                                                             Data on roads are from the
Even when data are available, they are often of lim-                                          :                   International Road Federa-
ited value because of incompatible definitions, inap-                                                               tion's World Road Statistics.
propriate geographical units of observation, or lack                                                                The normalized road index is
of timeliness. Data on passengers carried, for exam-                                                                 based on World Bank staff
ple, may be distorted because of "ticketless" travel                                                                estimates. Railway data are
or breaks in journeys; in such cases the statistics                                                          * *     from a database maintained
may report the number of passenger-kilometers for                                                                    by   the   World   Bank's
two passengers instead of one. Measurement prob-                                                 Transportation, Water, and Urban Development
lems are compounded because over time the mix of                                                 Department, Transport Division. Air transport data
transported commodities changes, and in some                                                     are from the International Civil Aviation Organization's
cases shorter-haul traffic has been excluded from                                                Civil Aviation Statistics of the World.
intercity traffic. Finally, the quality of transport ser-
vice (reliability, transit time, and condition of goods
delivered) is rarely measured but may be as impor-
tant as quantity in assessing an economy's transport
system. Serious efforts are needed to create inter-
nationally databases whose comparability and accu-
racy can be gradually improved.
Some form of normalization is required to mea-
sure the relative size of an indicator over time or
across countries. The table presents normalized indi-
cators for railway passenger-kilometers per million
dollars of GDP measured in purchasing power parity
(PPP) terms, goods transported by railway ton-kilo-
1998 World Development Indicators      289



5.10 Power and communications
Electric                                      Telephone                                 International
power   Tasisolmainlines                                                           itelecommunications
and              in largest
Consumption Production distribution      city                                          Cost of  0 Orgoing  Cost of
per     aserage   losses    per       per     Waiting  Waiting            Revenue  loca. call ~rjtrafrlic  CalJ to U.S.
capita   annual      %      1,000     1,000      liat     time      per    per Jne    $ per  noutes per  $ per
kwih    % growth  of output  people  people  thousands  years   employee     $     3rninutes  subscriber 3rminutes
1995    1980-95    1995     1998      1996     1996      1998     1996      1998     ±.996     1 996    ±.996
Albania                      623      -2.3       51       19        51       21.3      3.1      14       571      0.04      323      9.51
Algeria                       513      7.3       17       44        64      702.2     >10       58       162      0.02       73      5.04
Angola                         60      2.1       28         5       23          .       ..      26     3.698        ..      302
Argentina                   1,519      2.3       18      174       224      110.6      0.2     186       982      0.10       30      7.37
Armenia                       811     -6.0       39      154       212       54.7       ..      63        50        ..       90
Australia                   8,033      4.5        7      519       485         ..      0.0     118     1,411      0.19      101      3.00
Austria                     5,800      2.7        6      466       632        3.7      0.1     219       709      0.20      251      3.77
Azerbaijan                  1,806     -1.5       23        85      170      178.7      5.7      44        68      0.19       42      3.85
Bangladesh                     57     10.4       32         3       25      155.2      6.6      15       634      0.04       81.
Belarus                     2,451      1.6       15      208       302      573.1      5.5      86       106      0.01       62      6.00
Belgium                     6,752      3.4        5      465       635        1.7      0.0     180       948      0.20      248      3. 05
Benin                          43      2.2       50         6       33.       5.2      1.3      25     1,107      0.13      212      8.26
Bolivia                      356       4.0       12       47        67       50.1      1.0     199       307        ..       65
Bosnia and Herzegovina                           23       90       429       70.0       ..      80         2         ..      19
Botswana                       ..        .        .       48       180        9.3      1.0      43       972      0.03      427      6.06
Brazil                      160        5.5       17       96       273          .       ..     169       821      0.04       24      4.68
Bulgaria                   .3,415     -1.5.      13      313       374      480.0      7.7     100        30      0.01       32
Burkina Faso                                      ..        3       29         ..       .       28     1,229      0.12      200
Buirundi                                          ..        2       45        0.0       ..      26     1,079      0.04      169     13.67
Cambodia                                         ..         1        5       13.4     >10       12    25,550        ..      857
Cameroon                     196       3.1        4         5       30       42.0      9.4      36     1.088      0.08      352     12.02
Canada                     15,147      2.8        5      602         ...               0.0     245       731        ..      168      1.16
Central African Republ'ic                                   3       12        1.1      1.5      23     1.933      0.20      389     24.04
Ch ad                                             ..        1        6        1.4      3.0      16     1,264      0.20      314     14.07
Chile                       1,698      6.1       10      156       192       72.5      0.3     184       743      0.09       72      2.79
China                        637       8.2        7       45       140      812.0      0.1     114       318        ..       26
Hong Kong. China          4,850       7.6       15      547       537         ..     0.0       91     1,866        ..      504      2.64
Colombia                     948       5.4       21      118       227      728.0      1.5     228       439      0.01       31      4.12
Congo, Dam. Rep.              132      3.4        3         1.       6        6.0       ..      19         ...               36
Congo, Rep.                  27        9.4        0         B          .      .. 0.8   0.6      23     2.182      0.13      190
Costa Rica                  1,348      5.5        8      155         ..      77.9      0.8     106       441      0.04      113
M6e dIlvoire                 159       2.7        4         9       36       74.2      5.6      38     1,393      0.20      285
Croatia                     2,074      8.5       19      309       405       71.7      0.6     146       426      0.02      175      5.66
Cuba                         818       0.7       13       32        74          .       ..      25     1,217        ..       35
Czech Republic              4,654      1.3        8      273       525      577.0      2.0     104       412      0.07      103      4.64
Denmark                     5.975      2.9        6      618         ...              0.0      199     1.236      0.17      175      3.35
Dominican Republic           588       4.5       25       83       132          .       ..     158         ..     1.52      124
Ecuador                      600       5.4       21       73       189       60.2     0.7      160       296      0.01       56      8.21
Egypt, Arab Rep.             86        8.6       ..       50        95    1,310.2     5.0       58       256      0.01       37      6.19
El Salvador                  507       5.4       13       56       144     200.0       4.0      60       617      0.02      187
Eritrea                         .        ..       .         5       32       40.0     >10       35       922      0.03       92      8.25
Estonia                     3,022     -0.9       20      299       245       96.1      3.2     116       337      0.04      133      4.99
Ethiopia                      22       4.6        3        3        45      195.5     >10       27       526      0.03       70
Finland                   12,785       4.2        2      549     1,349        0.0     0.0      178       956      0.14      118      3.22
France                      5,892      3.9        6      564         ...              0.0      198       830      0.15       90      3.03
Gab.on                       737       3.1       10       32        90        35.5     2.0      44     1.971      0.18      508
Gambia, The                    ..        .        .        19       3        192      >0        28       781      0.09      274
Georgia                     1,057     -3.8       25      105       183      230.0       ..      72        13        ..        0
Germany                     5,527      1.2        5      538       558          .       ..     205     1,011      0.16      118      2.87
Ghana                        318       4.6        4         4       17       283.3     2.9      38     1.283      0.08      267
Greece                      3,259      3.8        7      509       620       78.6      0.4     224       587          .      97      3035
Guatemala                    264       5.5       13       31       117      100.0      2.7      56       615      0.0       101
Guinea                         ..        .        .         2        5        1.6      1.0      19     1,555      0.12      152      8.76
Guinea-Bissau                  ..        .        .         7        ..       0.7      1.8      32      1,447     0.09      311
Haiti                          32     -1.6       53         8       23       40.0      8.0      23     1.301         ...             7.07
Honduras                     333       6.5       28       31      .102      268.9     >10       42       887      0.08      219      7.11
290   1998 World Development Indicators



5.10
Electric                                      Telephone                                International
power                                         mainlines                            telecommunications
Transmission
and              In largest
Consumption Production distribution      city                                          Coat of  Outgoing  Coat of
oar     average   losses    per       per     Waiting  Waiting            Revenue  local call  traffic  call to U.S.
capita   annual      %      1,000     1,000      list    time      per     per line  $ per  minutes per  $ per
kwh     % growth  of output  people  people  thousands  years   employee     $     3 minutes subscriber 3 minutes
1995    1980-95    1995     1996      1996     1996      1996     1996      1996     1996    1.996      1996
.Hungary                    2,682      0.7       14     .261.... 386       250.9 ...0:6.6.. 164          485      0.15      100    .. 4.777
India                        339       9.2       18.      15        80    2,277.0     1.0..     28.      238      0.02       29q     6.35
Indonesia                   -263   _ 1570.0- -12"__ 21 ...__77__           117.5      0.2      105      _643      0.05       63...   6.07
Iran, Islamic Rep.          1.059      8.7       20.      95       222    1,379.0      19.9    121       148      0.01       29      6.02
Iraq                        1,396      6.5                33
Ireland                    4,139       4.0        9      395         .          .       .      120     1,273      0.16 ..... 311.  .. 3.32
Israel                     4,836       5.9        4      446.      414       12.0     0:.1 .   287       843      0.08.     108.     3.43
Italy                      4,163       3.1        7      440      529       32.0      0.1      253       911      0.20       84      3.36
Jamaica                     2,049      8.4       11  ..  142       168     183.1     .3.5 ..    88 .   .. 995     0.06      183
Japan                       6,937      4.0        4      489         ....              0.0     276     1,532      0.09       28.     5.10
Jordan                      1,139     10.9        8       60       160     129.0      9.9       81       702      0.03      226 ..
Kazakhstan                 3,106      -2.8       15      118      275      668.4      4.2       39_     _126      0.00        8
Kenya                       .123       _5.5      16       .8       .77.     70.6    .. 4.5      22     1,139      0.06       80 ..  11.17
Korea, Dem. Rep.             261     -10.2 .....84        49.      .85 ...   16.4     0.2   ..               .......         .3
Korea, Rep.                 3,606     11.7        5      430       466          .     0.0      294       469      0.04       35      4.88
Kuwait                     13,185      5.5        .      232                  27.. 2.6 0.2..    52.      572         .      364 ..   5.51
Kyrgyz Republic             1,66       2.8       28       75       230      67.4        .       51        63         .       79     11.82
Lao PDR                        .         ..       .        6        1326               04       29       70..               240
Latvia                     .1.789.    -16.6      32      298       371..   102.2      6.8      116       191 0...  .0:8 ... .. 59    6.43
Leb~anon                    1,224      14.4      13      149                   .        .      115       580      0.04       85      7.4
Lesotho                        ....... .         ..9          ...  .64  . . . .5.4..  2.5.    .. 22  . ... 742    0.04
Libya                      3,569      10.2                59        36                  .        ..               0.03.     147
Lithuania                   1,711    .-27.7   .  15      268...    362   ..1416.6     3.2      100       134    0...O02 .. ...'54    7.88
Macedonia, FYR             2,443         .       12      170       235      21.0      1.5      108       219      0.01      139
Madagascar                                                 3.5.10.0.65.12.1.01                                   -0.06 ......148........
Malawi                          .         ... ....         4 ... .  .  . 13  299.9   .>10.       8       900.     0.04      214     12.45...
Malaysia                    1,953     10.1       10      183       143     160.0      0.4      137       679      0.04 ..    66      5.99
Mali                           .         .        .        2        16.                 ..       6     2,4        017       429     17.59
Mauritania                     ..        .        .        4.       1          .       .         3     269        01         7
Mauritius                                 .......        162.      206       35.9     1.4      10 J6.    622      0.06      118      5.85
Mexico                      1,305      4.9       14       95         .      9.        0.5      180       786      0.08 .... .107 .   3.01
Moldova                     1.517      1.3       18      140       269     201.7      8.7 ..    78..      64      0.10      105..    6.39
Mongolia                       ..        .        .       39        80      40.0      4.6       18       206.     0.02       26..-   14.7
Morocco                      407       6.5        4       45       121      48.0      0~.3      85       556      0.09      104      6.88
Mozambique                    67      -5.8        5        3        24      227.7  .  >10       25       948      0.04      217..
Myanmar                       52      ..5.3.... 34         4.       24.      55.0     2.7       25     1.792      0.17       82.    26.86
Namibia             .     ..         .. .....  .. .... ....  .54   253..      4.5     0.7       51       899..              596
Nepal             . ...  .... .39 ..  .10.9  ... ...26 .    5 .. ...69 ..  136 2.2   ..>10  ..  30  . ...337      0.02      184    .   ..
Netherlands                 5.374.     29.9       4      543    ..           20.0  ..0.1       284     1.005      0.19      181      2.69
New Zealand                8,504.,     3.0        9    ...499        ...              0.0      189     1,201         .      179.   4.7
Nicaragua                   .272       1.7       28       26       .55  .   .. .......          30..     473      0 ...O04  304
Niger                                  ..      ... ..-----....  2_  16        1.4     0.        13     1,138      0.15     '273
Nigeria                       85       4.6       32        4        16      98.1      3.5       28     1,904      0.26      233
Norway                    23,892       2.2        7      555       732        6.0     0.0      132     1,471      0.11      189      2.36.
Oman                        2,891     15.7        .       86       10         3.      0.2       92     1,260      0.07.     317
Pakistan                     304      10.1       23       18.       61     209.5      0.7       44       442      0.05       32
Panama                      1,089      2.9       19      122       214       28.8 ... 1.4..     90..     764         .      127.     5.20
Papua New Guinea                                  .       11       20         0.      0.1       23     248        0.3       572
Paraguay                     683      10.4        1       36       125..                 .      25     1,034      0.06      123
Peru                         525       2.4       21       60       119       448.8     0:2.2.  228      .920 .. . 0.10....... 49     5.76
Philippines                  337       2.8       16       25        96      900.2      2.9      98       610         .      108      6.22
Poland                      2,324      02.2      13.     169         .    2,327.4      3.3      89       389      0.06.      67      4.12
Portugal                    2,857      5.1       11      375       645        7.6      0.0     171     1,198.     0.08.      91      3.74
Puerto Rico                     .        .        .      336       437        70       11      17        917      0.13      72
Romania                     1,603     -3.5       11      140         .    1,299.0     7.0.      59.      177      0.01       29     11.57
Russian Federation         4.172       0.0       10      175       467    8,796.8     >10       58       203.     0.27        9..    8.61
1a98 World Development indicators 291.



S ~5.10
Electric                                       Telephone                                 International
power                                          mainlines                             telecommunications
Transnmssion
and              Ini largest
Consumption Production daistribu.tjon     city                                           Cost of  Outgo og  Cost of
per     average   losses     Peoro    per      Waiting  Wattung            Revennue  loca, oal  traff 0  0a1, to L.S.
capita   annuaJ      %       1,00      1,000     list     time       oer     per ..ne  $ psr ~minutes per  $ per
kwh     % grovvth  of output  people  peop[e  thousands  years   employee     $     3 m[nutes  subscriber 3rminutes
1995    1960-95    1999      1996      1996     1996      1996     1996      1996      1996     1996      1996
Rwanda                                    .        .         3                            ..      20     1.016        ..       89
Saudi Arabia                3,906      11.6        9      106       189    1,262.5      9.7      104     1.053      0.02      292       6.41
Senegal                        91       3.1       13        11       29       17.8      1.7       65     1,275      0.10      260       9.36
Sierra Leone                    .         .        .         4       20       14.0      >10       18       896      0-07      190)
Singapore                   6,018       8.6        4      513       513        0.2      0.       224     1,785      0.03      541       4.02
Slovak Republic             4,075       0.8        8      232       515      144.9      1.2       79       382      0.06      109       5.45
Slovenia                    4.710       1.2        5      333       610       48.7      1.1      215       492      0.02      160       5.56
South Africa                3,874       3.3        6      100       495      126.8      0.6       74       892      0.09       83
Spain                       3,594       3.4       10      392       440        1.5      0.0      229       753      0.10       77       3.49
Sri Lanka                     208       6.2       18        14      219      237.8      7.4       25     1,410      0.05      122       3.25
Sudan                          37       0. 8      19         4        3       75.0      6.4       38       221      0.03      130     10.55
Sweden                     14,096       2.8        6      682       778          .      0.0      304       852      0.11      156       2.65
Switzerland                 6,916       2.5        6      640       956        0.3      0.0      221     1,863      0.24      416       2.43
Syrian Arab Republic          698       7.2        .        82      1 76   2,945.4      >10       68     1,001      0.05       66     33.41
Tajikistan                  2.367       2.6       12        42      222       72.0       ..       50        41        ..         1     26.87
Tanzania                       52       5.5       13         3       21      107.9      >10       19       775      0.08       63
Thailand                    1,199      12.4        8        70      339      821.6      1.2      120       545      0.12       61       7.39
Togo                            ..        .        .         6       27.                34        28     1,618      0.12      39       13.20
Trinidad and Tobago         2,817       4.0       10~      168      137        6.4      1.1       80       825      0.04      277       3.48
Tunisia                       661       6 .6      10        64       73       81.8      1.5       98       505      0.07      146       6.47
Turkey                      1,057       8.6       16      224       438      752.7      0.7      194       180      0.06       33       4.37
Turkmenistan                1.109       0.5       10        74      198       79.6      3.3       41         ...                1 7
Uganda                          .         .        .         2       34        6.3      0.7       36       905      0.19      113       9.29
Ukraine                     2,785      -1.1       10      181       395    3,103.2      7.2       71       119         .         9
United Arab Emnirates       7.752       8.0        .      302       425        1.0      0.0      128     1,396         .      798       3.78
United Kingdom              5.081       2.0        7      528                           0.0      218       932      0.19      148       1.86
United States              1.1,571      3.0        7      640         ...               0.0      190     1,073      0.09      113
Uruguay                     1,574       3.8       19      209       309       48.0      1.0      117       938      0.19       82       5.90
Uzbekistan                  1.731       0.8       10        76      234      329.4      3.3       68    68.4 78
Venezuela                   2,518       4.3       21       117      285      476.3      2.4      161       622      0.06       53       5.25
Vietnam                       146       9.2       22        16       70..                 .       15       530      0.11       44
West Bank and Gaza              ..        .        .         .        .          .        .        ..
Yemen, Rep.                    99       9.2       26        13       71       75.3      5.2       57       732      0.02      117     13.44
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)  2,921    -2.5        9      197       424      212.8      4.0      178       199      0.01      109       7.04
Zambia                        574      -2.2       11         9       22       24.7        .       24     1,393      0.25      162       4.40
Zimbabwe                      738       1.8        7    .. 15        60     .113.2      7.2       30       7~89     0.03      279
Low income                    414       8.4       15       26        56    2,383.2      4.9      104       333      0.10      195     10.86
Ec.C ina &lIndia         187       8.3       22......  115.............. 6  1,571.. .2......5.4  40   592.... 0.610 ......11.17
Middle income              1.619       7.8       14      105       305   25,612.6      1.5      116       462      0.06      121       5.99
Low-e-r --m i'd dle i. jnco"m-e  -----1,4-2-9  11.2  '15  -94. - 31-2.21,73'5.4         29       11        293      6104.     108       6.22 ..
Upper middle income  2,072     4~~~    ~~.2..:...... 13...... 130 ..... 283.... 3,877.1  1.0  131  738     0.06      175      5.45
Low . mniddle ~in-c-o'm .e...... ....8'3"6 .... 7. 9  15  52     225   27,995.8      2.7      113       420      0.06      142       6.45
Latin America & Carib.  1,298  4~~~  ~~~~.7..  17 ......102 .. .. 196  1,658.1  1.1..... 155 .  780      0.06      14        5.25
Midl.Est&..N... A"fr'ica .........1',1"2"2 8....... 8  15  64  121    3,780.7      51        93       427      0.05      104       6.47
South Asia  300  9.2    19       14   .       .    155.5      6.6   .       .   291       0.05   .   99.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~... . ....... ..... ....
Sub-Saharan Africa   437       3~~~    ~~~~.1.:. .....13. ..........619.93:                 ..    .616.253.10.55
High income     7.755      3.2       ~~      ~~~~     ~~~~      ~~~~6 540  569 . 98.0  0.0 .210.1.002. 616        199     .3.27
292   1998 World Development Indicators



5.10                    I
A country's production of electricity is a basic indica-  Waiting time is calculated by dividing the number of  * Electricity consumption measures the production
tor of its size and level of development. Although a few  applicants on the waiting list by the average number of  of power plants and combined heat and power plants
countries export electrical power, most production is  mainlines added each year over the past three years.  less distribution losses and own use by heat and power
for domestic consumption. Expanding the supply of  The numberof mainlines no longer reflects atelephone  plants. * Electric power production refers to gross
electricity to meet the growing demand of increasingly  system's full capacity because mobile telephones pro-  production in kilowatt-hours by private companies,
urbanized and industrialized economies without incur-  vide an alternative point of access. (See table 5.11 for  cooperative organizations, local and regional authori-
ring unacceptable social, economic, and environmen-  data on mobile phones.)                   ties, government organizations, and self-producers.
tal costs is one of the great challenges facing   The table includes two measures of efficiency in  Electric power production growth is average annual
developing countries.                          telecommunications: mainlines per employee and rev-  growth in power production. * Electric power trans-
Data on electric power production and consumption  enue per mainline. Caution should be used in inter-  mission and distribution losses are losses in trans-
are collected from national energy agencies by the  preting the estimates of mainlines per employee  mission between sources of supply and points of
International Energy Agency (IEA) and adjusted by the  because some firms may subcontract part of their  distribution and in distribution to consumers, including
IEA to meet international definitions. Adjustments are  work. The cross-country comparability of revenue per  pilferage. * Telephone mainlines are telephone lines
made, for example, to account for self-production by  mainline may also be limited because, for example,  connecting a customer's equipment to the public
establishments that, in addition to their main activi-  some countries do not require telecommunications  switched telephone network. Data are presented for
ties, generate electricity wholly or partly for their own  providers to submit financial information; the data usu-  the entire country and the largest city. * Waiting list
use. In some countries self-production by households  ally do not include revenues from cellular and mobile  shows the number of applications for a connection to
and small entrepreneurs is substantial because of  phones or radio, paging, and data services; and there  a mainline that have been held up by a lack of techni-
remoteness or unreliable public power sources, and in  are definitional and accounting differences between  cal capacity. * Waiting time is the approximate num-
these cases may not be adequately reflected in these  countries.                               ber of years applicants must wait for a telephone line.
adjustments. Electricity consumption is equivalent to                                          * Mainlines per employee is calculated by dividingthe
production less power plants' own use and transmis-                                            number of mainlines by the number of telecommuni-
sion, distribution, and transformation losses. It   Where are the telephones?                  cations staff (with part-time staff converted to full-time
includes consumption by auxiliary stations, losses in                                          equivalents) employed by telecommunications enter-
transformers that are considered integral parts of  % of country's total telephone mainlines   prises providing public telecommunications services.
in largest city, 1995
those stations, and electricity produced by pumping  ir     t9                                 * Revenue per line is the revenues received by firms
installations. It covers electricity generated by primary                                      for providing telecommunication services. * Cost of
sources of energy-coal, oil, gas, nuclear, hydro. geo  - -                                     local call is the cost of a three-minute call within the
thermal, wind, tide and wave, and combustible renew-                                           same exchange area usingthe subscriber's equipment
ables-where data are available. Neither production                                             (that is, not from a public phone). * Outgoing traffic
nor consumption data capture the reliability of sup-  4('                                      is the telephone traffic, measured in minutes per sub-
plies, including frequency of outages, breakdowns,                                             scriber, that originated in the country that has a desti-
and load factors.                                     -                                        nation outside the country. * Cost of International
Over the past decade privatization and deregulation                        * * I             call to U.S. is the cost of a three-minute peak rate call
have spurred dramatic growth in telecommunications                                             from the country to the United States.
in many countries. The table presents some common
performance  indicators for telecommunications,     Source: International Telecommunication union.  Data souices
including measures of supply and demand, service
quality, productivity, economic and financial perfor-  In some counlres a sirgle large ity mav dominate           Data on electricity consump
tnE economic and social lile of Ine count"~. and     *.   ~    Dt    neetiiycnup
mance, capital investment, and tariffs.             access to telecommunIcations services is high. In    -         tion, power growth, and
Demand for telecommunications is often measured  and policres alheat wider diffusion of p elecdp n              losses are from  the IEA's
by the sum of telephone mainlines and the number of  municatlons, the share of telephone mainlines In     -        Energy Statistics and Bal-
registered applicants for new connections. (A mainline  the lafgest chy may be we  jd                              ances of Non-OECD Countries
country's total mainlines.
is normally identified by a unique number that is the                                                        -     1994-95, the IEA's Energy
one billed). In some countries the list of registered                                                              Statistics of OECD Countries
applicants does not reflect real current pending                                                                . 1994-95, and the United
demand, which is often hidden or suppressed, reflect-                                          Nations' Energy Statistics Yearbook. Telecommunica-
ing an extremely short supply that has discouraged                                             tions data are from  the International Telecom-
potential applicants from applying for telephone ser-                                          munication Union's (ITU) World Telecommunication
vice. And in some cases waiting lists may overstate                                            Development Report except for data on telephone traf-
demand because applicants have placed their names                                              fic data, which are from Direction of Traffic, published
on the list several times to improve their chances.                                            by the ITU and TeleGeography, Inc.
199S World Development Indicators     293



5.11 The information age
Daily     Radios          Television       Mobile      Fax       Personal  Internet
newspapers                                   phones     machines  computers   hosts
Sets   Cable subscribers                            per 10,000
per 1,000  per 1.000  per 1,000  per 1,000  per 1,000  per 1,000  per 1,000  people
people     people     people     peop[e     people     peop e     people    July
1994       1995       1996       1996       1996       1995       1996      1997
Albania                54         ..173                  ..1                   ..                0.32
Algeria               46          ..68                             0         0.2         3.4     0.01
Angola                 11        58          51         ..0                    ...0.02
Argentina            138         ..347                116.4       16         1.4        24.6     5.32
Armenia               23         ..216                             0         0.1         ..0.86
Australia            258         ..666                            208       26.3       311.3   382.44
Austria              472        348        493        110.7       74        35.4       148.0   108.25
Azerbaijan             28         ..212                 0.1        2         0.3          .0.11
Bangladesh             6         48          7           ..0                 0.0         ..0.00
Belarus              187        322        292          ..1                  0.9         ..      0.44
Belgium              321         ..443004                                    78167.3            84.64
Benin                  2       1,461         73          ..0                 0.1         ..0.02
Bolivia               69          ..202                 3.4        4          ...0.69
Bosnia and Herzegovina  131       ..55                             0                      ..0.13
Botswana              24        816         27           ...2.2                         6D.7     1.58
Brazil                45        222        289         11.8       16         1.7        18.4     4.20
Bulgaria               7.       354        361                     3         1.8       295.2     6.65
Burkina Faso           0         31          6                     0          ...0.04
Burundi                3         71          2                     0         0.5          ..0.01
Cambodia               ..121                 9                     2         0.1         ..0.01
Cameroon               4        326          75         ..0                    ...0.05
Canada               189         ..709                262.5       114       23.6       192.5   228.05
Central African Republic  1      93          5           ..0                 0.0         ..0.02
Chad                   0        620          2           ...0.0                          ..0.00
Chile                 100             ..    280        39.9       23         1.8        45.1    13.12
China                 23        161        252         28.9        6         0.2        3.0      0.21
Hong Kong, China     719         ..368                 50.2      216        46.3       150.5    74.64
Colombia              64         ..188                  3.1       13         2.6        23.3     1.81
Congo, Dem. Rap.       3        102          41         ..0                  0.1         ..0.00
Cog,Rep.             8        318          800
Costa Rica            99         ..220                 16.2       14         0.7         ..     12.14
C6tedilvoire           7          ..60                   ..1                   ..1.4             0.17
Croatia              575         ..251                 10.5       14         8.2        20.9    14.08
Cuba                  120       241         200         0.0        0          ...                0.06
Czech Republic       219         ..406                 45.9       19         7.1        53.2    47.66
Denmark              365         ..533                263.4      260        47.6       304.1   259.73
Dominican Republic    34         8.          4         15.5        8         0.3          .      0.03
Ecuador               72         ..148                  3.9        5         2.7         3.9     0.90
Egypt, Arab Rep.      64          ..126                  ..0                 0.4         3.8     0.31
El Salvador           50          ..250                 4.6        3          ...0.34
.Eritreea.                      372          7           ...0.2                          ..0.00
Estonia              242         ..449                 12.9       47         8.8         6.7    45.35
Ethiopia               2        206          4           ...0.0                          ..0.00
Finland               473      1,331       605        164.4      292        31.5       182.1   653.61
France                237                   598        31.6       42        32.7       150.7    49.866
Gabon                 16                     76         ..                   0.3        6.3      0.00
Gamnbia, The           2        157          ...3                            0.9          ..      .00
Georgi'a               ..62                 474         2.4        0         0.1          ..0.55
Germany              317         ..493                203.9       71        19.5       233.2   106.68
Ghana                 18         ..41                              1         0.3        1.2      0.15
Greece                156        ..442                             53        2.9        33.4    18.76
Guatemala             23         ..122                 16.9        4         1.0         2.8     0.79
Guinea                 ..76                  8                     0           ..0.3             0.00
Guinea-Bissau          6         40          ...0.5                                      ..0.09
Haiti                  6         60          5           ......0.00
Honduras              44        lOB         80          8.0        0           ...               0.94
294 1998 World Development Indicators



5.11                9
Daily        Radios              Television            Mobile         Fax         Personal     Internet
newspapers                                                phones       machines     computers      hosts
Sets      Cable subscribers                                       per 10,000
per 1,000     per 1,000     per 1,000     per 1,000     per 1,000     per 1,000     per 1,000     people
people        people        people        people        people        people        people       July
1994          1995          ±L996        ±1996          1996          ±995          1996        ±997
India                        ..119                      617001.5                                                            0.05
Indonesia                   20             .           232                            3           0.4 ....       4.8        0.54
Iran, Islamic Rep.           17          238           164.                           1           0.5           32.7        0.00
I raq                        27            ..78                         .                                         .0          .00
Ireland                    170             .           469           1519 9  ....  ... 82        224.4... .... 145,0       90.89
Israel                     281             .           303           160.5          184          25:0          117.6      104.79
Italy                      105           .102          436                          112          314.4...       92.3       36.91
Jamaica                      66          764           326            73.9           22             .            4.6        1.36
Japan                       576                        700            87.9          214         102.2          128.0       75.80
Jordan                       48          325            175              .            3           7 37.2                    0.38
Kazakhstan                    .... ..  .... ............  275            .0..02..                                           0.70
Korea. Dem. Rep.            213         -163           .115                           ..0.1                        .0.00
Korea, Rep.   ........ .... 404                        326            84.8 . ...     70           8.9          131.7       28 77
Kuwait .... .......      .. 401            .           373                           89          20.7           74.1       21.72
Kyrgyz  Republic  ....... ....11        .. ...   . ...   ..238                                      ...0.23
Lao PDR                       3          134             10                           1.111-0
Latvia                     228            ..            98           147.1           11           0.3            7.9       21.03
Lebanon                    172            ..355                        0.4           65             .2432.72
Lesotho                       7           77             13                           1           0.3                       0 08
Libya         .......   .    13            .  ...... ....143                          ...0.01
Lithuania                  136           485        ... 376           80.9  . ....  . 14          1.0   ..  .  ... 6.5      7.46
M acedonia, FYR              21            ..        ...170  ... ...... ....          00 ....    .. O 8           ............2.15
Madagascar                    4          214             24                           0                           .003
Malawi                        2          902              .                                        .               .00
Malaysia                    124          473           228                           74           5.0           42.8       19.30
Mali                          4          168             11                           0             .              .0.03
Mauritania                    0          188             82                           .            .             5.3        0.00
Mauritius                   68             .           2.19             .18                      17.7           31.9        1.84
Mexico                      113            .           193            13.3           11           2.4 ......... 29.0        3.72
Moldova              ......  124         209       .....307  .. ....   8.4     ....  .0...        0:1 1    .     2.6        0.39
Mongolia                     88           79      .....  63            8.8            0...  . ..   .0.9  ..........I... 0.07
Morocco                      13            .           145                            2           03 ...........1.7         0.32
Mozambique                    5           46              3                                       0.4   ...04 .  0.8        0.02
Myanmar                      23           71              7                                 0      0...                     0.00
Namibia                     102            .             29                           4             .           12.7        2.16
Nepal                         8           57       4...                0.2  ..  ...... :....      0:0                       0.07
Netherlands                334             .           495           377.9           52          32.3          232.0      219.01
New Zealand                297             .           517             0.3          138          18.1          266.1     424.34
Nicaragua                    307.                       170            4.9            1                                     I 16
Niger                         1           61             23             .             .0.0..                                0.04
Nigeria                      18            .             55             ..0                         .4.1                    0.00
Norway                     607              .569                     151.4          2873012.0                            4.6
Oman                         30          370           591                            6           1.310 9                   000
Pakistan                     21            .             24                           0           1.2            12         0.07
Panama......              ..  62           .      ...  .....  229   .   .. .... 11:3   ..                                   1.44
Papua New Guinea             15            .4                            ..1                      0:20.18
Paraguay                    42            ..144                        7.1            7                           ..0.47
Peru                        86             .            142            6 3            8           0.6            5.9 .      263
Philippine                   65          168           125             5.9           13           0.7            9.30S59
Poland                      141          535           418            70.4            6           1:4           362 ..     11:22
Portugal                     41            .            367           17:3 ...........67 ....     5.0           60.5       18.26
PuertoRic                   184          796            322           69:1 ...........45 ....   150.2                       0.30
Romania                    297..2610619                                                                          5.3        2.66
Russian Federation          267          341           386            69.4            2           0.22375.51
1998 World Development Indicators 295



9 ~5.11
Daily      Radios         Television         Mobile      Fax      Personal  Internet
newspapers                                    phones     machines   computers  hosts
Sets    Cable subscribers                            per 10,000
per 1,000  per 1,000   per 1.000  per 1.000  per 1,000  per 1,000   Per 1,000  people
people     people      people     people     people     peep e     peep e     July
1994       1995        1996       1996       1996       1995       1996      1997
Rwanda                  0         76          ...                    ..                     .0.01
Saudi Arabia           54         ..263                   ..10                 8.4        37.2     0.15
Senegal                 6          ..38                              0          ..7.2               0.31
Sierra Leone            2         67          17           .         .0.2                  ..0.00
Singapore             364         ..361                 13.2       141        25.1       216.8    196.30
Slovak Republic       256        917         384        83.7         5         8.3       186.1     20.47
Slovenia              185         ..375               .130.8        20         7.8        47.8     85.66
South Africa           33        182         123          ..22                 2.4        37.7     30.67
Spain                 104       1,020        509        10.8        33        16.6        94.2     31.00
Sri Lanka              25        193         82           ..4                  0.6         3.3     0.33
Sudan                  23        311          80          ..0                  0.2         0.7     0.00
Sweden                483         ..476                2-12.4      282        45.3       214.9    321.48
Switzerland           409         ..493                345.1        93        27.8       408.5    207.98
Syrian Arab Republic   18          ..91                   ...0.3                           1.4     0.00
Tajikistan             13        172         279          ..0                  0.2         ..0.00
Tanzania                8        398          16         0.0         0          ...0.02
Thailand               48        204         167         3.5        26         1.7        16.7     2.11
Togo                    2        362          14          ...2.4                           ..0.01
Trinidad and Tobago   135         ..318                   ..11                 1.6        19.2     3.24
Tuni'sia               46        176         156          ..1                  2.8         6.7      0.02
Turkey                 44        126         309         7.6        13         1.6        13.8     3.60
Turkmenistan            ...163                            ......0.00
Uganda                  2        126         26           ..0                  0.1         0.5     0.01
Ukraine               118         ..341                   I.                   0.0         5.6      2.09
United Arab Emirates  161         ..276                   ..79                16.8        65.5      7.66
United Kingdom        351         ..612                 35.6       122        30.8       192.6    149.06
United States         228         ..806                239.5       165        64.6       362.4    442.11
Uruguay               237         ..305                 22.0        25         3.5        22.0     3.18
Uzbekistan              7          ..190                  ..0                  0.1         ..0.06
Venezuela             215         ..180                 10.1        35         1.1        21.1     2.06
Vietnam                 8          ..180                  ..1                  0.2         3.3      0.00
West Bank and Gaza      .          ..                      ..
Yemen. Rep.            17         45         278                     1         0.2         ..       0.00
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)  90   ..185                  ...1.4                           ..2.72
Zambia                  8        112          80          ..0                  0.1         ..0.27
Zimbabwe               18         ..29                    ...0.4                           6.7      0.24
Low income             19        143         147        23.7         3         0.2         2.3     0.12
Excl. China & India    13          ..47                                         I           .0.07
224            10        ~~~~~~~~         ~~~~~~~~1.  216 4.21
Lo-w-er middle inc o- m.e. .............92.................. 246  ..7          0.8        17.1     1.85
U6pp " . m id-dIe'i'n"co"m ..e  972933.7                            18         2.7        30.5      9.73
Lo-w ..&.. m iddle'in"co ..me  50  13177..068715
E'a-st ..A"s i'a ..&.. Pa"cific ....29  1 0228          26.6                   0.4         4.5      0.57
Europe & Central Asia  1 7 1       .350                              6         1.2     ....1.7.4   6.53
Latin America & Carib.  83        ..261.                             41923.2                       3.48
Mviddlj e*East & N  Arc'a'  37.....          144...... ..            3         1.0        17.1     0.20
Sub-Saharan Africa     11          ..4                     ..                               .2.03
Hihincome           303         ..611                 160.1      131        47.5       224.2    203.46
296 1998 World Developwnent Indoicators



5.11 
The table includes indicators that measure the penetra-  be registered. To the extent that households do not reg-  * Daily newspapers are the number of newspapers pub-
tion of the information economy-newspapers, radios,  ister their televisions or do not register all of their televi-  lished at least four times a week, per 1,000 people.
television sets, mobile phones, fax machines, personal  sions, the number of licensed sets may understate the  * Radios are the estimated number of radio receivers in
computers, and Internet hosts. Other important indicators  true number.                             use for broadcasts to the general public, per 1,00O peo-
of information and communications technology-such as  Because of different regulatory requirements for the  ple. * Television sets are the estimated number of tele-
the use of teleconferencing or the use of the Internet in  provision of data, complete measurement of the  vision sets in use, per 1,000 people. * Mobile phones
organizing and mobilizing conferences, distance educa-  telecommunications  sector  is  not  possible.  refer to users of portable telephones subscribing to an
tion, and commercial transactions-are not collected sys-  Telecommunications data are compiled through annual  automatic public mobile telephone service using cellular
tematically and so are not reported here.         questionnaires sent to telecommunications authorities  technology that provides access to the public switched
Data on the number of daily newspapers in circulation  and operating companies. The data are supplemented  telephone network, per 1,000 people. * Fax machines
and radio receivers in use are obtained from statistical  by annual reports and statistical yearbooks of telecom-  are the estimated number of facsimile machines con-
surveys carried out by the United Nations Educational,  munications ministries, regulators, operators, and  nected to the public switched telephone network, per
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). In some  industry associations. In some cases estimates are  1,000 people. * Personal computers are the estimated
countries definitions, classifications, and methods of enu-  derived from ITU documents or other references.  number of self-contained computers designed to be used
meration do not entirely conform to UNESCO standards.  Data on fax machines exclude fax modems attached  by a single individual, per 1,000 people. * Intemet hosts
For example, newspaper circulation data should refer to  to computers. Some operators report only the equipment  are the number of computers directly connected to the
the number of copies distributed, but in some cases the  they sell, lease, or register, so the actual number is almost  worldwide network of interconnected computer systems,
figures reported are the number of copies printed. In addi-  certainly much higher.                 per 10,000 people. All hosts without a country code iden-
tion, many countries impose radio license fees to help pay  Estimates of the number of personal computers (PCs)  tfication are assumed to be located in the United States.
for public broadcasting, discouraging radio owners from  are derived from an annual questionnaire, supplemented
declaring ownership. Because of these and other data col-  by other sources. In many countries mainframe comput-  Data sources
lection problems, estimates of the number of newspapers  ers are used extensively, and thousands of users can be
and radios vary widely in reliability and should be inter-  connected to a single mainframe computer; thus the num-      Data on newspapers and radios
preted with caution.                              ber of PCs understates the total use of computers.     -,,'are from UNESCO, which com-
Data presented for other electronic communications  Internet hosts are assigned to countries based on the             piles data mainly from official
and information technology are from the International  host's countrycode. though this does not necessarily indi-       replies by member states to
Telecommunication Union (ITU) and Network Wizards.  cate that the host is physically located in the country. In  -       UNESCO   questionnaires and
Data on television sets and cable television subscribers  addition, all hosts lacking a country code identification are  special surveys, but also from
are supplied to the ITU through annual questionnaires  assigned to the United States. Thus the number of                 official reports and publica-
sent to national broadcasting authorities and industry  Internet hosts shown for each country should be consid-          tions, supplemented by infor-
associations. Some countries require that television sets  ered an approximation.                   mation from national and international sources. Data on
television sets, mobile phones, fax machines, and per-
sonal computers are from the annual questionnaire sent
to member countries by the ITU. These data are reported
Mobile telephones play a big role in countries with limited traditional telephone services      in the ITU's World Telecommunication Development
Cellular subscribers as % of all telephone subscribers, 1995                                     Report or the Telecommunications Indicators database.
?'runt .Thetext also draws on ITU sources. Data on Intemet hosts
- n,i,po~ns -are from Network Wizards (http://www.nw.com).
:       LSbCflC,rine                                   * 04i''1d
-      C r ThaJia,#1      r. mnween
C c-mpo Dern. Pep  v MgaXsla                   AuwV,  i  Hart rg   dwarl,
* S-  HLanka                                v         * C      T
t,,~~~~~~I e'a *                                          ioew1+  Ltntd,Ibe
Sj5i~~~5~r.  ~ ~ ~      UnneuAeia
.'amaica                   ltralr  ,    lUesedMingUTr-,
Bra'a. cr  2 0,,                *eIe            HeZ      wiii
*Ctia * kleco     n                               Gerroiri-rc
0         10         20        30         40        50         60        70         80
Mainlines per 100 inhabitants, 1995
Source: International Telecommunication Union.
I,i sroe, dereloping countries-moilh In Southeast A;la and Soutn a.las- lIith lo* Axed-lie penetrat'n. cellwlar mobile
ser.icas are deWeIomng 3s subsTurtoea 1o Iradidional f m&duine ser.cen. Cro*th in cellulai mobile ier,ces 6 reintorced b%
sto.ng denir3d las expreied. for e rample. through ,n0g *an..ag fish and r-mes to, ftea41rne 4erOcel ana cornpetnhe
senice pro%nilort. In Ind.slrlai couries cellular mpobile merIkces rainis compler. em fixeo.4ine miwces.
1998 World Development Indicators       297



5.12 Science and technology
Scienrtists Technicians Expenditures  Higii-technology  Royalty and                Patent
and      in       fDr        exports                 license fees              applications
engineers  R&D     R&D                                                            filed'
in R&D
%of
per million  Per mill,ion    $    manufactured  Receipts         Payments               Non-
people   peopl  % of GNP  millions  exports   $ millions        $ mn,l ions  Residents  residents
1981-95b 1 1981-9 19195    1996     1.996    1990    1.996    1990    199   I1995       1995
Albania                    ......                                   0        0        0       0        ..     1,564
Algeria                                   ..       46      15       0                 I.              28       114
Angola                     ..      .       ..                .      0       18        0       0
Argentina                 ..0.3                 1.195      17       4        6      409     221
Armenia                    ..      .       ..                ..                       *.                     15,570
Australia              2,477     943      1.4   6,226      39     162      251      827    1,089    9,325    28,156
Austria                1,604     801      1.5  11,975      24      91      181      287     691     2,419    63,707
Azerbaijan                         .       .........221                                                         31
Bangladesh                                                          0        0        0       5       70       156
Belarus                .3,300    5-15     0.9       .........                                        626     16,625.
Belgium                1,814   2,200      1.7       .       ..    682      683    1,328    1,197    1,464    52,187
Benin                     ..       .       ..                .0              0        0       0
Bolivia                  250     154      1.7      71      41       0        0       3        5       17       106
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana                  ..       .       ,0                                0        8       6        1        50
Brazil                   165      58      0.4   4,448      18      12       32       54     529     2.757    23,040
Bulgaria               4,240   1,205      1.7                       0        ..       0       ..     370     16,953
Burftina Faso                                       .       ..      0        0        0       0
Blurundi                                            ...             0        0        0       0                  1
Cambodia
Cameroon                                           4        3       1        0        0       1
Canada                 2,322     978      1.6  30,715      24       .                 .       ..    3,039    40,565
Central African Republic  55      31      -.       0        0       0        ..       0
.Chad                                                               0 ~      0        0       0        -
Chile                                     0.8     388      18       1       63       37      51      181      1,535
China                    537     187      0.6  26,936      21       0        ..       0       ..   10.066    31,707
Hong Kong, China          ..       .       .    7,032      27       .        ...              ..      23      1,938
Colombia                           .       .      815      21      21       59       13      49      141      1,093
Congo, Dem. Rep.                   .       ..                ..              ..               .3                15
Congo, Rep.                                        2       12       0        ..       0
Costa Rica               539       .95                     14       1        3        9      12
MSedilvoire               ..       ..                        .      0        0       0        0
Croatia                1,977     845       ..     561      17       .        ...              ..     265       335
Cuba                   1,369     878      0.9       .       ..      .        ...              .      104        33
Czech Republic         1,285     949      1.3   2,485      14      ..       43       ..      98      628     19, 382
Denmark                2,647   2,656      1.9   7,386      2 5      0        ..      0        ..    2,257    59.810
Dominican Republic        ..       .       .      295      19       0        0       0       11
Ecuador                  169     2-15     0.1     45       11       0        0       37      68        8       270
Egypt, Arab Rep.         458     340     _1.0    101        9       0       55       0       40
El Salvador              19      29.9     0o.0   .73       17       0        0       1        3        3        64
Estoni'a               3.296     550      0.6    272       19       0        1        0       3       16     14,751
Ethiopia                  ..       .       ..               .0               0       00
Finland                3,675   2,360     2.3    7,663      23      50       66      317     465     2,533    20,192
France                 2,537   2,926      2.5  68,655      31    1,295   1,860    1,629    2,627   16,140    73,626
Gabon                                              20      32       0        0        0       0
Gambia, The                                        .        ..      0        0        0       0
Georgia                                             .........                                        288     15,660
Germany                3,016   1,607      2.6  110,000     25    1,967    3,320   3,797    5,666   51,948    84,667
Ghana                      ..      .       ....                                               1        ..42
Greece                   774     314      0.5     728      13       0        0       15      57      452     44,697
Guatemala                                         95       15       0        ..       0       .5                57
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau                                      ,,c                                0
Haiti                                               ...C                     0        0       0        .
Honduras                                           8        3       0        0        3       9        7        40
298  1998 World Development Indicators



5.12
Scient'ists Technicians Expenditures  High-technology        Royalty and                   PatenFt
and       in       for          exports                   license fees                 applications
engIneers  R&D       R&D                                                                  filed'
in R&D
% Of
per mnillion  per million      $     manufactured    Receipts          Payments                  Non-
people   people   % of GNP  millions  exports      $ millions         $ millions    Residents  residents
i951-95b  j95j.-955  1981-95h  ±.996   1.996     ±9   199    6      1.990    1.996     1995      1996
Hungary                   1,157     588       1.0     1,690      19       49        45       36       132      1,117    19,770
India                      151      114       0.8     2,350      1 0        1        1       7 2        90     1,545     5,021
Indonesia                    ..       .         .     4,676      18        0         0        0          0
Iran, Islamic Rep.                                        .                               0                      278        2
Iraq               ..  ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..  ....  .....  ..  ... . . ... ..  .. ....  ....             6  .. .... 2 4
Ireland                   1,87-1    5-10      1.4    23,192      62       38        94      591      3,434       927    44,660
Israel                   ..       ..       2.2.5.654          30.63             142       73       172      1,266     3,159
Italy                     1,303     796       1.3    34,442      15     1,040      381     1,959     1,027     1,625    63,330
Jamaica                                        ..       619      67         3        4        7         .19        754
Japan                     5,677     869       3.0   151,000      39     2,866    6.683     6,051     9,834   335,061    53,896
Jordan                                         ..       183      26         0        0        00
Kazakhstan                            .        .          .       .         .        .         ..              1.031    16,368
Kenya                                                                      _9        5        6          0..            28,728
Korea, Dem. Rep.             .        ....                        .........                                             15,693
Korea, Rep.               2.636     317       2.8    44.433      39       37       185      136      2,431    59,249    37,308
Kuwait                                         ..        77      13
Kyrgyz Republic                       ..                 47      24        .                                     119    15,599
L e P O .... .........                                   ...                                                    ......0..0.I0..0
Latvia                    1,165       3        .        143      16         0        0        0          1       210    16,140
Lebanon.                    67        2        ...                ..        .
Lesotho                                        ...                 .        00                108                        2,8
Libya                      361      493       0..2        .       ..       0.                 0..6                          37
Lithuania                 1,278       .        ..       365     .23         .        0                   4       106 .. .15,882
Macedonia, FYR            1,258     334        ...                .         .                                     0      3,084
Madagascar                                                2       3                                                1    15,802
Malawi                                         ..1                3        0         0        0          0         5    28,868
Malaysia                    87       88       0.4    39,448      67         0        0        0          0       141     3,91-1
Mal...                                                          .0            0         0              0.
Mauritania                                     ...                 .        0        0        0          0
Mauritius                  361      158      .0.4    ....14      _1         0        0        O.         03                  4
Mexico                      95       2 7      0.3    24,179      32        73      122      380        360       436    23,233
Moidova                                        .         15       9         ..       .                           271    15,606
Mongolias.                                                1       2        0                  0                  130    15,847
Morocco                                        ..       568      24         45               6          3          9       292
MzambIq. e ....1                                                  54       04       ..       60,        38
Myanmar                                        ...                 .        0        ..       0
Namibia                                        ...                 .        1        033
Nepal                       22        5                   0       0         00                00                   3         5
Netherlands               2,656    1,774      1.9    46,651      42     1,086    2,361     1,751     2.852     4,460    59,279
New Zealand               1.778     822 ...11.         428      11         0    .   .0       0.        .0.    1,418    19,230
Nicaragua                                      ..        88      40         0        0        0          0                  35
Nigeria           ..         ..      ..        0        0         0         0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..........
Norway                    3,434   1,705       1.9     2,703      24       133      729      148        942     1,278    20,398
Oman                                 ..                  65       8         0        ..       0
Pakistan                    54       76        ~        269.      3        0         6   ~    0.        21,       21 ... .678
Pa  ..ama .                                   ..  1.  ....            ....          .    ... .. .9_  II.       16        _62
Papua New Guinea                               ...                 .        0   0             0          0.  .. . .
Paraguay                                       ..8                4        0         ..       0
Peru                                           ..        94      11         ..       2        5         63
Philippines                                    ..    10,561      62.        1        2       38         99
Poland                    1,083   .1,380      0.9    -1,926      11         0       24        0        144      2,598   19,491
Portugal                   599      381       0.6     2.295      12        14       26      117        262        96    58,605
Puerto  Rico  ..  ..  ..   ..      ..        ..       ..       ..         ..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..... .
Romania                   1,382     613       0.7       442       7         0      101        0         12     1,811    16,856
Russian Federation        4,358     905       0.8..                                                      .    17,611    23,746
1958 World Development Indicators  299



5412
Scientkists Technicians Expenditures  Hightechnology  I               Royalty and                      Patent
and        In         for            exports                      license fees                     applications
engineers    R&D        R&D                                                                             filed'
in R&D
% of
per million  per million            $     manufactured      Rece.pts             Payments                     Non-
people     people    % of GNP   millions   exports        $ millions            $ millons       Residents  residents
1981-951   1.981.,95b  1983-95b   1996       1.996     .1990       1996      1.990      1996       1995       1-995I
Rwanda                                                                               0          0          0          1
Saudi Arabia                                          .          ..                        0          0               0         28         718
Senegal                                                       145         55         1          .7         0          0
Sierra Leone                     ..0                                                            ..0                              ..
Singapore                    2,512     1,524        1.1    73,101         71         ......10                                           11,871
Slovak Republic              1,922       796        1.1       982         16         ..        18          ..        83        273      17,659
Slovenia                     2,998     2,390        1.5     1,180         16         4          6          5         27        318      16,267
South Africa                     ,.         .         .          .          .       54         67        130       250       5,549       5,501
Spain                        1,098       342        0.9    13,179         17        90        238      1,022      1,424      2.329      68~922
Sri Lanka                          ~65 .                                   3         0          0          0          0         76      15,944
Sudan                                                                      ..        0          ..0                   ...               28,951
Sweden                       3,714     3,173        3.5    20,905         31       563        997        743      1.006      6,396      64,185
Switzerland                      .          ..      26...                            ......                                  5.116      64,626
Syrian Arab Republic                                 ..          .          .        0          .0                    ..43                  12
Tajikistan                                                                  .         ...                             ..33              15.598
Tanzania                         .          .......0                                                       ..0
Thailand                       173        51        0.2    14,746         36          0        25        170       7.17
Togo                             ..         .         .          .          .        0          0          0          0
Trinidad and Tobago              ..         .         .       312         33         0          0          7          0         24      15,515
Tunisia                        388         71       0.3       450         10         1          1          1          2         31         115
Turkey                         209        23        0.8      1,326         8          ......                                   206       1.506
Turkmenistan                     .          ...                                      ......                                       .      8,420
Uganda                           ..        .                                .        0          0          0          0          ..     20,840
Ukraine                                                                               .          ..                   .      4,806      17.548
United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom               2,417     1,019        2.2    85,035         40     2,540      4,725      2,992      3,625     25,355      90,399
United States                3,732          .         ..  198.000         44    16.635     29,973      3,138      7,322    127,476     107,964
Uruguay                          ..         .         .        91         10         0          0          0          8
Uzbekistan.                  1,760      .313         ..          .          .        .           ..                   .      1,039      15,873
Venezuela                      208        32        0.5       377         14          ...                   .2
Vietnam                                                                                                    ...23                        16,959
West Bank and Gaza                .         .         .
Yemen, Rep.                      ..         .         ,          0         0
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)  1,476      400          ..      141         16         .592                                                  230
Zambia                           ..         .         .          .          .        0          ..0                   .4                    90
Zimbabwe                          ..        .         .        33          5         1          1          8          6         56         177
a. Other patent applications filed in 1995 include those filed under the auspices of the African Intellectual Property Organization 127 by residents, 15,819 by nonresidentsl. Afr can Regional
industrial Property Organization 14 by residents. 15,032 by nonresidents), and European Patent Office 135.390 by residents. 42,869 oy nonresidents). information was originally provided by the
WIPO. The International Bureau of WIPO assumes no liability or responsibility with regard to the transformation of this data. b. See Primary data documentation for survey year.
300  -1998 World Development Indicators



5.12                   0
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I
Rapid progress in science and technology is changing the  goods used in producing the final good. Industries clas-  * Scientists and engineers in R&D are people trained to
global economy and increasing the importance of knowl-  sified on the basis of the U.S. Standard Industrial  workinanyfieldofsciencewhoareengagedinprofessional
edge as a factor of production. It is also driving rapid  Classification (SIC) were ranked according to their R&D  R&D activity (including administrators). Most such jobs
shifts in comparative advantage between countries. The  intensity, and the top 10 SIC groups (three-digit classifi-  require completion of tertiary education. * Technicians in
table shows several key indicators that provide a partial  cation) were designated as high-technology industries.  R&D are people engaged in professional R&D activity who
picture of the 'technological base": the availability of  The industry ranked tenth had an R&D intensity index 30  have received vocational ortechnical training in anyrbranch
skilled human resources (scientists, engineers, and  percent greater than the industry ranked eleventh and  o1 knowledge or technology of a specified standard. Most
technicians employed in research and development), the  was more than 1OD percent greater than the average for  of these jobs require three years beyond the first stage of
competitive edge countries enjoy in high-technology  manufacturing.                                 secondary education. * Expenditures for R&D are current
exports, sales and purchases of technology through roy-  To translate Davis's industry classification into a def-  and capital expenditures (including overhead) on creative,
alties and licenses, and the number of patent applica-  inition of high-technology trade, Braga and Yeats (1992)  systematic activity intended to increase the stock of knowl-
tions filed.                                      used the concordance between the SIC grouping and the  edge and on the use of this knowledge to devise new appli-
The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and  Standard International Trade Classification (SITC) revi-  cations. This includes fundamental and applied research
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) collects data on scien-  sion 1 classification proposed by Hatter (1985). Given  and expenmental development work leading to new
tific and technical workers and research and develop-  the imperfect match between SIC and SITC codes, Hatter  devices, products, or processes. * High-technology
ment expenditures from member states, mainly from  estimated high-technology weights (the share of U.S.  exports are goods produced by industries (based on U.S.
official replies to UNESCO questionnaires and special  high-technology imports and exports in each SITC group,  industry classifications) that rank among a country's top
surveys, as well as from official reports and publica-  based on 1975-77 U.S. trade data) to highlight the rel-  10 in terms of R&D expenditures. Manufactured exports
tions, supplemented by information from other national  ative importance of high-technology products in SITC  are commodities in the SITC, revision 1, sections 5-9
and international sources. UNESCO reports either the  groups. In preparing the data on high-technology trade,  (chemicals and related products, basic manufactures,
stock of scientists, engineers, and technicians (all qual-  Braga and Yeats considered only SITC groups (at a four-  manufactured articles, machinery and transport equip-
ified persons in those fields on a given reference date)  digit level) that had a high-technology weight above 50  ment, and other manufactured articles and goods not else-
or the number of economically active persons qualified  percent. Examples of high-technology exports include air-  where classified), excluding division 68 (nonferrous
to be scientists, engineers, or technicians (people  craft, office machinery, pharmaceuticals, and scientific  metals). * Royalty and license fees are payments and
engaged in or actively seeking work in any branch of the  instruments. It is worth noting that this methodology  receipts between residents and nonresidents forthe autho-
economy on a given date). Stock data generally come  rests on the somewhat unrealistic assumption that using  rzed use of intangible, nonproduced, nonfinancial assets
from censuses and are less timely than measures of the  U.S. input-output relations and trade patterns for high-  and proprietary rights (such as patents, copyrghts, trade-
economically active population. UNESCO supplements  technology production does not introduce a bias in the  marks, industrial processes, and franchises) and for the
these data with estimates of the number of qualified sci-  classification.                          use, through licensing agreements, of produced originals
entists and engineers by counting the number of people  Most countries have adopted systems that protect  of prototypes (such as manuscripts and films). * Patents
who have completed education at ISCED (International  patentable inventions. Under most legislation concern-  are documents, issued by a government office, that
Standard Classification of Education) levels 6 and 7;  ing inventions, to be protected by law ('patentable"), an  describe the invention and create a legal situation in which
qualified technicians are estimated using the number of  idea must be new in the sense that it has not already  the patented invention can normally only be exploited
people who have completed education at ISCED level 5.  been published or publicly used; it must be nonobvious  (made, used, sold, imported) by, or with the authorization
The data on scientists, engineers, and technicians, nor-  ("involve an inventive step") in the sense that it would  of, the patentee. The protection of inventions is limited in
mally calculated in terms of full-time equivalent staff,  not have occurred to any specialist in the particular  time (generally 20 years from the filingdate ofthe applica-
cannot take into account the considerable variations in  industrial field, had such a specialist been asked to find  tion for the grant of a patent). Information on patent appli-
quality of training and education.                a solution to the particular problem; and it must be capa-  cations filed is shown separately for residents and
Data on R&D expenditures may reflect the different  ble of industrial application in the sense that it can be  nonresidents of the country.
tax treatment of such expenditures. In some countries  industrially manufactured or used. Data on patent appli-
they may also reflect large and possibly unproductive out-  cations filed by residents and nonresidents are shown in  Data sources
lays by governments or state-owned research establish-  the table. The World Intellectual Property Organization
ments.                                           (WIPO) estimates that at the end of 1995 about 3.7 mil-  Data on technical personnel and R&D expenditures are col-
High-technology exports are those produced by a coun-  lion patents were in force in the world.   ected by UNESCO and published in its Statistical Yearbook.
try's 10 most R&D-intensive industries. Industry rankings                                           Information on high-technology exports are from the United
are based on a methodology developed by Davis (1982).                                               Nations COMTRADE database. Data on royalty and license
Using input-output techniques, Davis estimated the tech-                                            fees are from the IMFs Balance of Payments Statistics
nology intensity for U.S. industries in terms of the R&D                                            Yearbook. Data on patents are from WIPO's Industrial
expenditures required to produce a certain manufactured                                             Property Statistics.
good. This methodology takes into account direct R&D
expenditures made by final producers as well as indirect
R&D expenditures made by suppliers of intermediate
1998 World Development Indicators       301



[
* .* 



G   lobal economic integration increases the ability of individuals and firms to
undertake economic transactions with residents of other countries. Critics and
proponents of globalization generally agree that the world is more integrated
now than 50 years ago. But they disagree on whether integration is an oppor-
tunity or a danger and whether increasing integration is a strategic choice or an
inevitable consequence-for better or worse-of economic and technological
change. How much more integrated is the world? Which countries have been
included, and which left out? Have new, market-based links (such as investment)
replaced old, official ones (such as aid)? The answers to these questions are
important for shaping future development strategies, and they depend in part
on how integration is measured.
There are two broad approaches to measuring integration: evaluation of the
barriers to integration and evaluation of the outcomes of integration. In a fully
integrated world there would be no official barriers to negotiating and execut-
ing economic transactions-anywhere. And residents of one economy would
face no higher transactions costs in another economy than in their own. Barriers
to integration begin at the border with tariffs and nontariff barriers but are but-
tressed by a wide range of domestic policies and practices. Their outcomes can
be seen in the volume of trade and capital flows or in the pattern of product and
asset prices across countries.
Average tariffs, nontariff barrier coverage ratios, and indicators of capital
controls are all useful indicators, and they are frequently cited as evidence of
significant reductions in baffiers since World War II-especially in the past two
decades. But the story they tell may be misleading. Posted tariffs are not always
collected. Capital controls can be evaded. Behind-the-border barriers such as
domestic regulation, private collusive behaxior, and information asymmetries-
for which we lack even the simplest quantitative indicators-may be more
restrictive. And obstacles to integration extend beyond official actions to
include market structures, technology, geography, and access to infornation.
These difficulties in measuring the barriers to integration lead many to
instead measure the outcomes of integration. Such studies focus on the effect
integration has on trade or capital flows or product or asset prices. Such indi-
cators suggest that global integration has increased in recent decades, but that
considerable segmentation remains between national markets. One difficulty
for outcome studies is disentangling the separate influences of the many forces



affectingmarket outcomes. In whatfollowswe reviewsomeofthe  prices, the economist's 'law of one pnce" suggests that in the
techniques for measuring global integration. Such efforts may  absence of official barriers, and given a nunmber of other assump-
send contradictory signals, however. Globalization is far from  tions, arbitrage should lead to equalization of the prices of prod-
complete. No measure-or even group of measures-suffices as  ucts or financial assets, when stated in a communll currency,
an unambiguous indicator of what is occurring. This is especially  wherever traded. But numereous stlulies have duetrinenred large
the case when comparing countries that are only beginning to  and persistent deviations from the law of on1e pvice in product
open their doors to the global market.                      markets, even among narrowly defined and highly taded prod-
ucts. Several reasons have been suggested for the apparent lack of
Border barriers                                             arbitrage in product marlkets:
Indicators of average tariffs and nontariff barriers help to iden-  *  The goods compared are not exactly equivalenit.
tify countries that have policies conducive to global integra-  *  Transportation costs drive a wedge between prices in different
tion. But such indicators may be incomplete or misleading.      markets.
Widespread exemptions or rebates, sometimes granted in       *  Prices tend to be sticky in the c -rrencv in which the product
response to lobbying, lower effective barriers to well below offi-  is sold, remaining stable in local currency terms despite swings
cial rates (figure 6a). Other problems arise in aggregating tar-  in nominal . .1, -, rates.
iffs on individual products into a summary measure. Simple  *   Tariff and nontariff trade barriers.
averages ignore the differing economic importance of product  *  Differences in national product standards-such as differ-
lines, and import-weighted averages understate the signifi-     ences in electricitv voltage or the side of the road on which
cance of the tariffs that have been most successful in reducing  automobiles are driven-make arbitrage mo(rie difficult.
imports. Coverage ratios show the share of imports covered by  *  Noncompetitive market structures.
nontariff barriers such as import quotas, but not the restric-  *  The cost of local marketing and retailing. Inefficiencies in
tiveness of the barriers. And measures based on tariff rates and  retail distribution are often cited as a reason for Japan's high
nontariff barrier coverage ignore the effects of domestic taxes  retail prices.
and subsidies, which are often used to replicate trade barriers.  Engel and Rogers (1995) reviewed several of these factors as
Official controls on international capital movements are  explanations for price dispersion in a sample of 24 coun1tries. They
even less amenable to direct quantitative measurement or     confirm the importance of distance and exchange rate move-
cross-country comparison. Without detailed qualitative analy-  ments (price stickiness). But the)' find formal trade barriers to be
sis of the rules and regulations controlling capital account  insignificant. After allowing for these factors, they find price dis-
transactions in each country, often the most that can be said is  persion to be significantlv lower betweeni countries in the same
whether a particular control is used.
Behind-the-border barriers
National standards and regulations can both help and hinder inte-  In many countries collected tariffs run well below of Ficial rates
gration. Help because they allow products to be compared on a
common basis, lowering the cost of collecting information about  Colected rate (%)
100
the product for consumers and producers and facilitating
economies of scale and diffusion of new technologies embodied    80                       45 degree
in standards. Many developing countries lack national standards                             line        Pakistan
that are compatible with the international norms developed by                           /                1991
such bodies as the International Standards Organization.         40
Moreover, the national institutions responsible for developing                                     Kenya
standards and assessing conformity are often weak.               20                                1987
But standards and regulations can also frustrate competi-     0
tion-if, say, they apply exclusively to foreign suppliers and      0      20      40      60      80      100     125
require foreign products to undergo more costly health and safety                     Official rate (%)
tests. The fact that different countries pursue regulatory objectiVes  Source: World Bank staff estimates.
in different ways can also handicap multinational firms operating
in several countries, relative to those operating in one, by forcing
them to comply with different regulations and thus lose
economies of scale.
Measuring outcomes
Outcome measures of integration look either at quantities, such
as volumes of international trade and capital flows, or at pnices,
such as product prices or assist prices and yields. Starting with
304  1998 World Development Indicators



region, such as Canada and the United States or members of the  An alternative indicator of trade integration is the "home bias"
European Union (though not Mexico and the United States or  measure, which aims to provide an all-inclusive summary of bar-
countries in Asia). They suggest that greater price uniformity  riers to trade. This measure is defined as purchases from domes-
within regions could reflect more integrated marketing and dis- tic suppliers relative to purchases from other countries, after
tribution systems.                                        adjusting for such factors as the size of exporter and importer
Ratios of total trade (exports plus imports) to GDP are the  economies, bilateral distance, location of the importing country,
most widely used quantitative measure of product market inte-  and whether the countries share a common language or border.
gration. Before these ratios can be used for cross-country com-  Shangjin Wei (1996) found that in 1982-94 OECD countries pur-
parisons of integration, they must be adjusted for the influence of  chased about 2.5 times more from themselves than from other-
structural factors-such as country size, factor endowment, geo-  wise identical foreign countries. The United States has the lowest
graphic isolation, and stage of development:              home bias-statistically indistinguishable from one. Mexico and
*  Large countries tend to trade less than small countries  Portugal have the highest, with domestic purchases running five
because they contain more diversified resources.      to six times those from similar foreign countries (figure 6b). The
*  Countries that are well endowed with natural resources, such  average home bias for OECD countries fell slowly during 1982-94,
as oil, export and import more.                       but the drop was especially marked among EU members.
*  Countries with an abundance of labor, such as those in East  Shang-jin Wei's study also found that sharing a common lan-
Asia, may undertake more processing and assembly trade, with  guage is a big determinant of trade-countries with language ties
a high content of imported intermediate imports and less  have 80 percent higher trade than otherwise. A common language
value added per dollar of gross output.                greatly reduces the transactions costs associated with gathering
*  Rich countries appear to be less integrated than they really are  information, making contacts, and conducting negotiations.
because they devote more of their output and consumption  Immigration also may foster trade between industrial and devel-
to services, which are harder to trade. They also tend to have  oping countries by helping to overcome obstacles created byweak
higher prices for services, which again makes them seem less  international trade institutions in developing countries (Gould
integrated by their trade-GDP ratios.                  1994). Immigrants know the language of their home countries
*  Trade data in gross terms compared with GDP in value added  and have detailed knowledge of home country tastes and prod-
terms can inflate trade-GDP ratios. This problem can be cor-  ucts. And they often have access to networks of contacts with high
rected by stating trade in value added terms or domestic prod-  levels of mutual trust, lowering the transactions costs of negotiat-
uct in gross output terms, but such data are available for only  ing and enforcing contracts.
a few high-income countries.
Integrating financial markets
111111111111 _________t                                   When applied to financial markets, the law of one price implies
that, with full integration, identical financial assets (except for
OECD countries prefer to buy at home                  their currency and political jurisdiction) should have identical
prices or yields once exchange rate risk has been hedged or cov-
F ;r,g.? ;r.;rjmTw?r r y nrE,n,r...nr laIocur,ib i;;-9J  ered in the forward market. Covered interest rate differentials
among most industrial countries are now quite small, reflecting
extensive capital market liberalization during the 1970s and
1980s. In Europe the Single European Act, passed in 1987,
,  I I                                   appears to have turned the corner for such countries as France,
I I I I I I I I I                        where covered spreads on three-month interbank deposits fell
I21 1 I 1 1 I I I I I I I I              from more than 200 basis points in 1982-86 to near zero in the
l                                                   early 1990s.
:                 1                                     High explicit or implicit barriers to capital movements remain
- s,.  ;s      ai*t 5^ ,, ,w6s.!' *" F'~  commonin mostdevelopingcountries,however.Amongthesmall
-1'   :r  -  '>S;t-  F:' x: .~P   number of emerging markets with data on forward exchange
rates, covered interest differentials averaged more than 600 basis
Source: r.;r.-.j i:l                                  points in 1982-88.
If all countries can borrow and lend in integrated global cap-
ital markets at the same expected real interest rate, there should
be no connection between domestic investment and national sav-
ings. In other words, the regression coefficient of investment on
savings rates-the savings retention ratio-should be zero under
complete financial integration. But this ratio is typically much
closer to one than to zero, leading some to argue that capital mar-
kets are much less integrated than is commonly supposed.
1998 World Development Indicators  305



Others deny such a conclusion. They say that savings is an
endogenous variable and that both savings and investment reflect
common factors-such as the economic cycle or demographic         Savings retention ratios have returned to 19th century levels
and productivity trends. Budget constraints may place bounds on
Partial correlation of investment to savings
how far savings and investment can diverge over long periods. In  1.0
particular, developed economies may be much closer to their
desired long-run capital stock than developing countries, which  C 8
may have many unused investment opportunities and thus require   0.6
large capital inflows-a feature that also helps explain why devel-                                     -
oping countries have lower savings retention ratios than devel-  0.4
oped ones.                                                       0.2
Savings retention ratios for industrial countries rose sharply in  0
the 1930s and remained high through the 1950s, a period char-     o
acterized by extensive capital controls (figure 6c). But by the 1980s  1885-99  1900S13  192s38  197480  1981O85s198690
these ratios had fallen close to the levels at the end of the 19th cen-  Source: World Bank staff estimates.
tury, a period of high capital mobility.
As in product markets, there is no reason for a high degree of
financial integration or capital mobility to necessarily result in  said about transactions costs, exchange rate risks, and political risks.
high gross capital flows. But there are reasons to think that it  The fact that foreign assets in investor portfolios aie tuLried over at
should (Montiel 1993). For example, with financial integration  a significandy higher rate than domestic assets also casts doubt on
the geographical location of traders does not matter, so the vol- the idea of high transactions costs as a cause of home bias.
ume of transactions crossing borders should be high. Moreover, if  Thus there is an  international diversification  puzzle.
financial assets in different countries have different risk and  Explanations include the possibility that investor expectations are
return characteristics, individuals can insure themselves against  less than fully rational-that is, investors systematicallv overesti-
risks to consumption by diversifying their asset portfolios interna-  mate retums on domestic assets. Another interesting area of inves-
tionally. Thus many countries with low or negative net capital flows  tigation concerns the role of information asymmetries. Gordon
with the rest of the world continue to have high two-way gross cap-  and Bovenberg (1996) argue that foreign investors may be handi-
ital flows.                                                  capped relative to domestic investors by their poorer knowledge of
Although international capital flows have grown rapidly in  the domestic market. Because thev are poorly informed, they are
recent years, they remain well below what financial models suggest  vulnerable to being overcharged when they acquire shares in a firm
should prevail under full international capital mobility. With per-  or purchase inputs and services. They also risk misju tdging markets
fect capital mobility, the proportion of loans by a country's resi-  and, therefore, investing real resources less efficiently. For exani-
dents that go to domestic borrowers should be about the same as  ple, foreign investors tend to pay much more than domestic
the country's share in global lending (Golub 1990). For a small  investors to acquire publicly traded U.S. firms, and foreign sub-
country whose share in global lending is close to zero, for exam-  sidiaries earn much lower rates of return than doniestic firms.
ple, very few loans by domestic residents will go to domestic bor-
rowers. (Conversely; nearly all of the country's borrowing should  Links and ChiE2.s
come from foreign lenders.)                                  A more integrated world is not without risks. The recent financial
In 1980-86, however, the share of loans by domestic residents  crisis in East Asia demonstrates some of the risks, just as the
that went to domestic borrowers in OECD countries ranged from  region's spectacular earlier growth demonstrates some of the ben-
a low of 60 percent in Belgium to a high of 94 percent in the  efits. As economies become more closely linked, they become
United States, with an average of 86 percent. In all cases this ratio  more dependent on one another's performance. Failures of man-
was much higher than the countries' shares in overall OECD lend-  agement and governance in one economy may be transmitted to
ing, suggesting a strong home bias in international portfolio allo-  another as swiftly as electronic signals. But an integrated world is
cation, similar to that in product markets, though the size of this  better able to diversify risk and to provide insurance against dis-
bias appear to have fallen since the 1970s.                  asters, both natural and humanmade.
Does the strong home bias in financial portfolios mean that  Ultimately, the value of integration must be assessed by its
intemnational capital market restrictions have resulted in significant  effect on people's lives. An integrated global economv may be
segmentation of national financial markets? This may be a plausi-  more efficient, but it also may be less comfortable for many peo-
ble explanation for low holdings of developing country assets in  ple. The continuing debates over tariff reductions and capital
internationial portfolios, giveri tlat financial liberalizationi in these  accounL liberalization ieflect a de1ep suspicion that the benefits of
countries gathered pace only in the 1990s, and then in only a small  globalization have been ove rsold. Conicerns about civirninmental
group of countries. But it is less plausible for home bias among  and social protection will also have to be resolved as globalization
industrial countries, where capital nmarket restrictions would have  proceeds. Better measures of policies and their otit(omes can
to be much higher to explain the observed facts. The same can be  inforn this debate.
306  1998 Wortd Development Indicators



I . 
s!~ ~~~~~~~~~~~P _TIIR-4 1.M FTT- 11;! -
j ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~                      r _s1                r.    ~      n:r
Ig~~-  v  .  -    Total net official
development finance
Note: Official concessional finance
comprises inflows of official
development assistance and official aid
-~~~ ~to Eastern Europe and the former Soviet
Union. The data shown here exclude
F                                                                                                          funding for technical cooperation and
-            ~~~~flows to high-income economies.
Nonconcessional finance comprises net
fiows from bilateral and multilateral
sources.
Foreign direct investment was essentially flat in 1997 after jumping from $24 billion in 1990 to almost 
_ _        _                                             ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~by liegion
-                U~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Q
_v In
308    1998 World Development Ind icators



Despite a leveling of foreign direct investment and a sharp drop in portfolio equities, private capital flows
remained the largest source of finance to the developing world in 1997. But most of these flows went to a handful
of countries. The rest continue to depend on a declining flow of aid.
Portfolio equities took a big hit in 1997, falling by nearly a third
- 6                                                            - - $ billions
30s                                           7.~~~,~ ~   300              Sub-
3cr:js                      I ~ ~ {   ] -   r  ] i   ~           300 - ISaharan
Africa
I                               I                    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~8
2--.,: i~                                                                            ISi l l250  S outh Asia
Ba~ a -  tr1  U  i  reil E                                                       --  -                 -----  Latin
Ii'-' :,.li.erl>¢l   2|||11 l200      America
~~~~~~~~                                           I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - It  -and
Caribbean
d                                                       I.rrTCI1O e,-urL |          - |   5  1                 94
IYJ                                  150              Middle
East
|         5      _                                              and North
Africa 14
and
Central
Asia
_0          East
Asia and
0           Pacific
[!                                              ~~~        ~     ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0 _89
Source for both pages: World Bank. Global Development Finance 1998.
1998 World Development Indicators 309



6.1 Integration with the global economy
Trade                Trade          Growth      Mean        Gross private      Gross foreign direct
in goods        in real    tariff        capital flows        investment
trade less
growth in
real GDP
% of                 %of           percentage Al pronucts      % of                 4/ o f
PPP GDP             good clGO P       points      %PPP GDP                           PPP GDP
1986       1998      1.986      1996     1986-96  I1,990-961   1986       1996      1986       1996
Albania                                         30.0       76.7                 15.9        .
Algeria                    17.3       15.0      41.1       66.7      -0.6                  0.8         ..       0.0
Angola                     23.3      29.3       79.8      113.6       5.8                  4.2       12.8       2.1        0.9
Argentina                   5.9       14.0      23.1       44.0      .8.0       11.2       3.4        7.9       0.3        1.3
Armenia                               14.0                                                  ..        2.9        ..0.0
Australia                  242       34.0       78.5      127.7       4.4       .6.0      12.0       14.3       4.5        4.2
Austri'a                   48.7       71 .6    120.8      142.0       3.1        6.8h     11.7       22.0       0.5        2.9
Azerbaijan                            16.3                109.6                             .
Bangladesh                  5.7       8.3       39.4      6 7.3       5.7                  1.5        0.9       0.0       0.0
Belarus                              26.3                100.2                  12.6        .
Belgium                                                               3.0        6.80       .
Benin                      12.4      15.9       78.8       98.9      -1.9                  2.5        2.9       0.0        0.0
Bolivia                    11.7      12.0       50.0                  3.0        9.7       9.5        3.3       0.1        1.8
Bosnia and Herzegovina                                                                      .
Butswana                                                             -4.0                  5.6        3.5       1.7        1.0
Brazil                      5.8      10.        26.0      24.9        6.6       12.2       3.2        4.6       0.1        0.7
Bulgaria                   18.3      23.8       40.8     216.3     -17.6                   4.9        6.4       0.0       0.4
Burkina Faso                8.5       9.8       45.7      63.1       -3.0                  2.5        3.5       0.1        0.0
Burundi                   .12.5       4.2       41.6      18.7        0.3                  4.1        1.2       0.1        0.1
Cambodia                                         4 .3      95.2                             .
Cameroon                    9,6      13.0       40.3       60.8       3.2                  7.0       10.2       0.5        0.1
Canada                     45.6      58.5     .112.4     .....       .5.1        8.5      12.6       15.1       1.9        2.3
Central African Republic    8.7       8.6       418.8     52.9       -3.5.      18.6       3.7        2.6       0.3        0.2
Chad                        4.7       5.7       34 .1     45.5       -4.1                  3.4        2.4       1.1        0.8
Chile                      11.6      18.9       85.9                  4.5       11.0       5.0        8.8       0.5        3.0
China                       6.6        7.1      35.5       58.4       2.1       23.9       1.4        1.5       0.2        1.0
Hong Kong, China   .     111.8   .27.6     .51.0       1,227.0    .8.9.
Colombia                    7.1        9.5      47.5       55.8       7.1       11.7       3.3        4.0       0.6        1.3
Congo, Dem. Rep.            4.2       6.9       4.0        606       -5.5   .        .
Congo, Rep.                51.4      70.6      162.4     323.1        2.1                 41.1       93.8       0.9        0.0
Costa Rica                 20.2      34.4      104.7     214.5        5.3                  6.1        3.5       0.6        1.8
C6te dIlvoire              36.0       32 .0    118.5      151.6       0.7        4.8       4.9        3.4       0.5        0.1
C~roatia                             59 9                122.8                              ..       12.3        ..        1.7
Cuba.                                                                           10.7        .
Czech Republic                       46-3                187.2                   7.0        ..       1.9         ..        1.3
Denmark                    58.8      73.7      125.0     128.1        2.2        6.8b     16.9       27.8       1.1       2.7
Dominican Republic         12.3      28.3       88.8     173.7        1.8                  3.2        1.9       0.3       1.2
Ecuador.                   11.8      16.3       64.4      95 .0       2.4      11.4        3.4        2.6       0.2       0.7
Egypt, Arab Rep.           13.6      14.8       60.9      70.6      -0.5                   4.6        2.5       1.5       0.4
El Salvador                20.7      22.5       87.1      88.0        7.0      10.2        3.6        3.5       0.3        0.2
E stonia                     ..      77..4        ..     280.4         ..       0.1         ..       13.7        ..        3.2
Ethiopia'                  10.5       6.8       32.7      41~.2     -3.2         ..        1.7        3.5       0.0       0.0
Finland ......51.5                   70.1       90.6     1-15.1       3.7        6.81     15.8       29.7.      2.0        5.6
France                     33.7      45.4       91.2     111.6        2.5        6.80      7.3       17.2       1.1        3.7
Cabon                      40.4      45.5      112.1     113.3      -0.1         ..       21.1        8.7       2.2        4.6
Gambia, The                22.4      11.9      266.8       92.8       2.1         ..       6.6        2.9       0.0        0.5
Georgia                      ..       9.6          .      27.8         .          ..
Germany                      ..      55.1         ...                   .        6 80                16.9        ..        2.0
Ghana                      11.0       15.3      44.6      126.6       2.4         ..       1.9        2.4       0.0        0.4
Greece                     21.2      27.9       58.6       50.4       4.0        6.60,     4.3       10.9       0.6        0.8
Guatemala                   9.7      12.2       75.1       74.9       4.3         ..       3.1        4.1       0.3        0.2
Guinea                     13.2      13.1       67.5      632.8      -1.7         ..       5.3        2.1       0.1        0.2
Guinea-Bissau              11.4      14.2       74.2       85 .0     -3.2         5. .7              27.8       0.0
Haiti                       6.9      12,6         ..      48.9        9.0         ..       1.6        1.0       0.1        0.0
Honduras                   21.7      42 ,5      80.1     234.7       -0.7        ..        6.2        3.9       0.4        0.4
310   1998 World Developnment Indicators



6.1
Trade                 Trade           Growth     Mean         Gross private      Gross foreign direct
in goods         in real    tariff        capital flows         investment
trade less
growth in
real GDP
% of                  % of          percentage  All products     % Of                  % of
PPP GOP              goods GOP         points      %             PPP GOP               PPP GOP
1986       1996       1986       1.996    1986-96    1990-961    1986       1996       1986       1996
Hungary                     34.5      41.4      126.9 ....137.1         0.5       144.4 . .  5.4        14~.0....... 0:0.0  ... 2.8
India                        3.9       4.5       16.4       31.1        3.0       30.0       0.9         0 6       0-0        0.2
Indonesia                   10.7      13.6       55.0       69.7        13.3.     13.2       2.0         2.1       0.1        0.8
Iran, Islamic Rep.              .. .. ...        17.1.                  1.2........        2.0.1.5.0.                         0.0
Ireland                     86.7     121.6      375 0      773.1        3.1        6.81     14.4       66.5        0.1        4.7
Israel                      39.5      47.5      102.6                   1.3           .....  4.7         8.6       0.4        2.2
Ital                        28.0      39.6          .                   4.3        6.80      3.3        19.1       0.4        0.8
Jamaica                     28.8.      53.7      146.3     299.3        1.5       ............  10.4 ... . 9.2     0.5        1.8
Japan                       21.5      26.1       41.2       39.9        2.8        6.0      12.7 ....15.8          0.9        0.9
Jordan                      36.8      36.6      123.8      172.4        7.8          .       3.3         4 7       0.4        0.4
Kazakhstan                    .       19.6          .      110.7               .        .  .. ......
Kenya                       168.8.    17.9       67.1      115.2        5.5 .   ..           2. 9       2.5        02.2       0.0
Korea, Dem. Rep               :                      ..                              ..
Korea, Rep.                 33.6      46 7      115.0      118-0 ...... .4.5      11.3..     3.5        11.1       0.8 1....... 11
Kuwait                      54.3      45.8 ......158:2. .  132.4                            41.1        16.8       1.0         17.
Lao.PDR                      2.9      16.5       ...   ....  726           ....  ..          4.3       .. 4.1  ...  0:0       1.6
Latvia      .......                   41.1          .. .6.0                                    ..15.4                ..3.8
Lebanon                       ..      36~.0   .. ..        151.2                                                     ..............  ....
Lesotho                                                       ..       -4.1                  3~9 ..      2.3       0           .
Libya                                            9 19...........      ...                        ..........  ...  .   ..          ...
Lithuania                             46.6                 195.2         .         4.6          .        6.5                  0.9
Macedonia, FYR...
Madagascar                   7.8.      10.0      36.6       60.6.       3:3         1.37                 30.    ..... 0:0 ....  0.1
Malawi                      13.0     -16,.8.     .583.3  .  83.0        0.5 ...   25.3       2.4         2.8       0.0        0.0
Malaysia                    33.6      70.2      163.5      269.0        7.8        9.1       2.8         4.6       0:7        2.0
Mali                        164.4.    19.9       63.0       82.0O.      0.3         ........ 4~65.7                0:2.2...   0.7
Mauritania                  29.6      26.7      143.5      178.2      -.4.7                 10.5        11.8       0.20.
Mauritius                   30.9.     35.7     .164.5      176..2 ......07.7      29.1 ........1.9 .....  .. 1.8   02.2       0.4
Mexico                       6.8      26 1       51:2.2..  143.8        7.3       13.1       5.9         6.6       0.6        170
Moldova                               41~4 ....191.5 ........7.6                                                     ..   ..   . ..0:6
Mongolia                     3.8       19.5         ..     141.6         .           .      3.            .         .          .
Morocco                     12.6..... 14.0       66.8       69.3.       4.1    ..            28.8        1.7       0.0        0.4
Mozambique                  17.8      14.4       36.0      127.9      -4.6        15.6       25.5        4.1       0.0 . ....0.5
Myanmar
Namibia                        .0.1                                                  .7.6....1.7
Nepal                        4.2       43.3       228.8     34.3       13.3 .........        1.0         1.6       D0.0    ... 0.1
Netherlands                 86.7..... 106.4     139.9      541.5        1.9        6.80    .20O.0.    . 35..5      4.0 ....... 9.0
New Zealand                 29.7      45.0      121.8                   3 6        6.2      14.9         6.7..... 47.7.       2.0
Nicaragua                   15.5      19.4       64.3      164.1        6.9                 186 6..     61          0 0009
Niger                        9.6        7.4      52.4       57.0          .          .       3.4         1~7.7.    0.8        0.2
Nigeria                     17.2      21.5       65.0       98.6       -0..                 11.2        12.4       04.4        .
Norway                     .67.8     .80..3 .... 103:0.0 ... 103.5      1.3        6 1      23.6        43.3       4.6        9.6
Oman              52.9      ~~~~~~~~~~~              ~   ~  ~~        ~     ~~45.4  136.7  .. .... ........... ......  10.2  2.5.  1.4  0.2.. ...
Pakistan                     9.3       10.0      49.4       59.9        0.5 ......... ..      19 9..     1.6       01         0.4
Panama                      14.3     111.0      119.1    1,069.3        0.7                 68.8        57.5       3:0 ..     175
Papua New Guinea            31.2      33.0      1232.2.    128.3 ...  .-1:1.1..   20.7       2.7        21.2...    1:6 ...    0:9
Paraguay            ~82 2...   29 .3..    455.5.    115.3       12.3        9.4       4.0         3.9.      0.0        1.1
Peru                         6 6      13 0 ....                         42.2.     13.3       5.3         5.2.      0.1 ..     3.3
Philippines                  8.0       21 3      57.4       98.8        7.3..     21.6        2.3        4.8       0 10.8
Poland                      15.9      26.5        50.6     107.2        8:6       18.4       38.8        9.3       0.0        2.0
Portugal                    23.2      43.1      106.1           . ......5 2        6.8b.     4.5        19.0       0.4        1.0
Puerto Rico                   .           ..                                         ..                    ..
Romania                     20.3      16.8        76.1      83.1                     .       1.6 ...     3.9       0.0        0.3
Russian Federation            .       19.8           .      52.5                  12.7         .        11.6         .        0.4
1998 Worlc Development Indicators   311



6.1
Trade                  Trade            Growth      Mean         Gross private       Gross foreign direct
In goods          In reai     tariff        capital flows          investment
trade less
growth in
real GDP
% Of                   % of          percentage  All products        % of                  % of
PPP GDP               goods GDP          points                     PPP GDP                PPP GDP
i986       199e        1986       ie996     19ee-9e    199o-961      198e       1996       1986        1996
Rwanda .......117.7                 .   12.9        385.5      72.9        6.6          ..        2.7         1.3        0.4         0.1
Saudi Arabia                 36.2        414.2     110.2                                 .       14.2         5.5        0.9         1.0
Senegal                      226.6       16.1      108.6       98.9 ......-0.96          .        7.7         4.5        0.3         0.4
Sierra Leone .....           14.1        22.8       41.9      .82.8        -0.3          .       29.6         9.5        7.3         0.2
Singapore                   191.0      316.0       697.4      763.6.        4.8          .       31 .9       61.0        7.5        17.5
Slovakc Republic               ..        52.2         ..      236         10.0           ...                 10.7         ..0.8
Slovenia                       ..        74.0         ..      184.5          ...                    .9.5                  ..0.6
South Africa                 17.4        20.7       93.4      105.4         3.8        8.8d       2.2         3.5        0.1         0.1
Spain                    .... 18.4       36..8    .. 64.8         .         5.6        6.8"       4.6        10.3        1.1         1.9
Sri Lanka....                14.0        21..5      60.9      124.8         33.3.     20.0        5.3         4.9        0.1         0.3
Sudan     ..-...   .....                            16.7          ..       -8.2          ..
Sweden ......                -61.5      .87.2      1170.0.   .158.3         3.2        6.80.     12.8        62.6        4.5         6.1
Switzerland                  67.4        898.8         .....   ..           14.4       0.0       32.7        90.2        3.9         9.3
Syrian Arab Republic         20.0      .. 19..6     64.5   .....          .-5:6.         .        6.1         5.0        0.0         0.2
Tajikistan                               26.9          .           ..
Tanzania                                            28.8       59.4          ..       21.6
Thailand                     14.7        31.3       85.8      138.2         6.9          .        1.6         5.0        0.2         0.8
Too                          11.0        19.5       89.0      195.0        -5.0          .        2.2         2.1        0.2         0.0
Trinidad and Tobago          42.7        53.7      1428.8     171.0        -4.7          .        7.3        11.5        1.4         3.6
Tunisia                     ..206.6      30.2     ...84.6         ..        1.6          ..       3.8         5.8        0.3         0.6
Turkey                       10.3        17.5       44.7.      71.3        .5.7     ..            3.0         5.1        0.1         0.2
Turkmenistan                    ..       32.8          ...                                          .7.9                  ..1.2
Uganda                       10.1         6.3       28.9       32 6       -0.2           .        6.0         1.8        0.0         0.6
Ukraine                        ..       35.0           .      146101.72..                                                            0.2
United.Arab Emirates         83.6     ..135.7      160.8
United Kingdom               33.3        46.3       89.6      106,9        2.6         6.80      38.7        59.9        3.6         6.6
United.States                14.0       -19.4       46.1 .....4.5                      6.0        8.0        12.5        1.4         2.6
Uruguay                      14.7        22.8       68.4       89.1        6.8         9.7        3.2        11.9        0.3         0.7
Uzbekistan                     ..        12.4         ..       49.5          .           ..
Venezuela                    15.3        19.0       59.3      103.8 ...... 2.3        12.0O.      3.3         5.2        0.4         1.1
Vietnam                         ..       17.7       16 9.
West Bank and Gaza
Yemen, Rep.                     ..       56.3         ..      210.7          ..15.9                                       ..1.8
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)    .           ..                     ..
Zambia                       22.4        26.1      137.1      107.8        -0.7       13.6       17.1           .        0.5
Zimbabe                      13.8        19.8       76.1      139.1i        3.6 ..    24.3        2.0         3.8        0.1         0.2
Low Income                    7.1         7.9       33.8_      56.9                               2.0         2'.1.      0.2         1.0
Exci.China&  Inia         12... . 0..i '   15.76. 50.8..................92........4            4.9         4.2       0.3         6.5~.. .
Midd~le- in-c-ome.......     12.5       21.         53.3       81.1                               4.0         5.8        0.3         0.9
LEo"w"er ..m i'd"dl ei'n"co"m..e..  12.5  20.0      47.1       84.5                               3.3         4.8        0.3         0.6
Upper middle income  12.5        24.1       59.0       77.6                               4.6         7.1        0.3         1.3~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:2:  9:7.64  ...................
Low .. midle.ncme ..         1'0.4       15.2       46.1       76."8                              3.2.............  4.0  0.6.8§....
East Asia  &....Pacific.. 9. 1       13... . 0.. ........ 48   .1 ....  127.3                  1.7  ........1.9  ........0.2 .   .1.0
Erpe &CnrlAia                ..       2.          5.          9.                                             .           ...8
Latiin-.. Ae'ritca ..& ..ar&iilb."  7.9  17.3       40.6       61.7                               4 6          6.03                   11
Middle East & N. Africa  19.4  18.9  52.1  78.4                        5.0         3.2        0.4        0.4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3  0.
SuhAi'a                    49         58        2.         3.21.2                                         0.9        0.0         0.2
E~~.-   ~r r,r, aTr.. 3                -i                                                       ...' 
High in"co"m..e.......26.5               38.9       70.4      178.8                              11.4        19.3..6.2.
a. Estimates are for most recent year available (see toble 0.71. b. Average tariff for European Union. o. Data prior to 1992 include Eritrea o. Dots are nor the Sooth African Customs LJn,on,
which includes Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, anod South Africa.
312 1998 World Development Indicators



6.1
The growing importance of trade in the world's         Trade in services, traditionally called invisibles, is  * Trade as a share of PPP GDP is the sum of merchan-
economies is one indication of increasing global eco-  becoming an important element of global integration. The  dise exports and imports measured in current U.S. dollars
nomic integration. Another is the increased size and  difference between the growth of real trade in goods and  divided by the value of GDP converted to international dol-
importance of private capital flows to developing coun-  services and the growth of GDP helps to identify economies  lars using purchasing power parity conversion factors.
tries that have liberalized their financial markets. The  with dynamic trade regimes.                   * Trade in goods as a share of goods GDP is the sum of
indicators in the table highlight key features of the  Tariffs provide one indication of an economy's open-  merchandise exports and imports divided by the current
ongoing expansion of global markets in goods and cap-  ness, but they are not definitive. Countries typically have  value of GDP in U.S. dollars after subtracting value added
ital. For three of the indicators GDP measured in pur-  an array of tariffs that are applied to different partners. The  in services. * Growth in real trade less growth in real
chasing power parity (PPP) terms has been used in the  mean tariffs shown in the table are based on applied most-  GDP is the difference between annual growth in trade
denominator to adjust for differences in domestic  favored-nation, ad valorem rates, but lower rates may apply  of goods and services and growth in GDP. Growth rates
prices. (No adjustment has been made to the numera-  to regional trading partners and others. Many countries  are calculated using constant price series taken from
tors because goods and capital exchanged on interna-  also use an array of specific tariffs (based on physical  national accounts, expressed in percentages. * Mean
tional markets are   assumed   to  be valued  at    units),nontariffbarriers,andexporttaxesandsubsidiesto  tariff is the simple (unweighted) average of applied
international prices.) This is a conservative measure:  regulate trade.                                 most-favored-nation tariffs imposed by the country.
because the GDP of many developing countries is larger  In the financial account of the balance of payments  * Gross private capital flows are the sum  of the
in PPP terms than when converted at official exchange  inward investment is recorded as a credit and outward  absolute values of direct, portfolio, and other invest-
rates, the resulting ratios tend to be lower. Still, there  investment as a debit. Thus net flows, the sum of credits  ment inflows and outflows recorded in the balance of
is ample evidence of the increasing importance of trade  and debits, represent a balance in which manytransactions  payments financial account, excluding changes in the
and international capital flows.                    are canceled out. Gross flows are a better measure of inte-  assets and liabilities of monetary authorities and gen-
The growth of services has also affected the historical  gration because they measure the total value of financial  eral government. The indicator is calculated as a ratio
record. Compared with the levels achieved atthe end ofthe  transactions during a given period. The investment indica-  to GDP converted to international dollars using purchas-
last century, trade in goods appears to have declined in  tors in the table were constructed from data recorded at  ing power parities. * Gross foreign direct investment is
importance relative to GDP, especially in economies with  the most detailed level available. Higher-level aggregates  the sum of the absolute values of inflows and outflows
growing service sectors. Deducting value added by ser-  tend to be affected by the netting out of credits and debits  of foreign direct investment recorded in the balance of
vices from GDP thus provides a better measure of the rel-  and so produce a smaller total. The comparability ofthese  payments financial account. It includes equity capital,
ative size of merchandise trade than physical output,  indicators between countries and over time is affected by  reinvestment of earnings, other long-term capital, and
although it neglects the growing services component of  the accuracy and completeness of balance of payments  short-term capital. Note that this indicator differs from
most goods output.                                  records and by their level of detail.              the standard measure of foreign direct investment (see
table 6.8), which captures only inward investment. The
indicator is calculated as a ratio to GDP converted to
international dollars using purchasing power parities.
Gross foreign direct investment is one indicator of global Integration
Data sources
% of GDP, 1996
2n
Data on merchandise trade are from the International
Monetary Fund's (IMF) Direction of Trade Statistics. Data
on GDP in PPP terms comes from the World Bank's
l;'                                                                                              International Comparison Programme database. Data on
I   |                                                                           real trade and GDP growth come from the World Bank's
I  I                                                            ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~national accounts files. Mean tariffs were calculated
: l l l l l l l l l l ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~using the SMART (Software for Market Analysis and
+X 0                                                     ;5 o,,,               a               World Bank and the United Nations Conference on Trade
direct investment were calculated from the IMF's Balance
Note: GDP has been adjusted for purchasing power parity.                                           of Payments Statistics database.
Source: Wond sank staff escimates.
Gross foreign direct investment measures the two-way flow of investment assets and liabilities. Relative to its size,
Singapore is the world's most Integrated economy. Although high-4ncome economies, which are active Investos and
sources of Investment opportunities, dominate the list here, a number of low- and middle-income economies also appear
on it.
s99s World Development Indicators        313



6.2 Growth of merchandise trade
Export                Import                Export               Import               Net bartef
volume                volume                 value                value                terms of
trade
average annual        average ahnneal       average annua        averae annu~al
% growth              % growt               % growth              %rotn1987 10
1980-90    1990-96    1980-90    1990-96    1980-90   1990-96    1980-90    1990-96     1980      .1996
Albania                     -5.9                   7.2                            28.2         ..       40.3
Algeria                      4.9       -2.9       -6.9      -4.2       -0.8       -3.7       -2.3        0.0
Angola                      13.8        3.7       -1.7      -2.5        10.0       1.2        3.1       -0.7
Argenti'na                   2.8        0.9       -4.4      40.6         5.1      10.0        0.2       24.7
Armenia                                             ...                    .     -22.8         ..      -14.4
Aus.tralia                   6.2        7.2        5.5       9.2        6.6        6.7        6.4        8.5      122.6      102.5
Austria                      6.6        2 8        5.7       2.2       10.2        6.0        8.7        5.5
Azerbaijan                                          ...                    .     -30.4         ..       -9.6
Bangladesh                  10.0       11.7        6.0       6.6       12.0       10.0       10.4       11.2      148.4
Belarus                                  ...                              .       18.9         ..       24.1
Belgium                                  .                     ..
Benin                       -6.2      -22.2       -6.6      22.2       -2.4      -13.9       -2.5       30.6
Bolivia              ~~~~      ~~~2.7  -3.9  -2.2    10.9        1.0        0.2        2.8       10.8
Bosnia and Herzegovina                              .           ..
Botswana                                            ...                17.9        7.9        9.4       -1.8
Brazil                       5.5        5.3        3.3       7.4        5.8        6.8        4.9       14.1       96.0
Bulgaria                    -3 .8                 -3.3        ..      -12.5      -15.7         ..        2.4
Burkina 'Faso                7.7      -1.7.2       4.1      -4.1       13.4      -14.5        85         1.5      119 9
Burund.l                           ....   ...2.5                                  -4.2        2.2       -6.5
Cambodia                                            .           ..                   ..
Cameroon                    10.5       -0.9       -1.1     -16.2         9.9       4.0        3.3      -13.2-
Canada                       6.4        9.7        7.4       9.3        6.8        9.0)       7.9        6.8      113.3      101.7
Central African Republic    -3.9       24.0        0.9       2.6       -1.1       19.1        6.0        2.7
Chad                         2.5       -4.0        2.0      -3.7         8.8       4.4        6.4       -2.2
Chile                        6.8        9.4      10.4       10.3       15.0       13.6       14.3       13.1      595.3
ChinaT...                                                              12.8       17.3       13.5       18.0-
Hong Kong, China           15.4       13.1      13.7       14.6       16.8       14.3       15.0       18.2      100.7      100.2
Colombia                    13.6        2.0       -1.7       4.9       11 .3       7.0        2.4        4.1      123.8       89.7
Congo, Darn. Rep.           -3.7    .-1.3     .    1.5     -13.7         0.6      -4.8        6.3       -5.5
Congo, Rep.                 -0.6        2.4       -6.1       0.4       -4.0       -0. 1      -2.2        1.8
Costa Rice                   5.8        5.8        6.3       9.6         7.0      11.2       10.5        7.5      101.9
C6te dIlvoi're               3.1       -6.9       -1.8        5.7        3.5       0.9        2.4       14.0      133.2
Croatia                                             -....                          3.5         ..       10.2
Cube                        -7.0      -31.4       -5.5     -15.1       -3.4      -30.4       -1.0      -14.9
Czech Republic                                                                    21.4         ..       32.7-
Denmark                      4.1        4.0       3.1        3.7        8.4        6.2        6.3        5.6       90.8      10(1.0
Dominican Republic           0.1       -2.4         ...                -2.1        2.6        3.3        9.7
Ecuador                      2.2       11.2       -.9.8                -0.1       10.7        2.6       10.7
Egypt, Arab Rep.            -1.2       13.2      -6.2        3.7       -2.6        8.5       -1.7        9.3
El Salvador                 -5.5        5.8      -0.2       14.5       -4.7        6.1        3.4       10.5
Eritrea                                             ....
Estonia                                            ...                    .       36.8         -.       52.7
Ethiopiaa                    1.0        0.7       -1.0       1.3       -1.6        8.2        2.1        1.5
Finland                      2.3        8.5       4.4       -2.0        7.4        8.9        6.9        3.0       86.2
France                       3.6        5.0       3.7        4.3        7.5        5.2        6.5        2.9       90.0      105.2
Gabon                        0. 7       3.5       -5.8      -1.        -1.2       -2.8       -0.9        2.0
Gambia, The.                -2.9        9.6        4.4      -3.1       -3.3       -8.1        9.2       -4.6
Georgia                        .
Germany'                     4.5        3.0       4.9        1.8        9.2        4.6        7.1        4.1       85.9
Ghana                       11.8        7.3        7.8      13.2       10.9        3.0       11.6       13.8-
Greece                       5.0       10.6       6.4       11.1        5.8        2.7        6.6        1.9       97.8
Guatemala                   -1.1        2.7        2.7      11.S       -0.1        8.5        6.3        9.6-
Guinea                                              ...                 4.1         ..       10.0
Guinea-Bissau                                       ..        ..       -4 .6      -2.8       -5.2      -15.2
Haiti                         -...                                     -1.2       -8.3       -2.9       11.2
Honduras                     0.7        9.3       -2.9       8.9         3.0      10.0        0.8-      12.1
fData for Taiwan, China     11.6        5.6       9.9        6.5       14.8        9.5       12.4       11.3       78.0       98.7
314   1998 World Development Indicators



6.2
Export               Import                 Export               Import               Net barter
volume                volume                 value                value                terms of
trade
average annual        average annual        average annual       average annual
% growth              % growth              % growth              % growth            1987 = 100
1980-90    1990-96    ±980-90    1990-96    1980-90   1990-96    1980-90    1990-96      1990      1996
Hungary                      3.4       0.9        1.3  ...  .. 5.6 ..... ...1~.4 ..  4.6      0.1        9.9      112.2
India                        8.0        6.4       5.7        3.6       11~0 .......10.5 ......73 ..      8.9       71.5
Indonesia                    7.1       14.2       0.7        5.7        2,0        97         4.69.4
Iran, Islamic Rep.           1-1      -12.0      -79         68         4.61                 -311
Iraq                    ....-2.1... -12.9       -12.3      -17.7       -3.2      -48.7       -7. 7     -200O
Ireland                      9.3       13.1       4.8        8.8       12.7       13.4        7.0       10.1       93.0       90.6
.Israel                      6.9 ... ... 9.6 .....  5.8  ...  11.8      8.3       10.9        5.9       11.5.      95.0      109.3
Italy.. 4..4                           .6.9 ....  5.4        2.3        8.7        6.9        6.9        1.9       85.1      108.7
Jamaica                      4.5        2.8        4.1       3.4         8.2       4.4        6.0        7.5
Japan                        5.1        0.9       6.6        6.0        8.9        7.1        5.1        7.6       65.5
Jordan                       6.8        4-6       -6.2       5.4        8.9        9.0       -2.6        5.2       98.4      120.5
Kazakhstan                     ........... ... .......26.6......34
Kenya                        3.2        8.1       5.0        2.5        0.1        8.5        7.5        7.5      144.3      109.6
Korea, Oem. Rep..
Korea, Rep.                 13.0       .73       12.6... ... 8.5 ...  _16~7.      11.2       15.6       13.0       84.7      .89.5
Kuwait                      -1.1       30-8     -10.4       13.6       -5.4       22.4       -5.8        8.8
Lao PDR                                                        .       11.2       30.3        7.4       27.1
Latvia                                 -41-.                                      -15.7         .        9
Lebanon                      1.2        2 9      -8.2        6.0        4.5       13.5       -3.89.4
Lesotho                                   ...........                   3 .0 ..   .217.7 .    3.4        5-6.6
Libya                        3.1       -5.5      -0          4          2          61        -..
Lithuania                     .                                           ..      19.5          .       27.9
Macedonia, FYR                -.                               .                   0.7                   3.0
Madagascar                   2.4        1.0      -1.4       -05         0.0        1.2        2.7        3.7
Malawi                       1.8       -46.6       6.2      -0.8        5'0.0.    -1.5 ....  10..7 . .... 0.8.    1180. .
Malaysia                    10.8      11.7         7.0      12.6       10.6       13.5       11.3       14.9      131 9
Mali                         7 ...   .   . ...  3  -1.2  ..2,9  9.. . 9.   .13.4   6.2        7.2  .......13~.1 .......       ..
Mauritius                    9.8       -6.9      17.9        3.6       209.9     .-2.1- ...  23.2        4.5       69..7.
Mexico                       3.2        8.9      11.3       16.6         12       11.5       16.7        8.7
Moldova                                   .         ..                             6...                 14.3
Mongolia                                                        ...... --0.5      -3.2       -3.8       -8~8.8...
Morocc~o                     5.4 . ..  ..2.0      5.5        2.0       11..2       5.3        8.7       10.8...   103.4 .... 77.2
Mozambique                  -2.8       -07        3.9       -0.6        1.5        11         7.5       -3.9
Myanmar                     -9.8       24~ 7      -7.0      21.0       -7.3....   14.9.      -22        20.3              ....... 
Namibia                                   .         ...                            46                    0
Nea le                         .          ..                    ..........8.1      9 .2       6 9  . ......14.9 ....
Netherlands        4..  ..5.     .... .7~1.1..... 4.5        6.5        4 6        7 7        4.4        6 6..     96.9      102.3
New Zealand                  3.5        5.6       4.3        6.6        6.2        8.1        5.4        9.7       95.9      105.6
Nicaragua                   -5.6       -6.0      -.7        1.5        -.          74        -4.5       1.87
Niger                       -5-1       -10   .......7-0 1 .........52  ...... ..00 .... 1.6   31         6.3
Nigeria                      1 8        8.7     -14.8        8.2       -2.6        8.9      -10.3        9.4
Norway.4.1                              8.3       3.4        6.9        5 3 ...    5.5        6.2        5.0      122.8      103.1
Pakistan                    .10.0      12!5 ...    1 4        7.3      11  1........ 9.6      4..4  .... ...7  .5 .   . .. 95.2   88.1
Panama          1...   ........  .5.   21.2      -6'2       10.4        13        15.9       -3.7        9.6.......
Papua New Guinea  ........ 6.7.         45.5   .49                                15.8        1.3        3.4
Paraguay                    15.9       -4.0       5 7      -11.2       20.6      -12.1        9.3       -9 3
Peru                        -3.5        8.4       0..5....... 12..7 .... .14  ....-11.1      5.6       18.4........
Philippines                  3.8        7.8        7.2      10.9        8.3       13.9        9.9       13.6      103.9
Poland                       4.8        2.0       1 5       22.6        1.4       10.7  .......-3.2  ......23.8  .......95.5  ..
Portugal                    11.9                 15.1                  15.1        6.4       10.3        4.5.
Puerto  Rico                  .           ..                   ..                    .. 
Romania...                                          ...                -4.0        9.7       -3.863
Russian Federation                                                                23.4          .       17.6
1996 World Development Indicators 315



W ~6.2
Export                Import                 Export                Import                Net barter
volume                 volume                 value                  value               terms of
trade
average annual         average annuaJ        average annual         averagEr annoa
% growth               % growth             5S growth              ft growth             1987  l 10
±980-90    1990-9e    ±.980-90    1990-96    1980-90    1990-96     1980-90    1990-96     1980        1996
Rwanda                        4.3      -23.4       -1.8       14.5         2.4      -19.5        2.6       37.4
Saudi Arabia                  2.8        4.7      -11.4         3.1       -2.0        4.4       -6.8        6.3
Senegal                       0.3        6.4        1.2         4.5        4.4        8.4        4.1        6.4        81.7
Sierra Leone                  1.6       -7.8       -3.2       -4.1         2.5      -23.4        0.7        1'.6
Singapore                    12.1       16.2        8.6       12.2         9.9       17.0        8.0       15.0       109.0       89.4
Slovak Republic                                                  718.7                            ..       21.3
Slovenia                       ...                    ..                     .7.8                 -.       13.1
South Africa                  3.3        7.4       -0.8         7.9        0.8        4.0       -1.3        9.8       108.8      117.0
Spain                         3.0       12.1        8.4         6.0       10.9       10.5       10.6        4.9        92.2      114.7
Sri Lanka                     5.6       14.5        2.8       14.8         6.0       12.9        5.9       12.7        93.8      109.4
Sudan                        -3. 7      -4.7       -6.6         4.6        1.0       -6.4       -2.8        4.0
Sweden                        4.4        2.1        5.0         1.9        8.0        7.4        6.7        4.3        91.4      103.5
Switzerland                   3. 7         ..       4.3          ..        9.5        4.0        8.8        1.9        79.3
Syrian Arab Republic         11.1        4.5      -13.2         4.5        8.8        5.3      -10.5         6.4      214.9        97.0
Tajikistan       ..          ..         ~   ~   ~~     ~   ~~     ~   ~~     ~   ~~~~~~... .......  .  ..
Tanzania                      1.3      -10.1       -1.4       -0.4        -0.5       -4.1        2.1       -1.9
Thailand                     18.3       1 7.4     .17.3         7.9       22.0       13.2       20.2       10.3       116.5
Togo            ......        8.8       10.7        8.6       -5.1         7.0        9.6       12.3         9.9
Trinidad and Tobago   .       0.2   .    3.9      -11.5   .    4.4     .-4.3          6.3       -9.8       10.7       195.6
Tunisia                      1-1.0       5.3        4.7         2.7       10.5        8.9        8.3         7.3      104.3
Turkey                                   6.6                    8.2       14.0       10.8        9.3        11.5
Turkmenistan                    .          ..                     ..
Uganda                       -6.2       24.5       -:3.4      28.1      -11.3        29.1        1.5       26.5
Ukraine                         ...                   ..                     .       14.6         ..       16.6
United Arab Emirates         10.6        3.9        1.4       11.1         3.4        2.2        5.9       13.2
United Kingdom                4.5        5.5        6.7         3.8        5.8        6.0        8.4        4.5       105.3      102.9
United States                 3.6        6.4        7.2         7.8        5.7        8.1        8.2        9.1        68.6      101.2
Uruguay                       3.6       -2.4        6.5       15.2         9.6        5.2        9. 7      11.6
Uzbekistan                     .           ..                     ..                    ..
Venezuela                     4.0        2.1       -4.9         6.7       -0.9        6.7        0.0         4.3      215.2      148.9
Vietnam                         ...                               .       18.9      .12.4        8.7       18. 7-
West Bank and Gaza
Yemen, Rep.                     .          ..                     ..
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)c  1.9     -20.9       .1.1      -24.7         5.5      -20.6        5.5      -25.2
Zambia                       -0.7       21.6       -0.5       -2.5         8.2        8.7        3.3         4.9
Zimbabwe                      2.0         ..       -0.6          ..        2.5        5.1       -0.4         2.7
a. Data prior no 1992 include Eritrea. b. Data prior no 1990 refer no the Federal Republic of Germany before unification. c. Dana refer to one former Yu.gos avia.
316   1998 World Development Indicators



6.2
Data on international trade in goods are recorded in  And in some regions smuggling and black market trad-  * Growth rates of export and import volumes are
each country's balance of payments and by customs  ing result in unreported trade flows.         average  annual growth rates  calculated  from
services. While the balance of payments focuses on the  By international agreement customs data are  UNCTAD's quantum index series for low- and middle-
financial transactions that accompany trade, customs  reported to the United Nations Statistical Division,  income economies and from export and import data
data record the direction of trade and the physical quan-  which maintains the Commodity Trade, or COMTRADE,  deflated by the IMF's trade price deflators for high-
tities and value of goods entering or leaving the cus-  database. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) also  income economies. * Growth rates of export and
toms area. Customs data may differ from those   maintains a database on the direction of trade. The  import values are average annual growth rates cal-
recorded in the balance of payments because of dif-  United  Nations  Conference  on  Trade  and  culated from UNCTAD's value indexes for low- and
ferences in valuation and the time of recording.  Development (UNCTAD) compiles a variety of interna-  middle-income economies and from current values of
Trade in goods. or merchandise trade. includes all  tional trade statistics, including price and volume  exports and imports for high-income economies.
goods that add to or subtract from an economy's mate-  indexes, based on the COMTRADE data. The World  * Net barter terms of trade are the ratio of the export
rial resources. Currency in circulation, titles of owner-  Bank supplements data from UNCTAD with data from  price index to the corresponding import price index
ship, and securities are excluded, but monetary gold  the IMF for high-income economies and, in some  measured relative to the base year :1987.
is included. Trade data are collected on the basis of a  cases, with data taken directly from the COMTRADE
country's customs area, which in most cases is the  database.                                     Data sources
same as its geographic area. Goods provided as part  The growth rates and terms of trade for low- and
of foreign aid are included, but goods destined for  middle-income economies were calculated from index        'T5   The main source of trade data
extraterritorial agencies (such as embassies) are not.  numbers compiled by UNCTAD. Volume measures for              for developing countries is
Collecting and tabulating trade statistics is difficult.  high-income economies were derived by deflating the      UNCTAD's annual Handbook
Some developing countries lack the capacity to report  value of trade using deflators from  the IMF's                o f Intemational Trade and
timely data. As aresult it is necessaryto estimatetheir  International Fnancial Statistics. Terms of trade were      Development Statistics. The
trade from the data reported by their partners. (See  computed from the same indicators.                              MF's International Financial
About the data for table 6.3 for further discussion of  The terms of trade measure the relative prices of a          Statistics includes data on
the use of partner country reports.) In some cases eco-  country's exports and imports. There are a number of  -     the export and import values
nomic or political concerns may lead national authori-  ways to calculate terms of trade. The most common is  and deflators for high-income and selected developing
ties to suppress or misrepresent data on certain trade  the net barter, or commodity, terms of trade, con-  economies. The United Nations publishes trade data
flows, such as military equipment, oil, or the exports of  structed as the ratio of the export price index to the  in its International Trade Statistics Yearbook.
a dominant producer. In other cases reported trade  import price index. When the net barter terms of trade
data may be distorted by deliberate underinvoicing or  increase, a country's exports are becoming more valu-
overinvoicing to effect capital transfers or avoid taxes.  able or its imports cheaper.
Terms of trade have shifted since the 19709
% change
25
20
15
10
5
0                            -U
-5 
-10
High-     East Asia  Europe and  Latin America  Middle East  South  Sub-Saharan
income   and the Pacific Central Asia  and the  and North  Asia       Africa
economies                          Caribbean    Africa
* 1974-80 0 1981-90 * 1991-97
Source: World Bank staff estimates.
Changes In terms of trade reflect changes In the relative prices of exports and Imports and the mix of goods traded
by countries. Positive changes mean that Imports cost less relative to exports. Although reglonai averages blur the
many differences among economies, they are broadly representative of the economic forces that have shaped trade
pattems over time. The effects of the oil shocks In the 1970s are unmistakable. Since then terms of trade have tended
to shift against producers of primary commodities.
1998 World Development Indicators      31 7



W ~6.3 Direction and growth of merchandise trade
High-income importers
Other            Al~
United         European                         Other           A.             r.gn             high
States  Union          ~~~~Japan       industrial     industrial       income          incomne
Source of exports
High-i'ncome economies     10.8            30.7            4.0             6.4            51.9             8.0            59.9
I ndustr al economies      8.5           29.2             2 .7            6.0            46.3             6.1            52.4
Uinited States                           2.5            .1.3             3.0             6.8             1.7             5.5
European Union            2.8           23.5             0.9             2.3            29.4             1.8            31.3
Japan                     2.2             1 .2                           0.3             3.7             2.0             5.8
Other industrial economies  3.5            2.1            0.5             0.3             6.4             0.5             6.9
Other high-income economies  2.3           1.6            1.3             0.4             5.5             1.9             7.5
Low- & middle-income economies  4.5         5.5            2 .2            0.7            12.9             2.7            15.7
Sub-Saharan Africa         0.3             0.6            0.1             0.0             1.0             0.1             1.1
East Asia & Pacific        1.3             1.1            1.4             0.3             4.1             1.7             5.8
South Asi'a                0.2            0,3             0.1             0.0             0.6             0.1.            0.7
Europe & Central Asia      0.2             2.0            0.1             0.1             2.5             0.1             2.6
Middle East & North Africa  0.2           0.9             0.3             0.1             1.5             0.5             2.0
Latin America & Caribbean  2.2            0.7             0.2             0.2            .3.3             0.1             3.4
World                      15.3            36.3            6.1             7.1            64.8            10.7            75.5
Low- and middle-income importers
Europe        Mliddle       Lat, n      All lo%v &
Subr-Saharan   taut Asia      South       & Central     tast &       Acerica       mniddle
R   N   liou I    ~   ~~Africa   & Pacific      Asia         Asia         N. Africa   & Caribbean   income         Wobrld
Source of exports
High-income economies      1.0           6.6          0 .8          3.9           1.7          4.0          18.2          78.1
Industrial economies      0.9           3.7          0.6           3.6           1.6          3.6          13.9          66.3
United States            0.1           0.8          0.1           0.2          0.3           2.1           3.6          12.0
European Union           0.6           1.1          0.3           3.2          1.1           1.0           7.3          38.6
Japan                    0.1           1.5          0.1           0.1           0.1          0.3           2.2           8.0
Other industrial economies  0.0         0..4         0.1           0.1           0.1          0.1           0.9           7.8
Other high-income economies  0.1        3.1          0.2           0.3           0.2          0.3           4.3          11.8
Low- & middle-income economies  0.4      1.5          0.4           2.2          0.6           1.2           6.2          21.9
Sub-Saharan Africa        0.2           0.1          0.0           0.0          0.0           0.0           0.4           1.4
East Asia & Pacific       0.1           0.8          0.1           0.1          0.1           0.1           1.4           8.1
South Asia                0.0           0.1          0.0           0.0          0.3           0.0           0.2           1.0
Europe &.Central Asia .   Co.0          .2.'                 .     1.90.2                     0.:           2.3           4.9
Middle East & North Africa  0.1         0.2          0.1           0.1          0.2           0.0           0.7           2.7
Latin America & Caribbean  0.0          0.1          0.0           0.1          0.1           0 9           1.3           4.7
World                       1.4          8.3          1.2           6.1           2.3          5.1          24.5         100.0
318   1998 World Development Indicators



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6.3
The data in table 6.3 were compiled from the   * Merchandise trade includes all trade in goods.
International Monetary Fund's (IMF) Direction of  Trade in services is not included. * Regional group-
Trade Statistics. which reports the value of exports  ings are based on World Bank definitions and may dif-
and imports between its member countries.     ferfrom those .sed by other organzat ons. Within the
Most countries report their trade data to the INiF  higi-income group, * European Union refe-s to the
in national currencies, which are converted using the  15 current members of the European Union. * Other
IMF's published exchange rate series rf (official rate.  industrial economies include Australia, Canada,
period average) or rh (market rate, period average).  Iceland, New Zealand. Norway, and Switzerland.
Most industrial countries and about 22 developing  * Other high-income economies incdude Cyprus,
countries report their trade data to the IMF each  Hong Kong (China), Israel, the Republic of Korea,
month. Together these countries account for about  Kuwait, Qatar, Singapore, Taiwan nChina), and the
80 percent of world exports. Trade from less timely  United Arab Emirates. Some smnal high-income
reporters and from countries that do not report at all  economies such as Aruba, the Bahamas. and
is estimated using reports of partner countries.  Bermuda have been included in tne Latin America
Because the largest exporting and importing coun-  and Caribbean group.
tries are reliable reporters, a large portion of the
Data sourcer.
missing trade flows can be estimated from partner
reports. Even so, a small amount of trade between
developing countries, particularly in Africa, is not cap-         Regionai trade flows were cal-
tured in partner data. Inter-European trade estimates             culated  from  intercountry
have been significantly affected by changes In report-  |         trade data reported in the
ing methods following the creation of a common cus-  -      .     IMF's  Direction  of Trade
toms union.                                                  -    Statistics Yearbook (1997).
Because imports are reported atc.i.f. (cost, insur-            These were then updated
ance, and freight) valuations and exports are  C                  from tables that appeared in
reported at f.o.b. (free on board) valuations, the IMF  -         the statistical appendix to
civides partner country reports of import values by  Global Economic Prospects and the Developing
1.10 to estimate equivalent export values. This  Countries 1997 (World Bank 1997b).
approximation is more or less accurate, depending
on the set of partners and the items traded. Other
factors affecting the accuracy of trade data include
lags in reporting, recording differences across coun-
tries, and whether the country follows the general or
special system of trade. (See About the data for table
4.5 for further discussion of systems of trade.)
The regional trade flows shown in this table were
calculated from current price values. Growth rates
therefore include the effects of changes in both vol-
umes and prices.
320   1998 World Developrnent Indicators



OECD trade with low- and middle-income
economies 6.4
High4rIncomne                 European                    United States                   Japan
OECD countries                    Union
-    1985          1996a          1985           1996           1985          1996           1985           1996
$ billions
Food                         24.7           58.9 ....     10.6,          28.2           87.7           21.1          0.3            0.4
Cereals             ~~~~     ~     ~~~10.4  17.9   2 .8           5.8           4.6             9.4          0.0..          0.0
Agricultural raw materials    5.9           14.7           2.2            4.4           2.0             5.3           0.5           1.2
Ores and nonferrous meta_s5.0 ~      13.0           1.9            5.4           11.1            3.0          04.4           1 4
Fuels                 ~~~~~~~~               ~~54.4  14..7  2.3.   6.0           2.0            4.2           0.2            0,.8
Crude petroleum              0.1            0:8           0.-0           0.5             .0.0..-
Petroleum products           3.4           10.7           2.1            5.2           0.9             3.0.         0.1            0 7
Manufactured goods          184.5          595.3          90.2          291.2          38.0    ~     133.3,         42.6          104.6
Chemical products           26.9           76.9          15.7           41.3           6.6           18.4           2.3            7.0
Maich.. and transport equip.  103.4      350.1           45.8          160.5          24.5          _80.9          26.6           74.2
Ot her                      54.1          168.2          286      ~     89.5          _6.9           33.9          13.7           23.4
Miscellaneous goods           4.1           18.4          10.0            4.1.          1.3             7.4          0.3            1.,5
Total                       229.5          715.0         ±17.1          339.3          53.1          174.3          44.4          109.9
% of.total expor
Food                 ~~~~      ~     ~~~~~10.8  8.2.  .9.0         8.3  .....16.5              12.1           0.8            0 3
Cereals                      4.5            2.5 .........2.4             1.7.          8.7.           5.4           0.1            0.0
Agricultural raw materials    2.6            2.1           1 .8           1.3           3.8.            3.1          1.2            1.1
Ores and nonferrous metals    2.2            1.8           1.6            1.6           2.1             17.7         0.9            1 3
Fuels                         2..3           2.1.          2.0            1.8.          3.8             2.4          0.5            0 7
Crude petroleum              0.0            0.1           0.0            02.2                          0.0...             ...........  ....
Petrleumprodcts1.5            .     1.5            1.8            1.5           1.8            I.7           0.2            0.6
Manufactured goods           80.4           83.3          77.0           85.8          71.5            764.4        95.9           95.2
Chemical products           11.7           10.8          13.4           12.2          12.3           106.6         .5.1            6.4
Mach. and transport equip.  45.1           49.0          39.1           47.3          46.2           46.4          59.9           67.5
Other               ~~~~     ~     ~~~~23..6  23.5  24.5         26.4.         13.0 ...       195.5         30.9           21.3
Miscellaneous goods           102.6                        8.              ..443081.
Total                       1100.0        1.00.0         100.0          100.0         100.0          1.00.0        100.0          ±00 .0
a. Excludes Greece.
1998 World Development Indicators     321



High-income                European                United States     I          Japan
OECD countries                Union
_1985        1996a        1985         1996         1985         1996         1985         1996
$ billions
Food                      45.3         93.9        24.1         46.2         13.4          21.0         5.1         18.7
Cereals                   1.4          2.1         0.6          0.7          0.1           0.5         0.6          0.5
Agricultural raw materials  12.6       27.2          6.5         13.0         1.7           4.7         3.4          6.2
Ores and nonferrous metals  19.3       43.0         9.1         19.3          3.8           7.5         5.5         10.7
Fuels                    140.2        169.5        63.6         67.0         35.9          49.0        33.5         31.4
Crude petroleum         104.0        120.2        49.5         45.8         25.1          39.4        23.2         18.9
Petroleum products       22.9         23.7         8.6          9.3         10.4           8.7         3.0          3.2
Manufactured goods        60.7        459.1        22.7        171.7         28.4         189.2         4.1         58.6
Chemical products         7.4         28.5         3.5         13.7          2.3           7.1         0.9          3.4
Mach. and transport equip.  17.5     159.1         4.6         48.1         10.2          82.0         0.4         16.3
Other                    35.8        271.6        14.6        109.9         16.0         100.1         2.9         38 9
Miscellaneous goods        2.3         11.5         0.5          4.6          1.3           5 2         0.4          1.3
Total                    280.4        804.3        126.5        321.9        84.4         276.7        52.0        126.8
% of total exports
Food                      16.2         11.7        19.0         14.4         15.9           7.6         9.7         14.7
Cereals                   0.5          0.3         0.5          0.2          0.1           0.2         1.2          0.4
Agricultural raw materials  4.5         3.4         5.1          4.0          2.0           1.7         6.6          4.9
Ores and nonferrous metals  6.9         5.3          7.2         6.0          4.4           2.7        10.5          8.5
Fuels                     50.0         21.1        50.3         20.8         42.6          17.7        64.4         24.7
Crude oetroleum          37.1         14.9        39.1         14.2         29.8          14.2        44.6         14.9
Petroleum products        8.2          2.9         6.8          2.9         12.3           3.2         5.7          2.6
Manufactured goods        21.7         57.1        17.9         53.3         33.7          68.4         8.0         46.2
Chemical products         2.6          3.5         2.8          4.2          2.7           2.6         1.8          2.7
Mach. and transport equip.  6.3       19.8         3.6         15.0         12.1          29.6         0.7         12.9
Other                    12.8         33.8        11.5         34.1         18.9          36 2         5.5         30.6
Miscellaneous goods        0.8          1.4         0.4          1.4          1.5           1 9         0.8          1.0
Total                    100.0        100.0        100.0        100.0        100.0        100.0       100.0         100.0
a, Excludes Greece.
322   1998 World Development Indicators



6.4
Trade flows between high-income members of the          .                                  The product groups in the table are defined in accor-
Organisation  for Economic  Co-operation  and                                              dance with the Standard International Trade
Development (OECD) and low- and middle-income    Manufactured goods dominate high-        Classification (SITC), revision 1: food (0, 1, 22, and
economies reflect the changing mix of exports to  income OECD countries' trade with        4), cereals (04); agricultural raw materials (2 exclud-
low- and middle-income economies
and imports from developing economies. While food                                         ing 22, 27, and 28); ores and nonferrous metals
and primary commodities have continued to fall as  E%ports                                (27, 28, and 68); fuels (3), crude petroleum (331)
1985
a share of OECD imports, the share of manufac-                                             and petroleum products (332); manufactured goods
tured goods supplied by developing countries has                  -    "-: :,r,            (5-8 excluding 68), chemical products (5), machin-
grown, At the same time, developing countries have                          ' ';           ery and transportation equipment (7), and other
increased their imports of manufactured goods     m.L ,,,              ,       ,  , -      manufactured goods (6 and 8 excluding 68); and
from high-income countries-particularly capital-                                           miscellaneous goods (9). * Exports are all mer-
intensive goods such as machinery and transport                  - -                       chandise exports by high-income OECD countries to
equipment. Although trade between developing     1996                                     low- and middle-income economies as recorded in
countries has grown substantially over the past                  _            ,.,,,,l      the  United  Nations  COMTRADE   database.
decade (see table 6.6), high-income OECD coun-                              ".    -        * Imports are all merchandise imports by high-
tries remain the developing world's most important  .  -          -   _                    income OECD countries from low- and middle-income
partners.                                            -                                     economies as recorded in the United Nations COM-
The aggregate flows in the table were compiled                                          TRADE database. * High-income OECD countries in
from intercountry flows recorded in the United                                             1996 were Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada,
Nations Statistical Division's Commodity Trade   Imports                                   Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland,
1985
(COMTRADE) database. Partner country reports by                                           Ireland, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea,
high-income OECD countries were used for both           r.,               -                Luxembourg, the  Netherlands, New  Zealand,
exports and imports. Exports are recorded free on                                          Norway, Portugal. Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the
board (f.o.b.); imports include insurance and freight                                      United Kingdom, and the United States. * European
charges (c.i.f.).                                              '   -~                      Union comprises Austria, Belgium, Denmark,
For further discussion of merchandise trade sta-  1996                                  Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Ireland,
tistics see About the datafortables 4.4, 6.2, and 6.3.           , ,,                      Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
- - .- I...~
- --             ~Data sources
COMTRADE data are available in machine-readable
Soufcei: 1'3 E," F  r                   form from the United Nations Statistical Division.
Although not as comprehensive as the underlying
COMTRADE records, detailed statistics on interna-
tional trade are published annually in the United
Nations' Conference on Trade and Development's
Handbook of International Trade and Development
Statistics and the United Nations International Trade
Statistics Yearbook.
1998 World Development Indicators   323



6.5 Primary commodity prices
1980       1985       1990       1991       1992       1993      1994       1995       1996       1997
World Bank commodity price index
(1990 =100)
Nonfuel commodities         174        133        100        93         86         86        101        103        101        107
Agriculture                191        145        100        96         88         93        112        110        110        117
Beverages                 253        239        100        91         73         79        135        127        11l        156
Food                      191        124        100        97         94         93         97         98        108        108
Raw materials             145        103        100        97         92        104        114        113        112        104
Fertilizers                179        130        100       100         90         79         85         87        105        109
Metals and minerals         132        102        100        87         81         70         77         85         78         82
Petroleum                   224        173        100        83         78         69         63         63         78         76
Steel products'             110         88        100        96         83         86         84         90         84         81
MUV G-5 index                72         69        100       102        107        106        110        119        114        108
Commodity prices
(1990 $)
Agricultural raw materials
Cotton (cents/kg)         284.3      192.1      181.9      164.1      119.9      120.4      160.0      178.5     155.3      162.2
Logs, Cameroon ($/cu. m(l  349.4     253.5      343.5      309.2      310.8      291.9      299.7     284.8      237.8      238.9
Logs, Malaysian ($/cu. m)  271.5     177.5      177.2      187.4      196.5     366.7       279.1     214.4      220.8      221.2
Rubber (cents/kg)  .      197.9    .11.6         86.5       80.8       80.8       78.2      102.2     132.6      122.1       94.5
Sawnwood, Malaysian
1$/cu. rn)                550.3      447.7      533.1      540.6      569.6      713.3      745.0      620.8     649.2      616.2
Tobacco ($/mnt)   .      3,160.9    3,807.3    3,392.2   3447       3,226.6    2,535.6    2,399.0    2.214.3    2,671.0    3,277.1
Beverages (cents/kg) 
Cocoa                     361.6      328.6      126.7      116.9      103.2      105.1      126.7      120.2     127.5       150.3
Coffee, robustas          4504.4     386.       118.2      104.9       88.2      108.9      237.8      232.4     158.1       161.2
Coffee, other mulds       481.4      471.0      197.2      183.3      132.4      146.8      300.2      279.6     235.9      386.9
Tea, auctions, avg.        5.        263.6      205.1.     167.9      159.8      157.8      143.1      128.1     147.9       195.0
Tea, London, all          309.9      289.1      203.2      180.3      187.6      175.3      166.2      137.8     155.3       206.9
Energy
Coal, Australian 1$/int)   55.9       49.2       39.7       38.8       36.2       29.5       29.3       33.0      33.4        32.6
Coal, U.S. ($/int)  .      59.9       67.9       41.7       40.6       38.1       35.7       33.1       32.9      32.6        33.8
Natural gas, Europe ($/mnmbtu)  4.7.   ..4.6                 3.0   .    2.4        2.5        2.2        2.3       2.5         2.5
Natural gas, U.S. ($/mmbtul  2.2       3.6        1.7        1.5        1.7        2.0        1.7        1.6       2.4         2.3
Petroleum ($/bbl)          51.2       39.6       22.9       19.0       17.8       15.8       14.4       14.4      17.9        17.8
Primary commodities are raw or partially processed  prices are unavailable, the prices paid by importers are  for petro sum and stee products, which are not included
materials that will be transformed irto finished goods.  used. Annual price series are generally simple averages  in the nonfuel commodity price inoes.
They are often the most significant exports of develop-  based on higher-frequency data. The constant price  The MJV index is acomposite index of prces for man-
ing countries, and revenues obtained fromn them have  series in the table are deflated using the manufactures  Lufactured exports from the five major (G-5) industrial
an important effect on living standards. Price data for  unitsvalue (MUV) index fortheGC-5countries (see below).  countries (France, Germany, Japan,theLUnited Kingdom,
primary commodities are collected from a variety of  Commodity price indexes are calculated  as  and the Urn ted States) to ow- and miodde-.ncome
sources, including international study groups, tradejour-  Laspeyres index numbers in which the fixed weights are  economies, valued in U.S. do lars. Toe odes covers
nals, newspaper and wire service reports, government  the 1987-89 export values for low- and middle-incomne  products in Standard Internationa[ Tradje Classification
market surveys, and commodity exchange spot and  economies, rebased to 1990. Each index represents a  (SITC) groups 5-8. To construct the MUV G-5 index, unit
near-term forward prices. This table uses the most reli-  fixed basket of primary commodity exports. The rnofuel  value indexes for eaco country are combined using
able and frequently updated price reports. When possi-  commodity price index contains 37 price series for 31  weights determnined by each country's export share.
ble, the prices received by exporters are used; if export  nonfuel commodities. Separate indexes are compilec
324 1998 World Development Inidicators



6.5
1980       ±986       1990       199±       ±992      1993       1994       1995       1996       1997
Fertilizers ($t/Mt)
Phosphate rock              64.9  ~   49.4       40.5       41.6       39.2       31.0      29.9       29.4 ..     34..2     38.1
TSP                     ..250.3.    .176.9      131.8      130.3      113.3      105.3     1.19.9      125.5      1540.0    159.6
Food
Fats and  oils  $Imt)......                                                                                               ....
Coconut oil              935.8      860.1      336.5      423.7      541.8      4236.6      5.       562.1      658.1 . ..609.8
Groundnut oil           11193.1    1319.2      963.7      875.5      572.1      695.3     928.1      831.4      785.7      938.0
Palm oil                 810.4      730.3      289.8      331.7      369.1      355.4     479.5      526.8      464.9      506.8
Soybeans                 411.4      326.5      246.8      234.4      220.9      240.0,    228.6      217.3      266.9      274.2
So~ybean meal            363.9      228.9      200.2      192.9      191.7      19.5.8    174.6.     165.3      234.2      256.0
Soybean oil              830.0      833.8      447.3      444.4      402.4      451.9     558.6      524.3      482.9      524.3
Grain./i)
Grain sorghum            179.0      150.1      103.9      102.8       96.4       93.2      94.3       99.9      131.4      101.8
Maize                    174.0      163.6      109.3      105.1       97.8       96.0      97.6      103.6      145.2      108.7
Rica                     570.5      287.1      270.9      287.0      251.6      221.5     242.8      269.2      296.7      281.8
Wheat                    239.9      198.0      135.5      125.9      141.8      131.9     135.9      148.5      181.8      148.1
Other food
Bananas ($/i.t)526.4                554.4      540.9      547.5      443.8      4168.8    398.8    ..373.4      411.2      466.7
Beef (cents/kg)          383.3      314.0      256.3      260.6      230 .3     246.3     211.5      160.0      156.3      172.3
*Orange.S(/nmt)    .      542.5      580.8      531.1     509.8      458.9     .406.9      373.1.     445.9.     4305.5     426.1
Sugar, EU domestic
(cents/kg)               67.6       51.1       58.3  ~    59.9       58.9       58.3  ~   56.4       57.7       5.         58.2
Sugar, U.S. domestic
(cents/Kg)               92.0       65.4       51.3       46.5       44.1       44.8      44.1       42.~6      432.2..    44.9
Sugar. world (cents/kg)   87.7       13.1       27.7       19.3  .    18.7       20.7      24.2       24.6        23.1      23.3
Metals and minerals
Aluminum ($/mt           202.2 .    1,517.5   1,639.0    1,274.2    1,176.6    1,071.5    1,340.1    1,514.8    1,18.0     1,484.7
Co~pper ($mt)    .       3,030.6    2,066.2   2,661.5    2,288.5    2,139.9    1,799.7    2,093.8    2,462.8    2,010.0    2,113.6
Iron ore (cnt.DTU          3,         38.7       30.8       3.5        29.6       265.5     231.1     .22.6       25.0       26.8
Lead (cents/kg)           125.8       57.0       81.1       54.6       50.8       38.2      49.7       52.9        67.8      57.9
Nickel ($/nit)           9.053.8.7,141.~5     8,864.1    7,980.0    6567.8     4,~979.    5,5.       6,902.7    6,568.0   6,430.9
Tin (cents/kg)           2329.8     1,682.1     608.5      547.5      572.3     '4855.5    495.8      521.3       539.9     524.2
Zinc (cents/Kg) .          105.7     114.1      151.3     .109.3      11.6.3      90.5      90.5        86.5 .......89.8...I.. 12 2.
a. Series not included in the nonfuel index.
I                                                              ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Data bources
Nonfuel commodities price index covers the 31 non-  *Petroleum price index refers to the average spot  Commodity price data are compiled by thie World Bank's
fuel primary commodities that make up the agriculture,  price of Brent, Dubai. and West Texas Intermediate  Development Prospects Group. More information can be
fertilizer, and  metals  and  minerals indexes,  crude oil, equally weighted. * Steel products price  obtained from its quarterly Commodity Markets and the
,Agriculture, in addition to food, beverages, and agri-  index isathe composite price index for eight steel prod-  Developing Countries. The MUV G-5 index is constructed
cultural raw materials, includes sugar, bananas, beef,  ucts based on quotations f.o.b. (free on board) Japan  by the Development Prospects Group. Monthly updates
end oranges. * B3everages include cocoa, coffee, and  excluding shipments to China and the United States,  of commodity prices are available on the World Wide
tea. * Food includes rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, soy-  weighted by product shares of apparent combined con-  Web at www.worldbank.org/htmnl/ieccp/ieccp.html.
beans, soybean oil, soybean meal, palm oil, coconut oil,  sumption (volume of deliveries) for Germany, Japan, and
and groundnut oil. * Agricultural raw materials include  the United States. * MUJV G-5 index is the manufac-
timber (logs and sawnwood). cotton, natural rubber, end  tures unit value index for G-5 country experts to dlevel-
tobacco. * Fertilizers inuclue phosphate rock and triple  oping countries. * Commodity prices-for definitions
superphosphate (TSPI. * Metals and minerals include  end sources see the World Bank's quarterly Commodity
aluminum, copper, iron ore, lead, nickel, tin, and zinc.  Markets and the Developing Countries.
1999 World Development Indicators   325



6.6~ Regional trade blocs
Exports within bloc
$ millions
1970          1980          1985          1990          1993          1994          1995          1996
High-income and low- and
middle-income econ~omies
APEC                       56,020       353,778       491,623       897,427      1.200,684     1,407,314     1,644,931     1,706,692
European Union            76,451        459,469       421,641       985.128        890,933     1,027,540     1,259.688     1,275,696
NAFTA                     22.078        102.218      143.191       226.273       30-531          352,335       394.472       436.605
Latin America and the Caribbean
Andean Group                  97          1,161           768         1,312          2,892         3,752         4,751         4,806
CACM                         287          1.174           544           671          1.088         1,175         1,365         1,566
CARICOM                       51            431           358           395            441           193           228          841
LAIA  ~ ~   ~    ~    4126        10,981         7,139        12,331         23,694        28,300        34,408       38,617
MERCOSUR                     413,424                    1,953         4,127         10,067        12,049        14,180        17,151
OECS                           -.4                         10            30             36            4045                       53
Africa
CEMAC                         22             75            84           139            102           115           129           142
CEPGL                          3              2             9             7             10            10             8             9
COMESA                       239            592           400           847            808         1,025         1,270         1,479
ECCAS                         29             88           118           158            122           136           153          169
ECOWAS                        86            692         1,026         1,533          1.686         1.628         1,949         2,345
MRU                            1              7             4             0              1             1             1             1
SADC                          76             96           294           942          2,245         2,671         3,872         4,231
UEMOA                         52            444           395           603            401          402            515          638
Middle East and Asia
ASEAN                       1.201        12,016        13,130        26.367         41,749        56,199        71,094        77,221
Banlgkok.Areet476294                                                  1,611        2, 790          2.399         3,901         3,968
E00                           24            369         2,431         1,239          2,770         2.662         3,782         4.496
GOC                          117          4,632         3,101         6,906          5,023         5,296         5,782         5,723
SAARC                         99            613           601           862          1,191         1.434         2.024         2,123
UMA                           60            109           274           958            795          969          1,067         1.143
Regional trade blocs have captured an increasing share of their members' trade ...
% of exports within trading bloc
80
70
60
50-                                                 -- - - -- - -
40
30
20
10…--M - -   - --   - -   - - 
-   -   -   -   -   -   -   -   -   -   -   -   -   -   -   -   -   - ~ I .~ 0
0
1970               1980               1985               1990               1996
Source: World Bank staff estimates.
326   1998 World Development indicators



6.6
Exports within bloc
% of total exports
1970          ±980          ±985         ±.990         1993          1994          1995         1996
High-income and low- and
middle-income economies
APEC                        56.9         57.6          67.7          68.5          71.2         73.2          73.0          73.1
European Union              59.5         61.0          59.3          66.0          61.7         621.1    .... 62.4          61.5
NAFrA                      36.0          33.6          43.9          41.4          45.8         47.9          46.2          47.5
Latin America and the Caribbean
Andean Group                 1.8          3.8           3.2           3.8           9.8         10.5          11.8          10.
CACM    ..               ..26.0          24.4          14.4          153.3         16.9         16.7          14.1 ..       15.7
CARICOM                      4.6          4.2           5.8           7.8           8.8          3.7           3.8          12.9
LAIA           ....         9.9          13.7           83.3         106.6         16.3         16.4 ...      16.6          16.5
MERCOSUR                     9.4         11.6 ..        5.5  ..       8.9          18.5         19.2          20.2        ..22.8
OECS                          ..9.2                     6.5   ....    8.2           9.5         12.0          12.3          11.6
Africa
CEMAC                        4.9          1.6           1 .9          2.3           2.0          2.1           2.2           1.9
CEPGL                        0.4          0.1           0.8           0.5           0:.8         0.7           0.5           0.5
ECCAS       ....2.4                ...   ..1.4         .2.1        ...2.0           1.9 .        2.0           20.0          1.9
ECOWAS                       2.9        '10.1... .   ...   5.2        7.8  ..     ..9.0  ..8.5       ..91.1                   .
MRU    ...0.2                             0.8.    ..    0.4           0.0           0. 1         0.0           0.0           0.0
SADCO                     ... 1.4        ..0.3          1.4   .       2.9           7.1 ...8O.0               10.3          10.4..
COMESA          ....         7.5         10.3           5.4           7.6           7.9          8.7           9.3           9.3
UEMOA                   ....6.6.          9.3.          8.7          12.7          .9.4   ... ...9.5           95.5          9.3
Middle East and Asia
ASEAN               .....19.7            16.9  ...    .18.4          18.7    ~     20.0         22.0          22.8          23.2
Bangkok Agreement           1.5           2.2           2.4           1.7           2.6          1.9           2.4.          2.3
ECO                          1.7          5.9           9.9           3.2           6.3          5.4..         64.4          6.7
GCC                          4.6          3.0           4.9           8.0           5.6          5.8           5.4           4.6
SAARC       ....             3.2          4.8           4.5           3.2  ..   ..  3.7 ..3.8,                 4.4           4.3
UMA                          1.4          0.3           1.0           2.9           3.1          3.8           3 .6          3.4
... but have been less vigorous in expanding their trade with the rest of the world
kERCO%SuR
Source:  I., 
1998 World Development Indicators   327



S ~6.6
Total exports by bloc
% of world exports
1970         1980        1985        1990         1993        1994         1995        1996
High-income and low- and
middle-income economies
APEC                    .34.9        33.5         38.7        38.7         45.3        45.2        44.4         44.1
European Union           45.6        41.1         37.9        44.1        38.8         38.9        39.8         39.1
NAFTA                    21.7        16.6         17.4        16.1        17.7         17.3        16.8         17.4
Latin America and the Caribbean
Andean Group              1.9         1.7          1.3         1.0          0.8         0.8         0.8          0.9
CACM                      0.4         0.3          0.2         0.1         0.2          0.2         0.2          0.2
CARICOM                   0.4         0.6          0.3         0.1         0.1          0.1         0.1          0.1
LAIA                      4.5         4.4          4.6         3.4         3.9          4.1         4.1          4.4
MERCOSUR                  1.7         1.6          1.9         1.4         1.5          1.5         1.4          1.4
OECS                       ..0.0                   0.0         0.0         0.0          0.0         0.0          0.0
Africa
CEMAC                     0.2         0.3          0.2         0.2         0.1          0.1         0.1          0.1
CEPGL                     0.3         0.1          0.1         0.0         0.0          0.0         0.0          0.0
COMESA                    1.1         0.3          0.4         0.3         0.3          0.3         0.3          0.3
ECCAS                     0.4         0.3          0.3         0.2         0.2          0.2         0.1          0.2
ECOWAS                    1.1         0.4          1.0         0.6         0.5          0.5         0.4          0.5
MRU                       0.1         0.0          0.1         0.1         0.0          0.0         0.0          0.0
SADC                      1.9         1.5          1.1         1.0         0.9          0.8         0.7          0.8
UEMOA                     0.3         0.3          0.2         0.1         0.1          0.1         0.1          0.1
Middle East and Asia
ASEAN                     2.2         3.9          3.8.        4.2          5.6         6.0         6.1          6.3
Bangkok Agreement         1.1         1.5          2.2         2.6         2.9          3.0         3.2          3.2
ECO                       0.5         0.3         -1.3         1.1         1.2          1.2         1.2          1.3
GCC                       0.9         8.5          3.4         2.5         2.4          2.2         2.1          2.4
SAARC                     1.1         0.7          0.7         0.8         0.9          0.9         0.9          0.9
UMA                       1.5         2.3          1.5         1.0         0.7          0.6         0.6          0.6
328  1998 World Development Ind cators



IJI-.
6.6
The table shows the value of exports by bloc members  * Exports within bloc are the sum of exports by  Community of West African States (ECOWAS),
to one another-sometimes called intratrade-and  members of a trading bloc to other members of the  Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, C6te d'lvoire,
the size of intratrade relative to the bloc's total  bloc. Both the value in U.S. dollars and the share of  Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali,
exports of goods. Service exports are not included.  exports within the bloc as a percentage of total  Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and
Also shown is the share of the bloc's total exports in  exports by the bloc are shown. * Total exports by  Togo; Mano River Union (MRU), Guinea, Liberia, and
world exports.                                bloc as a share of world exports are the ratio of the  Sierra  Leone; Southern  African  Development
Data on country exports are drawn from the  bloc's total exports (exports within the bloc and to the  Community (SADC), Angola, Botswana, Lesotho,
International Monetary Fund's (IMF) Direction of Trade  rest of the world) to total exports by all economies in  Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland,
Statistics database and should be broadly consistent  the world. * Regional bloc memberships: Asia  South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe; West
with other sources such as the United Nations  Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), Australia,  African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA),
Commodity Trade database. However, trade flows  Brunei, Darussalam, Canada, Chile, China, Hong  Benin, Burkina Faso, Cbte d'lvoire, Somalia, Niger,
between many developing countries, particularly in  Kong (China), Indonesia, Japan, the Republic of  Senegal, and Togo; Association of South-East Asian
Africa, are not well recorded. Thus the value of intra-  Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New  Nations (ASEAN), Brunei, Darussalam, Indonesia,
trade within certain groups may be understated. Data  Guinea, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan (China),  Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand;
on trade between developing countries and high-  Thailand, and the United States; European Union,  Bangkok Agreement (First Agreement on Trade
income countries are generally complete. Although  Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Finland, Germany,  Negotiation Developing Member Countries of the
bloc exports have been calculated back to 1970  Greece, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Luxembourg,  Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
based on current membership, most of the blocs  Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom;  Pacific), Bangladesh, India, the Republic of Korea,
came into existence at later dates and their member-  North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA),  the Lao People's Democratic Republic, and Sri Lanka;
ship may have changed overtime.               Canada, Mexico, and the United States; Andean  Economic  Cooperation  Organization  (ECO),
Group, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela;  Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, the Islamic Republic of Iran,
Central American Common Market (CACM), Costa   Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, Pakistan, Tajikistan,
Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and   Turkmenistan,  Turkey,  and  Uzbekistan;  Gulf
Nicaragua; Caribbean  Community (CARICOM),    Cooperation Council (GCC), Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman,
Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize,  Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates;
Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Montserrat, St.  South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the  (SAARC), Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives,
Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago; Latin American  Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka; and Arab Maghreb
Integration Association (LAIA), Argentina, Bolivia,  Union (UMA), Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco,
Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay,  and Tunisia.
Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela; Southern Common
Market (MERCOSUR), Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay,  Data sources
and Uruguay; Organization of Eastern Caribbean
States (OECS), Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica,                    Data on merchandise trade
Grenada, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia,        ,    flows are published in the
and St. Vincent and the Grenadines; Economic and            '    IMF's  Direction  of Trade
Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC),                    Statistics  Yearbook, Defini-
Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Chad,                    tions of the regional blocs are
Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon;          ;      from UNCTAD's Handbook of
Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries           .      International Trade Statistics
(CEPGL), Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo,              1995 (1997). UNCTAD also
and Rwanda: Common Market for Eastern and     publishes data on intratrade in the Handbook.
Southern Africa (COMESA), Angola, Burundi,
Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho,
Madagascar,  Malawi,  Mauritius.  Mozambique,
Namibia, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, Sudan,
Swaziland,  Uganda,  Tanzania,  Zambia,  and
Zimbabwe; Economic Community of Central African
States (ECCAS), Burundi, Cameroon, the Central
African Republic, Chad, the Democratic Republic of
Congo, Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon,
Rwanda, and Sao Tome and Principe; Economic
1998 World Development Indicators    329



6.7 Tariff barriers
All products               Primary products           Manufactured products
Standard  Weighted           Stantard  We gnted           Standard  Weighted
Mean    deviation of  meanr  Mean    deviatoro of  mnean  Mean    deviat on af  mean
tariff  tariff rates  tari ff  tariff  tariff rates  tariff  tar[ff  tariff rates  tariff
Year                8         8         %        %         %8
Albani'a                1997       15.9      8.3      13.6      14.5      6.9      13.2      16.3      8.6      13.8
Argentina               1992       11.8      7.4      11.2       8.2      4.8       5.0      12.7      7.7      13.2
1993      10.9      5.0       11.3.     6.0      2.9       3.7      12.1      4.7      13.7
1995      10.5      7.6      10.5       8.5      5.3       5.6      10.9      7.9      12.1
1996.     11.2      7.0      11.3.      8.5      5.3       5.7      11.8      7.1      12.6
1997      11.3      6.8      11.3       8.4      5.3       5.6      11.9      6.9      12.7
Australia               1991     ..12.9     15.1.     10.4       2.6      5.3       1.4      15.5     15.7      13.1
1993       9.8     11.9       7.7       2.5      4.8       1.3      11.7     12.4       9.7
1996       6.0      9.0       4.0       1.2      2.3       0.7       7.2      9.6       4.8
1997       5.7      8.2       3.9       1.2      2.2       0.7       6.8      8.7       4.6
Austria                 1990       8.7       7.5       7.9       7.9      9.9       4.8       9.0      6.5       8.8
Bangladesh             -1989      1140.0    84.9     114.2     85.1      58.7      76.1     123.2     89.8     125.5
1993       4 .1    10.3       2.6       0.       3.7       0.0      11.6     14.6       8.3
Belarus           .......1997      12.6      8.4      13.7     11.0       6.7       8.4      13.3      8.9      15.0
Bolivia                 1993       9.8      1.0        9.8     10.0       0.2      10.0      9.7       1.1       9.7
1994      10.0      0.2      10.0      10.0      0.1      10.0      10.0      0.2      10.0
1995       9.7      1.1       9.7      10 .0     0.1      10.0       9.7      1.3       9.7
1996       9.7      1.3       9.7      10.0      0.2      10.0       9.6      1.4       9.6
1997       9 .7     1.3       9.7      10.0      0.2       10.0      9.6      1.4       9.6
Brai                    1991       25.1     17.3      26.7     19.8      19.8       9.4      26.3     16.3      32.2
1994      11.9      8.2      14.6       8.2      7.1       7.2      12.8      5.2      17.0
1995.     12.0     .6.9      12.9       8.7      5.4       8.2      12.7      7.0      14.4
1996      12.2      8.5      15.8       8.7      6.0       7.4      13.0      5.8      18.8
1997      11.9      7.5      14.8       8.7      5.7       6.9      12.6      7.7      17.6
Canada                  1989       8 .8      7.2       7.0      5.0       5.9       2.9       9.9      7.1       8.2
1993       87.7     7.0       6.8       4.7      5.8       2.7       9.7      6.9       8.0
1995      10.1.    24.2       7.2      14.2     49.3       5.5       8.9      6.6       7.7
1996       8 .5    24.4       6.3      13.5     49.3       5.8       7.0      6.7       6.4
1997       6.0      8.1       5.2       4.0     12.4       3.0       6.5      6.4       5.9
Central African Republic  1995     18.6      9.6      17.1     20.6       9.7      16.2      17.9      9.5      17.4
Chile                   1992       11.0      0.7      10.9      11.0      0.0      11.0      10.9      0.8      10.8
..... .199.110.0..109.1.0..0.1.0.0.9                                                        0.810.
1994      11.0      0.7      10.9      11.0      0.0      11.0      10.9      0.8      10.8
......... .   1995   ..  11.0..         09        100010                      1.9081.
1997      11.0      0.6      10.9      11.0      0.0      11.0   ~10.9        0.7      10.8
China                   1992       42.9     32.1      40.6.     36.2     26.2      22.3      44.9     33.4      46.5
1993      39.9     29.9      36.4      33.3     24.7      20.9      41.8     31.0      44.0
1994      36.3     27.9      35.5      32.1     24.3      19.6      37.6     28.8      40.6
1996      23.9     17.6      25.4      25.1     22.1      19.4      23.6     16.0      27.6
1997      17.8     13.2      20.9      17.8     18.2      19.9      17.8     11.2      21.2
Colombia                1991       6.7      8.3        8.2      8.9      10.0       5.8       6.1      7.7       8.9
1992      11.7      6.3      11.9      12.0      5.9      10.5      11.7      6.4      12.4
1994      11.8 . ....6.3     12.0      12.1      6.0      10.6      11.7      6.4      12.4
1995      13.3      4.9      12.7      12.7      5.9      10.7      13.5      4.6      13.4
1996      11.7      6.3      12.1      12.2      6.2      10.5      11.6      6.3      12.7
1997      11.7      6.3      12.1      12.2      6.2      10.5      11.6      6.3      12.7
C6te dIlvoi're          1997       4.8       1.1       4.6      4.8       1.1       4.5       4.7      1.1       4.7
Cuba                    1997       10.7      6.9       9.7      7.6       7.3       4.9      11.6      6.5      11.5
Czech Republic          1996        7.0      7.2       5.9      8.4      11.6       4.8       6.4      4.2       6.2
Ecuador                 1993       9.3      6.0        8.5      9.4       8.8       7.6       9.2      6.1       8.8
1994      11.8      6.3      11.2      12.2      6.1      10.3      11.7      6.4      11.5
1995.     12.3      5.6      11.9      12.2      6.2      10.4      12.4       5.4      12.4
1996      11.4      6.4      11.8     .11.6      6.5       9.9      11.3      6.4       12.5
1997      11.4      6A.4      11.8     11.6      6.5        9.9     11.3       6.4      12.5
El Salvador             1995      10.2      7.6.       8.5     11.5       6.4       8.8       9.8      8.0       8.4
Estonia                 1995       0.1      1.2        0.4      0.1       1.1       0.0       0.1      1.2       0.5
European Union          1989       8.7      7.2        7.0     10.1      10.4       6.0       8.2      5.9       7.5
330  1998 World Development Indicators



6.7
All products                  Primary products             Manufactured products
Standard   Weighted             Stardard  Weighted             Standard   Weighted
Mean    deviation of  mean      Mean    deviation of  mean     Mean     deviation of  mean
tariff   tariff rates  tariff   tariff  tariff rates  tariff   tariff   tariff rates  tariff
Year        %%                             Y                    %%S
1994        7.7.      6.3 .....  6.6       10.3      106.6       4.9       6:9       3:8 .... ..70
1995        6.7      .59         6.3        83.3  ..1070      ...51        62...     4.1  ......6.6
1996  68.       6.1         4.9      10.4_      8:8        3~7        5:5       3.8.       5.3
1997        6.9       6.0        5.0.      10-.4.     8.         3.8  ..   5 6 ..... .3:8       5.3
Finland                   1.988       7.7     -104.1. ..... 5.6       6.6      1 12.2       27.7     .8:0      .9.7       6.6
1990        7.8      102         5.6_       6.8_     11.4        2.6_      84-.1 ...  98   ..... 3-66..
H-ungar                   1991       12.6      11.0       12.3       14.7      162.2      1.....2   . 12..1 .......8 9   13.0
1997       14.4      16.9       10.9.     28.3       25.3       12.6       8.9 ........6:1 ......10~3
Iceland                   1996        4.6     -13.0_       3.1.       8.8      22.2        4.1        2.8       4 8 ....   2.8
India                     1990       81.8      39.4       83.0.      74.1      38.4       49.5       84.1      394.4.    93.6
1997       30.0     -14.0       27.7,     25.7       22.6       22.6      31.3       9:8       29.5
Indonesia                 1993.19.4.16.1                   21.7      16.7      12.3       10.0       203.3     170_ ....-254
1996       13.2      17.0       17.6       12.3     '194_.4.     8.5      13.5      16 1   ~ .. 20.9
Japan         1.  .  .....  989       .6.7      7.8         3.4       8.9      102.2 .     4.8 ....   6.0       6.7 ...... 3 .1
1991        6.3       8.7        3.0        9.4      11.9        5.3       5.3       6 925
1992        6.3       8.4        3.0.       9.2      11.2        54.1 ....... 5.3 ......7 0 .... 2 .5
1993        6.3       8.3        3.0 ..... 9 2       10.9        49.9      5:3        70 0..    2.5
1994        6.3       8.3        29.9       9-.2     10.9        49.9       53.3     6.9        2..5
1995        6.3      .8~.4      .2.6        9.7  .   ... 112.2   3.6       5:.1      6:7.7 ...  ... 2.3
1996 ..._6.0          7.7        2.8        9.2      106.6       4.4       4:8'      58_        2.4
1997        6.0       8.0        2.7        9.1      107.7       4.0 ..    48.8       64.4  .....2.3
Korea, Rep.               1990       13.3       6.7       123.3      15.7      13.0       11:.0      127.7      2.9      12.6
1992       11.6       6.5       10.7      14.6       12.6       10.3      10:.8      2.2       10.8
1996       11.3      27.0       10.1       21.2      48.4       16.7       82.2 ..  14.0        7.8
Latvia                    1997         6.0     10.7         3.2  .....11.0     16.1        39.9       3:7...I.... 5:8 ........2.9
Lithuania                 1995        4 5       90 ........-2.5       87.7     13.0        3.6   ....28.8      .59.9       2 1
1997        4.6     .. 9.2      .26.6.      8..6     13.1        3.6       2.8       5.9 .........2.2
Malawi                    1994       30.8     .15.5       27.1      '24.6      15.6       14.8      32.8.      150.0    .32.2
1997       25.3      11.6       235.5,    21.2       12.6       13.6      26.5      11.0 ..    26..7
Malaysia       . ..       1988       17.0      142.2      12.6       15.8.     10.7 ......-63.3      17.6.    .15.6 ... -14.4
1991       16.9      14.7       12.5      15.3       10.6        6.0      17.8      16.3       14.4
1993       14.3      14.1       11.1.      10.9      12.7       6.30      15:.3     143.3      12.6
1997        9.1      19.4       11.9       4.1       21.2        9.4      12.2      I175       12.8
Mauritius                 1997       291.1     262.2      31.9       19.7      19.1       191.1      317.7 .... .27.3    36.0
Mexico                    1991       130.0      44.4.     131.1      12.1       5.7       10.8       13 2 .. ...42.2 .... 113.8
1995       12.6       5.4       11.8.      12.3       6.0      .. 10.8    12.6       5.3      .12.2
1996       13.1      106.6      13.2      145.5      196.6      12.9      128.8      7 8...... 13 3
1997       13.1      10.6       13I....... .........2  14.5  19.6  13.0_  128.8  . .. 7 8      13 3
Mozambpique               1997        15.6,    14.3        14:1.1    16..9.    15.1       12.0       15.3      14. 0..    14.8
New Zealand               1992        8.7      10.6         8.1       4.4       63.3       2.3       99.9      11.3        9.9
1993        8.5.     10.3       .7.7 ......4.3 .....60.0         2.1       97.7     110         9.4
1-996       6.2       8.0        6.0 ...   .....3.0   4.2        14.4      7~2  ......8:6 ........76
1997        5.4       71.1        52.2      2-.5      3.7        1.2..     6.3.      76 ...     67
Nigeria                   1988.      33.7.     26,.1      29.9       31.0      22.5       24.2       34.5.     270 0  .... 31 5
1-989      35.6      31.0       342.2      33.1.     30.1       26.0     .36.3 .    31: 1  .... 36.63
1990       35.7        3.6.. . 34.3       33.2       30.1     ..26.1     .36.5 ..... 31 0      36.8
:1992      34.4      25.1       31.7       31.4      22.7       24.5      35.3      25!7       33.9
Norwa                     1988        6.0       7.1        5.0        1.6       49.9.      0:.8       7.1.      7:1.1   .... 6.4
1993        6.1       T70O.                 1.7       5.0.       0.8_      7.1 .....7.1 ....    6.5
1995        5.9      10.7        4.9        2.4      20.6        0.9       6.7       6.6        6.0
1996        6.1      15.5        4.3        4.9      30.9        1.6       6.3       8.5        5.2
Papua New Guinea.         1997.'    _20.7      19.1        21.3      30.4     .23.0       23.1       178.8 ... 1.7        20.6
Paraguay                  1991       15.9      129.9       14.4      15'.6.    13.8       10. .... 2.  15.9.   12.6 .....  15.8
1994        8.0       7.7        8.1        7.9       74.4       5.3       8:.1    ... 7.8      8'.9
1995        9.3       6.9        9.0        8.2       5.2        5.2       9.5       7.2 ......10..3
1996        9.4       7.1        9.2        8.9       6.2        6.0      .9.5.       7.3      10.4
1997        9.6       6.7        9.3        87        5.8        5.7       9.7       6.9        0.6
1998 World Development Indicators 331



6.7
All products                Primary products           Manufactured products
Standardi  Weighted           Standard  Weighted            Standard  Weighted
Mean    deviation of  meart   Mean    deviation of  mean    mean    deviation of  mnean
tariff  tariff rates  tariff  tariff  tariff rates  tariff  tariff  tariff ratas  tariff
Year                                                                                      %
Peru       ........      .1993 .   17.6       4.4     -17.1      17.3       4.2      16.3      17.7       4.4      17,3
1997      13.3       2.9      12.8      13.8       3.4      13.0      13.1      2.8       12.7
Philippines              1988      28.2      15.1      27.2      28.9      16.2      22.0      28.0      14.7      28.8
1989      28.2      15.1     .27.2      29.0     -16.2      22.       28.0      14.7      28.9
..  ...   ... .  .  1990.  19.7 .    9.2.      18.2...                       5.        94901
1992      19.6       9.2      18:.3     20.1       9.8      15.5      19.4       9.0      19.2
1993      22.5      14.1      20.2      23.9     -15.3      17.9      22.1      13.7      21.0
1994      21.6      13.3      19.5      22.3      14.0      16.8      21.5      13.1      20.4
... ...... ..-... .- ..... ..-- . . .. ..1995  27.6  4.9  27.0  28.9  4.5  22.7  27.2  5.0    27.9
Poland                   1991      11.7       8.9      104.4     10.4      10.3       7.4      12.1       8.5      11,4
1992      11.7       8.9      10 .4     10.4      10.3       7.4      12.1      8.5       11.4
1996      18.4      27.~5    .15.2      28.0      46.1      16.5      14.1       9.0      14.8
Russian Federation       1993       7.3       9.8       9.7       3.8     1-2.2       5.7       8.7      8.2       10.9
1994      11.5      12.4      14.0       8.0       8.4       5.1      12.9     13.4       16.8
1997      12.7       8.3      13.4      10.8       6.4       8.2      13.5      8.9       15.3
Singapore                1989        0.5      2.7      - 2.3      0.2       2.4       1.0       0.6       2.8       2.7
South Africaa            1988      12.7      11.8      11.3       7.2       9.8       5.0      13.6      11.9      13.1
1990      11.0 .....11.3      10.9       6.9   ~   9.6       4.7      11.7      11.4      12,7
..   ..  ..   .. .  ..   1 991.  10.5.  11.8  11.3   .6.8     .10.6       4.8      11.2      11.9      13.3
1993      19.7      2-1.9     143.3      9.4      11.7       5.2      21.2     22.6       16.9
1997       8.8      11.0      .8.4       8.0      11.4       4.2       9.0     10.9        9.9
Sri Lanka                1990      28.3      25.5      24.2.     31.4      28.7      30.2      27.5      24.5      22.2
1993      24.2      18.1      23.0      26.8      21.9      25.3      23.5     16.8       22.3
1997      20.0      15.4      20.7      23.8      23.0      23.6      19.1      12.6      19.8
Swede   ...1988.I....             ....      .. 4..8   3.8. 1      .7   4.2.        0...647..
Sweden            ~~~1989     4.8       4.8       3.8       1.7      4.2        0.4       5.6      4.7       4.8
Switzerlan               1990       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0
1993       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0      0.0        0.0
1995       00.0      90.0       .        0.0O.     0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0
1996       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0      0.0        0.0
1997       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0
Tanzania                 1997       21.6     14.0      22.0      30.6      10.9      22.1      19.6      13.8      22.0
Thailand                 1989       39.8     23.0      38.7      32.7      19.1      25.5      41.7      23.6      42.4
1991      39.9      23.0      38.8      32.8      19.1      25.5      41.8     23.6       42.4
1993      45.6      25.0      41.5      40.3      19.4      33.9      47.2     26.2       43.7
Trinidad and Tobago      1991       18.6     15.3      16.5      22.2      18.2      13.2      17.4      14.1      17.6
1992      18.7      15.3      16.7      22.9      18.0      14.1      17.4      14.1      17.5
Ukraine                  1997      10.1      11.0       7.2      15.4      12.1       5.9       7.7       9.5       7.7
Unitedi States           1989       6.3       6.1       4.4       4.5       6.4       2.4       6.7       5.9       4.8
1990       6.3       6.1       4.4       4.6       6.5       2.4       6.7      5.9        4.8
1991       6.3       6.1       4.4       4.6       6.5       2.4       6.7      5.9        4.8
1992       6.3       6.1       4.4       4.6       6.5       2.4       6.7      5.9        4.8
1993       6.4,      6.1       4.4       4.6       6.5       2.4       6.7       5.9       4.8
1995       5.9       7.8       4.1       5.5      10.9       2.7       6.0      6.9        4.4
1996       6.0      12.4       4.2       6.9      25.7       3.4       5.8       5.8       4.4
Uruguay                  1992       6.5       5.9       5.5       7.2       6.2       4.3       6.2       5.8       5.9
1995       9.3       7.1       8.9       8.4       5.4       5.3       9.5       7.4      10.1
1996       9.7       7.3       9.6       8.6       5.6       5.3       9.9       7.6      11.2
1997      10.2       6.9       9.8       8.8      5.3        5.3      10.5      7.3       11.4
Venezuela                1992      15.7      11.3      16.1      15.8      10.3      12.7      15.7      11.5      16.9
1995      13.4       4.8      12.8      12.8       5.8      10.       13.5      4.5       13.4
1997      12.0       6.1      12.4      12.3       6.1      10.7      11.9       6.1      13.0
Zambia                   197       13.6       9.3      14.0      15.7       8.7      12.1      13.1       9.3      14.7
Zimbabwe                 1997      24.3      23.4      23.4      21.7      20.2      16.6      25.1      24.3      25.8
a. Data are for the South African Customs Jnion. which includes Botswana. Lesotho. Namibia, and South Africa.
332  1998 Worldl Developmnent Indicators



- - -  - - --     -
6.7
Economies regulate their imports through a combi-  for estimates of the shares of tariff lines covered by  * Primary products are commodities classified in
nation of tariff and nontariff measures. The most  them.) Nontarriff barriers are generally considered  SITC sections 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 plus division 68 (non-
common form of tariff is an ad valorem duty, but tar-  more detrimental to economic efficiency than tariffs  ferrous metals). e Manufactured products are com-
iffs may also be levied on a specific, or per unit,  because efficient foreign producers cannot undercut  modities classified in SITC sections 5, 6, 7, 8, and
basis. Tariffs may be used to raise fiscal revenues or  the barriers by reducing their costs and thus their  9, excluding division 68. * Mean tariff is the
to protect domestic industries from foreign competi-  prices. A high percentage of products subject to non-  unweighted average of the applied rates for all prod-
tion-or both. Nontariff barriers, which limit the quan-  tariff barriers indicates a protectionist trade regime,  ucts subject to tariffs. * Standard deviation of tar-
tity of imports of a particular good, take many forms.  but the frequency of nontariff barriers does not mea-  iff rates measures the average dispersion of tariff
Some common ones are licensing schemes, quotas,  sure their restrictiveness. Moreover, a wide range of  rates around the simple mean. * Weighted mean
prohibitions, export restraint arrangements, and  domestic policies and regulations (such as health  tariff is the average of applied rates weighted by prod-
health and quarantine measures.                 regulations) that are not measured by this indicator  uct shares in world imports.
Mean tariffs are calculated as the average ad val-  may act as nontariff barriers. A full evaluation would
orem duty across all tariff lines. Specific duties-  require careful analysis of the individual measures.  Date sources
duties not expressed as a proportion of the declared  The indicators shown in this table were calculated
value-are not included. Countries typically maintain  using the new Software for Market Analysis and  Mean tariff rates and their standard deviations were
a hierarchy of trade preferences applicable to spe-  Restrictions on Trade (SMART) system. SMART con-  calculated by World Bank staff using the SMART sys-
cific trading partners. The rates used in calculating  tains tarff line data on bound, applied, and preferential  tem. Data on tariffs come from the UNCTAD Trade
the indicators here are the applied most-favored-  duties for 66 countries. Data are classified using the  Analysis Information System. Data on global imports
nation duties. Applied rates are less than or equal to  Harmonized System of trade codes at the six- or eight-  come from the United Nations CommodityTrade data-
the bound rates that countries have agreed to in  digit level. Tariff line data were matched to Standard  base.
World Trade Organization negotiations, but they may  International Trade Classification (SITC) revision 2
exceed the rates applied to partners in preferential  codes to define the commodity groups and global
trade agreements such as the North American Free  import weights. The SMART database is still under
Trade Agreement. (See table 6.6 for the membership  development. Data are shown only for those countries
of regional trade blocs and data on their exports.)  and years for which complete data are available.
The table shows both simple average tariffs and
average tariffs weighted by world imports. Simple
averages are a better indicator of tariff protection
Average tatiffa are declining
than averages weighted by import values, which are
biased downward, especially when tariffs are set so
high as to discourage trade. Weights based on world
imports provide an alternative measure of a coun-                                 CNn,
try's tariff barriers that reflects average world trading
patterns.                                             9     -      Plipbnes     ,
Some countries set fairly uniform tariff rates
across all imports. Others are more selective, setting           ELroaean Union Arg ,na
high tariffs to protect favored domestic industries   1..
and low tariffs on goods that have few domestic sup-        UitedI Siales       'apar.
pliers or that are necessary inputs for domestic      l       t9.    1 iw9    i
industry. The standard deviation of tariffs is a mea-  Source: r :.rtI5- ;, :x,,'l
sure of the dispersion of tariff rates around their
TarHff rates have Iailen in most countries since the
mean value. Highly dispersed rates are evidence of  start ol the uruguao Round of the General
discriminatory tariffs that may distort production and  Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Aerage tarif are
expected to tail atill further as reductions nego-
consumption decisions. But this tells only part of the  liated during the Round are Implemented.
story. The effective rate of protection-the degree to
which the value added in an industry is protected-
may exceed the nominal rate if the tariff system sys-
tematically differentiates among imports of raw
materials, intermediate products, and finished
goods.
Nontariff barriers are not shown in this table. (But
see table 5.6 in World Development Indicators 1997
199S World Development Indicators     333



6.8 Global financial flows
Net private    I    Foreign direct           Portfolio investment flows            Bank and
capital flows        investment                                                   trade-related
lending
Bonds                Eqtilty
$ millions           $ millions          $ mii,ons            $ miQrons           $ mn  .00n5
1990  1996  1  J.990  1996  1990  1996   1990      1996      1990       199e
Albani'a                    31        92         0        90         0         0         0         0         31         2
Algeria                   -442       -72         0         4       -15         0        0          5       -427       -81
Angola                     237       753      -335        300        0         0         0         0        572       453
Argentina                 -203     14,417     1,836     4,285     -857     8,945        13       864      -1.196      323
Armenia                     ..        18                   18                  0                   0          ..0
Australia                    ...              6,517     6,321        .         ..
Austria                                        653      3,826
Azerbaijan                  ..       601         .       601         ..        0         .0                   ..0
Bangladesh                  70        92         3         16        0         0         0        30         67        47
Belarus                     ..7                  .         18        ..        0         .0                   -.      -11
Belgium                      ..                   -.                  ..-.---.--
Benin                        1         2         1          2        0         0         0         0          0         0
Bolivia                      3       571        27       527         0         0         0         0        -24        44
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana                    77        66        95         75        0         0         0         0        -19        -9
Brazil                     562     28.384      989      9.889      129     4.634         0     3,961       -556     9,880
Bulgaria                   -42       300         4       115        65     -205          0       500       -111      -109
Burk�ina Faso                0         0         0         0         0         0         0         0          0         0
Burundi                     -5         0         1          1        0         0         0         0         -6        -1
Cambodia                     0       290         0       294         0         0         0         0          0        -3
Cameroon                  -125       -28      -113         35        00                  0         0        -12       -63
Canada                      ..         -      7,581     6.398        .         .-                  .-
Central African Republic     0         5         1          5        0         0         0         0         -1         0
Chad                        -1        18         0         16        0         0         0         0         -1         0
Chile                    2,098      6,803      590      4,091       -7     1,659       320       103       1,194      750
China                    8,107     50,100     3.487    40,180      -46     1,190         0     3,466       4,668    5,264
Hong Kong, China............                                                                                           -
Colombia                   345      7,739      500      3.322       -4    -1,844         0       290       -151     2.283
Congo, Dem. Rep.           -24         2       -12          2        0         0         0         0        -12         0
Congo, Rep.               -100        -7         0          8        0         0         0         0       -100       -15
Costa Rica                  23       387       163        410      -42        -7         0         1        -99       -16
CMe dIlvoire                57       160        48         21       -1         0         0        30         10       109
Croatia                     -.       915         ,.      349        -.        22        --       111                  433
Czech Republic             876      4,894      207      1,435        0       371         0       164        669     3,124
Denmark                      ...              1.132      773         .         ..
Dominican Republic         130       366       133       394         0         0        0          0         -3       -28
Ecuador                    183       616       126       447         0       -10        0          1         57       377
Egypt, Arab Rep.           698      1,434      734       636        -1         0        0      1,233        -35      -435
El Salvador                  8        48         2         25        0         0         0         0          6        23
Eritreea-                              0.                   0- 0                         -         0.                   0
Estorla                     ..       191         . .     150        ..        40        5-S-                           -4
Ethiopia4                   45      -205        12          5        0         0         0         0        -57      -210
Finland                      ...               812      1,118        .         .-
France                       ...             13.183    21,972        .         -- 
Gabon                      103      -114        74        -65        0         0         0         0         29       -49
Gambia, The                 -7        11         0        11         0         0        0          a         -7         0
Georgia                     -.        40         --       40                   0                   00
Germnany                     .                2,532    -3,163        .         .- 
Ghana                       -5       477        15       120         0       250         0       124        -20       -18
Greece                       .                    ..                  -.---. 
Guatemala                   44         5        48         77      -11       -33         0         0           7      -39
Guinea                      -1        41        18        24         0         0         0         0        -19        17
Guinea-Bissau                2         1         2          1        0         0        000                             0
Haiti                        8         4         6         4         0         0         0         0          0         0
Honduras                    77        65        44        75         0       -13         0         0         33         3
334 1998 World Development Incolcators



6.8
Net private    Foreign direct       Portfolio investment flows   Bank and
capital flows    investment                                      trade-related
lending
Bonds           Equity
$ millions      $ millions       $ millions      $ millions      $ millions
1990    1996    1990    1996    1.990   1996    1990    1996    1.990    1996
Hungary             -308    1,618      0    1,982    921    -940     150    1,004  -1,379    -429
India               1,873   6,404    162    2,587    147    -457     105   4.398     1,459  -124
Indonesia           3,219  18,030   1,093   7,960     26   3,744    312    3,099     1,788  3,228
Iran, Islamic Rep.  -392    -352    -362      10       0      0       00              -30    -362
Iraq
Ireland                              627    2,456
Israel                               101    2,110
Ital                                6,411   3,523
Jamaica               92     191     138     175       0     53       00              -46    -36
Japan...                            1,777    200                               . ...... 
Jordan               254    -119      38      1 6      0      -5      0       25      216    -154
Kazakhstan      .. ......I... ......  615   . .... :.........  310   ... ...:  .. . ..  200  0.. .105
Kenya                124    -104      57      13       0      0       0      43       87    -160
Korea, Dem. Rep.
Korea, Rep.                          788    2,325
Kuwait
Kyrgyz Republic               46              46..0                   . 
Lao PDR                6     104       6     104       0      0       00               0       0
Latvia                       331             328..0                   .0                       3
Lebanon               12     740       6      80       0     460      0      122       6      78
Lesotho               17      38      17      28       0      0       00               0      10
Libya                  .
Lithuania                    469       .     152       .  ....  160   .      21              136
Macedonia, FYR                 8..8.0..0.0
Madagascar             7       5      22      10       0      0       00              -15     -5
Malawi                 2      -3       0       1       0      0       00               2      -4
Malaysia             769   12,096   2,333   4,500  -1,239  2,062    293    4,353     -617   1,180
Mali                  -8      23      -7      23       0      0       00              -1       0
Mauritania             6      25       7       5       0      0       00               -1     20
Mauritius             85     112      41      37       0      0       0      34       44      41
Mexico              8,240  23,647   2,634   7,619    661   11,344    563   3,922    4,382    763
Moldova                ..     115     ...41....0..                           . 0        .. ......74
Mongolia              16     -15       0       5       0      0       00              16     -20
Morocco              337     388     165     311       0     293      0      222      172    -438
Mozambique            35      23       9      29       0      0       00              26      -6
Myanmar              153     129     161     100       0      0       0       10       -8     19
Namibia
Ne~pal.-9                      9       6      19       0      0       00              -15    -10
Netherlands                        12,343   7.824
New Zealand                         1,735    280
Nicaragua             21      41       0      45       0      -8      00               21      4
Niger                  9     -24      -1I      0       0      0       00               10    -24
Nigeria              467     706     588    1,391      0      0       05             -121    -690
Norway...                           1,003   3,960          ..  ..  .........
Oman                -259      69     141      67       0      0       0       25     -400    -24
Pakistan             182    1,936    244     690       0     150      0      700     -63     396
Panama               127     301     132     238      -2     75       05               -4    -17
Papua New Guinea     204     414     155     225       0      0       0      187      49       2
Paraguay              67     202      76     220       0      0       00               -9    -18
Peru                  59    5,854     41    3,581      0      0       0     2,740      18    -467
Philippines          639    4,600    530    1,408    395   2,319      0     1,333    -286    -460
Poland                71    5,333     89    4,498      0     216      0      722      -18    -103
Portugal...                         2,610    618......
Puerto  RICO.......                                                            .
Romania                4    1,814      0     263       0   1,029      0       11       4     510
Russian Federation  5,604   7,454      0    2,479    310     21       0    5,008    5,294    -54
1998 World Development Indicators 335



6.8
Net private            Foreign direct                 Portfolio investment flows                 Bank and
capital flows            investment                                                              trade-related
lending
Bonds                   EquIt~
$ millions              $ millions              $ ml ons                S m. ons                 S m lions
1990        1996        ±990        1996        1990        1996        1990        1996        1990         1996
Rwanda                            6           1           8           1          0          0           0           0            -2          0
Saudi Arabia                                              .           ..                     ..
Senegal                          42          34          57          45          0          0           0           0          -15         -11
Sierra Leone                     36           5          32           5          0          0           0           0             4          0
Singapore                         ...                 5,575       9,440          .           ..
Slovak Republic                 278       1,265           0         281          0        380           0            0)        278         604
Sloveni'a                        ..       1,219           ..        186          ..       163           ..        360            ..        510
South Africa                      ..      1,417          ..         136          ..       367           ..      1,759                     -845
Spain                                         ..     13.984       6,396
Sri Lanka                        54         123          43         120          0          0           0          70            11        -67
Sudan                             0           0           0           0          0          0           0           0             0          0
Sweden                                        ..      1,982       5,492
Switzerland                       ...                 4,961       3,512          ..         .
Syrian Arab Republic             18          77          71          89          0          0           0            0         -53         -12
Tajikistan                       ..          16            .         16          ..0                    ..0                                  0
Tanzania                          5         143           0         150          0          0           0           0             35        -7
Thailand                      4.498      13,517       2.444       2.336        -87      3,774         449       1,551         1,692      5,856
Togo                              0           0           0           0          0           0          0           0             0          0
Trinidad and Tobago             -69         343         109         320        -52        125           0           0         -126        -102
Tuni'sia                      -122          697          76         320        -60          0           0           0         -138         377
Turkey                        1,782       5,635         684         722        597      1,578          35         799          466       2.536
Turkmenistan                      ..        355            .        108          ..0                     .0                       ..       247
Uganda                           16         114           0         121          0          0           0           0            16         -7
Ukraine                           ._        395           ..        350          ..       -80          ..0                        .        125
United Arab Emirates              .            ..                     ..                     ..
United Kingdom                                ..     32,427      32.347.....-
United States                     ...                47,918      76.955          .           ..
Uruguay                       -192          499           0         169        -16         59           0           5         -176        266
Uzbekistan                       ..         431.          .          55          ..0                                a                     376
Venezuela                     -126        4,244         451       1,833        345        -51           0       1,740         -922         721
Vietnam                          16       2.061          16       1,500          0          0           0         390             0        171
West Bank and Gaza.....*
Yemen, Rep.                      30         100        -131         100          0          0           0           0          151           0
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)5  1,836          0           0           0         -2          0           0           0         1,838          0
Zambi'a                         194          33         203          58          0          0           0           0            -9        -25
Zi mbabwe                        85          42         -12          63        -30        -30           0          17          128          -8
Low income                  11,625       65,176       4,683      49,531         67      1,082         105       9 283        670         5,280
Ex"cI .. C"hi'na ..& ..I'n"d i'a  . 
LoeMiddle income
oaw & middle income         41,881     246,944      23,667     116,960        100      45,684      3,225      45,830        1487        8,7
East... Asa&Pcfi             843       10.7          034         861         -92       1,6         170        1,8            7,29      1511
Europe&Central Asia   7,787  35,005   1,097  14,941  1,893  2,755 . 235   .   370     .    4,56   .    8,604.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....:... .......
High income                                           -
Note: Totals for loin- and middle-income economies may not sum to regional totals because of unallocated amounts
a. Includes Eritrea. b. Data for 1990 refer to thre former Yugoslavia.
336    1998 World Development Indicators



6.8
The data on foreign direct investment are based on  Gross statistics on international bond and equity  * Net private capital flows consist of private debt
balance of payments data reported    by the   issues are produced by aggregating individual trans-  and nondebt flows. Private debt flows include com-
International Monetary Fund (IMF), supplemented by  actions reported by market sources. Transactions of  mercial bank lending, bonds, and other private cred-
dataon netforeigndirectinvestmentreportedbythe  public and publicly guaranteed bonds are reported  its; nondebt private flows are foreign direct
Organisation  for Economic  Co-operation  and  through the DRS by member economies that have  investment  and  portfolio  equity investment.
Development (OECD) and official national sources.  received either International Bank for Reconstruction  * Foreign direct investment is net inflows of invest-
The internationally accepted definition of foreign  and Development (IBRD) loans or International  ment to acquire a lasting management interest (1-0
direct investment is that provided in the fifth edition  Development Association (IDA) credits. Information  percent or more of voting stock) in an enterprise oper-
of the IMF's Balance of Payments Manual (1993).  on private nonguaranteed bonds is collected from  ating in an economy other than that of the investor,
The OECD has also published a definition, in con-  market sources, because official national sources  It is the sum of equity capital, reinvestment of earn-
sultation with the IMF, Eurostat, and the United  reporting to the DRS are not asked to report the  ings, other long-term capital, and short-term capital
Nations. Foreign direct investment has three com-  breakdown between private nonguaranteed bonds  as  shown  in  the  balance  of  payments.
ponents: equity investment, reinvested earnings,  and private nonguaranteed loans. Information on  * Portfolio Investment flows are net and include
and short- and long-term  intercompany loans   transactions by nonresidents in local equity markets  non-debt-creating portfolio equity flows (the sum of
between  parent firms and   foreign  affiliates,  is gathered from national authorities, investment  country funds, depository receipts, and direct pur-
However, many countries fail to report reinvested  positions of mutual funds, and market sources.  chases of shares by foreign investors) and portfolio
earnings, and the definition of long-term loans dif-  Thevolumeof portfolioinvestmentreportedbythe  debt flows (bond issues purchased by foreign
fers among countries. Foreign direct investment, as  World Bank generally differs from that reported by  investors). * Bank and trade-related lending covers
distinguished from  other kinds of international  other sources because of differences in the classifi-  commercial bank lending and other private credits.
investment, is made to establish a lasting interest  cation of economies, in the sources, and in the
in or effective management control over an enter-  method used to adjust and disaggregate reported  Data sources
prise in another country. As a guideline, the IMF sug-  information. Differences in reporting arise particu-
gests that investments should account for at least  larly for foreign investments in local equity markets,       The principal source of infor-
10 percent of the voting stock to be counted as for-  where there is a lack of clarity, adequate disaggre-  ( -1  J  mation for the table is reports
eign direct investment. In practice many countries  gation, and lack of comprehensive and periodic  Dtx .#1, 1 11f,f II to the World Bank's DRS from
seta higher threshold. Because of the multiplicity of  reporting in many developing economies. By con-           member economies that have
sources and differences in definitions and reporting  trast, capital flows through international debt and        received IBRD loans or IDA
methods, there may be more than one estimate of  equity instruments are well recorded, and the differ-           credits. These data are com-
foreign direct investment for a country and data may  ences in reporting lie primarily in differences in the     piled and published in the
not be comparable across countries.            classification of economies, in the exchange rates                World Bank's annual Global
Foreign direct investment data do not give a com-  used, in whether particular tranches of the transac-  Development Finance. Additional information has been
plete picture of international investment in an econ-  tions are included, or in the treatment of certain off-  drawn from the data files of the World Bank and the IMF.
omy. Balance of payments data on foreign direct  shore issuances.
investment do not include capital raised in the host
economies, which has become an important source
of financing for investment projects in some develop-
ing countries. There is also increasing awareness that
foreign direct investment data are limited because
they capture only cross-border investment flows
involving equity participation and omit nonequity
cross-border transactions such as intrafirm flows of
goods and services. For a detailed discussion of the
data issues see the World Bank's World Debt Tables
1993-94 (volume 1, chapter 3).
Portfolio flow data are compiled from several offi-
cial and market sources, including Euromoney data-
bases and publications, Micropal Inc., Lipper
Analytical Services, published reports of private
investment houses, central banks, national securi-
ties and exchange commissions, national stock
exchanges, and the World Bank's Debtor Reporting
System (DRS).
1998 World Development Indicators    337



~ Net financial flows from Deveiopment
6.9 Assistance Committee members
Official                Other                          Private                        Total net
development              official                         flows                           flows
assistance               flows
Contributions                 Foreign  Bintersl Mu.,,lateral  Priate
Bilateral  Bilateral  to mnultilateral         direct   portft, o  portfoJro  export  Net grarnts
Ton-al   grants   loans   institutions        Total  investment investmnent investmenit  credits  by NGCs
$ millions, 1996
Australia                   1.121     899        0       223        220       0        0         0      0          0       76      1,417
Austria                       557     353       59       145        335     938      247         0      0        691       47      1,878
Belgium                       913     528        2       384         94   4,528      461     4~194      0       -127       60      5.595
Canada                      1,795    1,392     -35       439        489   1,859    2,024      -154      0        -11      302      4,446
Denmark                     1,772    1,074     -16       715        -48     188      199         0      0        -11       36      1,949
Finland                       408     218       -4       194        244     472      257       162      0         53        0      1.124
France                      7,451    5,634.    120.1,697          .-8    1,1       4,5       5,5               1.106        0     18,283
Germany                     7.601    4,507      29     3,066        194  12,336    3,456     6,980    187      1,712    1,044     21,175
Ireland                       179     114        0        65          0     125        0       125      0          0       568       371
Italy                       2,416     530      281     1,604      1,78      289      457     1,642      0     -1,810       31      4,713
Japan.9439                        5.   38.2,770      .1.232      .972.469          8,7      19,981   -599       -485      232     38,088
Luxembourg                     82      57        0        26          0       0        0         0      0          0       16         99
Netherlands                 3,246    2,509    -234       971         57   5,858    6,225      -912   1,044      -499      353      9,514
New Zealand                   122     102        0        20          0       9        9         0      0          0       16        147
Norway                      1,311     935        9       367         -1     294      202         0      0         92       80      1,685
Portugal                      218     126       31        61        135     593      482         0      0        i11       -1        944
Spain                       1,251     563      325       364          0   2,865    2.865         0      0          0      122      4,239
.wdn1,999                           1,395        0      604          0     -17      339         0       0      -357       22       2,004
Switzerland                 1,026     726       -4       304          0     395    1,316         0   -583       -338      182      1,604
United Kingdom              3,199    1.782       8     1,409         81  18,196    5,852  .12,120       a        224      382     21,859
United States               9,377    7,672    -755     2,460      1,119  42,848   23,430    19.472   -997        943    2.509     55,853
Total                      55,485   36,553    2,585   16,347      5,562 130.360   61,'051   68,963   -948      1,295    5,577    196,984
Official                Other  [                       Private                        Total net
aid                  official                         flows                          flows
flows
Cont,ibutions                 Foreign  Bilateral  Multi[ateral  Prlvate
Bilateral  Bilateral  to mnultilateral         d,rect   portfci.c  Po tfollo  neport  Net g,atns
Total    grants   loans   institujtions        Totai  investmnent rinvestment investment  credits  by NGOs
$ millions, 1996
Australia                     10        7        0         2         0        0        0         0      0          0       (1        10
Austria                      226      185        0       40          4      355      355         0      0          0       5        590
Belgium                       70       14        0       56         -4    4,109     169      4,007      0        -67       0      4,175
Canada                       181      180        0        0      -132         3        0         0      0          3       052
Denmnark                     120      109       9        11         26      248     248          0      0          0       5        398
Finland                       57       37       3         7         -7      146     194       -64       0         16       0        195
France                       709        0       0       293          0    4,860    1,192     3,886      0)     -218        0        709
Germany                    1,329      832      11       443       90       ,71 -3.648         171       0       852       61      6,969
Ireland                        1        1       0         0          0        0        0         0      0          0       a          1
Italy                        294       12       0       283         64      2.18    153       706       0      -641        0        677
Japan                        184      141       10       27        898    1.928    1,315     1,652      0     -1,039       0      3,010
Luxembourg                     2        2       0         0          0        0        0         0      0          0       0          2
Netherlands                   13       13       0         0         -6      -36       45      -78       0-2                0        -29
New Zealand                    0        0       0         0          0        0        0         0      0          0       0          0
Norway                        50       50       0         0          0     -193    -201          0      0          8       0       -143
Portugal                      18        0       0        18          3       -4        3         0      0         -7       0         17
Spain                          2        2       0         0          0    -102     -102          0      0a                 0       -100
Sweden                       178      127       0        51         23     -107     -84          0      0       -23        094
Switzerland.                  97       76       0        21          4      706     705     ~    0      0          0       a        807
United Kingdom               362      133       0       228          0    3,952     390      3,500      0         62      13      4,327
United States              1,694    1,612      31        82        -24    2,652    2,226      578       0      -152      295      4,617
Total                      5,596    3,535       63     1,561L    1,758   23,406   10,255    14,358      0     -1,207     379     26,279
338   1998 World Developmnent Indicators



6.9                    (
The high-income members of the Organisation for     ODA. Part II of the list, created after the collapse of the  * Official development assistance (ODA) comprises
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) are    Soviet Union, monitors the flow of concessional assistance  grants and loans net of repayments that meetthe DAC def-
the main (though not only) source of external finance for  to transition economies that are not considered eligible for  inition of ODA and are made to countries and territories in
developing countries. This table provides an overview of  ODA but that nevertheless receive ODA-like flows. Under a  part I of the DAC list of aid recipients. * Official aid com-
the flow of financial resources from members of the  procedure agreed to in 1993, countries with relatively higher  prises grants and ODA-like loans net of repayments to
OECD's Development Assistance Committee (DAC) to   incomes are moving from part I to part 11 status. To differ-  countries and territories in part 11 of the DAC list of aid
official and private recipients in developing countries.  entiate assistance to the two groups of recipients, ODA-like  recipients. * Bilateral grants are transfers in money or in
DAC exists to help its member countres coordinate their  flows to part 11 countries are termed official aid.  kind for which no repayment is required. * Bilateral loans
development assistance and to encourage the expan-    The data in the table were compiled from replies by DAC  are loans extended by governments or official agencies
sion and improve the effectiveness of the aggregate  member countries to questionnaires issued by the DAC  that have a grant element of at least 25 percent and for
resources made available to developing and transition  Secretariat. Net flows of resources are defined as gross  which repayment is required in convertible currencies or
economies. In this capacity DAC monitors the flow of all  disbursements of grants and loans minus repayments on  in kind. * Contributions to multilateral agencies are con-
financial resources, but its main concern is official  earier loans. Because the data are based on donor coun-  cessional funding received by multilateral institutions from
development assistance (ODA). DAC has three criteria  try reports, they do not provide a complete picture of the  DAC members in the form of grants or capital subscrip-
for ODA: It is undertaken by the official sector. It pro-  resources received by developing countres, for three rea-  tions. * Other official flows are transactions by the offi-
motes economic development or welfare as a main     sons. First, flows from DAC members are only part of the  cial sector whose  main  objective is other than
objective. It is provided on concessional terms, with a  aggregate resource flows to developing countries. Second,  development or whose grant element is less than 25 per-
grant element of at least 25 percent on loans.     the data that record contributions to multilateral institu-  cent. * Private flows consist of flows at market terms
This definition excludes military aid and nonconces-  tions measure the flow of resources made available to  financed from private sector resources. They include
sional flows from official creditors, which are considered  those institutions by DAC members, not the flow of  changes in holdings of private long-term assets by resi-
other official flows. It includes capital projects, food aid,  resources from those institutions to developing countries.  dents of the reporting country and private grants by non-
emergency relief, peacekeeping efforts, and technical  Third, because some of the countries and territories on the  governmental organizations, net of subsidies from the
cooperation. Also included are contr.butions to multilat-  DAC recipient list are normally classified as high income,  official sector. * Foreign direct investment is investment
eral institutions, such as the United Nations and its spe-  the reported flows may overstate the resources available  by residents of DAC member countries to acquire a last-
cialized agencies, and concessional funding to the  to low- and middle-income economies. High-income coun-  ing management interest (at least 10 percent of voting
multilateral development banks, including the World  tries receive only a small fraction of all development assis-  stock) in an enterprise operating in the recipient country.
Bank's International Development Association.       tance, however.                                     The data in the table reflect changes in the net worth of
DAC maintains a list of countries and territories that  Net disbursements of ODA by some important   subsidiaries in recipient countries whose parent company
are aid recipients. Part I of the list comprises countries  donor countries that are not DAC members are shown  is in the DAC source country. * Bilateral portfolio invest-
and territories considered by DAC members to be eligible for  in table 6.9a.                            ment covers bank lending and the purchase of bonds,
shares, and real estate by residents of DAC member coun-
________________________                                                                                tries in recipient countries. * Multilateral portfolio
investment records the transactions of private banks and
Official development assistance by non-DAC donors                                                    nonbanks in DAC member countries in the securities
S millions                               issued by multilateral institutions. * Private export cred-
1992       1993      1994       1995       1996             its are loans that are extended to recipient countries by the
OEm' re,,r.4,r .r   ,                                                                                private sector in DAC member countries for the purpose of
*:                             -                                                                  promoting trade and are supported by an official guaran-
fY~        1               |1-; I; Jtee. * Net grants by NGOs are grants by nongovernmen-
tal organizations, net of subsidies from the official sector.
, rhZ-              lic ±11: I            o J  1"9
* Total net flows comprise ODA or official aid flows, other
official flows, private flows, and net grants by NGOs.
t     rr.r vA:.                                               -                  ?         C:       Data sources
''rr,a, icr, SrI                                                                                    Data on financial flows are compiled by DAC and pub-
lished in its annual statistical report, Geographical Dis-
Note: China also provides aid, but does not disclose the amount.                                    tribution of Financial Flows to Aid Recipients, and the DAC
a. Comprisps total aid disbursements to both part I countries (official o   -  ....'  . -, . -.. ;. ,.,  chairman's annual report, Development Co-operation.
(official aid).
Source: OECD.
a998 World Development Indicators        339



Aid flows from Development Assistance
6.10 Committee members
Net official                                  Aid               Untied
development assistance                         appropriations          aid
annual average %  Per capita of
chanage inveolume'  donordcunry',  % of centra         ft of totai
$ millions         % of GNP     1.991-92 to        $           governmnt budget    ODA commitments
.1991     1996     1.99±.    1996   .1995-960   1991     ±996      1991     1996  I1991        1995
$ millions, 1996
Australia                 1,050    1,121     0.38      0.30      1.7       61        62       1.3      1.2      45.5      0.
Austria                    547       557     0.34      0.24      1.5       70       69        0.6      0.0       0.4     12.1
Belgu                      81        93      04        0.4      -2.6       84       91       00         .0      14.7      0.0
Canada                    2,604    1,795     0.45      0.32     -3.3       96       60        1.9      1.4       6.0     14.9
Denmark                   1,200    1,772     0.96      1.04      3.5      233      336        3.2      2.7      29.5     47.8
Finland                    930       408     0.80      0.34    -14.2      186       80        2.0      1.0      13.2     25.9
France                    7,38     7,45      0.62      0.48     -2.2      129      128        3.       00       5.8      26
Germany                   6,890.7.601        0.40       .,33    -2.2       86       93        0.0      0.0      45.5     23.0
Ireland                      72      179     0.19      0.31     18.8       21       50        0.7      0.0       0.0      0.0
Italy                     3,347    2,416     0.30      0.20     -9.4       58       42        0.6      0.0       2.3     22.0
Japan                    10,952    9,439     0.32      0.0      -.          8       75        1.3      0.0      13.2     59.2
Luxemnbourg                 42        82     0.33      0.44      9.2      108      211        0.0      0.0       0.0      0.0
Netherlands               2,517    3,246     0.88      0.81      0.5      167      209        0.0      3.6      34.1     42.6
New Zealand                100       122     0.25      0.21      0.5       29       34        0.5      0.6      31.7      0.0
Norway                    1.178    1,311     1.13      0.85     -0.2      276      300        2.0      1.8      41.6     42.1
Portugal                   205       218     0.30      0.21     -0.2       19       22        0.0      0.0       0.0     54.7
Spain                     1,262    1,251     0.24      0.22      2.3       32       32        0.6      1.0       0.0      0.0
Sweden                    2,116    1,999     0.90      0.84.    -2.2      246.     226        2.7      0.0      65.8     57.9
Switzerland                863     1.026     0.36      0.34      0.3      126      145        3.1      2.8      55.4     47.7
United Kingdom            3,201    3,199     0.32      0.27      1 .1      56       54        1.2      1.1      15.3     19.2
Un ited"States           11.262    9,377     0.20      0.12     -8.0       44       35        0.0      0.0      20.8      0.0
Total                    56,670   55,485     0.34      0.25     -3.2       74       68        0.8      1.6      29.3     32.3
Net official
aid
Per capita of
annual average ft        dorer courtry'
$ millions                      % of GNP            change in volumre'    $              $
1991            1996            1991           1996      1.991-92 to 1995-96   1991           1996
$ millions, 1996
Australia                    9              10            0.00           0.00            -2.0              0               1
Austria                    290             226            0.18           0.10            -9.0             37              28
Belgium                   274              70             0.14           0.03           -25.3             28               7
Canada                     145             181            0.03           0.03             4.1              5               6
Denmark                     65            120             0.05           0.07            12.2             13              23
Finland                    114              57            0.10           0.05            -3.7             23              11
France                    457             709             0.04           0.05            1-1.3             8              12
Germany                  2,37            1,329            0.15           0.06            -5.3             33              16
Ireland                    15               1            0.04            0.00            -5.3              4               0
Italy                     382             294            0.03            0.02            -3.47 
Japan                      110             184            0.00           0.00            -1.1              1               1
Luxembourg                   5               2            0.04           0.0            -36.7             12 
Netherlands                152              13            0.05           0.00            -3.7             10               1
New Zealand                  1              0             0.00           0.00           -73.8              0               0
Norway                      25             50            0.02            0.03            10.6              6              11
Potugal                   22              18            0.03            0.02            -4.3              2               2
Spain                      162               2            0.03           0.00           -69.3              4               0
Sweden                      50            178             0.02           0.07            -6.2              6              20
Switzerland                 55              97            0.02           0.03             2.5              8              14
United Kingdom            327             362             0.03           0.03             3.8              6               6
United States            1,832           1,694           0.30.02                          1.9              7               6
Total                    7,128           5,596            0.04           0.03            -2.4              9               7
a. At 1996 exchange rates and prices.
340   1998 World Developmnent Indicators



6a10
As part of its work the Development Assistance  ent country when the multilateral institution makes a  * Netofficialdevelopmentassistanceandnetofficial
Committee (DAC) of the Organisation for Economic  disbursement.                                  aid record the actual international transfer by the donor
Co-operation and Development (OECD) assesses the   Aid-to-GNP ratios, aid per capita, and aid appro-  of financial resources or of goods or services valued at
aid performance of member countries relative to the  priations as a percentage of donor government bud-  the cost to the donor, less any repayments of loan prin-
size of their economies. As measured here, aid com-  gets are calculated by the OECD. The denominators  cipal duringthe same period. Data are shown at current
prises bilateral disbursements of concessional  used in calculating these ratios may differ from cor-  prices and dollar exchange rates. * Aid as a percent-
financing to recipient countries plus the provision by  responding values elsewhere in this book because of  age of GNP shows the donor's contributions of ODA
donor governments of concessional financing to mul-  differences in timing or definition.        or official aid as a share of its GNP. e Annual aver-
tilateral institutions. Volume measures, in constant  The proportion of untied aid is reported here  age percentage change In volume and aid per capita
prices and exchange rates, are used to measure the  because tying arrangements require recipients to  of donor country are calculated  using 1996
change in real resources provided over time, Aid  purchase goods and services from the donor coun-  exchange rates and prices. * Aid appropriations are
flows to part I recipients-official development assis-  try or from a specified group of countries. Tying  the share of ODA or official aid appropriations in the
tance (ODA)-are tabulated separate from official aid  arrangements may be justified on the grounds that  donor's national budget. * Untied aid is the share of
to part 11 recipients (see About the datafortable 6.9  they prevent a recipient from misappropriating or  aidthatisnotsubjecttorestrictionsbydonorson pro-
for more information on the distinction between ODA  mismanaging aid receipts, but they may also be  curement sources.
andl official aid).                             motivated by a desire to benefit suppliers in the
Measures of aid flows from the perspective of  donor country. The same volume of aid may have dif-  Data sources
donors differ from aid receipts by recipient countries.  ferent purchasing power, depending on the relative
This is because the concessional funding received by  costs of suppliers in countries to which the aid is tied       The data in this table appear
multilateral institutions from  donor countries is  and the degree to which each recipient's aid basket              in the   DAC   chairman's
recorded as an aid disbursement by the donor when  is untied. Thus tying arrangements may prevent                    report,  Development  Co-
the funds are deposited with the multilateral institu-  recipients from obtaining the best value for their           operation. The OECD also
tion and recorded as a resource receipt by the recipi  money and so reduce the value of the aid received.            makes its data available on
x                gI diskette, magnetic tape, and
the Internet.
Aid flows are failing
$ billions                                   % of donor GNP
ur5ed States                                  uinea Slare-
r'rrnr Gi,rr,.k -
Frsn,,:e                                      FrL"..:e
Netheru.ans                                   rJ*EthInrla
UrLfed 9,ngo,rn                               unTei l,.rpg&m
lalI~iral
S^eder, m                                      -.ae
marp 0r i                                                -en
Spam,                                         Sp,r.n
A4SEM3t                                       A ui,rau 3
6-tZedand                                    -S..eilana
Selgiurr. -e -wrr,
0    2   4    6   8   10 12                   0   0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
* 1991 0 1996
Source: OECD and World Sank staff estimates.
Official development assistance to developing countries has declined over the past five years. Not only has the
dollar vatue fafien, but many DAC members now provide less aid as a portion of their gross domestic output.
1995 World Development Indicators      341



6.11 Aid dependency
Net official    Aid per capita                      Aid dependency ratios
development
assistance and
official aid
Aid as           Ad as            Aid as
%of         ~~~~~% of        % of
Aid as        gross%doomest o   imports of    centtal goserrment
S millions  J       $             % of GNP        .rvestmrent   goods ass services  e,penditures
±991    1996     1991    1996     1991    1996    1991    1996     1991    1996    1991     1996
Albania                  324.2    222.0    99       68     29.2     8.1    470.1    40.2     95.3    19.8      ..     24.1
Algeria                  340.0    309.0    13       11      0.8     0.7      2.4     2.5      3.2
Angola                   279.7    544.2    29       49      9.6    15.8     51.5    72.0      6.6    12.0
Argentina                299.5    277.4     9        8      0.2     0.1      1.1     0.5      1.7     0.8     1.4      0.6
Armenia                    2.7    294.9     1       78      0.1    18.2      0.2    146.8    37.0    32.0
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan                 0.0    106.3     0       14      0.0     3,0       2.3   11.9       ..     8.5
Bangladesh              1,8899.1  1,254.5  17       10      8.1     3.9     70.2    23.2     47.3    16.1
Belarus                  187.0     73.0    18        7      0.5     0.4      1.8     1.5      7.7     1.1
Belgiumn
Reni'n                   269&4    292.8    55       52     14.5    13.5     98.6    77 5     41.2    49. 7
Bolivia                  512.6    849.9    78      112     10.8    13.3     74.0    71.6     36.4    42.6    57.0     49.5
Bosnia and Herzegovina     0.0    811.6     0      184        .       .        .       .       .
Botswana                 136.0     80.8   103       55      3.4     1.7     10.9     6.8      5.7     3.6    10.2      5.4
Brazil                   182.6    408.2     1       3       0 .0    0.1      0.2     0.3      0.5     0.5    0.2
Bulgaria                 316.0    170.0    37       20      3.2     1.9     12.8    12.7      7.3     2.7    10.3      3.6
Burkina Faso             423.7    418.2    46       39     15.2    16.5     73.7    64.8     55.8    83.7    86.1
Burundi                  259.1    203.8    46       32     22.4    18.1    154.0   203.2     72.4    96.9   77.2      81.8
Cambodia                  91.0    452.9    10       44      5.6    14.5     59.3    70.0     39.2    33.5
Cameroon                 518.5    413.3    44       30      4.5     4.9     25.0    28.4     18.7    16.8    20.3     42.2
Canada
Central African Republic  174.7   166.9    58       50     12.8    16.1     99.8   280.7     52.3    62.3
Chad                     265.8    305.2    46       46     20.2    26.9    274.0   134.9     66.7    50.7    65.9
Chile                    125.5    203.4     9       14      0.4     0.3      1.5     1.0      1.1     0.9     1.7      1.4
China                   1,998.7  2,617.3    2        2      0.5     0.3      1.5     0.8      3.5     1.5     5.3      6.1
*Hong IKong, China        36.1    13.2      6       2       0.0     0.0      0.2     0.0       .
Colomnbi'a               122.5    250.8     4        7      0.3     0.3      1.9     1.4      1.4     1.2     2.6
Congo, Dem. Rep.         476.2    167.4    12        4      5.,7    2.8     94.0    38.5                     25.6     41.7
Congo, Rep.              133.7    429.7    57      159      5.9    22.9     24.9    29.6      7.9    16.6      -
Costa Rica               174.1    -6.8     56      -2       3.2    -0.1     12.3    -0.3     6.9      0.6   12.5      1.0
Ci5te dIlvoire           632.7    967.6    51       67      6.9     9.9     82.0    68.1     14.6    19.5
Croatia                    0.0    133.4     0       28      0.0     0.7      0.0     4.7      0.0     1.3     0.0      1.5
Cuba                      37.6     67.8     4        6        .       .        .       .       .
Czech Republic           231.0    122.0    22       12      0.9     0.2      3.2     0.6      0.5     0.3     0.6      0.6
DenmaIrk
Dominican Republic        66.5    105.8     9       13      0.9     0.8      3.8     3.3      2.7     2.0     7.9      6.7
Ecuador                  238.0    260.9    23       22      2.2     1.5      9.1     7.8      5.63    4.5    14.3      8.3
Egypt, Arab Rep.        5024.7  2,211.8  .     .4  37 .    14.3     33      64.2    19.7     26.4    10.9   44.4      14.0
El Salvador              294.2    317.2    57      55       5.6     3.1     36.0    19.3     16.7     8.0   48.1      22.6
Er itrea                   0.0    157.2     0      43        ..       .                .      0.0    27.1      -
Estonia                   15.0     62.0    10       42      0.3     1.4      1.0     5.4     14.4     1.6     9.2      4.3
Ethiopi'a               1,097.3   849.4    21      15      20.6    14.3    287.8    67.6    84.2     49.1  -51.4
Finland
France
Gabon                    143.4    126.5   145      112      3.0     2.6     10.0    11.0     6.0      5.5     8.7
Gambia, The              102.7     38.5   107      34      31.6    13.4    157.2    62.6     38.3    12.7   132.1
Georgia                    0.2    318.4     0       59      0.0     7.1      0.0   121.1       ..    23.6
Germany
Ghana                    882.1    653.6    58       37     13.6    10.5     84.2    55.2     49,5    25.6    95.4
Greece
Guatemala                198.6    216.1    21       20      2.1     1.4     14.8    10.7      9.      5.7    23.4     16.5
Guinea                   382.0    295.5    64      44      13.6     7.8     77.5    57.6     31,2    28.1    58.9
Guinea-Bissau            115.5    179.9   118      164     49.4    67.5    144.9   304.3    100.6   122.0
Haiti                    181.9    375.2    28       51      5.6    14.4     49.4  2,117.2    32.9    47.4
Honduras                 302.5    367.3    58       60     10.5     9.2     40.0    28.6     21.2    19.4
342   1998 World Development Indicators



6.11
Net official     Aid per capita                         Aid dependency ratios
development
assistance and
official aid
Aid as            Aid as            Aid as
% of              % Of              % Of
Aid as         gross dome-stic    imports of      central governmnent
$ millions           $% of GNP                       investment      goods and services  expenditures
1991     1996     1991     1996     1991     1996     ±991     ±996     1.991    1996     1991     1996
Hungary                    626.0    165.0      61       18       2.0 ....04.4      9.2 ...1.5        4.8.     0.8 ..
India                     2,745.0  1,936.2      3  ...  .2.  .   1..1  ... .0.6  .. 4.8     2.1      9.3  ..  3.3  ... 5:9      3.3
Indonesia                 1,874.4  1,120.6     10        6       1.5     .0.5 ..     . 5.0  1.6...   4.9      2.3     8:8       3.4
Iran, Islamic Rep.         194.4     171.0      4        3       0.2      0.1      0.5..I........ 0.6         1.2     0.1       0.5
Iraq55                        .     387.4      30       18                                                          -..   :..........  .
Ireland
Israel                    1,749.5  2,216.7    353     .389..   .. 2.8     0.4     11.6      1.6      6.8      5.2     7.8       4.8
Jamaica                    162.2      59.9     67 ...... 24 ...   .4.9    1.4     16.7      5.1      5.9      2.6.......
Jordan                     9207.7   513j.7   .260 1..   19      23,8      7.2     84.9     20.2     23.6      8.8    59.4      25.5
Kazakhrstan                111.5    124.0       7        8       04       0:6....... 0.1    2.6      0.2... 1.6 ..      :...       ..
Kenya                      921.2.   606.1 .....38.      22.    .12:1      68      53.9 ...32.4 ...333        165     396       33.3
Kore.,Oem. Rep.              9.0     42.8       0        2        .         .        .
Korea, Rep.                 54.8 -.. 146.9 ...  1       -3       0.0      0.0      0.0     -0.1      0.1     -0.1     0.1      -0.2
Kuwait               .....I..4.5 . ....3.1 ..   3.       2..     0,0      0!0      0:0      0-2      00  ..   0.0     00        0.0
Lao PDR                    143.3    338.6      35       72      13.9     18.2              59.8     57.3     46.4
Latvia                       3.0      79.0      1       32       0.0 .......1.6    0.1      8:4 ....84        24                4'9
Lebanon                    1322.2   232.8      36..     57..     2'.7     1.8     15.4      6~0      3.3      2.9     8,2.      5'2
Les tho                    1626.2.  107.2 ....69        53... 12..1       8.7.    27.6     11.6 ..  13.9     12.8    35.9
Lithuania                    4.0      89.0      1. ....24        0.0O     1.2      0.1      5.5      2.6      1.7   .10.9       4.5
Macedonia, FYR    0. . ... ..0:   .. 105.5 .....0       53       0.0      5.3      0.0     26.0      0.0 ...5.7
Madagascar.4,55.9... 3645.5                 .  38       27      17.9      9.1    1613.3.. 878.8     54.0     31.1   112.5      52.9
Malawi                     524.6     500.8     60   .... 50.. .24.6      23.2    119.6    132.4     60.6     48.9
Malaysia                 ..289.5  .-451,.6     16...   -22.      0.6     -0.....795.  1.7  -1.1..    0.7      0.1     2.1      -2.1
Mali                       457.7   .505.1 .....53       51      19.2     19.4     83.0     71.7     53.3 .. 56.2 ..      ..
Mauritania            ......219.9  ..273.6    10.7     117      20.6     26-4.4.  108.4  .113.8 .   37.6..   41.3
Mauritius                   67.5      19.6     63       17       2:4      0.5      8.3      1.8      34..     07 ..10:6   .....2.0
Mexico                     278.3    289.1       3        3       0 1      01       0.4      0.4 ......0.4     0.2     0.6.      0
Moldova..-                     0..  .. 37.0  ... ....0  . -... .9...... 0.0   2.1   00.0    7~.3 . .. 1.8     2.9        ......
Mongolia                    69.5    202.6      31       81      24.2     21.3     80.8     93.0     13.4     37.8    51.3      96.4
Morocco                   1,232.4   650.8 ..   50       24       4.6      1.8     19.5      8.6... 12.8       5.2    15:9
Mozambique                1,070.3   922.9      74  ...  51      83.8     59.8    163.4    111.5     88.4     87.8 ...      ..    ....
Myanmar                    179.4      56.2      4        1I17.3                                               9.1     4.1       1.3
Namibia                    184.4     188.6    133      119       6.9      5.7     38.8     29.4     10.5      9.1    18.3
Nepaf         ... .....453.4 ..491:4.4 .. 24     18      12.0      8.9      58.8    38.8     52.2     23.8    743.3  ... 46.0
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua  ....     . ... 84 1:.1  95.0.21          212 ..  64.1      57.1    239.8    174.5     70.3   .. 59.3. 176.5     105.6
Niger                      377.0    258.7      48       28      16.5     13.2    176.4    134.8     57.6     53.0
Nigeria                    262.6    191.8       3....    2       1:1      0.6      4.1      3.2      2.0      1.5
Norway 
Oman.....         ...  152.2.. . 61.6 ..  9       28       0.2      0.6       0.9     5.0      0.3      1.0     0.4       1.3
Pakistan                  1,370.9   8.76.8 ....12        7..     2.9      1.4     15.9  ...7.3      11.6      5.1    13..7.     6.0
Panama                     101.9     895.5   . 42.      33       1.9      1.1      9.1..    3.7    ..1.5      1.0     7.3       2.5
Papua New Guinea          .396.8    385.0    -101       87      10.8      8.0     38..2    27.7     17.5     14.0    29~6      20.2
Paraguay            ~~1460.0   97.1     34       20       2.4 .... 1.0      10.1     45.5     5.8      2.6    19 5
Peru                       614.0.   409.8      28       17       2 2      0 7._   12.6      2.9      9.6      34     11.2       4.1
Philippines               1,053.0   8832.2.    16       12.   ..2.3       1.0     11.5 ....4.4       6.5      2.5    12.1       5.8
Poland                     2,508      830       0       22       0.0      0:6 ..    0.0      30.0    0.0      1.9       .       1.5
Portugal 
Puerto   Rico.                     ..  ...   .  .. ..  ... ...  ... . ..                    . . ...  ...
Romania                    321.0 ..218.0 .... .14       10       11       0.6      4.0      24.4      .       1.7     34.1       .
Russian Federation         564.0   1,225.0      4        0       0.1      0.0      0.3      0.0      0.0      0.0               0.0
1996 World Developmnent Indicators 343



S ~6.11
Net official     Aid per capita                        Aid dependency ratios
development
assistance and
official aid
Aid as            Aid as            Aid as
% of              % of              % of
Aid as        gross dom estic     imports of     centrai government
$ mitllons           $              % of GNP        investment      goods and services  expenditures
1991     1996     1991.    1996     1991.   1996     1991     1996     1991     1996     1991    1996
Rwanda                    363.6     674.3     51      100      19.9     51.2    166.8    371.9    101.9    176.5    95.5
Saudi Arabia                44.7     28.5      3         1      0.0      0.0      0.2      0.1      0.1      0.1
Senegal                    639.0    581.5     85        68     12.0     11.6     94.8     68.3     33.4     32.9-
Sierra Leone               104.9    195.5     26        42     14.8     21.2    123.3    223.2     47.8     78.3   100.3    140.4
Singapore                    7.8      0.0      3         0.     0.0      0.0-     0.1      0.0      0.0      0.0      0.1      0.1
Slovak Republic            114.0    141.0     22        26      1.1      0.7      3.4      2.       0.7      1.1
Sloveni'a                    0.0     82.2       0       41      0.0      0.4      0.0      1.9      0.0      0.8
South Afri'ca                0.0    361.1      0        10      0.0      0.3      0.0      1.6      0.0      1.0      0.0      0.9
Spain
Sri Lanka                  890.5    494.5     52        27     10.1      3.6     43.3     13.9     23.4      7.7    33.8     13.0
Sudan                      880.9    230.3     36         8     12.3       ..     94.9       ..     70.7     15.8
Sweden
Switzerland
Syrian Arab Republic       381.4    225.3     30        16      3.0      1.4     18.6       ..      8.6      3.2      5.6     2.8
Tajikistan                   0.0    113.0       0       19      0.0      5.6      0.0      20.3     3.7     12.9-
Tanzania                 1,080.7    893.7      41       29     24.9.    15.6     86.7     84.8     61.4     38.4
Thailand                   721.5    832.0     13        14      0.7      0.5      1.7       1.1     1.6      0.9      5.1     2.8
Togo                       202.2    166.0     56        39     12.9     12.0     73.7     85.4     22.2   25.5
Trinidad and Tobago       -1          6.       -1       13      0.       03      -0.2       2.0    -0. 1     1.0      0.2      1. 7
Tunisia                    357.2    126.4     43        14      2.8      0.7     10.5      2.7      5.6      1.3      8.1.    2.0
Turkey                   1,622.5    232.5     28         4      1.1      0.1      4.7      0.5      5.8      0.4      5.1     0.5
Turkmenistan                 0.0     23.8      0)        5      0.0      0.5      0.0       ..      0.0      1.6
Uganda                     666.8    683.65    39        35     20.4     11.3    132.3     68.3     91.1     41.0
Ukraine                    368.0    379.0      7         7      0.5      0.9      1.7      3.8       ..      1.7
United Arab Emirates        -5.9      0.0     -3         0      0.0      0.0     -0.1I    -0.1 I      .        .     -0. 1   -0.2
United Kingdom
United States
Uruguay                     51.5     51.5     17        16      0.5      0.3      4.3      2.3      2.1      1.1     1.9      0.9
Uzbekistan                   0.0     87.2      0         4      0.0      0.4      0.0      2.1      0.2      1.7
Venezuela                   30.7     44.2       2        2      0.1      0.1      0.3      0.4      0.2      0.2      0.3     0.4
Vietnam                    237.5    927.2       4       1-2     2.5      4.0     16.5     14.2      8.6      6.8
West Bank and Gaza           0.0    593.0       .        .        .        .        .        .        .
Yemen, Rep.                300.1    260.4     22        17      6.2      4.9     37.4     17.1      9.1      7.0      8.2      6.4
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)'  159.0  681.0   1.5       64        .        .        .        .        .
Zambia                    8683.3    6.13.9   110        67     27.7     18.6    237.4    120.2     48.8       ..    44.7     87.1
Zimbabwe                   393.3    374.2     39        33      6.3      5.2     23.9     27.6     15.4     19.8
lVer-71131  ~ ~ ~ ~~~            . 
Low income              28,568.2  28,186.8    10         8      3.1      1.8     11.6      5.1     15.7      7.
Loermdle  inc"come....  20,832.9     ~.........           ...... ' 16,145.9.20.14  1.2   0.8.. 4.0..  3.2   6.3 .
Uper middle income     5,216.6   3,257.3     12        7      0.4      0.3      1.        14      14       1.
L~o-w ..&.. mi d"dl e in"co..m"e ........6'1'1"6"0" .0... 54',03"5 .. 8..... 1..4..  11  1.5   0.9  5.7  3.4  7.0  .
East Asia & Pacific  ~7',54"1".2  8',3"59".'5  5   5      1.0     0.6        ...              3.6 . .   ..2.6.        ....
Europe&Cenral Asia  ,890.3  8,98.2  19  17      0.8      0.6      2.       23       2.       .7
'La't in ..Am ..er'i'ca ..& ...Ca'r'ib.  5,850.2  8,025.I  13  17  0.5   0.5      2'.6     1.7      2.7      1.9
Middle East & N. Africa  10,311.9  5,342.5  43  19     2.4      13       9.2        .       .        .
So ut h As I'a .......   ........  8',1"14.1...  5,4"9"9.9"  ..7....  4...  2.3  1.1  1064.8       15.1      5.6
Nihincome              2,653.6  3,091.5      ..                 ..                ..                ..
a. Data tar 1991 include net tiows to the states of the former Yugoslavia: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia. Macedonia FYR, and Slovenia. 5). Includes aid not allocated by country or region.
344  1.998 World Development Indicators



6.11
Ratios of aid to GNP, investment, imports, or public  assistance, peacekeeping assistance, or technical coop-  * Net official development assistance consists of dis-
spending provide a measure of the recipient country's  eration), each of which may have a very different effect on  bursements of loans (net of repayments and principal)
dependency on aid. But care must be taken in drawing  the economy. Technical cooperation expenditures do not  and grants made on concessional terms by official agen-
policy conclusions. Forforeign policy reasons some coun-  always directly benefit the economyto the extentthatthey  cies of the members of DAC and certain Arab countries
tries have traditionally received large amounts of assis-  defray costs incurred outside the country on the salaries  to promote economic development and welfare in recip-
tance. Thus aid dependency ratios may reveal as much  and benefits of technical experts and the overhead costs  ient economies listed as developing by DAC. Loans with
about the interests of donors as they do about the need  of firms supplying technical services.     a grant element of more than 25 percent are included in
of recipients. In general, aid dependency ratios in Sub-  Because the table relies on information from donors, it  ODA. ODA also includes technical cooperation and assis-
Saharan Africa are much higher than those in other  is not consistent with information recorded by recipients  tance. * Official aid refers to aid flows net of repay-
regions, and they increased during the 1980s. These  in the balance of payments, which often excludes all or  ments from official donors to the transition economies
high ratios are due only in part to the volume of aid flows.  some technical assistance-particularly payments to  of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union and to
Many African countries experienced severe erosion in  expatriates made directly by the donor. Similarly, grant  certain advanced developing countries and territories as
their terms of trade during the 1980s, which, along with  commodity aid may not always be recorded in trade data  determined by DAC. Official aid is provided under terms
weak policies, contributed to falling incomes, imports,  or in the balance of payments. Although ODA estimates in  andconditionssimilartothoseforODA. * Aidpercapita
and investment. Thus the increase in aid dependency  balanceofpaymentsstatisticsaremeanttoexcludepurely  includes both ODA and official aid. * Aid dependency
ratios reflects events affecting both the numerator and  military aid, the distinction is sometimes blurred. The def-  ratios are calculated using values in U.S. dollars con-
the denominator.                                  inition used by the country of origin usually prevails.  verted at official exchange rates. See the notes to tables
As defined here, aid includes official development  The nominal values used here tend to overstate the  1.1, 4.8, and 4.13 for definitions of GNP, gross domes-
assistance (ODA) and official aid. The data cover bilat-  amount of resources transferred. Changes in interna-  tic investment, imports of goods and services, and cen-
eral loans and grants from Development Assistance  tional prices and in exchange rates reduce the pur-  tral government expenditures.
Committee (DAC) countries, multilateral organizations,  chasing power of aid. The practice of tying aid, still
and certain Arab countries. They do not reflect aid given  prevalent though declining in importance, also reduces  Data sources
by recipient countries to other developing countries. As  the purchasing power ofaid (see Aboutthe datafortable
a result some countries that are net donors (such as  6.10).                                                             Data on aid are compiled by
Saudi Arabia) are shown in the table as aid recipients.  Aid not allocated by country or region-including                DAC and published in its annual
(See table 6.9a for aid disbursement by some non-DAC  administrative costs, research into development issues,            statistical report, Geographical
countries.)                                       and aid to nongovernmental organizations-is included                   Distribution of Financial Flows
The data in the table do not distinguish among differ-  in the world total. Thus regional and income group totals     to Aid Recipients, and in the
ent types of aid (program, project, or food aid, emergency  do not add up to the world total.                            DAC    chairman's  report,
Development Co-operation. The
_NNE                _ N                                                                                                    C OECD also makes its data avail-
Twenty countries received more than halt the official development assistance and official      able on diskette, magnetic tape, and the Internet.
aid provided in 1996
$ billions
Source: OECD.
1998 World Development Indicators       345



Distribution of net aid by Development
6.12 Assistance Committee members
Total                                 Ten major DAC donors                             Others
United                                  United
$ millions, 1996                States  Japan   France  Germany Netherlands Kingdomi  Canada  Sweden  Denmark  Norway
Albania                 114.3   17.0     2.7      3.1    33.4    8.0     1.9     0.0     0.4     2.8     0.6    44.4
Algeria                 263.0    0.0     0.9    241.1  -23.8     1.1     0.1     1.2     3.0     0.0     0.2    39.1
Angola                  294.4   25.0     5.2     11.9    25.3   30.1    16.2     2.2    36.2     1.4    25.2   115.9
Argentina                85.0    0.0    19.0      7 .8   10.3    1.3     0.3     1.1     1.6     0.7     0.0    42.9
Armenia                 115.3   88.0     0.0      5.8    6.7     7.5     1.4     0.0      2.7    0.0     1.8     1.3
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijarn              25.3    9.0     0.3      0.4    4.1     4.4     2.5     0.0     1.6     0.0     1.3     1.7
Bangladesh              644.5   41.0   174.0     27.2   84.0    67.2    71.4    37.5    28.3    36.9    39.6    37.3
Belarus                  58.6   30.0     0.2      0.0   17.9     0.0     0.0     0.0     1.2     1.3     0.1     7.9
Belgium
Benin                   164.9    7.0    44.7     44.3   22.4     8.4     0.0     8.3     0.0    14.6    -0.2    15.4
Bolivia.                590.9   94.0   .98.0.    44.6  104.1    57.1     9.3    12.5    20.0    15.2     3.0   133.1
Bosnia and Herzegovina  593.8  135.0    25.0      7.2   39.9    88.4     0.6     0.0    30.1     0.0    46.8   220.9
Botswana                 67.9    7.0    18.0      0.7    7.7     4.2     4.7     0.3    15.7     0.9     6.6     2.0
Brazil                  190.8   -7.0    65.5     12.8   39.3    21.3     6.3     3.1     2.6     5.6     2.1    39.2
Bulgaria                 57.4    9.0    13.0      0.0   25.0     1.9     1.9     0.0     0.0     0.5     0.2     6.1
Burkina Faso            269.2    9.0    14.9    100.0   41.0    37.6     0.5     7.2     0.8    22.8     2.4    33.1
Burundi                  67.8    2.0     1.0     13.0   13.8     3.3     2.6     4.3     4.9     0.4     5.8    16.6
Cambodia                252.6   28.0    71.3     52.1    14.2    8.4    12.3     2.1    16.0     0.9     5.8    41.4
Cameroon                279.6    1.0     7.1    176.0   56.4    12.0     4.0    17.0     0.0     0.0     0.5     5.7
Canada
Central African Republic  121.0  2.0    306      66.6   10.6     0.9     0.1     0.6     0.6     7.3     0.3     1.5
Chad                    121.8    2.0     0.3     73.5   25.6     2.2     0.2     0.6     0.3     0.2     0.2    16.8
Chile                   182.7   -3.0    52.9     43.5   43.0     8.3     3.0     1.5     5.3     0.4     1.3    26.6
China                 1,671.1    0.0   861.7     97.2  461.1     2.7    57.1    38.4    17.7    20.9     9.1   105.1
Hong Kong, China        10.1    0.0     5.9      2.1    1.6     0.1     0.1     0.0     0.3     0.0     0.0     0.2
Colombia                159.8   17.0    36.6     16.5   32.2     8.5     3.3     3.3     3.5     2.0     2.4    34.5
Congo, Dem. Rep.        106.3    0.0     4.5     14.9   34.4     4.7     1.9     3.0     4.5     0.0     6.3    32.3
Congo, Rep.             394.6   10.0     0.2    211.4    6.7     2.3     1.5     6.8     0.6     0.0     0 0   155.0
Costa Rica              -12.5  -44.0   -.17.5     5.1    2.2    16.0     3.4     2.3     3.1     1.0     0.7    15.0
Cote dIlvoire           449.2   14.0    58.1    300.3   34.0     0.4    10.1    20.2     0.4     0.0     2.1     9.6
Croatia                 126.5   10.0     0.1      2.3   92.5     0.9     0.4     0.0     3.4     0.0     5.5    11.4
Cuba                     26.9    0.0     1.0      2.1    2.1     0.8     0.4     1.6      I.-    0.0     1.7    16.0
Czech Republic           64.0    7.0     1.9      0.0   32.0     0.0     5.6     1.3     0.2     2.0     0.4    13.7
Denmnark
Dominican Republic       57 .3   3.0    20.0      3.9    7.0     2.5     0.0     0.3     0.7     0.2     0.5    19.
Ecuador                 207.1   12.0    47.5     11.4   27.1    11.9     2.7     1.8     2.5     0.6     1.6    87.9
Egypt, Arab Rep.      1,933.3  725.0   201.3    301.2  442.4    17.1     8.1   114.0    11.8    32.7     4.7    74.9
El Salvador             229.3   74.0    70.4      4.1   37.3     8.0     0.3     4.3     7.3     1.8     3.3    18.6
Eritrea                 124.8   15.0     2.0      4.1   22.3    11.9     2.8     3.6     2.1     4.4    13.4    43.3
Estonia                 .37.8   -1.0     0.2      0.0    9.4     0.0     4.4     1.2     9.3     2.3     2.6     7.3
Ethiopia                445.4   560.0   50.2     10.8   81.4    60.2    19.7    13.8    39.3     4.5    21.4    88.1
Finland
France
Gabon                   113.4    2.0     0.2    102.4    2.4     0.1     0.0     3.6     0.0     0.0     0.0     2.6
Gambia, The              17.2    4.0     0.1      0.9    4.0     2.1     3.3     0.3     1.2     0.3     0.3     0.8
Georgia                 112.3   55.0     0.2      2.6   33.6     9.0     2.8     0.0     1.4     0.0     1.1     6.6
Germany
Ghana                   348.9   30.0   110.0     15.9   37.1    22.7    33.6    21.0     3.9    42.3     1.6    30.9
Greece
Guatemala               141.2   -1.0    44.6      2.1   29.3    12.3     0.7     2.5     8.2     2.0    15.1    25.4
Guinea                  134.7   24.0    18.3     52.8   17.6     0.3     0.7     9.1     0.3     3.8     3.0     4.7
Guinea-Bissau           124.8    6.0    10.9     11.3    2.6     6.7     0.0     0.4     6.3     1.A     0.0    79.1
Haiti                   150.1   67.0     7.2     29.6    4.8     3.9     0.0    24.4     0.2     0.0     1.1    11.9
Honduras      155.2   27.0    ~~~~~~~~~63.8  1.4  155 10.6     16      4.5     1.7     1.0     1.2    27.0
346  1998 World Development ndicators



6.12
Total                                  Ten major DAC donors                               Others
United                                    United
$ millions, 1.996                States   Japan   France  Germany Netherlands Kinigdom  Canada  Sweden  Denmark  Norway
Hungary                   88.4  -10.0  ..'17.5     0.0     39.8      0.0     1.3     2.6     0.1     0.8      08.8... 15.7
India                 .1,025.1    6.0    579.3     14.8    51.2     58.5   154.3   .29.4    51.4    376..6   13.4.  29.2
Indonesia              1,062.6  -570.0   965.5    28.4   -106.0O  -625.5    46.1    18.0.    1.1     0.8     13.7 .214.5
Iran, Islamic Rep.       141.3  -10       5.       25      7.        .        .       .      8.3     0.0      10    1.
Iraq                     2842.2  108:.0.   0.0      2..6  ..91.5    19.3     11.5   -1.5    344      0.0       .    11.4
Ireland
Israel                 2,216.6 2,253.0    .1.6    '10.7  _-57.3    ..6:6    0.0.     0.0_    _0.6    0.0      00~O   1.4
Italy
Jamaica                    4.0    -7.0_   _12.4    -0.2    -9.6     .5.6     -  .7 . 3.7   ..0.2     0.0      0.3    5 3
Japan                                                                                         . . . ...  .. .. .I. .. ..   .. .
Jordan                   3243.3. 45.0.   123.7     19.4    67..5     6.3  ~   7.7    6.1.    1.7     0.0      01 1.. 46.9
Kazakhstan                93.5   63.0      9.0      1.7    13.3..... 02.2    3.9     1.2     0.6     0.2      0:0    0.5
Kenya                    3457.7  11.0     92.8    17.0     53.5.   39.9     43.8     5.6.. 23.3     20.0      2 77.  36.2
Korea, Oem. Rep.           9.1    0.0.   .. 0:0.0..... 0.0  0.9     0.5      0.5    0.1      1.3     0.0      2 0.   3:8
Korea, Rep.             -149.2  -54.0   -127.9    10.1    .16.0     02.2.    0~.0    0.7     0.2     0.0      070    5.7
Kuwait  0......4                 .0.0      0.1     0.0      0.1     0.0 0..0. 99...      0.0     0.0 0.0      0 .0... 04.1
Kyrgyz Republic ..        99.4   280.0 ..44.3      0.3.    10.5     8.7      0.9     0.0     0.0     3.0      0.2    3:6.6..
Lao POR                  147.5    3.0     57.4     16.4    22.9      3.2     0.9     1.0    17.7     0.0      4.2.... 20.8
Latvia                   47.9    .4.0      02.2 ... 0.0.... 12.0.   0.0       7..9   1.2    11.4     4.0      28.8  -45.5
Lebanon                   87.1    6.0      0.6    41.3      7.7.     1.0 ~   0.8     3..2 .... .2 8  00 ..    3.7.  20.1
Lesotho       ..         .493.3  .3.0      7.9     2.9     12.3     05.5..... 8.0    0.3     2.6     0.7      0.5   10.7
Libya                     -2.1    0.0      0.1     0.4      1.1.    0.0      0.0     0.0.    0:2 .. .0.0      0.0    0.3
Lithuani'a                55.7  .140.0    .03.3    0.0    -11.5     00.0     1..3    1..2   1,7.4    6.4      2.2    1.7"
Macedonia, FYR            263.3  .5.0      6.1      1.4     8.2      0.5.     1..2   0.0O'   0.5     00.0     0.0.   3.4
Madagascar               229.8  _33.0     50.1    101.8    16.3,    4.0_     1.0   0'.7      0:1_    0:0      7.8   15.1
Malawvi                  263.9_  32.0_    64.0     2.5     31.7     10.2   .83.6     8.0     8.1    15.2      4.5   ..4.2
Malaysia               -453.1     0.0   -482.5      3.5     7.5      2.3    -4.0     3.4     0.7     8.4      0.1    7.4
Mali                     297.5    5.0     38.1    82.3     65.7    42.8     13.9   1-4.3.    0.8     4.6      9.9   20.2
Mauritania    ....   ..... 98.8.  .2.0    29.8    45.2     12.3     0.2      0.5     1.3     0.3     1.0      0.4    5.8
Mauritius                -1.1 ....-.1-0.0 .  48.8.  7.3   -18.1     0.2      0.8     0.5     0.0     0.0      0.0    4.3
Mexico                   274.3   26.0.   212.8.    6.5     12.4.    4.0      5.7     3.5     0.3     0.8      0.4 .. 2.0
Moldova                ..  24.3  .13.0     0.0  0..0...O.O....  3..2   4.0.   1.3    0.0.    0.0     0.5      0.0    2.4
Mongolia                .136.2    60.0   103.8     0.4     11.8     -1.2     0.5     0.0     0 3 .... 3:5     3.0    5 8
Morocco                  3914.4  -3.0     46.4    290.7   .-0.9     02.2     0.5.    5.0     0.7    -1.2      0.1   53.0
Mozambique       ... . . 5519.9  45.0     30.1     20.7    41.3     45.7    35.4   -13.4..  61.3    46.8 ..  518.8  160.6
Myanmar       .........   45.3   .0.0     35.2     2.1      1.5      1.8.     0.4   0.2      03        2      1.2 ....2.3
Namibia                  136.4.  .90.0     4.7 ..  3.8     43.1      50      9.6    0.      16.8.    6.6     16.6   20.8
Nepal                    236.3    15.0    88.8      2.0    25.7     11.4     2S3.3   5'.4    1.5 ....23.0    11.2   29.0
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua..... 764.0             30.0     70.5.    10.2~ 403.0     38.1      1.5    12.9    49.4    336.6.   24.0  .90.8
Niger                    163.2   12O.0     4.8    86.8     18.3     9.3      0.7     2.8     0~.0.. .1.8      0.6   26.1
Nigeria                   47.3    5.0     -2.1     6.1     14.5      1.8    11.5    11.3     1.0     1.9      1 .5. ..4.9
Norway
Oman                      15.7    4.0      9.9     0.6      0.9     0.0 0...1.. ...  0.0     0.0     0-1      0 . ..P0-  00... ~
Pakistan                 338.6  -101.0   282.2      5.4   .15.8    .15.9    61.4     9.7     7.9     3.2      6.8    31.4
Panama                    47.9    -5.0    37.7      0.4     4..6     0:.5    0.8     0.5     0.0     0.0      00 .. .84
Papua New Guinea         352.9    1.0     96.2     0.5      1.5      14.4     0.0    0.0 ..  03      0.0      0.0_252.0
Paraguay                  62.6    2.0     41.2     0.2      9.8      0.8      0.0    0.3     0.8    -0.5      0.7     7.4
Peru                     277.7   5.1.0    56.4     11.6    42.4    315.5      4.2   181.7    3:9.    1.9      2.3   53.9
Philippines              7483.3  46.0    414.5     27.4   106.6.   -228.8   10.0    16.4    15.9     5 2      2.2   81.4
Poland                   542.6   33 .0    89.2     0.0     96.9      0.4      0.8  133.7     5.4    13.1      3.0  167.3
Portugal
Puerto Rico
Romania                   94.9   200.0     6.2     0.0     28.7      5.9     20.6    2.4     02.2....:l .... 0.5  0.6  9.. 9
Russian Federation     1,031.3  416.0      5.4      0.0   474.9      1.0      9.2   13.5    19.0    13.8     29.2    49.2
1998 World Development Indicators 347



6.12
Total                                   Ten major DAC donors                                 Others
United                                     United
$ millions, ±996                   States   Japan   France  Germany Netherlands Kingdom  Canada  Sweden  Denmark  Norway
Rwanda                    251.9   .10.0,    0.6     10.3     45.6    41.1     19.3    20.4      5.4      0.4    24.5    74.3
Saudi Arabia               12.6     0.0     9.9      2.1      0.6     0.0      0.0     0.0      0.0      0.0     0.0     0.1
Senegal                   392.0    43.0    58.0    177.6     35.8     9.7      1.2     16.0     1.8      2.4    14.0    32.6
Sierra Leone               67.0    11.0    -0.1      3.4     10.6     4.9     17.5     0.5      2.2      0.3     2.6    14.1
Singapore                  11.9     0.0     8.5      0.0      2.5     0.1      0.0     0.6      0.0      0.0     0.0     0.1
Slovak Republic            83.8     9.0     1.2      0.0     12.9     0.0     51.9     0.9      0.1      1.1     0.4     6.4
Sloveni'a                  32.3     2.0     1.1      0.7     21.8     0.2      1.5     0.0      0.1      0.0     0.0     4.9
South Africa              311.9    73.0     7.3     13.4    .29.3    37.6     30.9    11.0     33.2    30.0     13.7    32.5
Spain
Sri Lanka                279.3      4.0   173.9     -1.6     15.8    13.1     12.1     4.0     12.5    -0.8     31.7    14.4
Sudan                     118.1    10.0    18.6     .5.0     19.4    22.1      9.6     3.2      2.2      1.5    10.7    15.6
Sweden
Switzerland
Syrian Arab Republic       70.2     0.0    34.9     13.1     19.0     0.2      0.1     0.0      2.0      0.0     0.1     0.9
Tajikistan                 44.5    21.0     0.3      0.0      5.4     3.8      7.9     0.0      0.8      0.0     1.0     4.4
Tanzania                  605.4    13.0   105.7      3.5     58.7    74.9     67.3      9.2    65.2     91.2    54.4    62.4
Thailand                  803.1     3.0   664.0     10.4     23.2     6.4      1.9     10.7    19.0     19.0     3.7    41.6
Togo                       97.2     2.0    26.7     36.0     20.1     0.7      1.0     0.5      1.5      2.8     0.0     6.0
Trinidad and Tobago        -1.2     0.0     1.8     .0.9    .-4.9     0.2      0.5      0.3     0.0      0.0     0.0     0.2
Tunisia                    41.5   -21.0    -3.4     58.8    -19.2     3.1      0.2      2.3     1.2    -0.2      0.0    19.8
Turkey                     50.6   -75.0     2.7     31.5     82.8    -1.4      2.2     4.6      4.2    -0.4      0.2    -0.9
Turkmenistan       ....-13.6      .12.0     0.7.     0.3      0.3     0.0      0.3      0.0     0.0      0.0     0.0     0.1
Uganda.                   369.9    290.0   26.9     12.8     40.4    32.6     69.4     1.7     32.7    68.0     21.2    35.3
Ukraine                   353 .2  256.0     0.5      0.0     67.6     0.0      4.9    13.6      2.7      1.5     0.3     6.0
United Arab Emirates        6.0     0.0     3.3      0.0      2.2     0.0      0.4     0.0      0.0     0.0      0.0     0.0
United Ktingdom
United States
Uruguay                    29.4     1.      44       43       88      1.       0.3     1.2      1.6      0.0     0.1     6.0
Uzbekistan                 64.2     6.0    25.3      1.8     29.8     0.1      1.0     0.0      0.0      0.0     0.0     0.2
Venezuela                  26.0     0.0     6.4      4.6      4.5     0.3.     0.3      0.9     0.0      0.0     0.0     9.0
Vietnam                   469.7     0:.0  120.9     67.3     52.8    29.7      8.4      9.1    46.2     34.6     4.2    96.6
West Bank and Gaza        262 .2   27.0     7.5       96.6   24.6    58.8      5.4      3.7    27.6      3.6    50.4    44.1
Yemen, Rep.               133.3     3.0    25.8     11.8     43.1    42.4      3.4      0.4     0.7    -0.5      0.1     3.0
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.)a  69.4  0.0    0.1.     3.2     41.6     0.0      0.0     0.0     13.0      0.0     2.3     9.3
Zambia                    354.1    18.0    42.3      1.7     79.7    26.6     60.7      9.5    31.1     25.8    30.6    28.2
Zimbabwe                  280.8    17.0    46.7      6.3     30.5    32.4     25.2      9.4    35.9     20.5    19.5    37.5
Low income              18,865    1,025   4,449    2,558    2,741   1,440    1,343     693      915     816      679   2,432
Exci. China a..& Indiaia ...............13,097  957 ....... 95 2,369....  2,010..9.....1.2.921  1,001.... 80892. 359.....I"O50-1........ 80. 5425.64j62 54 9144
Low-e-r ..m id"d'lei'n"co"m..e.... 11,497  2,1063  3',2"9..7......1",271I ..... 1',9"3"5 ......3..19  201 . 2 3 . 237.22 133. 1,611-
Low&  iddle income    29,272   3,249   7,138    3,740    4,796   1,460    1.328     869    1 021.803      .    26~ '4,141
Lain America & Carib.   565     1,917     986       22       6089.                    13      1369.731.
MideEsr  .Arc          ,6       4        2     1.01      7604      92.
I e..   'a~t,-,ra ,~l,.-,~r'ca ..........  ( ........... 13K  L . ........33  ........ 6 ... t3  3 .. ..   ..   ..4
Nihincome              3,065    2,205    -91       822     -33     144    .       .    I   .       .        . 00        13
Nete: World and regional totals include aid to eco,omies,not specified elsewhnre. World totals include aid not allocated by country or region.
a. Includes net flows to states of the forMer Yugoslavia: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia. Macedonia FYR, and Slovenia.
348   1998 World Development Ind cators



6.12
The data in the table show net bilateral aid to low-  ___           _                          * Net aid comprises net bilateral ODA to part I recip-
and middle-income economies from members of the                                                ients and net bilateral official aid to part 11 recipients
Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the       Aid patterns reflect geopolitical          (see About the data for table 6.9). * Other DAC
Organisation  for  Economic  Co-operation  and      interests and historical relationships     donors are Australia, Austria, Belgium, Denmark,
Development (OECD). The DAC compilation includes    United States     Er!,r                    Finland,  Ireland,  Luxembourg,  New  Zealand,
aid to some countries and territories not shown in the                 c         ,             Portugal, Spain, and Switzerland.
table and small quantities to unspecified economies                        -- - r ,   i   a r.e
that are recorded only at the regional or global level.                                          Data sources
Aid to countries and territories not shown in the table
has been assigned to regional totals based on the                                                                  Data on aid are compiled by
World Bank's regional classification system. Aid to                                                                DAC and published in its
Japan
unspecified economies has been included in regional                                            r ;           -     annual statistical  report,
totals, but not in totals for income groups. Aid not       I..    £               -. '                             Geographical Distribution of
allocated by country or region-including administra-                                                            -  Financial  Flows  to  Aid
tive costs, research into development issues, and aid      ,i,,                                               7U   Recipients, and in the DAC
to nongovernmental organizations-is included in the                                                                chairman's report, Develop-
world total; thus regional and income group totals do                                                              ment   Co-operation.  The
not add up to the world total.                      France                 c,;                 OECD also makes its data available on diskette, mag-
Because these data are based on donor country                  -t. F'  .1   .r .:.           netic tape, and the Internet.
reports of bilateral programs, they cannot be recon-                        --
ciled with recipient country reports. Nor do they         '.r-r
reflect the full extent of aid flows from the reporting
donor countries or to recipient countries. A full
accounting would include donor country contributions  Germany
to multilateral institutions and the flow of resourcess r.
from multilateral institutions to recipient countries as
well as flows from countries that are not members of                             . r.
DAC. In addition, the expenditures countries report
as official development assistance (ODA) have
changed. For example, some DAC members providing
aid to refugees within their own borders have       Netherlands ;r
reported these expenditures as ODA.                           H             5rg,i ioe r.
Some of the aid recipients shown in the table are                              8 ,],F
themselves significant donors. See table 6.9a for a        :A e 
summary of ODA from non-DAC countries.
United Kilngaom
_  d   i r- .i i
Source :-E:!
These figures show the oatArbution of aid from the
lop six aid donors In 1996. The United States Is
djr"sual because a large share of Its aid budget
goes to a hign Income-country. Israel.
1998 World Development Indicators     349



Net financial flows from multilateral
6.13        institutions
International financial institutions                United Nations         Total
Regional
development
World Bark        IMF                 banks      Others
Concess-   Non-     Concess-   Non-
S millions, 1996          IDA  IBRD     ional  concessionai  ional  concessional  WFP   UNDP  U.NFPA  UNICEF  Others
Albania                  32.3   0.0     0.0      -8.3      0.0       4.7    3.6    0.0   2.2   0.4    2.0    2.4    39.2
Algeria                   0.0  34.3     0.0     607.5      0.0      72.2  279.9    6.4   0.5   1.4    1.1    8.0 1,011.4
Angola                   37.8   0.0     0.        0.0      0.0       0.0    0.0   66.6   4.8   1.2   15.9   28.8   155.1
Argentina                 0.0 794.8     0.0     365.3     -1.9     312.1    0.0    0.0 144.6   0.2    2.5    7.7 1,625.4
Armenia                  87.0   5.4    49.0       0.0      0.0      29.2   -8.8   3.4    0.5   0.5    1.9    7.4   175.5
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan               35.8   0.0     0.0      78.1      0 .0      5.7    2.0   4.3   1.0    0.4    2.7    6.0   136.0
Bangladesh             2,29.1  -4.5   -85.3      0.0     259.4       2.9   66.2  27.6  10.5    8.0   24.5   15.2   553.9
Belarus                   0.0  13.9     0.0       0.0      0.0      28.7    0.0   0.0   0.7    0.0    0.2    0.8    44.3
Belgium
Benin                    37.4   0.0    17.9       0.0     2.3.2     -0.1    4.9 ~3.6    6.7    0.9    2.4    4.3   101.2
Bolivia                  96.9 -25.4    17.3       0.0     64.8      -9.1   18.5   4.0  16.2    1.9    9.9    5.3   200.3
Bosnia and Herzegovina  109.6 -25.1     0.0     -2.1       0.0       0.0    0.0   0.0   5.7    0.4   11.5    8.5   108.8
Botswana                 -0.5 -20.9     0.0       0.0     -0.8      -4.4    3.6   3.C   3.7    0.7    0.9    1.4   -13.2
Brazil                    0.0 278.2     0.0    -70.0      -0.5     490.5    0.0   0.1 123.3    1.8   21.9   21.4   866.8
Bulgaria                  0.0  39.9     0.0   -108.7       0 .0      0.0   40.7   0.C   1.0    0.0    0.0    3.2   -23.9
Burkina Faso             46.0   0.0     8.7       0.0     14,6      -1.7    6.4   6.6   8.0    2.4    4.7    3.1    98.7
Burundi                  13.9   0.0    -8.7       0.0     14.5      -4.3   -1.4  10.3   4.9    1.3    7.2   83.5   121.3
Cambodia                 45.6            0.0  .   .       31,1       0.0    4.8  13.7  37.5    2.3    8.8    7.8   151.5
Cameroon                 79.6 -75.8     0.0      22.8     -0.2     -25.2  -18.2   1.6    1.0   1.3    1.9    3.4    -7.9
Canada
Central African Republic  21.5  0.0    -6.2       0.0      0.0       0.0    0.8   0.1   3.3    1.0    1.4    5.9    27.8
Chad                     66.6   0.0    17.8       0.0     23.5       0.0    0.8  13.8   5.7    1.3    3.6    1.2   134.3
Chile                    -0.7 -187.8   .0.0       0.0     -1.3    -403.0    0.0   0.0   7.8    0.4    0.8    2.9  -580.9
China                   790.7 943.0     0.0       0.0      0.0     612.0   -4.1  22.4  28.7    0.0   18.3   14.1 2,425.1
Hong Kong, China.
Colombi'a                -0.7 -198.2    0.0       0.0    -12.0      14.2   11.0   1.9  63.4    0.6    5.0    3.1  -111.7
Congo, Dem. Rep.          0.0   0 .0   -35      -2.9       0.0       0.0    9.0   3.6   9.4    0.6   10.2    6.9    -5.7
Congo, Rep.               0.8 -14.2   .20.2       0.0     -0.3      -7.3   -6.9   0.0   0.4    1.1    1.2    1.7    -3.4
Costa Rica               -0.2 -31.7     0.0    -23.0     -11.2      23.5   37.7   0.9   2.8    0.3    1.1    5.4     5.6
CMe dI,voire            234.8 -159.5  138.3     -47.6     16.0     -22.9  -51.4   6.0    1.2   1.5    2.4   13.0   131.9
Croatia                   0.0  88.9     0.0     -4.5       0.0      10.6  -46.8   0.0    1.2   0. 1   3.5    0.4    53.6
Cuba                                                                              10.3  1.5    1.8    3.0    2.3    18.9
Czech Republic            0.0  32.2     0.0       0.0       0.0    -21.0   17.2   0.0    0.5   0.0    0.0    1.6    30.8
Denmark
Dominican Republic       -0.7 -18.8     0.0    -59.5      16.8      26.5    7.2   3.2   5.8    1.2    1.1    1.8   -15.5
Ecuador                  -1.1 -29.8     0.0    -23.0      13.8      47.3   42.8   3.0  18.3    1.0    4.7    4.2    81.3
Egypt, Arab Rep.         67.4 -151.8    0.0    -85.1       1.6      25.8   95.1   1.8  12.6    2.6    5.3   16.1    -8.8
El Salvador              -0.7  -1.1     0.0      0.0      24.3     199.3   19.2   4.6  18.0    0.6    3.5    2.8   270.6
Eritree                   1.5   0.0    0.0       0.0       0.0       0.0    2.3   0.0   8.7    1.1    8.7    3.1    25.3
Estonia                   0.0  16.5    0.0     -11.1       0.0      26.6    5.7   0.0   1.1    0.0    0.0    0.3    39.0
Ethiopia                127.5   0.0    21.4      0.0      75.8      31.0   -4.6  46.4  39.6    3.1   18.0   16.8   374.9
Finland
France
Gabon                     0.0 -10.5     0.0      26.6      0.3      26.9    0.7   0.0   0.8    0.5    0.8    1.1    47.2
Gambia, The               9.1   0.0    -7.4       0.0      8.8      -1.2   -0.6   0.9   3.1    0.4    1.3    2.5    16.8
Georgia                  76.3   0.0    80.6       0.0      0.0       2.0    0.0   3.0   1.0    0.0    2.1    7.0   171.9
Germany
Gha na                  233.7 -10.0   -61.0    -24.5      17.5      -9.5    1.4   0.0   4.8    0.7    6.9    7.7   167.6
Greece
Guatemala                 0.0  55.9     0.0      0.0       87      -18.3   22.9   8.3  12.3    0.4    2.9    9.6   102.6
Guinea-Bissau            13.3   0.0     2.0      0.0      11.5      -1.5    0.8   4.5   3.0    0.5    1.8    1.9    37.7
Guinea                   43.0   0.0    -8.4      0.0       7.1      16.0    9.8   0.8   3.4    2.4    3.1   24.2   101.5
Haiti                    62.9   0.0   -2.6       0.0      28.6       0.0   -0.6   4.4  20.1    2.2    9.0    3.1   127.1
Honduras                 50.0 -59.2     0.0    -37.9     111.8     -90.3    7.4   2.6  12.4    1.4    2.3    3.0     3.5
350  legS World Development Indicators



6.13
International financial institutions                   United Nations           Total
Regional
development
World Bank         IMF                  banks       Others
Concess-    Non-     Concess-    Non-
$ millions, 1996           IDA  IBRD     lanai   concessionai  aonal  cancessional     WFP   UNDP   UNFPA  UNICEF  others
Hungary                    0.0 -419.0     0.0     -2033.3       .        17.3  -167.5  0.0   0.3    0.0     0.0 ..._4.0 -768.3
India             ~~~671.9 -154.4   0.0 ...  -972.5.     0.0     502.4    --4.  29.0 ..222.2.. 13.3 ... 62.7. . 12.2  182.7
Indonesia                -20.4 -503.0 ..0.0 .......00.0      .22:6.6.  -839.7.   508.8 .0.0  12.2   2.9  .. 13.9    8.3 -1,252.5
Iran, Islamic Rep.        .0.0  110.0     0.0        070       0.0        0.0 -.... 9~5I 272 ..2.3  2.3     1.2   .20.2   128.6
Iraq                                                                                  46.7   0.6 ...0-.0 .  1.0. ll 10A.1  73.4
Israel                                                                                 0.0   0.0    0~  ..0  . 0..  -O..... 0.1  0.1
Jamaica                    00.0 -392.2    0.0      -71.8      -4.8 ...    7,6 ....-01  07.. 0:9 0...  5     1.4 .....13.. -103:6
Ja...n
Jordan                    -2.3    909.9   0.0       972.2      0.0 ...    00 ...146.8  5 55.. 2:4.  1..1    1.5 ....67.9  411.0
Kazakhstan                 0.0  225.1     0.0      134.7       6.0 .. ... 26.3  -31.6  0.0   1.1 ...1.4 ...  2..1   0.9   366.0
Kenya                    145.5  -88.5   -24.6        0.0      24.3       -7.5   -11.4 17.7   1.7    3.1     6.7    20.7    87.6
Korea, Dem. Rep.                                                                      22.4   3.8    0.8.... 3.1 ..  1.8   31.8
Korea, Rep.                                                                            0.0   2.0    0.0     0.0     1.5     3.5
Kuwait                                                                                 0.0    1.7   0.0     0.0     1.0     2.7
Kyrgyz Republic           61.2    0.0    23.4       -3.9      26.7       20.8     1.9  0.0   2.5    1. 1    1.2     0.4   135.3
Lao PDR                   59.0     0.0    5.5        0.0      825.5       0.0 ... 44.5  45.5  11.5  1.1     3.8... 2.4   214.8
Latvia....               ... 0.0  ..  24.3  00.0   .. -255.5   0.0        7.8     0.0.  0.0  .. 1.3  0.0    0.0 .... 0.2    8.1
Lebanon....                0.0   27.1     0.0...... 0.0 ...    0.0        0.0   111.5  1.2   6.     10      2..5   38:4.4.. 187.9
Lesotho       ........  ...102.2  7.2    -34.4       0.0       4.2  ...  -2A.4 .  6.1   6.8 .. 3.-7  0-.7   1-3.3 ... 1.8  36.2
Liby                                                                                   0.0    1.9   0.0     0.0     6.0     7.9
Lithuania                  0.0   43.8     0.0       20.6       0.0....   44.2 ....22.2- 0.0   1:.6  0.0     0.0.... 0.7. 113.0
Macedonia, FYR   ..       44.1  -12.7     0.0       .13.5      0.0       48.3    -7.6  0.0   03.3   0.0 ...14.4     2.9 .  90.1
Madagascar                68.5   -4.0     2.8   ...  0.0      -0.7       -0,5    13.5  1.6    79.9  1.8 ....4..6    3.5    99.0
Malawi                   132.8   -9.3     7.3        0.0      13.7       -3.0    -2.7  8.0  11.6    3.2     7.8     3.5   172.8
Malaysia        ...        0.0  -76.4     0.0.       0.0       0.0      -2-1.7   -3.8_.OO...  3.9 0.....4 .. ...0.8  .....2.3  -94.6
Mali                      77.2    0.0    22.6        0.0      16.7      -09       3.5  3..9 .144.4  1..8    5.6     9.6   154:5
Mauritania                34.1    -.      080.                10.4       -4.5    -.     .     .      .       .      6.9    68.3
Mauritius      ...........-0.6    -6.7    0.0 0.. . . .0       0.        -3.2    1.    0A.1   0j.7 .  0..3  0.6     0.8 5.. . 5
Mexico              ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~      ~~~~~~~~  ~~~~~~~~~0.0 -358.8  0.0  -2,0523.3  59 749 00 01 33 17 46 1. -1,632.
Moldova                    0.0     0.0    0.0       25.3       0.0       35.1    19.0  0.0   1.4    0.1     0.7     03.3   82.0
Mongolia        ...........   ........ 11.0..0.0 . 8.1 ..-10.0   34.1   0.0  00   00    3.2    0.9     1.4...  2.2   50.9
Morocco            ~-1.4   39.1    0.0.      -472.2      3.9      667.7. 40.3    0.7.  3.8    3.6 ...  23.3  4.8   116.5
Mozmbqu           20.2      00   -14.400               304         1.7     5.3 14.6   19.5 1..6.4.          14.5   307.9
Myanmar       ...   ....-10.8 0.. 0       00    0.0    O     -11.4       -0:9.9  -4.0  0~.0  5.8    1.0     8.0... 16.4.    4 2
Namibia                                                                                0j.7. 1.8    1.9     3.6     4.2. . 12..2
Nepal    ..               53.8     0.0   -7.6        0.0      578.8       0.0...  60.0 12.7  8.3    6.2     8.5 ....10.6  156.2
Netherlands
New Zealand
Nicaragua                 67.4  -16.4     0!0       -9:3      28.7       12.5     6.4  5.5   15O 0 .. 2.0  .3..5 .  3.7   118.9
Niger                     28.7     0.0    2.3        0.0       0.3        0.0     4.0  6.7    574   1 7 ....50.... 6.4 .. 60.3
Nigeria                   89.2 -230.7     00.0..... 0.0        4.0       -1.8     0.0  0.0   250O   2.7    14.5     4.3.. -92.8
Norway
Oman                       0:.0. -4.6     0.0.       0.         .          .      1300  00 ..0.0            0.7 ... 0.8    28.1
Pakistan                 241.3  144.4   -79.1      -86.6     350..3.    -37.2    90 .6. 5.7   7.4   6.4    10.2.. .16.4...669.77
Panama                     0.0    37.2    0.0       24.1      -9.5       61.2     6.9  0.1  43 5    0.3     0.9     0.9   165..6
Papua New Guinea          -1.8   -9.1     0.0        2.9       3.2       -38.8   -6.8  0:.0~.. 3.0  1.0     3.6 ..  2.1    -5.6
Paraguay   .         .    -1.4   -6.3     0.0        0.0      18.8       36.7    11.4  1.5   12.6   0.6     1.2     1.2    76.3
Peru                       0.0    29.3    0.0 .........0.0    -7.2      100.0   -20.5  2.0   80.7   2.4. . 8..2     3.5   198.4
Philippines               13.1   17.7     0.0     -301.3      45.8       27.2    14.6  0.0    6.2   7 6...  7.6     6.7  -154.7
Poland                     0.0  266.2     0.0        0.0       00    0     .00.0       0.0.   1.6   0.1     0.0 ......35 5. 271.4
Portuga.
Puerto Rico
Romania                    0.0  227.5     0:.0    -356.2 0..    .0.     1739.9   48.3  00     10    O0.4.   2.4     4.6   101.8
Russian Federation         0.0 1,097.1    0.0     3,235.1      0.0       85.9  -287.3  2.8    1.6   0.      1.6    12.9 4,150.1
1998 World Development Indicators 351



6.13
International financial institutions                     United Nations           Total
Regional
development
World Bank         IMF                   banks        Others
Concess-    Non-     Concess-     Non-
S millions, 1.996           IDA    BRID    ional   concessional  ional  concessional      WIT  iJNDP  UJNFPA   UNICEF  Others
Rwanda                     38.1   0.0     -1.3       0.0        7.6       -0.6     9.4   183.8  22.8    0.7    22.4    89.5   372.6
Saudi Arabia                                                                               0.0   4.8    0.0     0.0    11.1    15.9
Senegal        .102.9            -9.8    -10.0        0.0      10.5       -5.5   -32.3     1.8   3.5    3.5     5.0    10.3    79.9
Sierra Leone               33.7T  -0.5     11.4       0.0      21.1        0.0     2.8    13.8   7.6    0.5     3.2     4.3    97.9
Singapore                                                                                  0.0   0.0    0.0     0.0     0.4     0.4
Slovak Republic             0.0    6.0      0.0   -124.2        0.0       14.7    21.4     0.0   0.3    0.0     0.0     2.0   -79.8
Slovei                       0.-12          0.0      -2.6       0.0       38.3    29.3     0.0   0.2    0.0     0.0     2.7    48.7
South Africa                0.0    0.0      0.0       0.0       0.0        0.0     0.0     0.0   3.5    1.1     2.3     5.3    12.1
Spain
Sri Lanka                  94.9  -6.4    -45.3       0.       137.4        0.0     0.3     2.5   5.6    1.7     4.4     7.4   202.5
Sudan                       00    0.0       0.0    -35.6        2.4       14.9     0.0    18.7   7.7    3.1    28.5    13.1    52.7
Sweden
Switzerland
Syrian Arab Republic        0.0   0.0       0.0      0.0        0.0        0.0    50.8     6.6   2.4    1.5     0.8    28.2    88.4
Tajikistan                 30.4   0.0       0.0      21.8       0.0        0.0     0.0     9.8   2.4    0.3     2.8     0.9    67.9
Tanzania                  120.5 .-26.6     15.6       0.0_     50.-1      -4.1   -14.4     7.0  10.4    4.0    10.8    18.0   191.4
Thailand                   -1.8 -58.4       0.0       0.0       -1.4      35.1    39.1     0.0   5.1    1.8     3.0     9.5    32.0
Togo                       51.8    0.0   -11.2      -0.3        5.9       -2.5    -5.5     0.3   5.4    1.0     1.6     5.7    52.2
Trinidad and Tobago   .     0.0  J-.1   .0.0         21         -0. 1     68.5     3.4     0.0   0.2    0.0     0.0     0.9    59.9
Tunisia                    -2.1   14.6      0.0     -46.6       0.0       82.4    55.5     5.4   1.5    2.4     1.0     2.8   116.8
Turkey                     -5.9 -325.9      0.0       0.0       0.0        0.0  -293.0     0.4   3.3    0.7     2.9     7.1  -610.4
Turkmenistan                0.0    2.5      0.0       0.0       0.0        0.5   -5.       0.0   1.2    0.1     1.4     0.3   -49.3
Uganda                    118.7   0.0      13.7      0.0       27.0        0.1     6.5    14.3  19.0    2.9    13.0    25.4   237.5
Ukraine                     0.0 406.0       0.0    778.2        0.0       18.6   128.7     0.0   1.5    0.0     1.8     2.4 1,335.1
United Arab Emirates                                                                       0.0   2.4    0.0     0.0     0.1     2.5
United Kingdom
United States
Uruguay                     0.0 -31.2      0.0     -11.6       -1.7       59.1     9.4     0.0  17.7    0.3     0.7     1.5   44.2
Uzbekistan                  0.0   9.0       0.0     86.0        0.0       49.2     0.0     0.0   3.1    0.6     3.4     1.3  152.6
Venezuela                   0.0 -120.9      0.0     31.2       -1.3      -72.3    -5.6     0.0   6.3    0.4     2.0     2.6 -157.8
Vietnam                   188.0    0.0    175.4       0.0      24.8        0.0    -0.8    12.6  11.8    4.5    12.1     4.8   433.1
West Bank and Gaza                                                                         3.1  47.1    0.7     3.0   120.1   174.0
Yemen, Rep.                86.4    0.0      0.0     122.0       0.0        0.0    20.6     9.0   7.1    3.2     3.7     8.6   260.5
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.  0:0   9.0  .  0.0       -1.1        .0        0.0.0.9       139.81 -0.7 1  0.0 a   4.4 1 238.8~  381.2
Zamnbia.                  178.0 -47.1l      0.0       0.0      14.4      -14.5    -3.9     3.9   6.7    1.7     8.4     5.3   152.9
Zimbabwe                   11.0  -7.8       0.0     -8.6        0.6       38.5     3.6     0.0   4.6    1.3     6.1     4.5    54.0
Low income                5,421    143     207     -1,014     1,676      1,063     171    642   511    113     454     607   9,993
Excluding dhina & India   3,959.......... 3,  -646  207...  -416 .........2 17..........76  -51.......179.57691...46079.101.6037. 580 73.. .385.. ,3-5..
M  iidd 'le n"comrne .................3'0"3 ...1...3-7..4........9'7...... 1'7"39   195  1,795 ........  ..  ... .9  28 . 689.5  1 7 644  7,850
'Lo"we"r mijd"d'le i'n"come                                                               289                   138 5..
UJpp e"r ..m i'dd'le i'nc"om..e...  .. .3.17.7                                                                   39     86   .
Low & middle income                                                                       I,,::  ->    :i        4
East ..A Asia. .. & ci Pacific ........... , 1,077...... --4......314  190........ -308 ...........2234.........L1162 .1... 28...'28......5..76.87.1--9..142. 27  ..1,9328 1 2 1,3
Ebu"ro"p'e. and CentrllalI.. As'i'a  471  1,702  153  3,543      .33       668    -580.163.53.7                   0    365   6,682
'La' t in ..Am ..er'i'ca ..&.. C"ar'ib'bean  288  82  28  -2,001  311    1651.     193.    53.633        .24    90.111        1,488
C~~Z5irs,ar, a .......a......   -:66-i                                                          ..... -r:   V   4
High   incm                 ..                                                    ....
a. Includes net flows to states of the former Yugoslavia: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia. Macedonia FYR, and Slovenia. b. Includes dafa for economies not specif[ed elsewhere
352   1998 World Development Indicators



6.13
This table shows concessional and nonconcessional  are revised annually. In 1997 countries with GNP per  * Net financial flows are disbursements of loans and cred-
financial flows from the major multilateral institutions-  capita of $925 or less were eligible for IDA lending.  its less repayments of principal. * IDA is the International
the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF),  The IMF makes concessional funds available through  Development Association, the soft loan window of the
regional development banks, United Nations agencies,  its Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF), the  World Bank Group. * IBRD is the International Bank for
and regional groups such as the Commission of the  successor to the Structural Adjustment Facility, and  Reconstruction and Development,the founding and largest
European Communities. Much of these data comes    through the IMF Trust Fund. Low-income countries that  member of the World Bank Group. * IMF is the
from the World Bank's Debtor Reporting System.    face protracted balance of payments problems are eli-  International Monetary Fund. Nonconcessional lending is
The multilateral development banks fund their non-  gible for ESAF funds.                         the credit provided by the IMF to its members, principally
concessional lending operations primarily by selling low-  Regional development banks also maintain conces-  to meet their balance of payments needs. Concessional
interest, highly rated bonds (the World Bank, for exam-  sional windows for funds. In World Development  assistance is provided through the Enhanced Structural
ple, has a AAA rating) backed by prudent lending and  Indicators 1997 loans from these institutions were clas-  Adjustment Facility. * Regional development banks
financial policies and the strong financial backing of  sified using DAC definitions, under which concessional  include the African Development Bank (AfDB), based in
their members. These funds are then onlent at slightly  flows contain a grant element of at least 25 percent. (The  Abidjan, Cote d'lvoire, which lends to all of Africa, including
higher interest rates, and with relatively long maturities  grant element of loans is evaluated assuming a nominal,  North Africa; the Asian Development Bank (ADB), based in
(15-20 years), to developing countries. Lending terms  market interest rate of 10 percent. The grant element of  Manila, Philippines, which serves countres in South Asia
vary with market conditions and the policies of the  a loan carrying a 10 percent interest rate is nil, and for  and East Asia and the Pacific; and the Inter-American
banks.                                            a grant, which requires no repayment, it is 100 percent.)  Development Bank (IDB), based in Washington, D.C., which
Concessional, or soft, lending by the World Bank  In some cases nonconcessional loans by these institu-  is the principal development bank of the Americas.
Group is carried  out through  the  International  tions may be on terms that meet DAC's definition of con-  * Others is a residual category in the World Bank's Debtor
Development Association (IDA), although some loans by  cessional; this year's World Development Indicators  Reporting System. It includes such institutions as the
the  International  Bank  for Reconstruction  and  records loans from the major regional development  Caribbean Development Bank, European Investment Bank,
Development (IBRD) are made on terms that may qual-  banks-the African Development Bank (AfDB), Asian  and European Development Fund. * United Nations
ify as concessional under the Development Assistance  Development Bank (ADB), and the Inter-American  includes the World Food Programme (WFP), United Nations
Committee (DAC) definition. Eligibility for IDA lending is  Development Bank (IDB)-according to each institu-  Development Programme  (UNDP), United  Nations
based on estimates of average GNP per capita, which  tion's classification.                         Population Fund (UNFPA), United Nations Children's Fund
(UNICEF), and other United Nations agencies such as the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, United
Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestne Refugees in
Maintaining flnancial flows from the World Bank to developing couflt,IGs                       the Near East, and United Nations Regular Program for
$ billions                                                                                      Technical Assistance. * Concessional financial flows
nRD disbursemants          cover disbursements made through concessional lending
facilities. * Nonconcessional financial flows cover all
other disbursements.
fl                     13~~~~~~~~iRD Pet disbursernerms
IDA disbursements           Data source;
Data on net financial flows
IDA net disbursentns S *  / \   /               ( ;11 id iaj   from  international financial
1970  1972   1974  1976   1978  1980   1982  1984   1986  1988   1990  1992   1994  1996        D1r Vi q1 1 Iit-II  institutions come from  the
Source: World Bank data.                                                                             Fii lit] 11 1  World Bank's Debtor Reporting
System. These data are pub-
As the World Bank s nonconcesslonal lending porttolio matures. repa)ments of prlncipal raae begun ro balance out
disbursements. The World Bank's cocAsslonal am,. the IntematIonal Development Association IIDAI. has maintained     lished annually in the World
a steady flow ol now funds to the worlds poorest countries. In 1996 repayments to IDA were sIigat!) ove0r 500S milllon  _d   Bank's Global Development
While small relave to new IDA disbursements. repal,ments hase belpeo IDA sustain Its lending even as comwrlbutions  Finance  Data on aid from
from donors have declined.Fiac.Dton                                                                                                    idfm
United Nations agencies come from the DAC chairman's
report, Development Co-operation.
1998 World Development Indicators       353



6.14 Foreign labor and population in OECD countries
Foreign population'                   Foreign labor force              Inflows of foreign population
% of total               % of tota. ITotal                               Asvlumn seekers
thousands                popuilation             labor force               thousands                thousands
1990        1995         1990        1995         1990        1995         1990        1995         1990        1995
Austria                         456 b       724 b        5.9          9.0          ..         10.2          2..                      3~          60
Belgium                         905         910          9.1         9.0          7.5          8.10 d       ie          530         13          12
Denmark                         161         223          3.1         4.2          2.0          2.68        15           160          5           5
Finland                          26          69          0.5         1.3            ...7                                 7           3           1
France                        3,597            .         6.3                       6.4         6.2        102           57          47          20
Germany                       5,343 a     7,174          8.4 a       8.8          8.4          7.4        842         788          193         128
Ireland                          80 a        96          2.3 1        2.7         2.6          3.0          .
Italy                           781'        991'         1.4          1.7          ..1.9                    ...5                                 2
Japan                         1,075 J      1,362.J       0.9.1        1.1.          .          0.9        224          210
Luxembourg                      113         138         29.4        33.4         33.4         56.2          9           10
Netherlands                     692         728k1        4.6          5.0k        3.7          4.0         61 0         670         21          29
Norway                          143'1       161'1        3.4'1        3.7'          .          4.5         16           17           4           2
Portugal                        1080        168          1.1          1.7          ..1.7                    ...0                                 1
Spai'n                          2790n       5000         0.70n        1.20.                    0.6          ...9                                 6
Sweden                          484         532          5.6          5.2         5 .6         5. 1 d      53           36          29           9
Switzerland                   1,100 0     1,331 0       16.3 0      18.90           .         19.4        101           68          36          17
United Kingdom                1,723 0     2,060 h        3.2 h        3.41        3.5          3.6         52           56          385P        55P
Foreign-born populationq                   Foreign-born                  Inflows of foreign population
labor forcer
8of total               % of tofal                 Toful                Asiuam seekers
thousands                population              labor force               thousands                thousands
1990         1995        1990        1.995        1.990       1995         1990        1-995        1990        1995
Auatralia                      4,11250         .         22.71          .        25.8         24.0         121          99           4 t5
Canada                        413430           .        15.60.                   18.40        18.5         214         212          37           26
United States                19,767      24,5570          7.9        9.3"         9.4          9.3      1,537          721          74"         1490
a. Escept for France, I reland. Portugal. and the United Kingdom, data are from population registers. Unless otherwise noted, they refer to the populatnon on December 31sof the years indicated.
b. Annual average. c. Data do not inicludc de facto refugees fromn Bosnia sod Herzegovina. d. Data refer fo 1994. e. Includes some asylum seekers f. Data are from the 1990 populatior cen-
sus, g. Data refer to the Federal Republic of Germany before unification. h. Estimated from the annual labor force survey. i. Data are adjusted no takn account of fhe regularizations n 1987-88
and 1990. Data for 1995 do not include permits delivered under the 1995-96 regularization program. j. Data refer to registered foreign natosals, wihd incrude foreigners xtamirg .n Japan for
more thnn 90 days. k. Provisional data. I. Includes asylumr seeke,s whose requests are being processed. m. Includes all foreigners who solo a valid residence permit. n. Data refer to foreign-
ers with a residence permit. Those alth permits for fewer than sis months and students are excluded. o. Data refer to foreigners with an annual resicernce perm t or w th a settlement permit
Ipermnanent permit). p. Data adjusted to irolude dependents. q. Data are from tfe latest population census. r. Data are from labor force surveys except for Canada ann toe Jrn ted States, for
which data are fromn the latest population census. a. Data refer to 1991L. t. Data refer to principal applicants and do not inciude dependents, a. Data refer to 1986. v. Data are from the United
States Census eureau March 1996 Popu ation Survey and refer to 1996. w. Data refer to tne fiscal year (October to September of years showri. Data do not ins urde dependents.
354    1998 World Development Indicators



6.14                      :
I.
The data in the table are based on national defini-                                              * Foreign population is the number of foreign or
tions and data collection practices and are not fully  OECD countries attracted immigrants      foreign-born residents in a country. * Foreign labor
comparable  across countries. Japan  and  the        from disparate sources in 1995              force as a percentage of total labor force is the
European members of the Organisation for Economic    Germany                                     share of foreign or foreign-born workers in a country's
Co-operation and Development (OECD) traditionally                        Former                  workforce. * Inflows of foreign population are the
Yugoslavia
have defined foreigners by nationality of descent.                          Italy                gross arrivals of immigrants in the country shown.
Australia, Canada, and the United States use place           """,                                The total does not include asylum seekers, except as
of birth, which is closer to the concept of the immi-                                            noted. * Asylum seekers are those who apply for
grant stock as defined by the United Nations. Few           Other                                permission to remain in the country for humanitarian
countries, however, apply just one criterion in all cir-                -                        reasons
cumstances. For this and other reasons data based    Italy
on the concept of foreign nationality and data based                Morocco                       Data sources
on the concept of foreign-born cannot be completely                  -      ,
reconciled.                                                                     ""''".                               International migration data
Data on the size of the foreign labor force are also     Other                 r                                  are collected by the OECD
problematic. Countries use different permit systems                                                                 through information provided
to gather information on immigrants. Some countries                                                                  by national correspondents to
issue a single permit for residence and work, while                                                           - -    the  Continuous  Reporting
others issue separate residence and work permits.    Japan                                                      :    System on Migration (SOPEMI)
Differences in immigration laws across countries,             Other       China-                                     network, which provides an
particularly with respect to immigrants' access to the                                                               annual overview of trends and
labor market, greatly affect the recording and mea-    Korea, Rep.                               policies. Data appear in the OECD's Trends in
surement of migration and reduce the comparability                    -                          International Migration (1996).
of raw data at the international level. The data
exclude temporary visitors and tourists (see table   Switzerland
6.15).                                                                       Former
Italy
United Kinrgdom
Ireland
A&I1
Other
United States
Mexico       A
Other
Source: F' ,,.                 ation
, r r; W~~~~~~.r).:..:r.* rrECD.
A countrf* stock o0 mir gamr  efiects gtD
giapnical and cullwtal conneclion, nCl*een,
countric,. It also 3iIected bv polrlical it'd cCD
nomic disrupliorxs. such as Lhose thai have b-ougit
imnmgranis rorn the formel l goslac.Ia lo Swit
zerland and Italy and from Cuba io the United
States.
1998 World Development Indicators     355



6.15 1Travel and tourism
International tourism              International tourism receipts       International tourism expenditures
Inbound tourists   Outbound tourists                           7, of                                  % of
thousands          thousands            $ millions          exports           $ m llions          imports
1980      1996      1980     1996      1980      1.996     1980      1996     1980      1996      1980      1996
Albania                         4        56          ..      16         ..      11          .       2.9       -.        7         .       0.6
Algeria                       946       605       698     1,810       115       16        0.8       0.1     333        60        2.7
Angola                         ..         8         ..        .          .       9          ..      0.2        .        1.                 .
Argentina                   1,120     4,286         ..    3,550       345    4,572        3.5     16.9     1,791    2,340       13.6      8.4
Armenia                        ..         .          .         .        ..       1.                 0 .3       .        2          ..     0.2
Australi                      905     4,165     1,21 7    2,732       967    8,703        3.8     11.1     1,749    5,322        6.5      6.7
Austria                    13.879    17,090     3,525    12,683     6,442   14,004       24.2     14.4     2,847   11,822        9.5     11.8
Azerbaijan                      ..      145          .        ..        .      15..               20.9        ..       72          ..     5.0
Bangladesh                     57       166         ..      935        15       32        1.7       0.7       16      200        0.6      2.6
Belarus                         ..      234         ..      703         ..      48          ..      0.8        .       97         .       1.4
Belgium                     3,777     5.829     9,565     5,645     1,810    5,893        2.6       3.1    3,272    9,895        4.4      5.5
Benin                          39       147         ..      415         7       29        3.1      5.3         46                1.       13
Bolivia                       155       375         ..      258        40      160        3.9     12.5        52      155        6.2      8.8
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana                      236       707         ..      460        22      178        3.4       6.8       17      149        2.1      7.2
Brazil                      1,271     2,140       427     2,943     1,794    2,469        8.2       4.6    1,160    6,825        4.2      5.4
Bulgaria                    1,933     2,795       759     3,006       260      450        2.8       7.4       ..      197         ..      3.4
Burkeina Faso                  38       136         .         ..        6       23        2.9      6.4       32        32        5.6      4.8
Burundi                        34        27         ..       35        22        1          ..      2.0       17       32         ..      9.0
Cambodia                       ..       260         ..       3           .     118          .     14.6        ..        7         ..      0.5
Cameroon                       86       101        14         ..       62       52        3.5       2.4       82      217        4.5     11.7
Canada                     12.876    17,286    12,833    18,973     2.284    8,868        3.0       3.8    3.122   11,090        4.4      5.2
Central African Republic.       7.       29          .        ..        3        5        1.5       2.6       18   ~   39        5.5     17.6
Chad                            7         8          ..      11         3       10        4.2       3.2       14       2 4     17.6       6.3
Chile                         420     1,450       379     1,070       166      918        2.8       4.9      195      801        2.8      4.0
China                       3,500    22,765         ..    5,061       617   10,200        3.6       5.9       66    4,000        0.3      2.6
Hong Kong, China           1,748    11,703       916     3,445     1,317   10,836         .         .         .
Colombia                      553     1.254       781     1,073       357      909        6.7       6.3     250       856        4.6      5.1
Congo, Dam. Rep.               23        37         .         ..       22        5        1.4       0.2       38        7        1.7
Congo, Rep.                    48        27                            10        4        1.0       0.3       29       38        2.8      1.8
Costa Rica                    345       781       133       273        87      689        7.3     17.3        62      335        3.7      8.0
C6te dIlvoire                 194       237          ..       5        79       89        2.2       1.7      270      164        6.5      4.1
Croatia                        ..     2,649         ..        .          .   2,100          ..    26.2        ..      780         ..      7.7
Cuba                          101       999          7       55        40    1,350          .         .        .
Czech Republic                 ..    17.000         ..   48.614         .    4,075         ..     13.6        ..    2,953         ..      8.7
Denmark                       950     1,794         ..    4,955     1,337    3,425        5.6      5.3     1.560    4,142        5.8      7.4
Dominican Republic            383     1,926       257       175       168    1,755      13.2      44.6      166        92       8.7       2.0
Ecuador                       243       500         ..      279        91      281       3.2       4.9      228       219        7.7      4.9
Egypt, Arab Rep.            1,253     3,528     1,180     2,812       808    3,200      12.9      21.0      573     1,350        6.3      7.1
El Salvador                   118       283       464       348         7       76       0.6       3.5      106        76        9.1      2.0
Eritrea                         .       417         .          ..                 ..                  ..
Estoni'a                       ..       600         ..      217         ..     470         ..     14.8        ..       98         ..      2.6
Ethiopia                       42       107        25       133        11       46       1.9       5.9         5       26        0.6      1.6
Finland                       350       894       291     4,918       677    1.601       4.0       3.3      544     2,304        3.1      6.0
France                     30,100    62,406     7,930    18,151     8,235   28,357        5.4      7.8     6.027   17,753        3.9      5.4
Gabon                          17       136         .         ..       17        4       0.7       0.1        96      115        6.5      6.1
Gambia, The                    22        77         .         ..       18       22      27.2      10.0         1       17        0.6      5.8
Germany'                   11,122    15,205    22,473    76,100     6,566   16,496        2.9       2.7  20,599    49,787        9.1      8.6
Ghana                          40       298          .        ..        1      239        0.1     13.8        27       22        2.3      0.9
Greece                      4,796     8,987     1.374     1,620     1,734    3,660       21.3     24.0       190    1,400        1.7      5.5
Guatemala                     466       520       178       333       183      284       10.6     10.2       183      179        9.3      5.1
Guinea                          ..       94 ........94                                      ..      0.1        ..      22          ..     2.3
Guinea-Biassa
Haiti                        .138       150          .        ..       65       81       21.3     42.3        41       32        8.5      4.1
Honduras                     .122       257         ..      150        27       81        2.9       4.6       31       58        2.7      3.1
356   1998 World Development Indicators



6.15
International tourism              International tourism receipts       International tourism expenditures
Inbound tourists   Outbound tourists                           tt of                                  % of
thousands           thousands           $ millions          exports           $ millions          imports
1980      1996      1980     1996      1980      1996      1980      1996     1980      1996      1980      1996
Hungary                      9,413    20,674     5,164    12,064      160     2,246       2.5      11.7       88       958       0.9      4.7
India                        1,194      2,288    1,017     3,056    1,150     3,027     10.2        6.9     113       415       0.7       0.8
Indonesia                      527      5,034      635     1,782      246     6,087       1.2      10.8     375      2,300      3.0       4.1
Iran, Islamic Rep.             156       465       428     1,000       54       165       0.4       0.8   1,700        579     10.6       3.8
I raq                        1,222       345       443       200      170        13
Ireland                      2,258      5,282      669     2,000      472     3,003      4.9        5.6     742      2,222      6.2 . . ...4.8
Israel                       1,116      2,097      513     2,259      903     2,800     10.4        9.9     533      3,360     .4.6       8.7
Italy                       22,087     32,853   23,994    15,991    8,213    28,673      8 4        8.9    1,907    15,488      1.7       6.0
Jamaica                        395      1,162        ..         .     242     1,092     17.7       33.3       12       159       0.9      4.1
Japan                          844      2,114    5,224    16,695      644     4,078       0.4       0.9    4,593    37,040      2.9       8.3
Jordan                         393      1,103      720     1,141      431       744     36.5       20.3     301        381     12.5       7.0
Kazakhstan                       ..                  .          .       .          .        ..                 .
Kenya                          372        717        .       295      220       474     11.0       15.7       33       142      1.2       4.1
Korea, Dem. Rep                           127         .        ..       .         ..        .                  .
Korea, Rep.                    976      3,684      436     4,649      369     5,430       1.7       3.5     350      6,963      1.4       4.0
Kuwait                         108         33      230          .     37        19        17        07    139        250       13.6      1.
Kyrgyz Republic                  ..        13                 42                  50:9                         ..7                ..      0.7
Lao PDR                                    93                                    50                19          .         1.               4.5
Latvia                           .         97              1,798                126.925                                                   0.8
Lebanon                          .       420 .   ...    .... .....            ....  715            50:6
Lesotho                         73        108                   .      12        19     13.3        9.3        88               1.7 ......0.8
Libya                          126         88       95       185       10         6      0 0.               470        215      3.7
Lithuania                                 832        .     2,864         .      345                 8.2                270        .       5.4
Macedonia, FYR                   ..
Madagascar                      13         83                 38        5        65       1.0       8.1       31        52      2.9    --5.2
Malawi                          46       232..                          9         7       2.9       1.5      10         17      2.1       1.7
Malaysia                     2,105      7,138    1,738    20,642      265     3,926       1.9       4.3     470      1,815      3.5       2.1
Mali                 ........-    27       50 ... .....    .           15        20      5.7     ....3.7     20         58      3.8       7.2
Mauritania                             .     ...................  .....  7       11      2.8        2.0      17         20      3:8.8 ..... 3.7
Mauritius                      123       487        33       120       45       466       7.8      17.3       27       163      3.9 ....I.5.9
Mexico                      11,945     21,405    3,322     9,001    5,393     6,934     23.8        6.5   4,174      3,387     151.1      3.4
Moldova                          .         33                 71                 5965                          .        57.               4.6
Mongolia                       195        153                                    21        .         44                 21                3.8
Morocco                      1,425      2,693      578     1,212      397     1,381     12.3       14:9       98       316       1.9      2.9
Mozambique                        .         .        ..         .        .
Myanmar                         38       165.                          10        9       1.         2.         3        25        4       14
Namibia.                                 405                                    265        .       16.7                 85                4.5
Nepal                          163     - 404 .... 23 .....70          .45       130     20.1..... 130.0  ... 26        140 ..... 7 1      8.5
Netherlands                  2,784      6,580    6,749    10,261    1,668     6,256       1.8       2.8   4,664     11,370      5.1       5.6
New Zealand                    465      1,529      454       920      211     2,444      3.3       12.9     534      1,382       7.7      7.4
Nicaragua                        .       303         .       282       22        54      4.4        6.7 .......         60  . .... :.......  4.6
Niger                           20         17                 10        3        17      0.5        5.4      Is         23      1.9       4.6
Nigeria                         86       822                  50       48        85      0.2        0.6     780        155      3.9       1.6
Norway                       1,252      2,746      246     3,085      751     2,404       2.8       3.8   1,310      4,509      5.5       9.1
Oman                            60      _435         .          .       .        99        .        1.3                 47.               0.9
Pakistan                       299       369       104         .      154       146      52         1.4       90       900       1 6      5..9
Panama                         392       362       113       188      167       343      4.9        46.6 ..   56       136       1.7      1.8
Papua New Guinea                40         56        .        51       12        68       1.2       2.3       18        77       1.4      3.4
Paraguay                       302       425         .       418       91       236     13.0        6.0      35        229      2.7      10.0
Peru                           373    .... 515     127.... 508        208       535      4.5        74.4.... 107       350 ..   2 7       3.5
Philippines                  1,008      2,049      461     1,400      320     2,701      4.4        7.9     105        450       1.1      1.3
Pulaiidl                     5,664     19,410    6,852    44,713      282     8,400       1.8      22.5     357 ....6,240..... 2.0       1-5.1
Portugal                     2,730      9,730        .     2,358    1,147     4.265     17.2       12.8     290      2,353      2.9       5.6
Puerto Rico                  1,639      3,065    2,758     1,237      619     1,898        ...              400        895
Romania                          ..       136    1,711     5,737        .        20        ......   0.2        .        26        ..... . 0.2
Russian Federation               .    14,587         .    21,331        .     5,542        .        5.4        .    10.597               12.3
1998 World Development Indicators 357



6.15
International tourism              International tourism receipts      International tourism expenditures
Inbound tourists   Outbound tourists                         %k of                                   4~ of
thousands          thousands           $rmillions          exports           $ millions          imports
1980      1996     1.980     1996      1980     1996      1.980     1996     1980      1996     1980      1-996
Rwanda                         30         1       .         ..4                  1      2.4       1.2       II       17        3.4      4.7
Saudi Arabia                 2.475    3,458        .        ..     1,344     1,308      1.3       2.2    2,453        ..       4.4
Senegal                       186       263                           68       147      8.4       9.3       45       77        3.7      4.1
Sierra Leone                   46        46        .        ..        10        10      3.6       9.0        8        2        1.7      1.4
Singapore                    2,562    6,608       ..    3,305      1,433     7,916      5.9       5.1      322    6,104        1.3      4.3
Slovak Republic                 ..      951        .      318          6. 73              .       6.2       ..      483         ..      3.7
Slovenia                        ..      832       ..        .           .    1,210        ..     11.5       ..      452         ..      4.2
South Africa                  700     4,944     572     2,775        652     1,995      2.3       6.0      756    2,100        3.4      6.4
Spain                       22,388   41,295  18.022    12,644      6,968   27,414      21.7      18.7    1,229    4,921        3.2      3.5
Sri Lanka                     322       302     138       494        111       168      8.6       3.5       34      176        1.5      2.9
Sudan                          25        65        .         .        52         7      6.4       1.0       74       45        4.1      3.1
Sweden                       1,366    2,376   2,941     6,582        962     3,683      2.5       3.6    1,235    6,285        3.1      7.4
Switzerland                  8,873   10,600   4,451    10,660      3,149     8,891      6.5       7.3    2,357    7,479        4.5      6.9
Syrian Arab Republic         1,239      686   1.189     2,485        156     1,478      6.3     24.1       177      405        3.9      6.7
Tajikistan                       .         .       .         ..                  ..                 ..
Tanzania                       84       310       ..      148         20       322      3.0      23.6       20      504        1.6     23.1
Thailand                     1,659    7,192     497     1,845        867     8,664     10.9      12.1      244    4,171        2.4      5.0
Togo                           92        56        .        .         13         8      2.4       1.6       22       26        3.2      5.2
Trinidad and Tobago           199       282     206       261        151        74      4.8       2.6      140       82        5.8      3.7
Tunisia                      1,602    3,685     478     1,778        601     1.436     18.4      17.6       55      268        1.5      3.1
Turkey                        921     7,966    1,795    4,261        327     5.962      9.0      13.1      115    1,265        1.4      2.6
Turkmenistan                     .         .       .         ..                  .        .         .        .
Uganda                         36       205       .         ..5               100       1.5     13.8        18      110       4.1       6.9
Ukraine                          ..     814                             .     202         ..      1.0        .      250         ..      1.2
United Arab Emirates          300     1,7668.                                    .        .         .        .
United Kingdom             12,420    25,293  15,507    41,873      6,932   19.296       4.7       5.7    6,893   25,445        5.1      7.3
United States              22,500    46,325  22,721    50.763     10,058   64.373       3.7       7.6   10.385   52,563        3.6      5.5
Uruguay          .1,067               2,152     640        ..        298      599      19.5     15.8      203       164       9.5       4.1
Uzbeki'stan                      .        .       .         ..                   ..                 ..
Venezuela                     215       759     747       534        243      846       1.2       3.3    1.880    1,900      12.4      12.8
Vietnam                          ..   1,607                            ..       87        ..      0.9
West Bank and Gaza               .         ..                                    .        .         .        .
Yemen, Rep.                    39        74                           24        42        ..      1.7       53       77         ..      2.5
Yugoslavia. FR (Serb./Mont.)    ..      162                            ..       43
Zambia                         87       264        .        ..        20        60      1.2       4.6       57       59        3.2
Zimbabwe                      243     1,743     326       256         38      219       2.4       7.1      140      117        8.1      3.8
Low income                   8,179   36,429    1,624    7,142       3.055   16,722      3.5       5.4    2.187    8,436        2.7      2.7
So-d... Chinaa .. ..& India.... ... 3,485... 3, 11,376.....1 . 7  2,081 1.......6.288  3,4951  2.2...... 1,  3.7 88 2......0744..  4,021  3.3.7  ,04  ,014.44.
Mideincome              5,2      186,536  33,393   144,683     1938       6,0        4.       68     2,99     556          58        62
Lower midl icm1930                   6,112186         23,955       6.1      9865        5.        .       .3      836         55        6.0d
Low&middleincome  67,500  222,96~~~~~~5 35,017  151,825  2,4    113,122      4.5       8.0   2.46      803          5.2       5.
East Asia & Pacific  9.570  47.~~~~~~206  3,339  6,'973   2,480   32,450      5.1       7.3    1,234   12,980        2.4       3.4
Europe &e Centrall Asias ia ...........18,66466  91,040. 9   15,522.0... 15   118,7548,7  1,358....... 1,   32,820  4.0  10.22..  603  25,026 1..  7.6...... 60- ... 2"', 26'7 
Latin America & Carib.     22,766    47,155   9,907    14,747     11,262    27,993      9.2       8.1   11,338   19,466        8.7      4.9
So~Uthk As ia ..........     2,086    3,877    1,259    1,'461      1,485    3,774      8.5       5.8      283    1,865        1.0      2.2
Sub-..Saharan Africa         3.328 1...........3.94328 .....  370 ..  3,725....3- ..  1,598  5,182......I ..  1.9  5.4..... ,  2,705 ...  4,827..... 5.   27  3.7... ..  5.4~J5.
Hihincome               193,391   364,383 123,635  184,093      78,573  308,661       4.6      5.9    79,580 311,221        4.7       6.5
a. Data prior to 1990 refer to the Federal Republic of Germany before unificatiorn.
358   1998 World Dese[opment Indicators



6.15
The data in the table are from the World Tourism  Data on international inbound and outbound    * International inbound tourists are the number of
Organization's Yearbook of Tourism Statistics. They  tourists refer to the number of arrivals and departures  visitors who travel to a country other than that where
are obtained primarily from a questionnaire sent to  of visitors within the reference period, not to the num-  they have their usual residence for a period not
government offices, supplemented with data pub-  ber of people traveling. Thus a person who makes sev-  exceeding 12 months and whose main purpose in vis-
lished by official sources. Although the World Tourism  eral trips to a country during a given period is counted  iting is other than an activity remunerated from within
Organization tries to ensure the international com-  eachtimeasanewarrival.Regionalandincomegroup  the  country visited. * International outbound
parability of national data and definitions, this is a  aggregates are based on the World Bank's classifica-  tourists are the number of departures that people
relatively new area of statistical activity, and much  tion of countries and differ from what is shown in the  make from their country of usual residence to any
work remains to be done.                        Yearbook of Tourism Statistics.                other country for any purpose other than a remuner-
ated activity in the country visited. * International
tourism receipts are expenditures by international
inbound visitors, including payments to national car-
Large, wealthy economies generated the most tourists In 1996
riers for international transport. These receipts
Inbound tourists per capita                                                                should include any other prepayment made for goods
or services received in the destination country. They
also may include receipts from same-day visitors,
except in cases where these are so important as to
X .                                                                                      justify a separate classification. Their share in
exports is calculated as a ratio to exports of goods
and services. * International tourism expenditures
are expenditures of international outbound visitors in
other countries, including payments to foreign carri-
,.  .  ..   :  ;  ;^  x  .  .:  :  -           .... .   *  ;. ,- -.  ers for international transport. These may include
! .. ,. - '             ;: ' .' ; .. ' - ; ; ; expenditures by residents traveling abroad as same-
.:. <,:  gday visitors, except in cases where these are so
important as tojustify a separate classification. Their
share in imports is calculated as a ratio to imports
Czechs were the world's most active travelers In 1996                                      of goods and services.
Outbound tourists per capita
Data sources
The visitor and expenditure
data come from the World
Tour'ism Organization's Year-
book of Tourism Statistics.
Export and import data are
IIIIIIIIIJiiiiiiiiii                                    -        -. - ...,\ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~from the international
, 'i     _          Monetary   Fund's   Inter-
, national Financial Statistics
*/'                            , !    ~ _;             ,.              and World Bank staff estimates.
Source: World Tourism Organization and World Bank staff estimates.
199s World Development Indicators     359



Statistical methods
This section describes some of the statistical procedures used in prepar-  more than one-third of the value of weights in the benchmark year. In a
ing the World Development Indicators. It covers the methods employed  few cases the aggregate ratio may be computed as the ratio of group
for calculating regional and income group aggregates and for calculating  totals after imputing values for missing data according to the above rules
growth rates, and it describes the World Bank's Atlas method for deriv-  for computing totals.
ing the conversion factor used to estimate GNP and GNP per capita in  Aggregate growth rates are also generally calculated as a weighted
U.S. dollars. Other statistical procedures and calculations are described  average (and indicated by a w) of growth rates. In a few cases growth
in the About the data sections that follow each table.        rates may be computed from time series of group totals. Growth rates
are not calculated if more than one-third of the observations in a period
Aggregation rules                                             are missing. For further discussion on methods of computing growth
Aggregates based on the World Bank's regional and income classifica-  rates, see below,
tion of economies appear at the end of most tables. The World Bank's  Aggregates noted with an m are medians of the values shown in the
regional and income clossifications arc shown on the front and back  table. No value is shown if more than one-third of the observations are
cover end flaps of the book. Specialized classifications, such as high-  missing.
income OECD countries, are documented in About the data of the tables  Exceptions to the rules occur throughout the book. Depending on the
in which they appear.                                        judgment of World Bank analysts, the aggregates may be based on as
Because of missing data, aggregations for groups of economies  little as 50 percent of the available data. In other cases, where missing
should be treated as approximations for unknown totals or average val-  or excluded values are judged to be small, irrelevant, or randomly dis-
ues. Regional and income group aggregates are based on the largest  tributed aggregates are based only on the data shown in the tables.
available set of data, including values for the 148 economies shown in
the main tables, other economies shown in table 1.6, and Taiwan, China.  Growth rates
The aggregation rules are intended to yield estimates for a consistent  Growth rates are calculated as annual averages and represented as
set of economies from one period to the next and for all indicators. Small  percentages. Except where noted, growth rates of values are computed
differences between the values of subgroup aggregates and overall from constant-price or real-value series. Three principal methods are
totals and averages may occur because of the approximations used. In  used to calculate growth rates: the least-squares method, the expo-
addition, compilation errors and data reporting practices may cause dis-  nential endpoint, and the geometric endpoint. Rates of change from
crepancies in theoretically identical aggregates such as world exports  one period to the next are calculated as proportional changes from the
and world imports.                                            earlier period
There are four principal methods of aggregation. For group and world
totals noted in the tables by a t, missing data are imputed using a suit-  Least-squares growth rate. Least-squares growth rates are used wher-
able proxy variable in a benchmark year, usually 1987. The imputed value  ever there is a sufficiently iong time series to permit a reliable calcula-
is calculated so that it (or its proxy) bears the same relationship to the  tion. No growth rate is calculated if more than half of the observations
total of available data as it did in the benchmark year. Proxy variables are  in a period are missing.
selected from a set of variables forwhich complete data are available for  The least-squaresgrowth rate, r, isestimated byfittinga linearregres-
1987. Imputedvaluesarenotcalculated if missingdataaccountformore  sion trendline to the logarithmic annual values of the variable in the rel-
than one-third of the total in the benchmark year. The variables used as  evant period. The regression equation takes the form
proxies are GNP in U.S. dollars, GNP per capita in U.S. dollars, total pop-           In X, = a + bt,
ulation, exports and imports of goods and services in U.S. dollars, and
value added in agriculture, industry, manufacturing, and services in local  which is equivalent to the logarithmic transformation of the compound
currency.                                                     growth equation,
Aggregates marked by an s are sums of available data. Missing values              X, = XO (1 + r)t.
are not imputed. Sums are not computed if more than one-third of the obser-
vations in the series or a proxy for the series are missing in a given year.  In this equation, X is the variable, t is time, and a = log X. and b =
Aggregates of ratios are generally calculated as weighted averages of  In (1 + r) are parameters to be estimated. If b* is the least-squares
the ratios (indicated by w) using the value of the denominator or, in some  estimate of b, then the average annual growth rate, r, is obtained as
cases, another indicator as a weight The aggregate ratios are hased on  [exp(b*)-1_] and is multiplied by 100 to express it as a percentage-
available data, including data for economies not shown in the main  The calculated growth rate is an average rate that is representative
tables. Missing values are assumed to have the same average value as  of the available observations over the entire period. It does not neces-
the available data. No aggregate is calculated if missing data account for  sarily match the actual growth rate between any two periods.
1998 World Development Indicators  361



Exponential growth rate. The growth rate between two points in time for  composition of both the SDR and the SDR exchange rate for each cur-
certain demographic data, notably labor force and population, is calcu-  rency changes. The SDR deflator is first calculated in SDR terms and
lated from the equation:                                      then converted to U.S. dollars using the SDR to dollar Atlas conversion
r= ln(p,/p,)/n,                       factor.
This three-year averaging smooths annual fluctuations Ir prices and
where p, and p1 are the last and first observations in the period, n is  exchange rates for each country. The Atlas conversion factor is then
the number of years in the period, and In is the natural logarithm oper-  applied to a country's GNP. The resulting GNP in U.S. dollars is divided
ator.                                                         by the midyear population for the atest of the three years to derive GNP
This growth rate is based on a model of continuous, exponential  per capita. When official exchange rates are deemed to be unreiable or
growth between two points in time. It does nottake into account the inter-  unrepresentative of the effective exchange rate during a period, an alter-
mediate values of the series. Note also that the exponential growth rate  native estimate of the exchange rate is used in the Atlas formuia (see
does not correspond to the annual rate of change measured at a one-  below).
year interval, which is given by (pn - P_,)/P,_,.                The following formulas describes the computation of the At as con-
version factor for year t:
Geometric growth rate. The geometric growth rate is applicable to com-
pound growth over discrete periods, such as the payment and reinvest-
ment of interest or dividends. Although continuous growth, as modeled
by the exponential growth rate. may be more realistic, most economic   e          =P's
e - e,_2  P  / P's,+ e       /       e,
phenomena are measured only at intervals for which the compound                    Pt-2 Pt.        Pti   t--.
growth model is appropriate. The average growth rate over n periods is
calculated as                                                 and for calculating GNP per capita in U.S. dollars for year t
r=exp[ln(p,lp,)In] -1 .                                          Yts= (Y,/N,)l e,'
Like the exponential growth rate, it does not take into account inter-  where et' is the Atlas conversion factor (national currency to the U.S. col-
mediate values of the series.                                lar) for year t, et is the average annual exchange rate (national currency
to the U.S. dollar) for year r, p, Is the GNP deflator for year t. p31 is the
World Bank Atlas method                                       SDR deflator in U.S. dollar terms for year t, Yt is the Atlas GNP in U.S.
In calculating GNP in U.S. dollars and GNP per capita for certain opera-  dollars in year t, YK is current GNP (loca currency) for year t. and Nt is
tional purposes, the World Bank uses a synthetic exchange rate com-  midyear population for year t.
monly called the Atlas conversion factor. The purpose of the Atlas
conversion factor is to reduce the impact of exchange rate fluctuations  Alternative conversion factors
in the cross-country comparison of national incomes.          The World Bank systematically assesses the appropriateness of official
The Atlas conversion factor for any year is the average of a coun-  exchange rates as conversion factors. An alternative conversior factor is
try's exchange rate (or alternative conversion factor) for that year and  used when the official exchange rate is judged to diverge by an excep-
its exchange rates for the two preceding years, after adjusting for dif- tionally large margin from the rate effectively applied to domest c trans-
ferences between the rate of inflation in the country and the G-5 coun-  actions of foreign currencies and traded products. This appl es to only a
tries (France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United  small number of countries as shown in the Primary data documentation.
States). A country's inflation rate is measured by its GNP deflator. The  Alternative conversion factors are used in the At as methodology and
inflation rate for G-5 countries is measured by changes in the SDR  elsewhere in the World Development Indicators as single-year conversion
deflator. (Special drawing rights, or SDRs, are the International  factors.
Monetary Fund's unit of account.) The SDR deflator is calculated as a
weighted average of the G-5 countries' GDP deflators in SDR terms.
The weights are determined by the amount of each currency included
in one SDR unit. Weights vary over time because the IMF changes the
362  1998 World Development Indicators



Primary data documentation
The World Bank is not a primary data collection agency for most areas
other than living standards surveys and external debt. As a major user
of socioeconomic data, however, the World Bank places particular
emphasis on data documentation to inform users of data in economic
analysis and policymaking. The tables in this section provide information
on the sources, treatment, and timeliness of the main demographic, eco-
nomic, and environmental indicators in the World Development
Indicators.
Differences in the methods and conventions used by the primary data
collectors-usually national statistical agencies, central banks, and cus-
toms services-may give rise to significant discrepancies overtime both
among and within countries. Delays in reporting data and the use of old
surveys as the base for current estimates may sometimes compromise
the quality of national data.
Although data quality is improving in some countries, many develop-
ing countries lack the resources to train and maintain the skilled staff
and obtain the equipment needed to measure and report demographic,
economic, and environmental trends in an accurate and timely way. The
World Bank recognizes the need for reliable data to measure living stan-
dards, track and evaluate economic trends, and plan and monitor devel-
opment projects. Thus, working with bilateral and other multilateral
agencies, it continues to fund and participate in technical assistance pro-
jects to improve statistical organization and basic data methods, collec-
tion, and dissemination.
The World Bank is working at several levels to meet the challenge of
improving the quality of the data that it collates and disseminates. At the
country level the Bank is carrying out technical assistance, training, and
survey activities-with a view to strengthening national capacity-in the
following areas:
*  Poverty assessments in most borrower member countries.
*  Living standards measurement and other household and farm sur-
veys with country partner statistical agencies.
*  National accounts and inflation.
*  Price and expenditure surveys for the International Comparison
Programme.
*  Statistical improvement projects in the countries of the former
Soviet Union.
*  External debt management.
*  Environmental and economic accounting.
Atthe international level, the World Bank is working closelywith other
agencies to achieve a common language in concepts, standards, clas-
sifications, nomenclatures, and definitions with a view to providing
greater consistency and comparability to data from different countries
and time periods.
1998 World Development Indicators  363



National currency        Fiscal            National accounts               Balance of     Government  IMF
year                                             payments        finance  special
end                                              and trade                 data
dissemi-m
nation
Ba ance
SNA   Alternative  PPP of Payrnerts   System
Reporting  Base  price  conversion  survey  Manua  External  of  Accounting
period  year  valuation  factor  year  int use  debf  trade  concept
Albania               Albanian lek                Dec. 31   CY   1993  VAP                    BPM5   Actua.    G
Algeria               Algeri-an di-nar            Dec. 31   CY   1980  VAB                    BPM5   Actual    S
Angola                Angolan adjuated kwanza     Dec. 31  CY    1987  VAB   1993-96          BPM5   Actual    S
Argentina             Argentine peso              Dec. 31  CY    1986  VAR  1.972.-81  1980   BPM5   Actual    S       C       S
Armenia               Armenian dram               Dec. 31   CY   1993  VAB   1990-95   1990   BPM5   Preliminary
Australia             Australian dollar           Jun. 30   CY   1989  VAP             1993   BPM5             G       C       S
Austria               Austrian schilling          Dec. 31   CY   1990  VAP             1993   BPM5                     S.C
Azerbaijan            Azeri manat                 Dec. 31  CY    1987  VAR   1990-95   1990   BRM4   Preliminary
Bangladesh            Bangladesh take             Jun. 30   FY   1985  VAP             1993   BPM4   Actual    G
Belarus               Belarussian ruble           Dec. 31  CY, 1990    VAB  1990-96    1993   BPM4   Actual            C
Belgium               Belgian franc               Dec. 31  CY    1985  VAR             1993   BPM5             S       C       S*
Benin                 CPA franc                   Dec. 31  CY    1985  VAR     1992    1993   BPM5   Actual    S
Bolivia               Boliviano                   Dec. 31  CY    1980  VAP  1974-85    1980   9PMS   Actual    S       C
Bosnia and Herzegovina  Bosnian dinar             Dec. 31  CY    1987  VAP                    RRM5   Actua
Botswana              Botswana pula               Mar. 31  CY    1986  VAP             1993   RRM5   Actual    G       B
Brazil              ..Brazilian real              Dec. 31.. CY   1984  VAB             1980   BPM5   Preliminary S     C
Bulgaria              Bulgarian leva              Dec. 31  CY    1990  VAR  1991-93    1993   BPM5   Preliminary G     C
Burkina Faso          CFA franc                   Dec. 31  CY    1985  VAB   1992-93          BRM5   Actua.    S       C
Burundi               Burundi franc               Dec. 31  CY    1980  VAR                    BPM5   Actual    S
Cambodia              Cambodian riel              Dec. 31  CY    1989  VAR                    8RM5   Preliminary S
Cameroon              CFA franc                   Jun. 30   FY   1980  VAR      1993   1993   BRM4   Preliminary S     C
Canada                Canadian dollar             Mar. 31  CY    1986  VAR             1993   RRM5             G       C       S
Central African Republic  CFA franc               Dec. 31  CY    1987  VAB                    RRM5   Actual    S
Chad                  CFA franc                   Dec. 31  CY    1977  VAR                    BRM5   Actual    S       C
Chile                 Chilean peso                Dec. 31  CY    1986  VAR             1980   BPMS   Actual    S       C       S*
China                 Chinese yuan                Dec. 31  CY    1990  VAR             1986   BRM5   Preliminary G     B
Hong Kong, China     Hong Kong dollar            Dec. 31  CY   1990   VAR             1993   BRM4             G               S*
Colombia              Colombian peso              Dec. 31  CY    1975  VAR  1993-95    1980   BRM5   Preliminary S     C       S
Congo, DPem. Repr.    New zaire                   Dec. 31  CY    1987  VAR      1993          BPM5   Preliminary S     C
Congo, Rep.           CFA franc                   Dec. 31  CY    1978  VAR             1993   BRM5   Estimate  S
Costa Rica            Costa Rican colon           Dec. 31  CY    1987  VAP             1980   BPM5   Actual    S       C
C6te dIlvoire         CPA franc                   Dec. 31  CY    1986  VAR             1993   EIRM5  Preliminary S     C
Croatia                Croatian kura              Dec. 31  CY    1994  VAR             1993   8RM5   Prelimninary      C       S
Cuba                  Cuban peso                  Dec. 31  CY     ..    .S
Czech Republic        Czech koruna                Dec. 31  CY    1984  VAR             1993   BRM5   Preliminary G     C
De~nmark              Danish krone                Dec. 31  CY    1980  VAR             1993   BRM5             G       C       S
Dominican Republic    Dominican peso              Dec. 31  CY    1970  VAR  1992-95    1980   BPM5   Actual    G       C
Ecuador               Ecuadorian sucre            Dec. 31  CY   1975   VAR             1980   BPM5   Actual    G       B
Egypt, Arab Rep.      Egyptian pound             Jun. 30   FY   1992   VAR             1993   RPM4   Actual    S       C
El Salvador           Salvadoran coi6n            Dec. 31  CY   1962   VAR  1990-95    1980   BPM5   Actual    S       B
Eritrea               Ethiopian bi'rr             Dec. 31  CY   1992   VAR                    BPM4   Actual
Estonia               Estonian kroon              Dec. 31  CY   1993   VAR  1990-95    1993   BPM5   Actual            C
Ethiopia              Ethiopian birr             Jul. 7     PY  1981   VAR  1991-92    1985   BPM4   Actual    G       8
Finland               Finnish markka              Dec. 31  CY    1990  VAR             1993   BPM5             G       C       S
France                French franc                Dec. 31  CY   1980   VAR             1993   BPM5             S       C       S
Gabon                 CPA franc                   Dec. 31  CY    1989  VAR     1993    1993   BPM5   Actual    S       B
Gambia, The           Gambian dalasi             Jun. 30    FY   1976  VAR                    3RM5   Actual    G       8
Georgia               Georgian lari               Dec. 31  CY    1987  VAR  1990-95    1990   3PM4   Pre[iminary
Germany               Deutsche mark               Dec. 31  CY    1990  VAR             1993   BPM5             S       C       S
Ghana                 Ghanaian cedi               Dec. 31  CY    1975  VAR      1994          BPM5   Actua     G       C
Greece                Greek drachma               Dec. 31  CY    1970  VAR             1993   BRM5             S       C
Guatemala             Guatemalan cquetzal         Dec. 31  CY    1958  VAR             1980   BRM5   Actual    S       B
Guinea                Guinean franc               Dec. 31  CY    1989  VAR             1993   BPM5   Preliminary S     C
Guinea-Bissau         Guinea-Bissau peso          Dec. 31  CY    1986  VAR   1972-86          BRM5   Actual    S
Haiti                 Haitian gDurde              Sep. 30   FY   1976  VAR                    BRM5   Preliminary G
Honduras              Honduran lempire            Dec. 31  CY    1978  VAR             1980   BPM5   Actual    S
364 1998 World Development Indicators



Latest            Latest household or           Vital     Latest     Latest     Latest      Latest     Latest
population          demographic survey        registration agricultural  Industrial  water  survey of   survey of
census                                        complete    census      date    withdrawal  scientists  expenditure
data        and       for R&D
engineers
engaged
in R&D
Albania                    1989          LSMS, 1996                                             1993      1970
Algeria                    1987          PAPCHILD, 1992V/1993                                             1990
Angola                     1970                                                                           1987
Argentina                  1991                                                     1988        1993      1976        198         12
Armenia                    1989/                                                                1991      1994
Austria                    1991V/                                                   1990        1994      1991        1993        1993
Azerbaijan                 1989/                                                                          1995
Bangladesh       .        1991           DHS, 1996-97                                           1992      1987
Belarus                   1989                                                                            1990        1992       1992
Belgium                    1991V                                                    1990        1994      1980        1990        1990
Benin                      1992          DHS, 1996                                  1992        1981      1994        1989        1989
Bolivia                    1992          DHS, 1994                                              1994      1987        1991        1991
Bosnia and Herzegovina     1991V/1991
Botswana                   1991          OHS, 1968                                              1994      1992
Bulgaria                   1992          LSMS, 1995                        I                    1994      1988        1992        1992
Burkina Faso               1996          SDA, 1995                                              1983      1992
Cambodia                   1962                                                                           1987
Cameroon                   1987          OHS, 1991                                              1994      1987
Canada                     1991V                                                    1991        1993      1991        1991        1992
Central African Republic   1988          OHS, 1994-95                                           1992      1987        1990        1984
Chile                      1992                                            1                    1993      1975        1988        1994
China                      1990          Population, 1995                                       1994      1980        1993        1993
Hong Kong, China         1911993
1991 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~.......   .......   .....  .......   ...........   .......   ...................  
Colombia                   1993          OHS, 1995                                  1988        1992      1987        1982        1982
Congo, Oem. Rep.           1984                                                     1990                  1990
Congo, Rep.                1984                                                                 1998      1987        1984        1984
Costa Rica                 1984          CDC, 1993V/1994                                                  1970        1992        1986
C5te dilvoire              1988          OHS, 1994                                             :1993      1987
Croatia                    1991V/1992                                                                                 1992        1992
Cuba                       1981                                            /1                   1989      1975        1992        1992
Czec Republic              1991          CDC, 1993                         VI       1990        1993      1991        1994        1994
Dominican Republic        1-993          OHS, 1996                                              1985      1987
Ecuador                    1990          LSMS, 1995                                             1994      1987        1990        1990
Egypt, Arab Rep.          1996           OHS, 1995-96                                           1992      1993        1991        1991
El Salvador                1992          CDC, 1994                                              1994      1975        1992        1992
Eritrea                    1984
Ethiopia                  1994           Family and fertility, 1990               1989-92       1990      1987
Finland                   1990                                             /1994                          1991        1993        1993
France                    1990           Income, 1989V/                             1988        1994      1990        1993        1993
Gabon                      1993                                                                 1982                  1987        1986
Gambia, The                1993                                                                 1982      1982
Georgia                    1989                                                                 1992      1990        1991        1991
Germany                                                                    '                    1993      1991        1989        1989
Ghana                     1984           OHS, 1993                                              1987      1970
Greece                    1991                                             /1993                          1980        1993        1993
Guatemala                  1994          OHS, 1995/                                             1990      1970        1988        1988
Guinea-Bissau              1991          SDA, 1991                                  1988                  1991
Haiti                      1982          OHS, 1994-95                                                     1987
Honduras                   1988          OHS, 1994                                  1993        1994      1992
1998 World Development Indicators 365



National currency         Fiscal            National accounts                Balance of      Government  IMF
year                                               payments        finance   special
end                                                and trade                  data
dissemi-
nation
Baiance
SNA   Alternative  PPP  of Payments    Systemn
Report[ng Base  price  conversion  survey  Manual Exterral  of  Accourtnog
Iperiod     year  valuation  factor  year  in use  debt   trade   concept
Hungary                Hungarian forint            Dec. 31   CY    1991  VAR              1993   BPM5   ActulI    G        C       5*
India                  Indian rupee                Mar. 3 1  FY    1980  VAB             1985    BPM4   Actual    G        C       S
Indonesia              Indonesian rupiah           Mar. 3 1  CY    1993  VAP              1993   3PM5   Preliminary S      C       S
Iran, Islamic Rep.     Iranian rial                Mar. 20    FY  .1982  VAB              1993   BPM5   Estimate  S        C
I raq       .Iraqi dinar                           Dec. 3.1  CY    1969  VAB                                      S
Ireland                Irish pound                 Dec. 31   CY    1985  VAB              1993   BPMS             G        C 
Israel                 Israeli new shekel          Dec. 31   CY    1990  VAR              1980   3HMS             S        C       SC
Italy                  Italian lira                Dec. 31   CY    1985  VAP             1993    BPM5             S        C 
Jamaica                Jamaica dollar              Dec. 31   CY    1986  VAR   1995-96    1993   BPM5   Prelim[nary G
Japan                  Japanese yen                Mar. 31   CY    1985  VAR              1993   BRM5             G        C 
Jordan                 Jordan dinar                Dec. 3 1  CY    1985  VAR              1993   BPM4   Actuai    G        S3
Kazakhstan             Kazakh tenge                Dec:.31   CY    1994  VAR   1990-95   1990    BHM4   Actual
Kenya                  Kenya sVhilling             Jun. 30   CY    1982  VAR              1993   EPHMS  Actual    0        5
Korea, Dem. Rep.       Democratic Republic of Korea won Dec. 31  CY  1990  VAR                  ERPM5                              S
Korea, Rep.            Korean won                  Dec. 31   CY    1990  VAP             1993    OHM              S        C
Kuwait                 Kuwaiti diner               Jun. 30   CY    1984  VAR                    EIHMS             S        C
Kyrgyz Republic        Krgyz som                   Dec. 31   CY    1993  VAR   1990-95   1990    3HM4   Actual
Lao PDR                Lao kpDec. 31                         CY    1990  VAP                     RPM5   Preliminary
Latvia                 Latvian let                 Dec:.31   CV    1993  VAR   1990-95   1993    BRM5   Actu~al            C       S
Lebanon                Lebanese pound              Dec. 31   CY    1994  VAR             1993    BPM4   Actual    C
Lesotho                Lesotho loti                Mar. 31   CY    1980  VAR                     SRMS   Actual    G        C
Lioya                  Libyan dinar                Dec. 31   CY    1975  VAR             1993    OHMS             G
Lithuania              Lithuanian litas            Dec. 3.1  CY    1993  VAR   1990-95           OHMS   Hre iminery        C       S
Macedonia, FYR         Macedon an denar            Dec. 31   CY    1990  VAR              1993          Actual
Madagascar             Ma lagasy franc             Dec. 31   CY    1984  VAR              1993   OHMS   Actual    S        C
Meialai                Malavwi kwacha              Mar. 31   CY    1978  VAR              1985   OHMS   Preliminary G      0
Malaysia               Malaysian ringgit           Dec. 31   CY    1978  VAR             1993    OHMS   Preliminary G      C       S
Mali                   CFA ftanc                   Dec. 31   CY    1987  VAR             1985    OHMS   Actua     S
Mauritani'a            Mauritanian ouguiya         Dec. 31   CY    1985  VAR             1993    OHMS   Preliminary S
Mauritius              Mauritian rupee             Jun. 30   CY    1992  VAR             1985    OHMS   Actual    G        C
Mexico                 Mexican new peso            Dec. 31   CY    1993  VAR             1993    BHMS   Actual    G        C       S
Moldova                Moldovan leu                Dec. 31   CY    1995  VAR   1990-95   1993    OHMS   Actual
Mongolia               Mongolian tugrik            Dec. 31   CY    1986  VAR      1993   1993    OHMS   Actual             C
Morocco                Moroccan dirham             Dec. 31   CY    1980  VAR             1985    SHMS   Preliminary S      C
Mozamnbique            Mozambican metical          Dec. 31   CY    1995  VAR                     OHMS   Actual    S
Myanman                Myanmar kyat                Mar. 31   FY    1985  VAR                     ORM4   Actual    G        C
Namibia                Namibia dollar              Mar. 31   CY    1990  VAR                     OHMS 
Nepal                  Nepalese rupee              Jul. 14   FY    1985  VAR             1993    OPM4   Actual    G        C
Netherlands            Netherlands guilder         Dec. 31   CY    1990  VAP             1993    OHMS             S        C       S
New Zealand            New Zealand dollar          Jun. 30   CY    1982  VAR             1993    OHMS             G        0
iii  iv     i:.~~Fec. 31  CY  1980  VAR                   OHMS   Actual     G       C
Niger                  CRA franc                   Dec. 31   CY    1987  VAR      1993   1993    OHMS   Actual    S
Nigeria                Nigerian naira              Dec. 31   CY    1987  VAR   1974-96   1993    OHMS   Estimate  C
Norway                 Norwegian krone             Dec. 31   CY    1990  VAR             1993    OHMS             G        C       S
Oman                   Rial Omani                  Dec. 31   CY    1978  VAR             1993    BRMS   Actual    G        0
Pakistan               Pakistan rupee              Jun. 30   FY    1981  VAB             1980    OPM4   Actual    G        C
Panama                 Panamanian balboa           Dec. 31   CY    1992  VAR                     OHMS   Actual    S        C
Papua New Guinea       Papua New Guinea kina       Dec. 31   CY    1983  VAP             1980    OHMS   Actual    G        8
Paraguay               Paraguayan guarani          Dec. 31   CY    1982  VAR             1980    ORM4   Actual    S        C
Peru                   Peruvian new sol            Dec. 31   CY    1979  VAR   1987-91   1993    OHMS   Actual    S        C       S
Philippines            Philippine peso             Dec. 31   CY    1988  VAR             1993    RHM5   Preliminary G      8       S
Roland                 Polish zloty                Dec. 31   CY    1990  VAR             1993    OHMS   Actual    G        C       Sv.
Portugal               Portuguese escudo           Dec. 31   CY    1985  VAR             1993    OHMS             S        C       S
Puerto Rico            U.S. collar                 Dec. 31   CY                           1993
Romania                Romanian leu                Dec. 31   CY    1993  VAR      1992   1993    OHMS   Preliminary G      C
Russian Federation     Russian ruble               Dec. 31   CY    1996  VAR   1990-94   1993    BRM4   Preliminary        C
366   1998 World Development Indicators



Latest           Latest household or         Vital    Latest    Latest     Latest     Latest     Latest
population        demographic survey        registration agricultural industrial  water  survey of  survey of
census                                     complete    census    data    withdrawal  scientists  expenditure
data       and       for R&D
engineers
engaged
in R&D
Hungary                  1990         Income, .1995                   /                   1994     .1991      .1993       1993
India                    1991         National family health, 1992-93          1986       1992      1975       1990       1990
Indonesia                1990         DHS, 1994                                           1994      1987       1988       1988
lran, Islamic Rep.       1991         Demographic, 1995                        1988       1993      1993       1985       1985
Iraq                     1997                                                             1992      1970       1993       1993
Ireland                  1996                                         /        1991       1994      1980       1988       1988
Israel                   1995/                                                            1993      1989       1984       1992
Italy                    1991                                         /        1990       1991      1990       1993       1993
Jamaica                  1991         LSMS, 1994                      /                   1992      1975       1986       1986
Japan                    195/                                                  1990       1993      1990       1992       1991
Jordan                   1994         DHS, 1990                                           1994      1993       1986       1986
Kazakhstan               1989         OHS, 1995                       /1993
Kenya                    1989         OHS, 1993                                           1994      1990
Korea, Dam. Rep.         1993                                                                       1987
Korea, Rep.              1995                                                             1994      1994       1994       1994
Kuwait                   1995/                                                            1993      1974       1984       1984
Kyrgyz Republic          1989         LSMS, 1993                      /                             1994
Lao PDR                  1995                                                                       1987
Latvia                   1989                                         /                   1994      1994       1994       1994
Lebanon                  1970                                                                       1994       1980       1980
Lesotho                  1996         DHS, 1991                                           1994      1987
Libya                    1995         PAPCHILD, 1995                           1987       1989      1994       1980       1980
Lithuania                1989                                         /                   1994      1993       1992       1992
Macedonia, FYR           1994                                         V                   1994                 1991       1991
Madagascar    ..    ....1993        O. HS,.1992; SDA. 1993                                1988      1984..     1989       1988
Malawi                   1987         OHS, 1996                                           1989      1994
Malaysia                 1991                                                             1993      1975       1992       1992
Mall                     1987         DHS, 1995-96                                        1981      1987
Mauritani'a              1988         PAPCHILD, 1990                                                1985
Mauritius                1990         COC, 1991                                           1993      1974       1992       1992
Mexico                   1990         Population. 1995                                    1991      1991       1993       1993
Moldova                  1989                                         /1992....                                ...   ...
Mongolia                 1989                                                             1994      1987
Morocco                  1994         OHS, 1995                                           1994      1992
Mozambique               1997                                                                       1992
Myanmar                  1983                                                  1993       1993      1987 ............
Namibia                  1991         OHS, 1992                                                     1991
Nepal                    1991         OHS, 1996                                1992       1993      1987       1980       1980
Netherlands              1971                                         ,1       1989       1993      1991       1991       1991
New Zealand              1996                                          /       1990       1992      1991       1993       1993
Nicaragua                1995         LSMS, 1993                                          1985      1975       1987       1987
Niger                    1988         Household budget and consumption, 1993              1982      1988
Nigeria                  1991         Consumption and expenditure, 1992                   1990      1987       1987       1987
Norway                   1990                                         /        1989       1992      1985       1993       1993
Oman                     1993         Child health, 1989                     1992-93      1993      1991
Pakistan                 1981         LSMS, 1991                               1990       1990      1991       1990       1987
Panama                   1990                                                  1990       1992      1975......
Papua New Guinea         1989                                                             1989      1987
Paragua                  1992         OHS, 1990;CDCO,1992                      1991       1981      1987
Peru                     1993         OHS, 1996                                           1992      1987       1981       1984
Philippines              1995         OHS, 1993                                           1992      1975       1984       1984
Poland                   1988                                         /        1990       1994      1991       1992       1992
Portugal                 1991                                         /        1989       1994      1990       1990       1990
Puerto Rico              1990                                         /        1987       1994
Romania                  1992         LSMS, 1994-95                   V                   1993      1994       1994       1994
Russian Federation       1989         LSMS, 1992                      V                   1994      1994       1993       1993
1998 World Develapment Indicators  367



National currency         Fiscal           National accounts                Balance of      Government  IMF
year                                              payments        finance   special
end                                               and trade                 data
dissemi-
nation
Balance
SNA   Alternative  PRP of Pavorents   Systemr
Reporting  Base  prce  conversion  s-rey  tVanhal  External  of  ArcO-nteg
period  year  valuation  factor  vear  in use  debt  trade  Doncept
Rwanda                  Rwanda franc              Dec. 31   CY    1985  VAB             1985   3PM5   ActuaJ    G        C
Saudi Arabia            Saudi Arabian riyal       Hijri year Hijri year 1970  VAP       1993   BPM5             S
Senegal                 CFA franc                 Dec. 31   CY    1987  VAB   1992-93   1993   BPM5    Preliminary S
Sierra Leone            Sierra Leonean leone      Jun. 30   CY    1990  VAB             1993   BPM5   Actual    G        B
Singapore               Singapore dollar          Mar. 31   CY    1990  VAP             1993   BPM5             G        C       5*
Slovak Republic         Slovak koruna             Dec. 31   CY    1993  VAP             1993   BPM5    Preliminary               S
Sloveni.a               Slovenian tolar            Dec. 31  CY    1993  VAR             1-993  BRM5    Actual                    S
South Africa            South African rand        Mat. 31   CY    1990  VAB             1993   BPM5    Preliminary       c       S
Spain                   Spanish peseta            Dec. 31   CY    1996  VAP             1993   BPM5              S       C       S
Sri Lanka               Sri Lanka rupee           Dec. 31   CY. 1982    VAR             1985   BRM5    Actual   G        C
Sudan                   Sudanese diner            Jun. 30    FY   1982  VAR                    BRM4    Estimate  G
Sweden                  Swedish krona             Jun. 30   CY    1990  VAB             1993   BPM5             C        C       S
Switzerland             Swiss franc               Dec. 31   CY    1990  VAP             1993   BPM5             S        C       S
Syrian Arab Republic    Syrian pound               Dec. 31  CY    1985  VAP   1993-96   1993   RPM5    Estimate  S       C
Tajikistan              Tajik ruble                Dec. 31  CY    1993  VAR   1990-98   1990   BRM4    Estimate
Tanzania                Tanlzania shilling        Jun. 30    FY   1992  VAR             1993   RRM5   Actual     G
Thailand                The bent                  Sep. 30   CY    1988  VAR             1993   RRM5    Rrelimrnnary G    C       S
Togo                    CFA franc                  Dec. 31  CY    1978  VAR                    RRMB    Actua.    S
Trinidad and Tobago     Trinidad and Tobago dollar  Dec. 31  CY   1985  VAR             1993   RRM5    Prellminary S
Tunisia                 Tunisian diner             Dec. 31  CY    1990  VAR             1991   BPMS    Actual    G       C
Turkey                  Turkish lire               Dec. 31  CY    1993  VAR             1993   RRM5    Actual    S       C       S*
Turkmenistan            Turkmen manat              Dec. 31  CY    1987  VAR   1990-96   1990   RRM4    ActuaJ
Uganda                  Uganda shilling           Jun. 30   FY    1991  VAR                    BHM4   Actual    G
Ukraine                 Ukraine hrivnya           Dec. 31   CY    1995  VAR   1990-95   1993   RPM5   Actual
United Arab Emirates    U.A .E dirham             Dec. 31   CY    1985  VAR                    RRM4             G        B
United Kingdom          Round sterling            Dec. 3.1  CY    1990  VAR             1993   BRM5             G        C       S
United.States           U.S. dollar               Sep. 30   CY    1985  VAR             1993   BRM5             G        C       S
Uruguay                 Uuguayan peso             Dec. 31   CY    1983  VAR             1980   BPM5   Actual     S       C
Uzbekistan              Uzbek sum                 Dec. 31   CY    1987  VAR   1990-96   1990   RRM4   ActuaJ
Venezuela               Venezuelan bolivar         Dec. 31  CY    1984  VAP             1980   BRM5    Actual    G       C
Vietnam                 Vietnamese dong            Dec. 31  CY. 1989    VAR             1993   BRM4    Preliminary
West Bank and Gaza      Israeli niew shekel        Dec. 31  CY          VAR
Yemen, Rep.             Yemen rnal                 Dec. 31  CY    1990  VAR   1990-96   1993   RRM4    Actus.    G       C
Yugoslavia, FR (Serb./Mont.) Yugoslav new diner   Dec. 31   CY    1984  VAR             1985           Estimate  S
Zambia                  Zanrbian kwacha           Dec. 31   CY    1977  VAR             1993   BRM5    PreliminayG       C
Zimbabwe                Zimbabwe dollar           Jun. 30   CY    1990  VAR             1993   BRM5    Actual    G       C
Note: For explanation of the abbreviations aced in the table see the notes.
368   1998 World Development Indicators



Latest           Latest household or         Vital    Latest    Latest     Latest     Latest     Latest
population        demographic survey        registration agricultural  Industrial  water  survey of  survey of
census                                     complete   census     data    withdrawal  scientists  expenditure
data       and       for R&D
engineers
engaged
in R&D
Rwanda                   1991         DHS, 1992                                           1986      1993       1985       1985
Saudi Arabia             1992         Maternal and child health, 1993                    -1989      1992
Senegal        .         1988         DHS, 1992-93                                        1994      1987       1981       1981
Sierra Leone             1985         SHEHEA, 1989-90                                     1993      1987
Singapore                1990         General household, 1995         /                   1994      1975       1994       1994
Slovak Republic          1991                                         1                   1994      1991
Slovenia                 1991                                          V                  1994                 1992       1992
South Africa             1996         LSMS, 1993                                          1992      1990       1991       1991
Spain                    1991/                                                 1989       1992      1991       1993       1993
Sri Lanka                1993         DHS, 1993/                                          1993      1970       1985       1984
Sudan                    1993         OHS, 1989-90                                                  1995
Sweden                   1990                                         I/                  1994      1991       1993       1993
Switzerland              1990/                                                 1990       1994      1991       1992       1992
Syrian Arab Republic     1994         PAPCHILD,19                                         1992      1993
Tajikistan               1989/                                                                      1994
Tanzania                 1988         OHS, 1996                                           1988      1994
Thailand                 1990         OHS, 1987                                1988       1991      1987       1991       1991
Togo          1.. ..      981 O...      HS, 1988                                          1984      1987
Trinidad and Tobago      1990         OHS, 1987/                                          1993      1975       1984       1984
Tunisia                  1994         PAPCHILD, 1994-95                                   1993      1990       1992       1992
Turkey                   1997         Population and health, 1983              1991       1993      1992       1991       1991
Turkmenistan             19951                                                                      1994
Uganda                   1991         OHS, 1995                                1991       1989      1970
Ukraine                  1991                                         /                             1992       1989       1989
United Arab Emirates     1980                                                             1985      1995
United Kingdom           19911                                                 1993       1994      1991       1993       1993
United States            1990         Current population, 1996        /        1987       1994      1990       1993       1993
Uruguay                  1996                                                  1990       1993      1965
Uzbekistan               1989         OHS, 1996                       VI                            1994       1992       1992
Venezuela                1990         LSMS, 1993                      /                   1993      1970       1992       1992
Vietnam                  1989         Intercensal demographic, 1995                                 1992       1985       1985
West Rank and Gaza                    Demographic, 1995
Yemen, Rep.              1994         OHS, 1991-92                                                  1990
Yugoslavia, F (Serb./Mont.)  1991                                                         1994                 1992       1992
Zambia                   1990         OHS, 1996                                1990       1994      1994
Zimbabwe                 1992         OHS, 1994                                           1993      1987
1998 World Development Indicators 369



* Fiscal year end is the date of the end of the fiscal  data on balance of payments items in table 4.16.  s expected to erhance the ava lab lity of timely and
year for the central government. Fiscal years for other  BPM4 refers to the fourth edition of the IMF's Balance  comprehensive data and therefore contribute to the
levels of government ard the reporting years for sta-  ofPayments Manual(1977), and BPM5 to the fifth edi-  pursuit of sound macroeconomic policies, t s also
tistical surveys may differ, but if a country is desig-  tion 11993). Since 1995 the IMF has adjusted all bal-  expected to contr bute to the mproved functioning of
nated asa fiscal year reporter in the following cclumn,  ance of payments data to BPM5 conventions, but  financial markets. Although subscription is voluntary.
the date shown is the end of its national accounts  some countries continue to report using the older sys-  it commits the subscriber to observing the standard
reporting period. * Reporting period for national  tem. * External debt shows debt reporting status for  and to provid ng information to the IMF about its prac-
accounts and balance of payments data is designated  1996 data. 'Actual" ndicates data are as reported,  tices in dissemninating economic and financial data. A
as either calendar year basis (CYI or fiscal year (FY).  'preliminary" indicates data are preliminary and  related General Data Dissem natior System tGDDS),
Most economies report their national accounts and  include an element of staff estimation, and "estimate'  recently introduced by the IMF, .s designed to encour-
balance of payments data using calendar years, but  indicates data are staff estimates. * System of trade  age gooc practice in data product on and dissemina-
some use fiscal years, which straddle two calendar  refers to the general trade system (Gl or the special  tion. * Latest population census shows the most
years. In the World Development Indicators fiscal year  trade system (S). For imports under the genera trade  recent year in which a census was conJucted.
data are assigned to the calendar year that contains  systemr, both goods entering directly for domestc con-  * Latest household or demographic survey gives
the larger share of the fiscal year. Saudi Arabia follows  sumption and goods entered into customs storage are  nformat on on the surveys used in compi. ng the
a lunar year whose starting and ending dates change  recorded, at the time of their first arrival, as imports.  householo and demographic data preserted in sec-
with respect to the solar year. Because the     Under the special trade system goods are recorded as  tior 2. LSMS is Lyving Standards Measurement
International Monetary Fund (IMF) reports most bal-  imports when declared for domestic consumption  Study, PAPC-fILD is the Pan Arab Project for Chi.d
ance of payments data ona calendaryear basis, bal-  whetherattimeofentryoronwithdrawalfromcLlstoms  Deveonpment, DHS is Demogrnahic and Healtn
ance of payments data for fiscal year reporters in the  storage. Exports under the general system comprise  Survey. SDA is Social Dimens ons of Adjustment,
World Development Indicators are based on fiscal year  outward-moving goods: (a) national goods wholly or  CDC s Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
estimates provided by World Bank staff. These esti-  partly produced in the country; 1b) foreign goods, nei-  and SHEHEA is Survey of Household Enperdit.re and
mates may differ from IMF data but allow consistent  ther transformed nor declared for domestic consump-  Household Economic Activ;ties. * Vital registration
comparisons between national accounts and balance  tion in the country, that move outward from customs  complete identifies countries jpdgeo tc have com-
of paymentsdata. * Baseyearistheyearusedasthe   storage; and (c) nationalized goods that have been  plete registries of vital lbirtr and death) statistics by
base period for constant price calculations in the coun-  declared from domestic consumption and move out-  the United Nations Department of Ecoromic and
try's national accounts. Price indexes derived from  ward without having been transformed. Under the spe-  Socia informat on and Po. cy An4&ysis. Statistical
national accounts aggregates, such as the GDP defla-  cial system of trade exports comprise categories (a)  Division, and reported in Population and Vital
tor, express prices in current years relative to prices in  and (c). In some compilations categories (b) and ic) are  Statistics Reports. Countries e th complete vital sta-
the base year. Constant price data reported in the  classified as re-exports. Direct transit trade. consist-  tistics registr es may have more accurare and more
World Development Indicators are partially rebased to  ing of goods entering or leaving fortransport purposes  timely demographic ndicators. * Latest agricultural
a common 1987 base year. See the notes to table 4.1  only, is excluded from both import and export statis-  census shows trne most recent year in which an agri-
for further discussion. * SNA price valuation shows  tics. See the notes to tables 4.4 and 4.5 for farther  cultura census was conducted and reDorted to the
whether value added in the national accounts is  discussion. * Government finance accounting con-  Food and Agriculture Organ zat on. * Latest indus-
reported at basic or producers' prices (VAB) or at pur-  cept describes the accounting basis for reporting cen-  trial data refer -o the most recent Year -'or vhich man-
chasers' prices (VAP). Purchasers' prices include the  tral government financial data. For most countries  ufacturing value added data at the three-dig t level of
value of taxes levied on output and value added that  government finance data have been consolidated (C)  the Internationa. Standard Industria' Classi',cation
are collected from consumers and thus tend to over-  into one set of accounts capturing all the central gov-  (rev 2 or rev. 3) are avai ab e n the UNIDO catabase.
state the actual value added in production. See the  ernment's fiscal activities. Budgetary central govern-  * Latest water withdrawal data refer to the most
notes to table 4.2 for further discussion of national  ment accounts (B) exclude central government units.  recent year for which data have been comoiled from
accounts valuation. * Alternative conversion factor  See the notes to table 4.12 for further details. * IMF  a varety of sources. See the notes to table 3.5 for
identifies the countries and years for which a World  special data dissemination shows the countries that  more information. * Latest surveys of scientists
Bank-estimated conversion factor has been used in  subscribe to the International Monetary Fund's (IMFi  and engineers engaged in R&D and expenditure for
place of the official (IFS line rf) exchange rate. See  Special Data Dissemination Standard (SDDS). "S"  R&D refer to the most recent year for which data are
Statistical methods for further discussion of the use  refers to countries that subscribe; "SI*" indicates sub-  available from a data co lection effort by UNESCO in
of alternative conversion factors. * PPP survey year  scribers that have posted data on the Internet.  science and technology ann researcr and develop-
refers to the latest available survey year for the  (Posted data can be reached through the IMF  ment (R&D). See the notes to tab e 5.12 for more
International Comparison Programme's estimates of  Dissemination  Standard  Bulletin  Board  at  information.
purchasing power parities (PPPs). See the notes to  http://dsbb.imf.org/). The IMF established the SDDS
tables 4.10, 4.11, and 5.6 for further details.  to guide member countries that have or that are seek-
* Balance of Payments Manual in use refers to the  ing access to international capitai markets in providing
classification system used for compiling and reporting  economric and financial data to the public. The SDDS
370   1998 World Developwent Indicators



Acronyms and abbreviations
bbl       barrel                                                   kg        kilogram
BOD       biochemical oxygen demand                                km        kilometer
btu       British thermal units                                    kwh       kilowatt-hour
CFC       chlorofluorocarbon                                       LIBOR     London interbank offered rate
c.i.f.    cost, insurance, and freight                             MO        currency and coins (monetary base)
CITES     Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of  M1     narrow money (currency and demand deposits)
Wild Flora and Fauna                                     M2        money plus quasi money
CO,       carbon dioxide                                           M3        broad money or licu d liabi ties
CPI       consumer price index                                     MFA       Multifiber Arrangement
cu. m     cubic meter                                              mmbtu     millions of British thermal units
DHS       demographic and health survey                            mt        metric ton
DMTU      dry metric ton unit                                      MUV       manufactures unit value
DPT       diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus                       NEAP      national environmental action plan
ESAF      Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility                  NGO       nongovernmental organization
FDI       foreign direct investment                                NTBs      nontariff barriers
f.o.b.    free on board                                            ODA       official development assistance
FYR       former Yugoslav Republic                                 P/E       price-earnings ratio
G-5       France, Germany, Japan, United Kingdom, and United States  PPP     purchasing power Darity
G-7       G-5 plus Canada and Italy                                SAF       Structural Adjustment Facility
GDP       gross domestic product                                   SDR       Special Drawing Right
GEMS      Global Environment Monitoring System                     SIC       Standard Industrial Classification
GIS       Geographic Information System                            SITC      Standard International Trade C assification
GNI       gross national income                                    SNA       L.N. System of National Accounts
GNP       gross national product                                   SOPEMI    Continuous Reporting System on Migration
ha        hectare                                                  so2       sulfur dioxide
HIV       human immunodeficiency virus                             sq. km    square kilometer
ICD       international classification of diseases                 STD       sexually transmitted disease
ICRG      International Country Risk Guide                         TB        tuberculosis
ICSE      International Classification of Status in Employment     TFP      total factor productivity
IMR       infant mortality rate                                   ton-km     metric ton-kilometers
ISCED     International Standard Classification of Education       TSP      total suspended particulates
ISIC      International Standard Industrial Classification         UN5MR     child (under-5) mortality rate
372   1998 World Development Indicators



ACDA      Arms Control and Disarmament Agency                      IRF        International Road Federation
ADB       Asian Development Bank                                   ITU        International Telecommunication Union
AfDB      African Development Bank                                 IUCN       World Conservation Union
APEC      Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation                         LAC       Latin America and the Caribbean
CDC       Centers for Disease Control and Prevention                LME       London Metals Exchange
CDIAC     Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center                MIGA      Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
CEC       Commission of the European Community                      MNA       Middle East and North Africa
DAC       Development Assistance Committee                          NAFTA     North American Free Trade Agreement
EAP       East Asia and the Pacific                                 NATO      North Atlantic Treaty Organization
EBRD      European Bank for Reconstruction and Development          OECD      Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
ECA       Europe and Central Asia                                   PAHO      Pan American Health Organization
EDF       European Development Fund                                 SAS       South Asia
EFTA      European Free Trade Area                                  SSA       Sub-Saharan Africa
EIB       European Investment Bank                                  UN        United Nations
EU        European Union                                            UNAIDS    Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
EUROSTAT Statistical Office of the European Community               UNCED     United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
FAO       Food and Agriculture Organization                         UNCTAD    United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
GATT      General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade                    UNDP      United Nations Development Programme
GEF       Global Environment Facility                               UNECE     United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
HIC       High-income countries                                     UNEP      United Nations Environment Programme
IBRD      International Bank for Reconstruction and Development     UNESCO    United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
ICAO      International Civil Aviation Organization                 UNFPA     United Nations Population Fund
ICCO      International Cocoa Organization                          UNICEF    United Nations Children's Fund
ICO       International Coffee Organization                         UNIDO     United Nations Industrial Development Organization
ICSE      International Classification of Status in Employment      UNRISD    United Nations Research Institute for Social Development
ICP       International Comparison Programme                        UNSO      United Nations Statistical Office
IDA       International Development Association                     USAID     U. S. Agency for International Development
IDB       Inter-American Development Bank                           WCMC      World Conservation Monitoring Centre
IEA       International Energy Agency                               WFP       World Food Programme
IFC       International Finance Corporation                         WHO       World Health Organization
IFCI      International Finance Corporation Investable              WIPO      World Intellectual Property Organization
ILO       International Labour Organization                         WTO       World Trade Organization
IMF       International Monetary Fund                               WWF       World Wide Fund for Nature
1998 World Development Indicators   373



Credits
This book has drawn on a wide range of World Bank  Saxenian  facilitated  collaboration  between  the  this section with additional inputs from Eric Swanson.
reports and numerous external sources. These are  Development  Data  Group  and  the  Human    Special acknow edgment is made to the Global
listed in the bibliography that follows this section.  Development Network. Comments and suggestions  Economic Prospects team. [ed by Un Dadush-espe-
Many people inside and outside the World Bank   were received from Martha Ainsworth, Eduard Bos,  cially Robert Lynn and Mick Riordan. Substantial con-
helped  in  writing  and  producing  the  World  Vivian Hon, Edna Jonas, Elizabeth King, Mead Over,  tributions to the section were provided by Robin Lynch
Development Indicators. This note identifies those  LantPritchett. Martin Ravallion, Jee-Peng Tan, Lianqin  and Michael Ward (national accounts). Azita Amjadi
who made specific contributions. Numerous others,  Wang, and Michael Ward at various stages from  and Alexander Yeats (trade), Sultan Ahmad and Yonas
too many to acknowledge here, helped in many ways  design to production.                        Siru (structure of consumption and relative prices in
for which the team is extremely grateful.                                                       PPP terms), Jong-goo Park (balance of payments), and
3. Environment                                  Punam Chuhan (external debt). The national accounts
1. World view                                   was prepared by M. H. Saeed Ordoubadi in partner-  and balance of payments data for ow- and middle-
was prepared by the members of the WDI team. K.  ship with the World Bank's Environmentally and  incomeeconomiesaregatheredfromtheWorJdBank's
Sarwar Lateef conceived the plan for the section and  Socially Sustainable Development Network and in col-  regional staff through the annual Unified Survey under
wrote the introduction with contributions from Eric  laboration with the World Bank's Development  the d rect on of Soong Sup Lee and Monica Singh.
Swanson and Sulekha Patel. The introduction drew  Research Group. Eric Rodenburg and Robin White of  Boris Blazic-Metzner reviewed and prepared the time
heavily on Demery and Walton (1997). Crucial ideas  the World Resources Institute and Augusto Curti, Orio  series from 1960-65 for the CD-ROM. assisted by
and suggestions were provided by Lionel Demery,  Tampieri, and Sami Zara of the FAO made important  Premi Rathan Raj. Maja Bresslauer. Raquel Fok, and
Paul Glewwe, Paul Isenman, Martin Ravallion, and  contributions. Demet Kaya assisted with research and  Jong-goo Park worked on updating, est mating, and val-
Michael Walton. Colin Bradford and staff at USAID par-  data preparation. John Dixon, Kirk Hamilton. and  idating the databases for national accounts and the
ticipated in early discussions on measuring develop-  Michael Ward provided invaluable comments and  balance of payments. The national accounts data for
ment progress. Bernard Wood and Brian Hammond of  guidance in all stages of the work, from design to pro-  OECD countries were processed by Abdel Stambouli
the OECD made numerous helpful suggestions.     duction. Andrew Steer and Robert Watson provided  and rev ewed by Robert King and Mick Riordan. The
Substantial assistance in preparing the data for this  considerable encouragement and support and helped  external debt tables were prepared by the Financial
section was received from Jong-goo Park (GNP per  ensure the substantial ownership the World Bank's  Data Team, lec by Punam Chuhan, and were reviewed
capita) and Sultan Ahmad and Yonas Biru (GNP in PPP  Environment Department feels for this section. The  by Ibrahim Levent and Gloria Reyes. Shelley Fu and
terms).                                         Environment Department devoted substantial staff  Sup Lee prov:ded systems support.
resources to the book, for which we are very grateful.
2. People                                      John Dixon and Kirk Hamilton wrote the introduction  5. States and markets
was prepared by Sulekha Patel in partnership with the  to the section with contributions from Per Fredriksson  was prepared by David Cieslikowski in partnership with
World Bank's Human Development Network and      and Lisa Segnestam, and inputs were provided by  Yann Burtin, Andrew Ewing. Carsten F nk, Timothy
Development Research Group. Cindy Alexis, Aelim  Derek Byerlee. Peter Jipp, and William Magrath (land  Irwin, and Catherine Kleynhoff In the World Bank's
Chi, and Endang Satyowati helped prepare the data  use and agriculture), John Dixon and Stefano Pagiola  Finance, Private Sector, and Infrastructure Network,
for this section. Consultations were held with coun-  (biodiversity),  John  Briscoe  (water),  Susmita  the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management
terparts from the ILO, WHO, UNICEF, UNESCO, and  Dasgupta, Muthukumara Mani, and David WheeJer  Network, and the International Finance Corporation.
UNAIDS, with Human Development Network staff    (water pollution), Kirk Hamilton and Shane Streifel  Demet Kaya contributed substantia ly to the overall
serving as liaisons. Sulekha Patel wrote the introduc-  (energy), Kseniya Lvovsky and Robin White (air pollu-  preparation of this section, and Amy Wi son was
tion to the section. Substantial inputs to the section  tion), and Charles Di Leva and Junko Funahashi (gov-  responsible for updates to the state enterprise data-
were provided by Eduard Boas (demography and    ernment commitment). The team received valuable  base. Caroline Doggart drafted the ntroduction to this
health), Amit Dar, Monica Fong, and Dena Ringold  comments at various stages from Jean Aden. Harry  section. Substantial inputs were made bE William
(labor force and employment), Shaohua Chen, and  Burt, Anders Ekbom, KristalinaGeorgieva, Ernst Lutz.  Shaw)privatecapitalflows), MariuszSumlinsk (private
Martin Ravallion (poverty and income distribution),  William Martin, Glenn Morgan, Susan Shen, and Alan  investment). Graeme Littler and Yuko Onuma (stock
and Martha Ainsworth and Vivian Hon (health).   Winters.                                       markets), Luke Haggerty (state enterprises), Sultan
Bernherd  Schwartlander  (UNAIDS) and  Karen                                                   Ahmad and Yonas Biru (relative prices and PPP con-
Stanecki (U.S. Bureau of the Census) provided recent  4. Economy                               version factors). Geoffrey Lamb and Michee. Stevens
information on HIV prevalence and projections for the  was prepared by K. M. Vijayalakshmi and Eric Swanson  (military experrditures), As[ Denimrguc-Kurt (financial
special feature on AIDS. David de Ferranti of the  in close collaboration with the Macroeconomic Data  sector), Maria Concetta Gasbarro and Michael M nges
Human Development Council facilitated the data  Team of the Development Data Group, led by Robin  of the ITU (communications and information). and
review  by the Bank's regional staff and Helen  Lynch. Caroline Doggart prepared the introduction to  Christine Kessides and Louis Thompson (transport).
374 |1998 World Developnent Indicators



6. Global links                                Design, production, and editing                provide comments and suggestions after the last edi-
was prepared by Eric Swanson with assistance from  David Cieslikowski coordinated all aspects of production  tion was published. They, and those who responded
Aelim Chi in collaboration with the World Bank's  with the Communications Development Incorporated  to our readers' survey, all contributed greatly to
Development Prospects Group, headed  by Uri   team, led by Laurel Morals. Bruce Ross-Larson and  improvements and changes in this year's edition. We
Dadush, and with special assistance from the OECD's  other  staff  at  Communications  Development  urge others to send us their views on this edition. We
Development  Cooperation  Directorate.  Dipak  Incorporated did the editing, layout, and design. In par-  would also like to extend our appreciation to Frances
Dasgupta provided a stimulating critique that helped  ticular, we would like to thank the design team of Peter  Stewart, Director, Queen Elizabeth House, Oxford;
in rethinking this section. Milan Brahmbhatt con-  Grundy and Tilly Northedge, the editing team of Paul  Keith Bezanson, Director, Institute of Development
tributed to the redesign, suggested new indicators,  Holtz and Alison Strong, the desktopping team of Laurel  Studies, Sussex; and Sir Timothy Lancaster, Director,
and wrote the background paper from which the World  Morais. Damon lacovelli, Suzanne Luft, Terra Lynch,  School of Oriental and African Studies, London, for
Development Indicators team has drawn the intro-  Donna McGreevy, and Christian Perez. and the produc-  arranging  opportunities to  present the  World
ductory essay. He was assisted by Kumiko Imai.  tion team of Daphne Levitas and Jessica Moore.  Development Indicatorsto invited guests, faculty, and
Substantial help in preparing the data for this section                                       students in their institutions and for the feedback we
came from Azita Amjadi, Mick Riordan, and Alexander  Client services                          received on the book and CD-ROM at those presenta-
Yeats (trade), Jerzy Rozanski (tariffs), Betty Dow (com-  The Development Data Group's Client Services Team,  tions. We are also grateful to the Overseas
modity prices), Shelly Fu, Ibrahim Levent. and Gloria  led by Elizabeth Crayford, contributed to the design  Development Institute for organizingaseminaron the
Reyes (financial data). Malvina Poilock (finance and  and planning of the books and helped coordinate with  World Development Indicators.
aid), and Celine Thoreau of the OECD (migration). We  the Office of the Publisher.
wish to acknowledge the considerable assistance of
Jean-Louis Grolleau of the OECD. who provided data  External Affairs
on aid flows.                                  Stephanie Gerard and Joyce Gates in the Office of the
Publisher helped with the production of the World
Other parts                                    Development Indicators, the Atlas, and the related CD-
The maps on the inside covers were prepared by the  ROM. Geoffrey Bergen, Phillip Hay, and Paul Zwaga of
World Bank's Map Design Unit. The Partners section  the External Affairs Vice Presidency assisted with the
was coordinated and edited by Eric Swanson. The  development of a communications strategy.
Users guide was prepared by David Cieslikowski.
Primary data documentation was coordinated and  The Atlas
written by David Cieslikowski. Statistical methods was  Production was managed by David Cieslikowski. The
written by Eric Swanson. Acronyms and abbreviations  preparation of data benefited from the work on corre-
was prepared by Estela Zamora. The index was col-  sponding sections in the  World  Development
lated by Eric Swanson and Amy Wilson.         Indicators. William Prince assisted with systems sup-
port and production of tables and graphs. The World
Systems support                                Bank's Map Design Unit prepared the maps.
Mehdi Akhlaghi was responsible for database man-
agement and programming and overall systems sup-  World Development Indicators CD-ROM
port. In this he drew on the Development Data  Design, programming, and production were carried
Group's Systems Upgrade Team-in particular on  out by Reza Farivari (the project leader) and his team:
Reza Farivari and Tariqul Khan-led by Henry Burt.  Mehdi Akhlaghi, Azita Amjadi, Elizabeth Crayford, Yusri
Harun, Vasantha Hevaganinge, Angelo Kostopoulos,
Administrative assistance and office technology  Andre Lager, Patricia McComas, and William Prince.
support
Estela Zamora provided administrative assistance.  Client feedback
She was supported by Karen Adams and Premi     We are also grateful to David Beckman of Bread for
Rathan Raj. Office technology support was provided  the World, Deborah Brautigan of American University,
by Nacer Megherbi and Shahin Outadi.           Eric Rodenberg of World Resources Institute, and
Ditta Smith of The Washington Post, who, along with
colleagues from the World Bank, gave their time to
1998 World Development Indicators    375



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380   1s99  World Development Indicators



Index of indicators
References are to table numbers.
A                                                                      aircraft departures                                       5.9
passengers carried                                        5.9
Agriculture                                                         Anemia, pregnant women                                      2.16
cereal
production                                             3.2   Asylum seekers-See Migration
yield                                                   3.3
inputs                                                           B
fertilizer consumption                                 3.2
pesticide consumption                                  3.2    Balance of payments
labor force                                                        current account balance                                   4.16
as share of total labor force                          1.5      goods and services                                        4.16
share of total labor force, male and female            2.5      gross international reserves                              4.16
land                                                                net current transfers                                    4.16
arable, per capita                                     3.2       net income                                               4.16
hectares per worker                                    3.2       See also Exports; Imports; Private capital flows; Trade
irrigated, as share of cropland                        3.2
producer prices                                           5.6    Biological diversity
production indexes                                                  assessment, date prepared, by country                    3.13
crop production                                        3.3      species                                                    3.4
food production                                        3.3      threatened species                                         3.4
livestock production                                   3.3
Birds-See Biological diversity, species
Agriculture, value added
annual growth of                                      1.4, 4.1   Birth rate, crude                                            2.2
as share of GDP                                       1.5, 4.2
per hectare of agricultural land                          3.3    Births attended by health staff                             2.15
per worker                                                3.3
Birthweight, low                                            2.16
Aid
appropriations by DAC members                            6.10   C
net concessional flows
from international financial institutions             6.13   Carbon dioxide emissions                                  1.6, 3.8
from United Nations agencies                          6.13
net official development assistance and official aid             Commodity prices and price indexes                           6.5
by DAC members
as share of GNP of doior country                   6.10   Computers, personal                                          5.11
average change in volume                           6.10
by recipient                                       6.12   Consumption
by type                                             6.9      distribution of-See Income distribution
major donors, by recipient                         6.12      government, general
per capita of donor cointry                        6.10         annual growth of                                        4.9
total                                     6.9, 6.10, 6.12        as share of GDP                                        4.8
by recipients                                                    private
aid dependency ratios                              6.11         annual growth of                                    1.4. 4.9
per capita                                         6.11         as share of GDP                                         4.8
total                                              6.11          per capita, annual growth of                       1.3, 4.9
untied aid from DAC members                           6.10          per capita, on PPP terms                              4.10
relative price level                                  4.11
Air pollution-See Pollution                                               total                                                  4.9
See also Purchasing power parity
Air transport
air freight                                               5.9    Contraceptive prevalence rate                               2.15
1998 World Development Indicators   381.



Credit, domestic                                                          share of cohort reach ng grace 4. male an' fen-ae     2. 1
from banking sector                                        5.4      enrollment ratio
to private sector                                           .          gross, by leve                                        2. 10
to state-owned enterprises                                 5.8         ret primary, -ma e ard female                          1.3
net. by level                                         2.10
Current account balance                                      4.16      pnmary level
See also Balance of payments                                           curator.                                               2.9
enrollment                                        1.3, 2 10
D                                                                         pupil-teacher ratio                                    2.9
pubhc sperd ng on
DAC (Development Assistance Committee)-See Aid                            per student, oy level                                  2.9
teachirg mater a, oy level                             2.9
Death rate, crude                                             2.2         total                                                  2.9
See also mortality rate                                             pupils. share femeae. by leve.                           2.12
teacners, share female. ne level                         2.12
Debt, external
debt service, total                                      4.18    Electricity
IMF credit, use of                                       4.17       consumption                                              5.10
long-term                                                4.17       distr bution 1osses                                      5.10
present value                                            4.18       production
private nonguaranteed                                                  annual growth of                                      5.10
as share of external debt                              5.1         tota                                                    3.9
total                                                 4.17       sources of                                                3.9
public and pubijcly guaranteed
as share of central government revenue                4.18    Employment
debt service                                          4.18       agriculture. male and female                              2.5
IBRD loans and IDA credits                            4.17       cortnbutirg 'amily workers. -naoe atid female             2.4
total                                                 4.17       employees, male ano fen ae                                2.4
short-term                                               4.18       employers anc own-account vovorker. male and female       2.4
total                                                    4.1       industry, male and fe-a e                                  2.5
services. male ard female                                 2.5
Defense                                                                state-owned enterprises                                   5.8
armed forces personnel
share of labor force                                    5.7   Endangered species
total                                                   5.7     trade in. frequency of report ng                          3 13
arms trade                                                 5.7      See a.s B* o ogical divers :y, threatenec snec ex
military expenditure
as share of central government expenditure             5.7    Energy
as share of GNP                                        5.7       comrercial use
g-owtn                                                 3.7
Deforestation                                                3.1          per capita                                         1 2, 3.7
total                                                  3 7
Development progress                                          1.3      efficiency                                                3.8
emissions-See Pol ution
Distribution of income or consumption-See Income distribution         .mpo'ts, net                                               3.7
production, commero a~                                    3.7
E                                                                      traditional fuel use                                      3.8
See alsc Electric ty
Education
attainment                                                       Entry and exit reguiations
expected years of schooling of adults, maJe and female  2.11    freedom of entry                                           5.3
progression to secondary school. male and female      2.11      repatriatior
382   1998 World Development Indicators



of capital                                            5.3             other official flows                               6.9
of income                                             5.3             private flows                                  6.9. 6.9
total                                              6.9
Environmental profile, date prepared                       3.13
Foreign direct investment, net-See investment
Environmental strategy. year adopted                       3.13
Forest area                                                 3.1
Euromoney country creditworthiness rating                   5.3
Freshwater
Exchange rates                                                        annual withdrawal
arrangements                                             5.6         for agriculture                                        3.5
official, local currency units to U.S. dollars           5.6         for domestic use                                       3.5
ratio of official to parallel                            5.6         for industry                                           3.5
real effective                                           5.6         share of total resources                               3.5
See also Purchasing power parity                                     volume of                                              3.5
resources per capita                                     3.5
Exports
arms                                                     5.7   G
goods and services
annual growth of                                      1.4   Gender differences
as share of GDP                                       4.8      education                                      1.3, 2.11, 2.12
total                                                4.16       employment                                       2.3, 2.4, 2.5
merchandise                                                       illiteracy                                                1.2
from high-income OECD countries, by product            6.4     life expectancy                                           1.2
high technology                                      5.12      mortality                                                2.17
structure of                                          4.4      smoking                                                  2.16
total                                                 4.4      women per 100 men age 60 and above                        2.1
value, annual growth of                               6.2
volume, annual growth of                          6.2, 6.3  Gini index                                                   2.8
services                                                          See also Distribution-corrected private consumption per capita  1.3
structure of                                          4.6
total                                                 4.6   Government, central
within regional trade blocs                              6.6      debt
See also Trade                                                        as share of GDP                                      4.12
interest as share of total expenditure               4.12
F                                                                        interest as share of current revenue                 4.12
expenditures
Fax machines                                               5.11          as share of GDP                                       5.1
by economic type                                     4.13
Fertility rate                                                           military                                              5.7
adolescent                                              2.15         total                                                 4.12
total                                                   2.15      financing
unwanted                                                2.15          domestic                                             4.12
from abroad                                          4.12
Financial depth and efficiency-See Liquidity: Monetary indicators    fiscal deficit                                           4.12
revenues, as share of GDP                                 1.5
Financial flows, net                                                  revenues, current
from DAC members                                        6.10          nontax                                               4.14
See also Aid                                                      taxes                                             4.14, 5.5
from international financial institutions               6.13          total                                                4.12
official development assistance and official aid
by DAC members
1998 World Development Indicators  383



Gross domestic investment (GDI)                                       total, for other economies                                 1.6
annual growth of                                          4.9
as share of GDP                                           4.. immunization, cmld
fixed, annual growth of                                    1.4      DPT, share of ch Idren urder 12 months                   2 1 4
rmeasles, share of cridren rnder 12 r  'vs               2.14
Gross domestic product (GDP)
annual growth of                                          4.1    imports
nmplicit deflator-See Prices                                       arms                                                       5.7
total                                                      4.2      goods and servces
as share of GDP                                        48.
Gross domestic savings (GDS) as share of GDP                  4.8         total                                                 4.16
merchandise
Gross national product (GNP)                                              structure o                                            4.5
annual growth of                                       1.1, 1.6       to hign.icome OECD councties, Dy Prduct                654
in 1996 U.S. dollars                                  1.1, 1.6        totai                                                   4.5
per capita                                                             value, annua growth of                             6.2, 6.3
annual growth of                               1.1, 1.4, 1.6        volume, anrual growth of                               6.2
in 1996 U.S. dollars                               1.1, 1.6     services
rank                                                   1.1         structure ol                                            4.7
purchasing power parity                                               total                                                   4.7
in 1996 international dollars                      1.1, 1.6
per capita, in 1996 international dollars          1.1. 1.6  Income distribution
rank                                                   1.1       Gini index                                                2 8
rank                                                      1.1       percentage snare of                                       2.8
survey year                                               2.8
H
Industry, value added
Health care                                                            annual growtn of                                      1.4, 4.1
average length of stay, days                             2.13       as share of GDP                                          .4.2
hospital beds per 1,000 people                           2.13
inpatient admission rate, share of population            2.13   Inflation-See Prices
outpatient visits, per capita                            2.13
physicians, per 1,000 people                              2,13  Institutional Investor credit ratng                           5.3
population share with access to                      1.3, 2.14
_Integration, global economic incicators of                  6.1
Health expenditure
per capita                                               2.13   interest payments-See Government, central, det
per capita, purchasmig power parity                      2.13
private                                                  2.13   Interest rates
public                                                   2.13       deposit rate                                              5.6
total                                                    2.13      interest rate spread                                       5.4
lending rate                                               5.6
HIV-1 adult seroprevalence                                             rea!                                                      5.6
survey year                                              2.16       spread over LIBOR                                         5.4
urban high-risk group, share infected                    2.16
women attending urban antenatal clinic, share infected   2.16   International Bank for Reconstruction and Development,
net financial flows fror                                     6.13
Hospital beds-See Health care
International Country Rik Guide I,RG, composite risk rating   5.3
International Development Association, net concessional flows from  6.13
Illiteracy rate, adult
male and female                                           1.2
384   1998 World Development Indicators



International Monetary Fund, net financial flows from     6.13    M
Internet hosts                                             5.11   Malnutrition, children under 5                        1.2, 2.16
Investment                                                        Mammals-See Biological diversity
by state-owned enterprises                               5.8
entry and exit regulations-See Entry and exit                  Manufacturing, value added
foreign direct                                                    annual growth of                                        4.1
gross                                                          as share of GDP                                         4.2
as share of PPP GDP                                6.1      structure of                                            4.3
net                                                           total                                                    4.3
as share of GDP                                   5.1
as share of gross domestic investment              5.1   Migration
total                                              6.8     foreign labor force in OECD countries as share of labor force  6.14
portfolio                                                        foreign population in OECD countries                    6.14
bonds                                                 6.8     inflows of foreign population
equity                                                6.8         asylum seekers                                      6.14
private                                                  5.1        total                                                6.14
See also Grcss domestic investment (GDI)
Monetary indicators
L                                                                    claims on governments and other public entities        4.15
claims on private sector                               4.15
Labor force
agricultural, male and female                        1.5, 2.5  Money and quasi money (M2)
annual growth of                                         2.3      annual growth of                                       4.15
armed forces                                             5.7      as share of GDP                                         1.5
children 10-14                                           2.3
female                                                   2.3   Moody's sovereign foreign currency long-term debt rating   5.3
foreign, in OECD countries                              6.14
industry, male and female                                2.5   Mortality rate
services, male and female                                2.5      adult, male and female                                 2.17
total                                                    2.3      child, male and female                                 2.17
See also Migration                                                children under five                                1.3, 2.17
infants                                             1.3, 2.17
Land area                                                            maternal -                                         1.3, 2.15
arable-See Agriculture
total                                            1.1. 1.6, 3.1  Motor vehicles
passenger cars                                       4.1, 4.2
Land use, by type                                           3.1      per 1,000 people                                       3.11
per kilometer of road                                   3.11
Life expectancy at birth                                            See also Roads                                          3.11
male and female                                          1.2     two-wheelers                                            3.11
total                                               1.6, 2.17
N
Liquidity
liquid liabilities                                       5.4   Nationally protected areas-See Protected areas
quasi-liquid liabilities                                 5.4
See also Monetary indicators                                   Newspapers, daily                                         5.11
Literacy-See Illiteracy rate                                     0
Long-term structural change                                 1.5   Official aid-See Aid
199S World Development Indicators  385



Official development assistance-See Aid                                    urOan                                             2.7
survey year                                           2.7
P
Power-See Electricity. production
Patent applications filed                                  5.12
Prices
Physicians-See Health care                                           agr cultural procucer or ces
maize                                                 5.6
Plants, higher-See Biological diversity                                 wheas                                               50.
commocitv prices and price ndeAes                        6.5
Pollution                                                            consumer, annual grovvth o'                            4.15
nitrogen dioxide, selected cities                       3.12      food, annual growth of                                 4.16
organic water pollutants, emissions of                            GDP implicit ceflator, annual g,coth cf                4. 1
by industry                                           3.6
per day                                               3.6   Private capital flows
per worker                                            3.6      gross, as share of DPP GDP                              6.1
sulfur dioxioe. selected cities                         3.12      net
suspended particulate matter, selected cities           3.12         bank and trace-related lenirag                       6.8
fore:gn direct invesnreat                             6.8
Population                                                              from DAC me-nbers                                    6.9
age dependency ratio                                     2.1        tota!                                                 6.8
age groups                                                        portfoho irvestme-t                                     6.6
15-64                                                 2.3      See also Investment
60 and above                                      1.4, 2.1
annual growth of                                      2.2  Protected areas
annual growth of                                         2.1      share of total lano a,ea                                3.,
density                                                          size of
rural                                                 3.1
total                                             1. 1, 1.6  Purchasing power parity
foreign, in OECD countries                              6.14      conversion facto'                                        o 6
momentum                                                 2.2      gross natioral product                              11. 1.6
projected additional growth, by source                   2.2      health expenditure, per cap ta                         2.13
total                                            1.1, 2.1. 1.6    household expenoitures by category                     0.10
urban                                                             private consumptiin per cap ta                         4 10
in largest city                                     3.10       relative price levels
n urban agglomerations                              3.10         government consu'np'ion                             4 11
in selected cities                                  3.12          gross private cotal format.or                       4.11
share of total population                        1.5, 3.10        private consump: cn                                 4 11
total                                                3.10
women per 100 men age 60 and above                       2.1:  Q
See also Migration
Quality of life                                             1.2
Poverty
internationai poverty line                                     R
population elow 51 a day                             2.7
popuation below $2 a day                             2.7    Radio sets                                                5.11
poverty gap at $1 a day                               2.7
poverty gap at $2 a day                               2.7   Railways
survey year                                          2.7       goods transported                                       5.9
national poverty line                                             passengers                                              5.9
population below the poverty line
national                                           2.7  Regional development banks, ret financial flows from       6.13
rural                                             2.7
386   1998 Worid Development Indicators



Relative prices (PPP)                                                overall balances of, befDre transfers                   5.8
price level                                            4.11       proceeds from privatization of                          5.8
private consumption                                     4.11
Stock markets
Research and development                                             IFC Investable index                                    5.2
expenditures for                                        5.12      listed domestic companies                               5.2
scientists and engineers                                5.12      market capitalization
technicians                                             5.12         as share of GDP                                      5.2
total                                                 5.2
Reserves, gross international-See Balance of payments               turnover ratio                                           5.2
value traded                                             5.2
Roads
goods transported                                        5.9   Sulfur dioxide emissions-See Pollution
normalized road index                                    5.9
paved roads                                              5.9   Suspended particulate matter-See Pollution
traffic                                                 3.11
T
Royalty and license fees
payments                                                5.12   Tariffs
receipts                                                5.12      all products
mean tariff                                       6.1, 6.7
S                                                                       standard deviation                                   6.7
manufactured goods
Safe water, population with access                                      mean tariff                                          6.7
as share of total                                   1.2, 2.14        standard deviation                                   6.7
rural                                                    3.5      primary products
urban                                                    3.5         mean tariff                                          6.7
standard deviation                                    6.7
Sanitation, population with access
as share of total                                   1.2, 2.14  Taxes and tax policies
urban                                                   3.10      duties
on exports                                            5.5
Savings-See Gross domestic savings                                      on imports                                           5.5
See also Tariffs
Schooling-See education                                              goods and services, domestic                            5.5
highest marginal tax rate
Services                                                                corporate                                            5.5
trade in-See Imports: Trade                                         individual                                            5.5
value added                                                         income, profits. and capital gains                    5.5
annual growth                                     1.4, 4.1    tax revenue                                         4.14, 5.5
as share of GDP                                       4.2
Telecommunications, international
Size of the economy                                     1.1, 1.6     cost of call to U.S.                                   5.10
outgoing traffic                                        5.10
Smoking, prevalence of, male and female                    2.16
Technology-See Computers, Exports, high technology;
Standard & Poor's sovereign long-term debt rating           5.3      Fax machines; Internet hosts; Research and development;
Telecommunications
State-owned enterprises
economic activity of                                     5.8   Telephones
employment by                                            5.8      mainlines
gross domestic credit held by                            5.8         cost of local call                                  5.10
gross fixed domestic investment by                       5.8         per 1,000 people
net financial flows from government to                   5.8           in largest city                                   5.10
1998 World Development Indicators  387



national                                          5.10       See also Roads
per employee                                         5.10
revenue per line                                     5.10    Transport-See Air transport; Railways. Roads; Traffic
waiting list                                          5.10
waiting time in years                                 5.10   Treaties, participation in
mobile                                                  5.11       CFC control                                             3.13
climate charge                                           3 13
Television                                                            Law of the Sea                                          3 13
cable subscribers per 1,000 people                       5.11      ozone aye,                                              3.13
sets per 1.000 people                                    5.11
Trends in longterm economic development                      1.4
Terms of trade, net barter                                   6.2
Tuberculosis                                                2.16
Threatened species-See Biological diversity
U
Tourism, international
expenditure                                             6.15    Unemployment, male and fema e                               2.6
inbound. by country                                     6.15
outbound, by country                                    6.15    UN, net concessional flows from                            6.13
receipts                                                6.15
UNDP, net concessional flows from                          6.13
Trade
arms                                                      5.7   UNFPA, net concessional flows from                         6.13
direction of trade, by region                             6.3
exports plus imports                                            UNICEF, net concessional flows from                        6.13
as share of PPP GDP                                    6.1
goods and services, as share of GDP                    1.5   V
mnerchandise
as share of goods GDP                              6.1   Value added
nominal growth                                 6.2. 6.3     agnculture                                    1.4. 3.3. ' 1. 4.2
real, growth of                                           6.1     industry                                             . 4.'. 4.2
See also Balance of paymcnts; Exports; Imports                     manufactur ng                                    4 I. 4.2. 4.3
services                                         1.4 -.1. 4.2
Trade blocs, regional                                        6.6
w
Trade policies-See Tariffs                                   6.7
World Food Program                                          6.13
Traffic
accidents, people injured or killed                     3.11   World Bank-See International Bank for Reconstruction
road traffic                                            3.11       and Development; International Development Association  6.13
388   1998 World Development Indicators



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Eat Asia and the        Latin Amera and the     Bangladesh              Hligb-lncmn, OECD
Pacific                 Caribbean               Bhutan                   Australia
American Samoa          Antigua and Barbuda      India                    Austria
Cambodia                Argentina                Maldives                Belgium
China                   Barbados                 Nepal                   Canada
Fiji                     Belize                  Pakistan                Denmark
Indonesia               Bolivia                  Sri Lanka               Finland
Kiribati                Brazil                                           France
Korea, Dem. Rep.        Chile                    Sub4Saharan Africa      Germany
Lao PDR                 Colombia                 Angola                  Greece
Malaysia                Costa Rica               Benin                   Iceland
Marshall Islands        Cuba                     Botswana                Ireland
Micronesia, Fed. Sts.   Dominica                 Burkina Faso            Italy
Mongolia                Dominican Republic       Burundi                 Japan
Myanmar                 Ecuador                  Cameroon                Korea, Rep.
Palau                   El Salvador              Cape Verde              Luxembourg
Papua New Guinea        Grenada                  Central African Republic  Netherlands
Philippines             Guadeloupe               Chad                    New Zealand
Samoa                   Guatemala                Comoros                 Norway
Solomon Islands         Guyana                   Congo, Dem. Rep.        Portugal
Thailand                 Haiti                   Congo, Rep.             Spain
Tonga                   Honduras                 Cote dilvoire           Sweden
Vanuatu                 Jamaica                  Djibouti                Switzerland
Vietnam                 Mexico                   Equatorial Guinea       United Kingdom
Nicaragua               Eritrea                  United States
Europe and              Panama                   Ethiopia
Central Asia            Paraguay                Gabon                    Other high Ineme
Albania                 Peru                     Gambia, The             Andorra
Armenia                  Puerto Rico             Ghana                   Aruba
Azerbaijan              St. Kitts and Nevis      Guinea                  Bahamas, The
Belarus                 St. Lucia                Guinea-Bissau           Bermuda
Bosnia and Herzegovina  St. Vincent and the      Kenya                   Brunei
Bulgaria                 Grenadines              Lesotho                 Cayman Islands
Croatia                 Suriname                 Liberia                 Channel Islands
Czech Republic          Trinidad and Tobago      Madagascar              Cyprus
Estonia                 Uruguay                  Malawi                  Faeroe Islands
Georgia                 Venezuela                Mali                    French Guiana
Hungary                                          Mauritania              French Polynesia
Isle of Man             Midde Eat and            Mauritius               Greenland
Kazakhstan               North Africa            Mayotte                 Guam
Kyrgyz Republic         Algeria                  Mozambique              Hong Kong, China
Latvia                  Bahrain                  Namibia                 Israel
Lithuania                Egypt, Arab Rep.        Niger                   Kuwait
Macedonia, FYR          Iran, Islamic Rep.       Nigeria                 Liechtenstein
Malta                   Iraq                     Rwanda                  Macao
Moldova                 Jordan                   Sao Tomb and Principe   Martinique
Poland                  Lebanon                  Senegal                 Monaco
Romania                 Libya                    Seychelles              Netherlands Antilles
Russian Federation      Morocco                  Sierra Leone            New Caledonia
Slovak Republic         Oman                     Somalia                 Northem Mariana Islands
Slovenia                Saudi Arabia             South Africa            Qatar
Tajikistan              Syrian Arab Republic     Sudan                   Reunion
Turkey                  Tunisia                  Swaziland               Singapore
Turkmenistan            West Bank and Gaza       Tanzania                United Arab Emirates
Ukraine                 Yemen, Rep.              Togo                    Virgin Islands (U.S.)
Uzbekistan                                       Uganda
Yugoslavia, FR          South Asia               Zambia
(Serbia/Montenegro)     Afghanistan              Zimbabwe
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