WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 365 'tWTPS365 Work in progress for public discussion 7300y, Inxvesting in Pastoraliml S/.fti/{l/ '\{//};'/ I,:s,,, n'' i//, I,i,/ . ti l( i, ~ t4 ///t/ I l,'1 +'/\ / r //, / /hl l I/J ./ G,/, ( i, RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS No. 284 Valdes and Schaeffer in collaboration with Roldos and Chiara, Suirveillance of Agricultural Price and Trade Policies: A Handbookfor Uruguiay No. 285 Brehm and Castro, The Marketfor Water Rights in Chile: Major Issues No. 286 Tavoulareas and Charpentier, Clean Coal Technologiesfor Developing Countries No. 287 Gillham, Bell, Arin, Matthews, Rumeur, and Heam, Cotton Production Prospectsfor the Next Decade No. 288 Biggs, Shaw, and Srivastiva, Technological Capabilities and Learning in African Enterprises No. 289 Dinar, Seidl, Olem, Jorden, Duda, and Johnson, Restoring and Protecting the World's Lakes and Reservoirs No. 290 Weijenberg, Dagg, Kampen, Kalunda, Mailu, Ketema, Navarro, and Abdi Noor, Strengthening National Agricuiltual Research Systems in Eastern and Central Africa: A Frameworkfor Action No. 291 Valdes and Schaeffer in collaboration with Errazuriz and Francisco, Surveillance of Agricultural Price and Trade Policies: A Handbookfor Chile No. 292 Gorriz, Subramanian, and Simas, Irrigation Management Transfer in Mexico: Process and Progress No. 293 Preker and Feachem, Market Mechanisms and the Health Sector in Central and Eastern Eutrope No. 294 Valdes and Schaeffer in collaboration with Sturzenegger and Bebczuk, Suirveillance of Agricultural Price and Trade Policies: A Handbookfor Argentina No. 295 Pohl, Jedrzejczak, and Anderson, Creating Capital Markets in Central and Eastern Europe No. 296 Stassen, Small-Scale Biomass Gasifiersfor Heat and Power: A Global Review No. 297 Bulatao, Key Indicators for Family Planning Projects No. 298 Odaga and Heneveld, Girls and Schools in Suzb-Saharan Africa: From Analysis to Action No. 299 Tamale, Jones, and Pswarayi-Riddihough, Technologies Related to Participatory Forestry in Tropical and Subtropical Couintries No. 300 Oram and de Haan, Technologiesfor Rainfed Agriculture in Mediterranean Climates: A Review of World Bank Experiences No. 301 Mohan, editor, Bibliography of Publications: Technical Department, Africa Region, Juily 1987 to April 1995 No. 302 Baldry, Calamari, and Yameogo, Environmental Impact Assessment of Settlement and Development in the Upper Leraba Basin No. 303 Heneveld and Craig, Schools Count: World Bank Project Designs and the Quality of Primary Education in Suib-Saharan Africa No. 304 Foley, Photovoltaic Applications in Rutral Areas of the Developing World No. 305 Johnson, Education and Training of Accountants in Stub-Saharan Anglophone Africa No. 306 Muir and Saba, Improving State Enterprise Performance: The Role of Internal and External Incentives No. 307 Narayan, Toward Participatory Research No. 308 Adamson, Bates, Laslett, and Pototschnig, Energy Use, Air Pollution, and Environmental Policy in Krakow: Can Economic Incentives Really Help? No. 309 The World Bank/FOA/UNIDO/Industry Fertilizer Working Group, World and Regional Supply and Demand Balances for Nitrogen, Phosphate, and Potash, 1993/94-1999/2000 No. 310 Elder and Cooley, editors, Sustainable Settlement and Development of the Onchocerciasis Control Programme Area: Proceedings of a Ministerial Meeting No. 311 Webster, Riopelle, and Chidzero, World Bank Lendingfor Small Enterprises 1989-1993 No. 312 Benoit, Project Finance at the World Bank: An Overview of Policies and Instruments No. 313 Kapur, Airport Infrastrfcture: The Emerging Role of the Private Sector No. 314 Valdes and Schaeffer in collaboration with Ramos, Surveillance of Agri cultural Price and Trade Policies: A HandbookforEcuador No. 316 Schware and Kimberley, Information Technology and National Trade Facilitation: Making the Most of Global Trade No. 317 Schware and Kimberley, Information Technology and National Trade Facilitation: Guide to Best Practice (List continues on the inside back cover) WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 365 Investing in Pastoralism Sustainable Natural Resource Use in AridAfrica and the Middle East David John Pratt, Fran(ois Le Gall, and Cornelis de Haan The World Bank Washington, D.C. Copyright 3 1997 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing June 1997 Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the development community with the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. Some sources cited in this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. 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ISBN 0-8213-3943-5 ISSN: 0253-7494 David John Pratt is a consultant at the World Bank. Francois Le Gall is a consultant/livestock specialist in the Agriculture and Natural Resources Department of the World Bank. Cornelis de Haan is a livestock adviser in the Agriculture and Natural Resources Department df the World Bank. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Pratt, David, 1932- Investing in pastoralism: sustainable natural resource use in arid Africa and the Middle East / David Pratt, Francois Le Gall, and Cornelis de Haan. p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper ; no. 365) Includes bibliographical references (p ). ISBN 0-8213-3943-5 1. Pastures-Developing countries-Planning. 2. Animal industry -Developing countries-Planning. 3. Agricultural development projects-Developing countries-Planning. 4. Arid regions agriculture-Developing countries-Planning. 5. Natural resources, Communal-Developing countries-Planning. 6. Conservation of natural resources-Developing countries-Planning. 1. Le Gall, Francois, 1961- . II. Haan, C. de. III. World Bank. IV. Title. HD1641.D44P7 1997 97-21677 333.74'0915'4-dc2l CIP Contents Foreword v Acknowledgements vi Preface vii Executive Summary ix Introduction I 1. The Nature of Natural Resource Managaemnt 3 Part One - Preparing for Project Intervention 11 2. Categorizing Pastoral Systems 13 3. Assessing Population Pressure and Overgrazing 21 4. Enabling Policies 25 5. Institutional Fmmework 31 6. Essentials in Project Design 41 Part Two - Guidelines for Specific Project Components 49 7. Herder Organizations 51 8. Support Systems 61 9. Drought Management 67 10. Phasing of Technical Inputs 75 ;1. Process Monitoring 83 Condusion 91 12. Broader Implications for International Agencies 93 Annexes 101 A. Customary NRM as Practiced by Pastoralists 103 B. Extemal Intervention in Pastoral NRM 107 C. New Concepts in NRM 115 D. Features of Pastoral Systems 121 E. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Methodologies 129 F. Livestock Credit Schemes 135 G. Wildlife Management Project 137 H. Monitoring Procedures 141 Bibliography 151 User Guide 155 III Foreword About one-third of the world's productive surface is covered by arid or semi-arid ecosystems, where pastoral production is the main - and often the only - activity. Pastoral production, however, is coming under increasing stress. Human population growth often exceeds the rate of increase in animal production in these areas, and population pressure fuels the encroachment of crop farming onto the most valuable grazing areas. Social deprivation is therefore acute, and while the arid ecosystems have shown high resilience, the sustainability of rangelands remains a key issue. Pastoral production can therefore not be ignored on the development agenda. The World Bank has been involved in range livestock development since the 1970s, and much has been learned in the process. In addition, a new body of knowledge has become available over the last decade, which also contributes to what are currently considered good practices in natural resource management in pastoral areas. This document provides an overview of these good practices, covering the enabling environment, requirements for overall project preparation, and individual project components. The Agriculture and Natural Resources Department of the World Bank has undertaken a general assessment of available technologies and institutional arrangements over the last few years. This paper is part of that assessment of natural resource management in arid and semi-arid ecosystems, and offers suggestions about integrating this knowledge into World Bank lending operations. It is directed at all those involved in the promotion of sustainable development. We are hopeful that the information in this document will be useful to those in a position to improve the conservation of the resource base in one of the most difficult and complex environments on earth, and improve the livelihood of those who live in these regions. Alex F. McCalla Director Agriculture and Natural Resource Department v Acknowledgments The authors are grateful for the inputs and field review of pastoral activities in African arid contributions from many individuals in the and semi-arid rangelands. Jeremy Swift from the preparation of this document. Douglas Forno Institute of Development Studies, Sussex, UK, originally recognized the need to update our and Walter Lusigi and Laurent Msellati of the understanding of good practices in pastoral World Bank were the peer reviewers. Seth development, and the Sahelian Operational Beckerman provided all the editorial support. Review (SOR) provided valuable support for vi Preface This document focuses on natural resource million sheep and goats (Sere, Steinfeld, and management (NRM) on arid rangelands used by Groenewold 1996). Moreover, social deprivation pastoralists in Africa and the Middle East. is acute, and these areas are perceived as being Pastoralism in other regions - particularly among the most degraded of any in the world southwest and central Asia - is also discussed, (Dregne, Kassas, and Rozanov 1992). but without the detailed analysis of these other Although the World Bank started funding systems. Similarly, although agropastoral NRM projects only recently, it has been situations and grazing orbits that extend into supporting range livestock development since the wetter zones are covered, the principal focus is 1960s. Although these early projects contributed areas where there are only 30 to 90 growing days little to pastoral development, much has been per year. This usually equates to an annual learned in the process. Present-day projects can rainfall of 150 to 450 millimeters. Rainfed also draw from a new body of literature on range cropping is extremely risky in these areas, and ecology and pastoral development (Behnke, inhabitants draw all or most of their subsistence Scoones, and Kerven 1993; Scoones 1994), from livestock. including case studies such as that by Lane Although pastoralists keep livestock, (1996). Early lessons, new literature, and recent pastoralism is more than a system of livestock experience in the application of holistic resource production. Livestock are the currency of social management (Savory 1988) have all contributed cohesion as well as of subsistence and trade. to the current appreciation of what constitute best Although the influence of pastoralists is much practices in NRM in pastoral areas. reduced from the days when pastoralism was a The core of pastoral development is support dominant geopolitical system over much of for sustainable NRM coupled with improved central Asia, eastem Europe, the Middle East, social services, particularly education and health. and Africa, pastoralism is still widely practiced NRM in pastoral areas, however, is more on arid lands. Wherever it occurs, sustainable use complex than is sometimes appreciated. Although of rangeland resources remains a key issue. easily comprehended as a general concept or At least 10 million square kilometers can be objective, NRM is always the result of categorized as arid or semi-arid rangeland. This interaction among three quite distinct systems- area doubles when sparsely used deserts and resources, resource users, and the larger semi-deserts are included. At present, these geopolitical system in which they operate - each rangelands provide a direct livelihood for about of which needs to be understood if intervention is 180 million people living in close association to be effective. with about 360 million cattle and over 600 vii I Executive Summary Abstract Part One. Preparing for Project T'his document offers guidelines for development Intervention. Effective pastoral development has in arid lands where pastoralism is practiced. The four basic requirements: focus is on natural resource management (NRM), Differentiate the type qfpastoral system(s) which is a prime consideration in pastoral being assisted by reference to mobility, livestock development. An introductory chapter on the species, economic orientation (milk, meat, trade), nature of NRM is followed by advice on involvement in other enterprises, and relationship preparing for project intervention (Part One), and to external economies and socio-territorial guidelines for specific project components (Part organization (Chapter 2 and Annex D). The need Two). A concluding chapter considers the to categorize pastoral systems is emphasized broader implications for international agencies because so much of the writing on pastoralism is such as the World Bank. Eight annexes provide too general to be useful for effective additional background information and advice, development. Yet the attributes mentioned above and a user guide is offered for the practioner. - not least the value systems and the economic Key words: Pastoralism - Arid lands - orientation of any pastoral system - radically Rangeland - Livestock - Afica - Middle East - affect the choice of development inputs. Natural resources - Mobility (in resource use) - Assess population pressure and societal Population pressure - Development planning - coping mechanisms in order to establish whether Institutions - Drought management - Technology present population pressure represents a serious - Project design - Monitoring impediment to progress (Chapter 3). Indicators of pressure fall into three categories - societal Summary indicators assess the effectiveness of welfare mechanisms, household indicators lie principally Introduction (Chapter 1). NRM is more complex in stock wealth, and environmental indicators lie than is commonly appreciated. It is the product in the total landscape and its use. of interaction among the natural system that Ensure that enabling policies and produces the resources on offer, the user system infrastructure are in place to support pastoral that is exploiting these resources, and the wider development (Chapter 4 on Policy Issues and geopolitical system in which the resource users Chapter 5 on the Institutional Framework). The are operating. Effective intervention in NRM starting point is to recognize the intrinsic value of therefore requires equal familiarity with the pastoral economies and values, and that they are workings of each of these systems and how they affected, just like any other sector, by interact. The task is further complicated by the macroeconomic conditions (exchange rate, trade unusual nature of pastoralism and the attitudinal and incentive policies). The policy decision to problems that surround it. These aspects are all invest in pastoralism is then based on economic, summarized in this chapter with further social, environmental, and policy considerations background information on customary NRM, Ensure a project design that combines past development efforts, and new concepts in participation, flexibility, and the prospect of NRM (provided in Annexes A, B, and C). ix It sustainability (Chapter 6 and Annex E on packaging assistance that are elaborated in the Participatory Rural Appraisal Methodologies). It text. is important that the project embraces the entire Phasing of Technical Inputs (Chapter 10) is area used by the pastoral population (including as important as the choice of the technologies to dry-season grazing areas), involves the target introduce. The relevant technologies - water population in the preparatory and the development, range management, animal health implementation phase, and bases project design and production, commerce and marketing on an overall assessment of the development systems, wild life utilization, and crop land goals and the most likely development path to improvement - must be carefully sequenced. achieve those goals. This sequencing needs to relate to the Part Two. Guidelines for Specific Project development path that is projected, as well as to Components. The guidelines address five environmental sensitivities and management essentials of pastoral development projects. capabilities. New water supplies, for example, Herder Organizations (Chapter 7) have a can be as environmentally disruptive as they are central role in all pastoral development. helpful. Three phases of inputs are elaborated. However, rl i as important that fopms of Process Monitoring (Chapter 11) must be organization -iwhether customary or introduced incorporated as a distinct project component in - fit the tasks expected of them. These tasks can order to ensure the flow of information needed to vary from NRM (principally grazing and water guide the evolution of pastoral development. management), veterinary and medical supplies, Such monitoring is the characteristic of 'process norehole operation, marketing, and advocacy projects' which are seen as essential for pastoral bunctions. Organizational requirements for these development (Chapter 6). Guidelines are included different functions vary, and emphasis in the for monitoring in each of the parent systems guidelines is therefore given to differentiating (natural, user, and geopolitical) that govern likely functions and guiding the structure of local NRM, and additional guidance is included in organizations to suit those functions. Annex H. Support Systems (Chapter 8) are required to Conclusion (Chapter 12). Application of the enable herder organizations (and the whole guidelines presented above leads development development process) to operate effectively. agencies into procedures and activities outside Central government, local government, and the those normal for sectoral projects. This final commnercial private sector all have a role, and the chapter examines four of the broader aspects of guidelines focus on how best to allocate and aiding pastoral development: share that responsibility. The present trend is * management issues associated with the toward cost recovery and devolving service process approach; delivery toward the private sector, with central * improving baseline knowledge of pastoral government focusing on policy and control and systems and their environments; providing essential infrastructure. * assisting technology development; and Drought Management (Chapter 9) must * overcoming attitudinal problems about feature as a principal project component or as a pastoralism. feature permeating all components. The starting This field is potentially wide because there is point is to recognize drought as a condition of chis existing educausystems unexpectedly low rainfall (since misdiagnosis of a need to change existing educational systems feed shortages and human suffering does not help and curricula. NRM is always the result of effective treatment), and to appreciate indigenous interaction between three different systems- drought strategies in relation to different drought resources, resource users, and the larger intensities. The help that is given will vary among geopolitical systems in which they operaten- projects, but there are also commonalties in each of which needs to be understood and appreciated if intervention is to be effective. x Introduction I II The Nature of Natural Resource Management Natural resource management (NRM) refers to Other stakeholders in the pastoral system the means by which benefits are derived from may see the benefits of NRM differently, such as natural resources. The means are diverse, both emphasizing economic offtake or environmental direct and indirect, and the nature of the benefit conservation. These perspectives are no less must be stated for NRM to have any meaning. valid, although they are secondary in the sense Who defines the benefit - resource users or that the starting point for NRM intervention in outside observers - is relevant, and it is also pastoral areas must be from the perspectives and helpful to specify which particular resources are practices of the pastoralists (the resource users). of interest. Seldom can the entire range of natural This chapter therefore has two objectives- resources be improved or put to use in equal to explain NRM in terms of the separate but measure. Almost invariably NRM seeks to interacting systems on which it is based, and to disadvantage some component of the biome- outline the principal instruments through which that which is rated undesirable or noxious in the pastoralists exercise NRM. context of prevailing management objectives. Three systems contribute to NRM: The 'means' in pastoral areas center 0 the natural system, formed of the interaction principally on the deployment of livestock - the a ' . * rs- * * s ~~~~~~~~among landform, climate, flora, and fauna; species and numbers of livestock that are kept, * the user system, determined by how the where they are herded, and at which season of the resource users, individually and corporately, year. Pastoralists also exercise NRM by direct meet their biological, social, and economic intervention such as cutting, gathering, and needs; and burning. And several categories of external input the larger geopolitical system, compfising can have a major impact on NRM, particularly state policies and institutions, the extemal supplementary feed and veterinary medicines, entities and forces which influence these, whether secured by the pastoralists themselves or and all else that determines opportunities for provided by the State. trade and territorial expansion by resource The 'benefit' that pastoralists seek from NRM can be expressed principally in terms of users. food security and the continuing ability of their Natural System livestock to contribute to their social and economic needs. Maintenance of milk and meat Two features of the natural system stand out output are prime considerations, but the as influential in NRM: numerical size of a family livestock holding is * the variety of resources that need to be also important. Building a sizeable holding acts managed, and as insurance against loss from drought and disease and also helps to maintain social obligations. A surplus that enables sale of 1. Employment opportunities outside of herding also animals may be an additional consideration. Most lie within the larger geopolitical system, and may pastoralists now rely on market transactions for need to be developed in order to relieve pressure on part of their subsistence, as well as for the natural resources. However, emphasis in this paper is 'extras' that add to the quality of life. on direct intervention in NRM. 3 Introduction * the zonal variation in climate and landform Woody vegetation constitutes a resource in that determines the nature of resources and its own right as a source of both browse and fuel. their response to management. It is almost always critically important as both, Resources to be managed vary in both their although it may also need to be managed to nature and utility: control undue bush encroachment on grazing Water is unique among resources because it land. controls the use that is made of other resources. Other plant products are also widely used, Only where water is permanent can there be both domestically and for trade, and their sources settlement or dry-season grazing. Areas without may need to be managed to counter over- reliable wells or permanent rivers or lakes can exploitation (especially sources of food and only be used as wet-season grazing areas. The medicine, and of materials for carving or latter often must be vacated while grazing and weaving)a water are still available so that the users can get o auna may be similarly exploited for food back to their dry-season refuge while there is still or artifacts, or controlled in the case of predators. water en route. Strategic water development can Sometimes pastoral comanunities are overcome such obstacles, but to introduce incpoplrated in wildlife management schemes permanent water (if that is possible) invariably (for example, CAMPFIRE in Zimbabwe; Box G- attracts new settlement and disrupts the regional I), but more usually responsibility is assumed by pattemn of resource use. the State or let to commercial interests. Grazing is always in the forefront of Mineral resources are also usually removed resources being managed, and often calls for from pastoral control, invariably when the additiources attentiong m ed,uced over-enxpllsfoi . resource is oil or a major deposit of gemstones or additional attention to reduce over-exploitation, precious metals. Minerals of lesser value, The need for improved management is most pr, metals. uner localue, likely where soils are highly erodible. The key however, are often left under local control. Uely were sols ar highl erodble. Te keySoil is managed indirectly through grazing characteristics of the grazing resource are 5071giSnmanaged itdired (such asing -vaiale uplyand quality associated with shifts management unless it is cropped (such as by variable supply and disociated agropastoralists). In this case, soil fertility in rainfall quantity and distribution: maintenance becomes a central NRM issue. * feed supply increases but quality decreases When a resource is taken out of pastoral during the course of the growing season; control, a mechanism may be established to allow * feed quality also tends to improve as annual local participation, but the forms of organization rainfall declines, especially the quality of used for that purpose will not be the same as 'standing hay' which cures better and those adopted when communities are exercising suffers less from leaching in arid regions; direct management responsibility. In the latter * bimodal rainfall (as in East Africa) and case, the organizational form must be tailored to winter rainfall (as in North Africa) are the resources and tasks involved. This is possibly conducive to the establishment and survival the most critical aspect in assisting NRAfM- to of perennial grasses under a low annual ensure that the membership, governance, rainfall; constitution, and status of organizations with * perennial grasses have the advantage, management responsibility are appropriate to relative to annuals, that they have a longer the extent, characteristics, and management grazing season and keep more of their roots requirements of the resource(s) being managed. and herbage intact through long dry Zonal variation changes the nature of the seasons; andZoavaitochnethnauefte seasons; vegeationd has the further advantageresources being managed and hence the nature of o woody vegetation has the firther advantage NRM. In the context of NRM, the zonal of providing nutritious leaves and pods influence affects management strategies more (browse) when grasses are dry and relatively than forms of organization. The definition of a zone is complicated. Normally zones are 4 Nature of Natural Resource Management differentiated on criteria of latitude, elevation, shown alternating wetter and drier periods, each and rainfall, but these are not the only relevant lasting a decade or two. A 'dry' period has about factors. Regional hydrogeology would be invoked 70 percent of years below the long-term average, where occupancy depends on the presence or and a 'wet' period a comparable over- absence of groundwater. And although edaphic representation of above-average years. criteria are more suited to zonal subdivision, These effects are most profound in or floodplains of regional significance might well be fringing the semi-desert, where perennial grasses demarcated at zonal level (for example, the inner and surface water are relatively abundant during delta of the Niger River in Mali). the wetter periods but are absent or unreliable The primary criterion in the tropics is during the drier periods. NRM strategies must relative aridity. This prescribes at least five adapt with each change, more so under zones, ranging from true desert to the dry monomodal than bimodal rainfall because subhumid zone. Deserts only contribute grazing drought expectations are different. In Kenya, for and wildlife resources if they support some plant example, bimodal rainfall in the northeast life, but even barren lands can contribute useful produces dry seasons lasting only three to nine minerals. The dry subhumid zone is also of months, with an eighteen-month drought limnited use to pastoralists - once it was widely occurring every ten years or so, whereas rain prized as dry-season or drought reserve, but now failure in the monomodal areas of the northwest it is usually occupied by agriculturists and frequently produces droughts lasting two to four accessible only through trading relationships. In years. between these extremes are: - the semi-desert, where rainfall is very User System sparse, vegetation is ephemeral or confined The user system comprises the resource users, to depressions and water courses, and their property (including livestock), and their own livestock (camels and goats) subsist largely forms of social-territorial organization. If more on browse; than one social group is involved, then the - the arid zone with monomodal rainfall, interaction among groups is also part of the user where conditions are less harsh than the system. The characteristics most fundamental to semi-desert but where cattle have difficulty NRM are: surviving once the annual grass cover begins to disintegrate; * demographic trends, covering population, - the arid zone with bimodal rainfall, which wealth categories, customary demographic has the potential to support perennial controls, and projected changes; grasses (along with thorn-bush), and where e the communities involved, differentiated by most livestock species fare well in favorable ethnicity, size, resource interests, and years; and relationship one to the other; * the semi-arid zone, where rainfall permits l their production systems, defined in terms of more intensive resource use, including livestock species and the uses made of these rainfed cropping (although reliable cropping and other resources; and sedentary herding require a wetter . relationships with neighboring agriculturists, zone). outside political powers, and the market economy; and Rainfall data are omitted from this list . existing social-territorial organization, because mean annual rainfall (the figure most detailing social structure and systems of commonly cited) is illusory. Appending property rights and their significance in coefficients of variation helps, but not greatly NRM. unless the average is truly the norm, which usually it is not (Tyson 1986). The pattern of Establishing these characteristics usually rainfall over much of Africa this century has requires detailed field study. There are no social 5 Introduction databases comparable with the resource maps Overlap among pastoral groups becomes that help categorize the natural system. The last especially troublesome if there is group three characteristics in the immediately preceding competitiveness and antagonism. Events in list serve to show how present NRM relates to Rwanda and Somalia, and 'ethnic cleansing' in the goals and value systems of resource users and Europe itself, begin to bring home to Western to their existing social institutions. This, in turn, observers the potential persistence and shows where improvement can be made. destructiveness of ethnic antagonism. The Consideration of demographic factors (plus prevention of arned conflict is now part of the geopolitical issues) then moves the focus from role of the larger geopolitical system, but it is priorities in NRM to aspects of practicality and well to remember that territorial expansion is a sustainability. well-tested NRM strategy, and still the surest Demography is a key factor because population way of coping with drought. pressure is both a cause of mismanagement and a Other features of the user system that influence constraint to remedial action. Pastoral societies NRM are types of animals kept, uses to which have a number of strategies of their own for they are put, and aspects of mobility, resource adapting to population growth. They cannot tenure, and decisionmaking that are elaborated intensify like agricultural societies, but they can later in this chapter. Additionally, societal goals control population growth by controlling fertility. and value systems need to be accurately They can subsequently adapt by trading more, interpreted because they are the foundation on adopting agropastoral practices, and diversifying which present NRM practices are based. One of into other activities (including paid employment). commonest errors in development planning has Three aspects warrant elaboration: been to impute alien value systems. Population pressure is a concept that takes substantial form only when related to the support Geopolitical and Macroeconomic capacity of the space or the resource being Framework utilized and an expected standard of living. It is not a straightforward statistic like population The geopolitical environment, formed of State density, and its significance in NRM also and other external influences, is the most diffuse depends on the manner in which resources are of the parent systems of NRM. It is as influential being used. An agropastoral system can sustain as the other two systems and possibly dominates more people per unit area than a pastoral system, in determining the effectiveness of present NRM while a trade-based pastoral system can support and the options for improving present practices. more than a system requiring a dietary milk The State can support pastoral development in supply year-round. several ways. The usual avenues are through Wealth differentiation results in households education, public and animal health services, new of different stockwealth accessing different roads and water supplies, and research. Also resources. It is therefore important to extend important to NRM is the institutional framework analysis of user systems down to the household that governments provide in terms of land policy, level (see Lane 1996), and to establish causes as the legal code, and security against unwanted well as occurrences of stockwealth variation. A incursion. Seldom, however, is the requisite help high proportion of chronically poor families is forthcoming. Only in a handful of countries, out always a complication and may preclude of about 40 where extensive pastoralism is sustainable NRM if the poverty trend is practiced, do pastoralists command automatic increasing. A high proportion of livestock owned political or economic priority. And even then, by non-residents - as a result of absentees ethnic rivalry and a weak economy may investing their wealth in livestock in their home intervene. Elsewhere, in most countries, support areas - will also radically affect strategies for to pastoralism is low on the political agenda. NRM. 6 Nature of Natural Resource Management Where pastoralists have minority status, lip service to participation and not much attention they inevitably become marginalized and face the to ensuring that local groups have forms of threat of acquisition of resources for majority organization and counseling appropriate to the interests. Sectoral planning increases that threat roles expected of them. because pastoral economies are perceived as Overgeneralization applies not just in having no competitive edge - they are treated participation but also in most literature either as a low-grade extension of the livestock supportive of pastoralism. Until supporters and economy or as a risky partner in wildlife-based planners acknowledge the big differences that tourism. And when the commercial private sector small changes in environment and resource-use is encouraged to participate in service delivery, make, there is not much hope for better pastoral areas tend to lose out because there are development projects. quicker returns to be made elsewhere. These attitude problems are not confined to External assistance usually determines the the geopolitical system. There is increasing extent to which the State actually intervenes in demand for sedentarization among pastoralists pastoral areas. Until recently, the resulting too. No doubt pastoralists who want to settle projects have tended to emphasize infrastructure should be enabled to settle, but only if it is and technical services and pay less attention to understood that neither money nor technology the institutional framework. Rarely has there can produce rain or unlimited groundwater, and been support for review or reform of land and that their livestock (currently their larder) must corporate law for the benefit of pastoral tenure continue to move, or die. For the sake of all and pastoral institutions. Moreover, because aid stakeholders in pastoral society and outside, there has flowed to central governments, little is need for re-education and change in the assistance has been given to local government curricula responsible for present attitudes. structures to assist them in supporting community-based development. Sometimes Implications for Customary NRM NGOs have stepped in to fill this gap, but NGOs Present practices in NRM are shaped by all provide only stop-gap solutions. three of the systems just described. Although the Attitudinal problems abound in the geopolitical influence of the three systems described can be system: separated - as happens when scientists and Sedentarization is often State policy, with planners apply their individual perspectives - emphasis placed on ease of administration and this always carries risk of misrepresentation. service-delivery, rather than on maintaining Usually it is the interaclions among systems that mobility and the integrity of separate wet-season are most influential. and dry-season grazing areas. This happens even It is to minimize misrepresentation that the when politicians and technicians are of pastoral next chapter argues strongly for the origin because of peer pressure and the categorization of pastoral systems prior to conditioning received during their formal intervention. This serves to prescribe the education. It happens less in local government situation being assisted in terms of attributes circles than in central government - but local deriving from each parent system. Task government does not hold much power and managers will not find much guidance outside responsibility. If sedentarization is combined this document, however, about how development with sectoral (livestock) development, then requirements vary according to pastoral system. particularly poor and damaging projects can Most writings on pastoralism present an result. homogenized view of what pastoralism entails, Participatory planning is now the rule even when dealing with specifics such as rather than the exception, but decisions on how to resource tenure. apply planning data remain as the preserve of Pastoral resource tenure has attracted administrators and planners. There is still a lot of several reviews as part of a movement that seeks 7 Introduction more sympathetic treatment of common property Water varies from being an open access resource regimes (Bromley 1992, Birgegard 1993, Lane to private property. At risk of overgeneralizing, and Moorehead 1994). However, the discussion water is: is still at the stage of arguing the merits of , , . . .~~~ an open access resource if it is the direct alternative theories of tenure and of mobility as a - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~product of rainfall and not entrained in resource-use strategy, rather than adapting theory streamflow or contained in storage to which to practice. There is still confusion between property rights are attached; access and tenure, and still a tendency to lump all unattached common property if it is in a natural resources rather than to view them, as seasonal water course or natural surface pastoralists do, as separate resources with storage in a wet-season grazing area that temporal as well as spatial identity. This section has no other use; focuses on resource tenure, and further attached common property (conferring background information on access and mobility preferential rights to one group) if it is in or under a water course that is exploited for Grazing has ambiguous property status. True irrigation or as a dry-season water supply; nomads grazing among more sedentary people or if it is contained in storage that is may never translate access into tenure, while identified with a specific kinship group or pastoral societies with restricted territory can be situated in an area to which preferential excessively possessive of grazing. Most grazing rights are attached, or possessive will be the level of society responsible * private property if it is already diverted or for maintaining boundaries. It is usual for otherwise removed from streamflow, or if it societal property regimes to be more effective in is contained in a well or other storage controlling use by outsiders than grazing pressure identified with an ancestral or living person. by group numbers. And in addition to societal When water is private property, it may still variation, the property status of grazing varies be made available for wider use, but usually on amnong localities and seasons. the basis of kinship and In return for input to the For most purposes, however, grazing can be m o t regarded as common property over which co ncerned preferential rights can be established. It is quite concerned. usual for the pastoral group most closely Other resources are less vital to pastoralism associated with an area (whether by residence, than water and grazing, and attract property delegated custodial responsibility, or historical status according to use and user: association) to have preferential use of that area. Browse is normally regarded as an adjunct This does not preclude other users, but they are to grazing, although special arrangements may expected to ask beforehand and to provide enable access to browse plants of particular reciprocal grazing if required. Some tenure value (for example, stands of salt bush that are a systems permit groups or individuals to unique source of minerals in the region). demarcate localities for exclusive use, but such Other plant products (charcoal, edible areas are usually small relative to the total area parts, fiber, gums and resins, medicines, poles, of grazing available. etc.) are also secured as though grazing were Preferential and exclusive rights apply being accessed, unless extraction is by specialists particularly to dry-season grazing. Wet-season with separately established rights or unless trees grazing is nearly always unattached common of specific property value are involved. property. The enhanced property status of dry- Individual trees are sometimes privately season grazing is locational as well as seasonal owned, but usually through inheritance because because dry-season grazing has, by definition, to the practice of attributing property value to trees be accessible from permanent water. is declining. It can happen that trees so owned are now under the territorial control of other 8 Nature of Natural Resource Management resource users, which makes the value of or feral asses) are present in the area controlled ownership dependent on how the present regime by the resource users. treats such rights. Rights to access trees to hang Mineral resources are now mainly under beehives and collect honey can also be assigned State control so that customary management has and inherited. little relevance. Where salt and smelting Wildlife is either an open access resource or materials are still extracted customarily, it is attached common property, unless subject to often by specialists exercising inherited rights. royal prerogative or appropriated by the State. Minerals not covered by old rights or State Attached status usually applies selectively and controls are an open access resource. Salt licks temporarily, when species of value (such as wild often carry property rights similar to salt bushes (see Browse, above). 9 Part One Preparing for Project Intervention The guidelines presented in this paper fall in * to ensure a project design that combines two categories. This first section establishes a participation, flexibility, and the prospect of framework of effective support for pastoralism, sustainability. while the second covers individual project The next five chapters address these issues. components. Chapter 2 categorizes the main pastoral systems Effective intervention in pastoral situations and shows how differences in their characteristics has four basic reqluirements: change priorities in NRM and project inputs. * to differentiate the type of pastoral Chapter 3 pursues the same theme in problem system(s) being assisted, including elements situations where there are indications of of mobility, type of livestock, involvement population pressure and overgrazing. The in other enterprises, and relation to external following two chapters examine key features of economies; the geopolitical system and how to create an * to assess population pressure and societal enabling environment for effective intervention. coping mechanisms, in order to establish Macroeconomic issues are considered in Chapter whether present population pressure 4, and institutional ones in Chapter 5. Chapter 6 represents a serious impediment to progress; considers how to incorporate notions such as e to ensure that enabling policies and participation and sustainability in project infrastructure are in place to support designs. pastoral development; and 11 2 Categorizing Pastoral Systems Pastoral systems are systems of natural resource of success - mobility, the nature of the livestock use in which free-ranging or grass-fed animals resource, economic orientation, and social- are the principal means of exploiting the territorial organization. resource. The animals can be farmed or ranched if kept on private land, herded or shepherded Mobility when kept on communal land, or hunted or mustered in the case of wild or feral species. Mobility is a common feature of pastoralism, but Pastoralists engage mostly in herding. ' varies greatly in its practice. It varies in range Pastoral groups with land title can be said to be and seasonality and in the linkage that is ranching, although often they retain herding maintained between people and livestock. practices. Some agropastoralists now 'farm' Nomads move as whole families with all their livestock by stall feeding cut grass, but this livestock, while pastoralists who engage in practice too is localized (although less so in Asia transhumance (following set geographic and than in Africa). Hunting, which once was quite seasonal routes) or who move less frequently or widespread, is now usually discouraged, while in a more constrained fashion may delegate just a mustering in Asia and Africa is restricted mainly few herders to accompany the livestock. In the to feral horses and donkeys. latter case, it is quite usual for different classes While these broad features of management of livestock to be herded according to different begin to differentiate pastoral systems, they are patterns, with some animals retained close to the insufficient in themselves to define development family homestead. needs. For that purpose, it is necessary to Mobile pastoral systems are a natural consider a wider range of attributes (Table 2-1). adaptation to the unreliable supply of feed and Some of the characteristics listed are mutually water in arid environments. Even under less arid exclusive or are very local, but there are still conditions, mobility can be beneficial in raising about twenty quite distinct pastoral situations livestock productivity, but under severely arid that planners are likely to encounter in the arid conditions, mobility is a matter of life or death. areas of Africa and Asia. Some of these are listed As a general rule, any action that curtails in Tables 2-2 and 2-3 to show how they vary in transhumance or otherwise restricts mobility is to the assistance that they are likely to require. The the detriment of pastoral production. At the same main categories are also described in more detail time, movement patterns arise in several ways. in Annex D. Some are imposed by climatic or other forces, The remainder of this chapter elaborates while others reflect the predilections and choices four attributes that are particularly important in of the pastoralists. Intervention must be preceded determining development inputs and the chances by analysis of the rationale for movement (Annex A). 1. Shepherding is differentiated in this document Semi-sedentary systems often arise from loss of only when sheep clearly dominate the pastoral mobility. This may be because (a) pastoral system. territory is being lost to other uses; (b) the State 13 Part One - Guidelines for Project Preparation has a deliberate policy of sedentarization; (c) In general, development should aim to assist people prefer, and new wells allow, fewer moves; mobility, but where there is no need to be mobile, or (d) loss of stockwealth enforces reduced or pastoralists are caught in a poverty trap, semi- mobility. In the last case, the resulting semi- sedentary systems warrant support. sedentary system may occur within a mobile system, practiced by families with fewer and less Livestock Resource mobile livestock than those who move freely. But there are also systems that are semi- The livestock species associated with a pastoral sedentary because there is no need to be mobile. system are determined both by the environment Usually this situation arises in zones that are (climate, terrain, disease hazard, and type of subhumid or wetter, but it also occurs in arid feed) and by the functions required of stock (in zones where there is a reliable source of dry- terms of providing milk, contributing draught season feed from irrigation, a processing power, building social relationships, etc.). industry, or marine resources. Dried sardines Seldom is there just one species, and there may have supported pastoral systems bordering the be four or five, each fulfilling a different but Arabian sea for many generations. Distinguishing complementary function. Seldom, too, is any the causes of reduced mobility is essential for species reared solely for sale. Usually the animals effective intervention in semi-sedentary systems. that are sold are of the type most abundant or Table 2-1. Criteriafor Differentiating Pastoral Systems Attribute Subset Feature Ecology Locational Temperate or tropical (also sometimes seaboard and upland) a Pluvial b Desert, dryland, or (sub) humid Economy Animal-based subsistence Meat-oriented or milk-oriented Diversified Agropastoral, investment-based, or trade-dependent (also sometimes multiple-use) c Livestock Bovine Bos indicus (zebu) or other cattle (plus yak in E. Asia) Camelid Bactrian camel or dromedary d (Other) Horse, mule, donkey, sheep, or goat Territoriality Mobile Nomadic, peripatetic e, or transhumant Restricted Centrally planned, naturally restricted, ranch-bound f, or (semi-sedentary) resource-poor a. Upland and seaboard need citing where they shape the system climatically or provide fish as stockfeed. b. Because mobile pastoral systems cross zonal boundaries, only general terms are needed to indicate adaptation to aridity. c. Multiple-use can be specified if income derives specifically from wildlife (for example, through tourism, game ranching, or sale of gums and resins). d. If Latin America were included, the domesticated alpaca and llama and the wild vicuna would need to be added. e. Peripatetic describes mobility that is more restricted than nomadic and less regular than transhumance. f. Ranching takes many forms - imposed forms can be grouped with centrally-planned er.terprises as institutionalized. 14 Nature of Natural Resource Management Table 2-2. Mobile Pastoral Systems Category Economic orientation a Priorityfor intervention b Desert camel herding Tropical Milk-subsistent (now sometimes NRM: drought strategy, well (e.g., North and East Africa/Arabia) motorized in oil-rich states), improvement, browse based on dromedary (milk, management, oasis agriculture transport) and goat (meat, milk, where relevant. barter) Trade: possibly offtake of small stock Temperate (e.g., Mongolia) Trade-dependent, based on NRM: drought strategy, well Bactrian camel (hair, transport) improvement, browse and sheep (wool, meat, milk, management, oasis agriculture sale) where relevant. Trade: wool/hair, live sheep Dryland shepherding Meat-subsistent and trade- NRM: strategic water (e.g., North Africa/ West Asia) dependent, based on sheen development, some range (meat, milk, wool, sale), goat seeding (hair, milk, meat), and horse Trade: mainly live sheep plus (transport) hair and wool, including breeding for commodities, e.g., pelts Dryland and transzonal cattle herding Peripatetic Milk-subsistent, based on zebu NRM: key resource (e.g., East Africa) cattle (milk, sometimes blood), improvement, strategic water sheep and goat (meat, barter, development, drought strategy milk), and donkey (transport) Trade: possibly offtake of small stock/immatures, gums and resins Transzonal transhumance Trade-dependent, based on zebu NRM: as appropriate to zone, (e.g., West Africa) cattle (milk, sale and barter/sale fire and possibly seeding in for grain) and sheep and goat subhumid zone, plus (meat, barter, milk) enhancing crop-livestock complementarity. Trade: build on existing trade Agropastoral transhumance From milk and crop-subsistent NRM: as above plus cropland (e.g., Africa/India) to trade-dependent, utilizing improvement. zebu cattle (milk, tillage, Trade: as above, possibly with manure, sometimes sale), goat stall feeding and/or sheep (meat, barter, milk) Note: See Annex D for further description of these and allied systems. a. Species and functions of livestock that characterize the system are indicated, withi the principal species underlined. b. Inputs to all mobile systems should maintain or strengthen existing territoriality, support herder organizations (especially in conflict resolution and welfare support); provide mobile services and strategic service centers. 15 Part One - Guidelines for Project Preparation most readily replaced.2 Moreover, most species (Table 2-4), so the actual function to which a have the potential to fulfill several functions species is put depends on which other species are present. This varies not just amnong pastoral systems, but also among households according to 2. Unless, of course, a large sum of money needs to their status (including their stage in the cycle of be realized from a sale, when it may be better to sell household formation, maturation, and one camel rather than a whole flock of goats. dissolution). Managing a livestock holding is much like managing an investment portfolio: what one sells is The consequencenot be ese factors is that determined by how much money needs to be realized development cannot be targeted to improve or and by one's judgment on how each holding is likely commercialize one species without first assessing to perform if held. the impact on other species and on the integrity Table 2-3. Semi-Sedentary Pastoral Systems Category Economic orientation a Priorityfor intervention Resource-poor goat herding Milk and meat-subsistent, NRM: browse management plus inputs (e.g., Africa/India) based on goat (milk, meat, to goat husbandry barter), sheep, sometimes with Trade: possibly gums and resins a house-cow and/or donkey Localized cattle herding Several distinct systems (peri- Interventions depend on local urban, off-farm, seaboard, and circumstances, focusing on maintaining upland) occur in Africa and or improving dry-season feed supplies Asia, usually milk-subsistent or and ensurinig adequate health services trade-oriented, based on small herds (sometimes camels in Yemen) and often some small stock Ranching Group ranching b (locally in From milk-subsistent to trade- NRM: grazing management, key resource Africa) dependent, based on zebu improvement, agistment c, intensifying cattle (milk, sale), sometimes management and crop-livestock with sheep and goat (meat) complementarity as group areas subdivide and wildlife (revenue from Trade: build on existing trade, diversify tourism as possible Commercial ranching Investment-based and trade- NRM: as above; ensuring social and (e.g., southern and East Africa, dependent, based on zebu and ecological feasibility and legal locally elsewhere) crossbred cattle (meat and instruments prior to ranch development stock sales), occasionally other Trade: pursue new market opportunities species and enterprises Note: All restricted systems encourage private sector inputs (for example, animal health services) and diversified production. See Annex D for further description of these and allied systems. a. Species and functions of livestock that characterize the system are indicated, with the principal species underlined. Although only commercial ranching is listed as investment-based, this orientation is increasingly evident in parallel with subsistence and trade-dependent herding (Annex D) b. Group ranches arise when customary land rights are adjudicated in favor of pastoral groups, with subsequent allocation of freehold group title. Other types of institutionalized ranching occur in central Asia, initially centrally planned and now being liberalized. c. The leasing (or reciprocal exchange) of grazing at times of seasonal need. 16 Table 2-4. Uses of Livestock in Pastoral Systems Environmental adaptability Feed intake Utility (customary use xyield or quality) Species Desert Dryland Grass Browvse Milk Meat WVool/hair Hides/skins Transport Draught Manure a Camel . . . ++ ++ l4 +t + ++ +4 .44 + + Sheep + +.. + l + .. .. 4 + Cattleb + +++.I +i + +++ ++ .. l+ +... + Goat ++ +++ 4+ t44 + + 44++ +4-4- + Horse ++ +44 ++ + ++ ..+ ++ + Donkeyc ++ ++ ++ + + + 44 4 Note: Principal species only (excluding pigs, poultry, and bovids and camelids of local importance) and generalized across a wxide spectrum of pastoral systems. In practice, 'draught' applies mainly to agropastoral systems, and the ratings showvn for other uses vary among individual systems. The ratings for 'meat' recognize that large stock are usually too valuable for regular slaughter, while small stock are often kept specifically for that purpose. In several systems, sheep and goats desenve a ++ rating as a source of milk. a. Manure can be used either as fuel (vhere fuelkood is in short supply) or, in agropastoral systems, as fertilizer. b. Cattle are also the principal source of blood where this is a dietary supplement, and of horn. c. In its water metabolism, the donkey is as well adapted as the camel to desert conditions. It can also cope better than the camel with rocky terrain, but has less load-bearing stamina. Donkeys can also graze spiky herbage (e.g., Sporobolus spicatus), which other livestock avoid. Part One - Guidelines for Project Preparation of the pastoral system, considering not just the flock can provide. Because the system centers on overall system, but also at the household level. sheep rather than cattle or camels, NRM reflects the dietary preferences and grazing behavior of Economic Orientation sheep. Most pastoralists drink milk, eat meat, and Trade-dependent systems arise whenever there collect or purchase other food items. There are, is reliance on purchased items. Grain is not the however, major differences among pastoral only purchased item, but is the most common. societies, and hence among pastoral systems, in Most pastoral systems of West Africa are trade- how the diet is constituted and how much food dependent because of a preference for grain (among other commodities) is purchased. These foods. In that region, customary transhumance differences do not necessarily show up strongly patterns assist procurement by incorporating in the contribution that milk, meat, and grain annual stopovers in grain-producing areas. In make to energy intake, but a preference for milk other systems where trade is not necessarily or meat greatly influences how NRM is associated with grain purchase, movement practiced, even if that commodity contributes patterns pivot around bringing livestock to only a fraction of total energy intake. market where and when prices are highest (for example, at times of Id festivals in the Muslim Milk-subsistent systems have milk as the staple.'... Purchases are confined to additives, or to times calendar). Typically, with increasing prices, when milk and other livestock products and bush supplies will increase. foods offer a seriously inadequate diet. There is Investment-based systems represent a different no felt need to eat grain foods on a daily basis, situation, where people in business or paid and certainly no desire to sell or barter livestock employment choose to invest capital in livestock to secure grain regularly by the sackful. in a pastoral area to which they have right of Livestock may be sold for other reasons, such as access. Such systems are now widespread. These when a specific need for cash arises, but they are livestock usually benefit herders in the area, but too valuable to be squandered. Therefore, their management does not necessarily conform positive supply responses cannot be assumed. In to customary NRM, and they add significantly to Africa, this situation is more common in East grazing pressure. Moreover, accepting animals Africa than elsewhere. The implications are seen from an absentee owner is often the start of the not just in the seasonality and categories of slippery slope out of pastoralism. livestock offered for sale, but also in NRM. More Yet another situation arises when money is so than in other pastoral systems, pastoralists invested in a vehicle to transport water and/or who are milk-subsistent have to make the very livestock to areas (usually remote desert) with best use of grazing and browse on offer in order unused feed resources. This category and some to keep animals in milk year round as nearly as others mentioned above are described in more possible. detail in Annex D. These distinctions are often overlooked Meat-subsistent systems have a greater when planning marketing infrastructure to serve consumptive demand for meat. Meat intake may . nn be small relative to other foods, but still exceeds livestool as atadbe omd to be what s nonnal i mil-orieted sstemsThelivestock only as a tradable commodity to be what iomes normincmipallk-frori systeumits. Tvalued in terms of retail value. Developmentally, especially sheep, and is commonly eaten wis, however, it is vital to know whether the animal especially sheep, graindforishcommoisnlyate w- on offer is being sold because (a) it is surplus to grown, it must be purchased, which makes many subsistence needs, (b) the need for cash overrides meat-subsistent systems also trade-dependent. but does not seriously impair family security, or Melkisat-sbistenl sstes asof trade-diep(ofendtkent. a(c) it is an act of last resort which threatens or Milk IS an integral part of the diet (often taken as eliminates the viability of that family as yogurt or cheese), but in quantities that the sheep plistes the cashlvalue that a p ast 1 pastoralists. The cas value that a pastoral 1 8 Nature of Natural Resource Management family (or pastoral society at large) places on Adaptations to increasing population pressure livestock of any particular category reflects the warrant particular attention. Most pastoral value of that type of animal within the pastoral systems have developed procedures to cope with economy, which may bear no relation to market population increases, which tend to be distinct value. from those applying to agricultural systems. Pastoralists cannot readily intensify production, Social-Territorial Organization but typically they show lower fertility than farmers, and also show considerable flexibility in Social-territoral orgazation is a convecient moving out of and back into pastoral activity as way to descnbe the matrix formed of societal circumstances require. Establishing how structures and territoriality. This multi- particular societies and families cope is critical to dimensional matrix has strands contributed by the definition and delivery of effective customary ethics, environmental necessity, and development assistance. accumulated management experience, and is also shaped by external pressures and changing Interactions between agriculture and demography and expectations within society. pastoralism are a specific area of interest. One Mobility is one expression of social-territorial of the most common ways to cope with organization, and is a particularly important increasing population pressure is to increase aspect. But how societies are structured, and the cropping or relationships with neighboring mechanisms by which they control access to agriculturists. Obviously, this is easier to resources, are also important features that need accomplish in wetter areas and in systems to be differentiated. Of particular significance is already accustomed to transhumance than in the effectiveness of pastoral institutions in situations where people are tied exclusively to handling problem situations. The follow features arid lands. The latter are more likely to turn to are especially important: (temporary) paid employment than to agriculture. Social differentiation needs to be examined in Relations with market systems are equally depth in order to clarify who in society controls important. It is still relevant to differentiate decisionmaking and how benefits are likely to be systems according to their relative trade distributed. It is not sufficient just to establish the orientation, but few pastoral systems are now framework for decisionmaking. Caste and gender independent of markets. For the great majority of may be as important as wealth in determining contemporary pastoral groups, efficient markets who may hold, inherit, and dispose of property are a key determinant of well-being. Ultimately, rights, and who can take up or benefit from new marketing hinges onfiamily needs and opportunities provided through project circumstances - but how groups handle trading intervention. relations is an important attribute when deciding how to deliver development support. Flexibility is an important attribute in social structures and family responses. Few pastoral Drought strategies are a practical expression of systems are static. Most systems face a dynamic the flexibility and organizational 'competence' of environment and change in form as they respond pastoral systems. In many respects, these to new challenges. People move in and out of strategies are the summation of all of the systems, systems themselves adapt and evolve, foregoing. Although families have individual and adaptation brings changes in the responses, the organization of responses at the relationships among systems and with other group level - not least through internal welfare economies. Although we know too little about support mechanisms - is very informative of the systems dynamics to always be able to predict ability of pastoral systems to cope. Drought capacities for change, it is possible to focus on a management is covered in its own chapter in Part few key areas, as highlighted below. Two of this document. 19 Part Ono - Guidelines for Project Preparaton Conflict and conflict resolution have dimensions the effectiveness of customaly institutions in 9extding well beyond internal social-territorial conflict resolution is still critical in development organizaion. Far too many pastoral systems are planning. Indeed, one powerful justification for currently entrained in far-ranging ethnic and renewed interest in pastoral development is the political conflicts. How societies resolve their potential to use customary institutions to help internal affairs is no measure of how well they defuse conflicts that have causes in natural can cope with external conflicts, but establishing resource competition. 20 Assessing Population Pressure and Overgrazing Population pressure must be assessed in concert context, sharper ecological and humanitarian with the categorization of pastoral systems. perspectives are needed. Invariably, population pressure creates situations An ecological perspective needs to embrace calling for intervention, but the more acute the entire systems and comprehend time as an pressure on resources, the more difficult it is to ecological factor. Over time, each rangeland site intervene successfully. It is a critical aspect of has the possibility of at least three ecological project planning therefore to identify when the states: pressure on resources becomes a major impediment to progress. * the natural state represents what the site would be without human influence, given Relevant Perspectives the climatic and geomorphic conditions (including variability) that prevail; Until recently, there was consensus that . the derived state represents the condition to population pressure was crippling the ability of which the site can be brought by concerted pastoral areas to support future generations. human use, without special effort but merely Then came the observation that despite decades through consumptive utilization; and of apparent misuse, the support capacity of the * the deformed state represents the condition land seems not to have declined. And from the that can arise from more acute interference, marriage of that observation with the notion of without waiting for geological time to affect non-equilibrium environments as having a that extent of transformation. variable but resilient grass cover, came the conclusion that heavy utilization of arid The same basic ecological processes are at rangeland by pastoralists is not to be regarded as work across this spectrum of ecological states. overgrazing. This line of thinking is elaborated in However, the same processes produce different Annex C. results (different states within states) when In reality these observations depend on the working on different life forms and different perception of overgrazing. The above sequence availability of life-support materials (in terms of draws heavily on the thesis that pastoral societies water, 02-CO2, solar energy, and minerals). must expect to 'bust' as well as 'boom'. There is, moreover, interaction between Similarly, some argue that it does not matter if processes and any new baseline situation that some areas are degraded and eroded, if run-off forms, so very different ecologies can arise from soil and water collect elsewhere in the landscape. small changes in one factor. This is a relatively narrow perspective that gives No one state (or state within a state) can be no weight to human suffering that occurs at the said to be more productive than another unless a family level as populations contract and expand, measure of productivity is specified. According and it discounts the wider implications of soil and to the thinking outlined in Annex C, the derived water loss from degraded areas. In a development state can be more productive in terms of a 21 Part One - Guidelines for Project Preparation pastoral survival strategy than the natural state. demonstrate population pressure. Of course But it is not yet clear whether that strategy, welfare support mechanisms also decline when projected through time, will lead to a less social values decay, but discussion with a productive state, or whether a survival strategy community will serve to place what is observed will continue to satisfy the resource users. in its wider context. Wildlife and ranch managers usually prefer a Household indicators lie principally in strategy that stays closer to the natural state. stockwealth - the proportion of families whose A humanitarian perspective cannot readily stockwealth is inadequate (in numbers and accept a resource management strategy that composition) for family security. What is causes families to lose livestock and livelihoods, 'adequate' must be established for each pastoral and then to depend on famine relief for the years system and environment. There is little point in that it takes to rebuild herds. At the very least, seeking to express family circumstances in the present and projected extent of hardship must monetary terms - the value of the staples of a be quantified. subsistence pastoral economy fluctuates This requires project planning to be seasonally and depends ultimately on the value accompanied by an explicit statement of the that is placed on life and social cohesion. More standard of living that is to be accepted or useful as quantitative support are data on achieved. Without such a statement, other stated demographic trends. Objectives remain nebulous. The statement cannot As noted earlier, demography is a potent realistically be tightly quantified, but should force in determining the feasibility of sustainable specify how different social strata will be NRM. Although pastoral societies have a variety affected and who is expected to require famine of strategies to cope with increasing population relief. pressure, there is always a limit to the population References to famine relief should not be that an area can sustain when each family is taken as indicating that pastoral systems have an seeking to build or maintain a subsistence herd. unusually high proportion of destitute people. Environmental indicators are the most Indeed, unless catastrophe strikes a whole difficult to use. Even soil erosion-a fairly society, there are better social support obvious environental loss-must be mechanisms among pastoralists than in most considered in the context of the total landscape other societies. Sharing is a means of building and the resource use of the site. Loss of soil and and consolidating social relationships, and when biodiversity must also be related to a broader milk is abundant, it is available in quantities that issue -bwhether the area is to be invested with a can be shared without cost to the herders or the value beyond that pertaining to the present young stock. Carcasses too often yield more meat pastoral system. Some ecologists and resource than a family needs, although sharing meat managers prefer, as noted above, to look beyond stands in danger of being non-sustainable unless present land use and see value in keeping land other families reciprocate. close to its natural state, thereby reserving options for the future. More detail on Indicators of pressure on resources fall into environmental indicators is included in the three categories: following section. Societal indicators lie mainly in the effectiveness of welfare support mechanisms. Zonal Considerations These mechanisms are needed because of the nature of the environment in which pastoralism Indicators of population pressure by zone are operates, and are not in themselves an indicator summarized in Table 3-1. The zones are those of population pressure. However, increasing use introduced in Chapter 1, and are tropical. The of the mechanisms or, worse still, their criteria noted for the semi-arid zone, however, breakdown and replacement by famine relief, also apply to zones outside the tropics. 22 Assessing Population Pressure and Overgrazing Key Resource Areas the site is significantly impaired. In non-key areas, the composition of the vegetation matters Key resource areas are mentioned in Table 3-1 in less. conq tyitisn key resource maras the context of the semi-arid zone. They occur in that overgrazing, as measured floristically, must all zones, however, and increase in importance as be taken most seriously. conditions become more arid. They fall into several categories: Overgrazing is best regarded as a condition where grazing intensity is causing the vegetation grazioodpares; and other major dr-seasonto deviate markedly from that preferred for the grazmng areas; site and management system concerned. The * bottomlands thatnreeierrn-ff fnda basic issues are how 'preferred vegetation' is to therefore better vegetated than the rest of thebedfn,adwhtcsiuesmrd landscape; ~ ~~~~~~be defined, and what constitutes marked landscape; deviation. * localities with resources of specific value, Prefierred vegetaton must be related to how either filling a nutritional gap orPrfrevgtainmsbeeledohw the vegetation will be used, bearing in mind that contributing otherwise to the economy (such different stakeholders have different views. Once as salt licks); and those conflicts are resolved, 'preferred droughtTrefuges lying outside normnal vegetation' is best defined by components of the grazing orbits. current plant cover, with a view to managing The value of these areas is partly locational, what is there and favoring the most useful but also lies in the presence of particular plant components (including browse). A definition species. If those plants are destroyed, the value of based on an assumption of what plant species Table 3-1. Indicators of Population Pressure by Climatic Zone Occurrence of over- population and Zone degradation Environmental indcators Other indicators Semi-desert Usually only around Death of browse, dune Mortality and weight-for-age. permanent water and encroachment Other indicators are unreliable, for oases example, often males work outside the system even in normal times. Arid zone (for Overall not bad, but Useful browse giving way to Breakdown of societal welfare agropastoral accentuating where useless weed species, support system, declining systems, see borehole water leads aggravated soil erosion, stockwealth, dependence on bush also semi-arid to year-round average rainfall years referred foods outside drought years (most social occupancy to as drought years significant in bimodal rainfall indicators) areas, where biodiversity is greater) Semi-arid zone Rather widespread Extensive and worsening soil As above, especially increasing erosion (as shown by dependency on goats and famine appearance of bedrock and relief (although the latter can be plants on pedestals), loss of confounded by outside biodiversity in perennial remittances), inadequate numbers plants, increase in non-viable and performance of draught cropping and marked animals in agropastoral systems deviation from the preferred vegetation in key resource areas 23 Part One - Guidelines for Project Preparation rnight be encouraged to return to the site is rethinking range ecology (Annex C) is that usually too hypothetical to impose on subsistence attention has been focused on the needs and pastoralists. potential of key resource areas. Marked deviation must be related to the On the other hand, the overall conclusion fluctuations in plant cover that are expected from that pastoralists do not overgraze their land is too annual and periodic variations in rainfall. sweeping for practical purposes. This thesis Different standards may need to be set for wetter assumes mobility and a management strategy that and drier cycles. In the exanple cited in Chapter consumes grass as it appears, without regard to I for the semi-desert, annual grasses characterize other site values, and relates solely to grass (not dry cycles, and perennials (which bind the soil browse) and sites of low erodibility. These better, start growth earlier when rains arrive, and assumptions are often inapplicable (Table 3-2). have a longer growing season) persist only during In practice, there are many situations where wet cycles. In other zones, other vegetation reducing soil erosion is a relevant goal, and successions are to be expected, so local several examples (such as in flood plains and less knowledge is essential if standards are to be set arid zones) where range management can be used to match cyclic variation. to manipulate vegetation composition to favor Managing key resource sites lies at the heart of productive species and reduce thicket-forming or pastoral NRM. Management options are poisonous species. In addition in the whole of the pastoral NRM. Management options are p describtit is necessary to semi-desert, 'opportunistic management' could described in Chapter 10, but kill the browse resource on which the economy appreciate at the outset that these areas require desW thes e sitwatonstae edo individual attention. Bush fires may need to be depends. When these shtuatsons are added to controlled or reintroduced, and rotational grazing those where mobility has been lost or where may have a role to improve or restore perennial conslderathon must boe gven to willdlfe or other grass. Certainly it makes sense to focus research values, the majority of projects will need to look on these areas where there are best prospects for beyond opportunistic management when setting improvement. One of the main contributions of environmental and social goals. Table 3-2. Resilience of Rangeland to Opportunistic Management Attribute of area under Where opportunistic management Where opportunistic management is management theories apply risky or inappropriate Climatic zone Arid to semi-arid Very arid or semi-arid to humid Landscape Varied, with key resource sites Uniform, lacking key resource sites Erosion hazard Low High Grass cover Already depleted, low biodiversity Diverse perennials, sensitive to grazing Browse Of secondary importance Outvalues grass Bush cover Open stands Thicket Management objective Stay within derived or deformed state Move closer to natural state Present mobility Still mobile Already confined Note: Also see Annex C. 24 4 Enabling Policies Successful pastoral development depends on to the rationale for investment in pastoral ensuring a policy framework that recognizes a development and to points of macroeconomic specific role for pastoralism. It is insufficient to policy, including the case for subsidizing pastoral rely on only a generalized rural development development. policy for several reasons - pastoral environments are stringent, forms of organization Rationale for Investment in Pastoral are distinct, and livestock kept by pastoralists Development have multiple roles. Sectoral approaches flounder on the same Investing in pastoralism presupposes balancing obstacles. The most common approach has been political, social, economic, and environmental to affiliate pastoralism with the livestock considerations to arrive at the conclusion that subsector, although sometimes pastoral areas are investment is worthwhile. Occasionally there is also regarded as contributing to the energy sector clear-cut economic justification, but usually only (as a source of fuelwood, or more rarely oil) and in semi-arid or subhumid areas with a pastoral to the service sector (via wildlife and tourism). system that is already trade-oriented. More All this adds to the attention which pastoral areas typically, a coincidence of other criteria that receive, but in a disjointed manner and usually justifies intervention must be identified. with marginal benefit to pastoralists or to NRM. The strongest economic justification for Pastoralists are unlikely to benefit unless the intervening in arid zone pastoralism lies in the guiding economic policy recognizes intrinsic cost of not taking action - the imputed costs of value in pastoral economies and cultures, and structural famine relief or capital-intensive unless it measures inputs and outputs in terms resettlement, compounded by increasing conflict appropriate to those economies. The starting and environmental damage. But this is also an point is to recognize that pastoral value systems example where justification lies in a coincidence are not necessarily those of a monetarized of criteria. The fact that extensive pastoralism is agricultural economy. more production per unit of land than alternative Social policy, likewise, has to do more than livestock enterprises is not, in itself; a label pastoralists as 'poor' or 'indigenous justification for investment, since usually there peoples'. Unless policies are formulated will be parallel investment opportunities in other specifically to serve mobile pastoralists, sectors that yield a higher return. education and health services will either bypass Political criteria often weigh against them or conspire to settle them, thereby intervention, not necessarily by government accentuating social and environmental intent, but more likely due to conflicting priorities degradation. Much the same applies in the case or unrest in pastoral areas. In terms of other of environmental and land policies - they too criteria, it would be a pity if such constraints need to recognize the distinctive needs and were allowed to block investment. If other circumstances of pastoral communities. Some of indications are favorable, it may be possible to these points are covered in the next chapter as avoid the problem by: institutional issues. This chapter looks upstream, 25 Part One - Guidelines for Project Preparation * proceeding with a study phase while a Environmental criteria used to be applied government resolves political constraints, regularly to justify intervention in pastoral areas, * making direct inputs to help government but that was before ecological rethinking action, and/or popularized the notion that pastoral areas are not * adjusting the project area, either to exclude as overgrazed as commonly assumed. In reality, problem areas or to bring them under project as discussed in the last chapter, most new influence. projects will still have an environmental Tactics would be determined by the nature contribution, but it will vary according to the of the political constraint. When the problem is objectives of the project or project component. In insecurity, acute judgment is needed to fix limits particular, it is necessary to be clear whether the for 'direct inputs', for example, supporting objective is: comrnunities in self-protection but not supporting . conservation, using NRM to shift the the suppression of unrest. ecological status nearer to the natural state Social criteria provide the surest justification for to benefit (a) national or other extenmal intervention, especially in arid zones where interests, or (b) the pastoral economy (such hardship and deprivation are most evident. as through wildlife management); or However, the justification is spurious unless l livestock support, using NRM within the based on standards appropriate to pastoralism. derived state to benefit a pastoral system by bahis means: (a) making best use of the grazing available, or (b) seeking additional benefit, for * avoiding bias towards mobile or settled example, by preventing further soil erosion, lifestyles unless the ecological context improving vegetation composition, or (particularly the year-round availability of focusing on a specific resource (such as feed and water) is defined; browse). * judging degradation in relation to both As the objective varies, so also does the context and cause (degradation caused by eintal ojutificatio for ieentin inappropriate water development, for environmental Justification for intervention. example, may be reversible if agreement can The conclusion to be drawn is that as situations be reached to use boreholes as drought relief and criteria change, different types of instead of as the focus of slum settlements); intervention are favored. There are many * relating poverty to stockwealth and the variants, but four main types of rangeland functioning of societal welfare support intervention emerge that can be construed either systems; as whole projects or as components in a broad- . recognizing where population pressure based intervention: precludes any improvement in present living * Environental conservation - focusing on standards; and. Eniomnacosrai-fuign standards; and an ecological attribute such as wildlife, setting targets for standards of living without the immediate wishes of pastoralists accordingly. being paramount. Especially critical is recognition of intense . Livestock production - applying standard population pressure. Although project project procedures of the past on the intervention can proceed under these grounds that there is sufficient commnercial circumstances, the form of intervention must potential and investment content (and adapt to the severity of the problem and the predictable outcome) to justify a straight options available for relocation. Defining the investment project. standards of living that are being sought could be . Pastoral development - improving food made a matter of policy in project preparation. security and the sustainability of NRM within the framework of an existing pastoral system using a process approach. 26 Enabling Policies * Emergency operations - arising either as a pastoralists and increasing their vulnerability to form of disaster relief or in areas where the drought. Depressed prices affect off-take rates. aim is to relocate pastoralists into other The 1994 devaluation in the CFAI countries occupations. of francophone West Africa provides an Although it is the third category that is the example. Although devaluation disadvantaged focus of these guidelines, it is not the inevitable urban consumers by substantially increasing the choice. All of the others have received World cost of imported goods, it helped local livestock Bank support, and are not to be ruled out in the producers by increasing the demand for local future. As the focus changes, however, so also meat, thereby increasing offtake and livestock does the nature of the project, so that the sales from pastoral areas to coastal markets (Box categories cited are not just variants on a theme 4-1). The devaluation of the CFA did bring a 60 (Table 4-1). The implications of this are to 80 percent increase in the price of key examined later in the context of project portfolios veterinary drugs, and a 20 percent increase in the (Chapter 12). The present focus remains on the overall costs of production, but the effect of this third category, which has the widest application. was soon absorbed. In the Central African Republic (example in Box 6-1), veterinary drug Economic Policy Instruments sales slumped temporarily, but then recovered to reach $2 million two years after the devaluation. Pastoral projects, like other projects, are much Related trade policies. It is not only in West influenced by the macroeconomic environment in Africa that governnents have allowed the import which they operate. This section provides an of subsidized ('dumped') meat from the overview of four key points for review and European Union at prices significantly below perhaps amendment during project preparation. local market prices as a means of providing Tvheir impact will be greatest in projects dealing cheap meat to urban populations. In clear cases with trade-oriented pastoral systems. of dumping, as covered under the definitions of Exchange rate policies. Livestock prices are the earlier General Agreement on Tariffs and influenced greatly by the prevailing exchange rate Trade (GATT) and now the World Trade in a country. Overvalued exchange rates lead to the import of cheap meat from the industrialized 1. Cominunaute Financire Africaine world, thereby depressing the income of Table 4-1. Features of Different Categories of Range-Based Projects Feature Livestock Pastoral Emergency a Preparation < 3 months > 3 months c. I month Duration c. 6 years 6-12 years c. 2 years Type Blueprint Process Short-term Funding Standard Flexible Concessionary Subsidy < 20% 20-80% > 80% Justification ERR 10-30% b Social/NRM Survival Note: Excludes wildlife projects and (in the 'emergency' category) projects aimed at relocation of pastoralists. a. Assuming a short-term intervention in disaster relief, not a long-term resettlement program b. Economic rate of return. 27 Part One - Guidelines for Project Preparation Organization (WTO), the World Bank has disadvantaged rangeland-based pastoral systems. included protection against such practices in its For example, tractors, agricultural equipment, policy dialogue. Protection is best effected and fuel were (and in many WANA countries through the introduction of variable still are) heavily subsidized. Over past decades, countervailing duties on the import of subsidized this has led to considerable crop encroachment meat. For example, in Cote d'Ivoire into marginal areas where crop production would countervailing duty was imposed on the basis of not be viable under normal market conditions. the price difference between imported and local These trends have reduced the range areas in meat of the same quality. However, if tarrifs are WANA over the period 1970 to 1988 by 13 fixed too high at levels advocated in North Africa percent (Glenn 1988). and the Middle East (200 to 300 percent), this Feed subsidies. The provision of subsidized feed can lead to heavy investment in livestock and became a feature of pastoral production in purchased concentrate feeds, which in turn can WANA during the 1970s and 1980s. It has led to greatly increase pressure on rangeland. dramatic increases in the total number of stock. Crop input prices. Past pricing policies, For example in Jordan, which had a large feed especially in West Asia and North Africa subsidy program, the small ruminant population (WANA), have favored crop production and rose from about 1 million sheep in 1980 to 2.5 Box 4-1. Effects of Macroeconomic Policy on West African Livestock Trade Reductions in the restitution payments granted on meat sold to West Africa by the European Union, reinforced by CFA devaluation, have restored competitiveness to local meat and boosted regional livestock trade. One year after these measures, regional livestock trade had overtaken non-African imports. Figures below illustrate this impact on European and Burkina Faso meat exports to coastal West Africa. The sustainability of this recovery will depend on continued improvement in production capacities and regional marketing efficiency 6= ~ sxo+< [ 1 EC export subsidies (U2 4f 4 Countervailing duties C. I. Ž3O= M 0* 2000- 8R-CFA devaluation ioo o 0 S, 9o 3 > 300( ,' _ (0So European Meat Exports to Ghana, Cote d'lvoire, Togo, and Benin, 1/93-6/94 Compensatory increases in local (Burkinabe) cattle exports to the same countries were 59,563 head from January to September 1993, and 115,776 head during the same nine-month period in 1994. Source: Vergriette and Rolland 1994. 28 Enabling Policies million in 1993. At the same time, feed imports * providing free protection against infectious increased from 100,000 tons to over 600,000 disease (although then the benefits are tonnes. Under the influence of structural national as well as local); adjustment, most countries of the region have * causing pastoralists to maintain a breed now abolished a regular subsidy, although more valuable to external economies than to subsidization of feed during times of drought is their own (although ultimately market forces still common to the extent that it is becoming should prevail, without requiring continuing almost structural, effectively perpetuating the subsidy); or previous programs (see Figure 9-1). * providing feed during times of drought to The benefits of such subsidized feeding are keep alive selected animals of particular doubtful. The policy maintains excessive stock value for rebuilding herds (although also on the range, which can be especially detrimental with social justification). during the critical post-drought recuperation Subsidizing feed supplies in non-drought period. In line with 'opportunistic range situations is sometimes argued on economic management,' the policy should be not to criteria, although when this causes more animals maintain maximum stock numbers during timnes to be kept than the available rangeland can of drought, but to destock at those times. The combined effect of these measures in WANA is spr,n lv m that the range livestock population increased over damage. the period 1970 to 1988 by 28 percent. This has Environmental justification is invoked when an led to an increase in the average stocking rate environmental attribute under pressure from from 2.8 hectares per Tropical Livestock Unit pastoralists is deemed worth preserving. In (TLU) in the early 1960s to 1.7 in 1988 (Glenn practice, this is tenable only locally for a specific 1988). Careful scrutiny of all such policies is environmental attribute such as a wildlife habitat. therefore needed before project interventions are Subsidy is wasteful if applied when the attribute designed. of biotic or edaphic is depleted beyond recall, and potentially counter-productive if conceived as a Subsidy in Pastoral Development blanket remedy to encourage pastoralists to keep rfewer stock for reasons of general environmental Subsidy commonly features in the provision of conservation. (The reverse, however, of taxing government services to pastoralists. The case of pastoralists for animals in excess of subsistence subsidized feed just cited is just one example. requirements, may find a place, as noted in the The circumstances range from the redistribution next chapter.) of oil revenues to provision of famine relief. Usually, the underlying rationale is that pastoral Social justification for subsidization is usually systems lack the economic strength (or the self-evident in the degree of social deprivation economic orientation) to bear the full cost of experienced by arid zone pastoralists. The most services and development inputs, but social common area for subsidy is water development, deprivation is also invoked, and sometimes although until recently most other government environmental criteria. All these factors must be services were provided with little thought to cost- weighed when reviewing the justification for recovery. One point that will be elaborated in maintaining or withdrawing subsidies. Chapter 10 is that field study is needed to judge the extent to which a society, and its various Economic justificatlon for subsidy may be hard social strata, can be expected to contribute to toindwithounnta plactringte. a uet eonoman cost-sharing. As a general rule, subsidy should environmental attribesinjuste. Direw ctseonomic:be concentrated into capital works and avoided justification arises in JUSt a few cases, when: in recurrent activities. 29 5 Institutional Framework To convert policies into practice requires be no point in proceeding with other lines of budgetary and organizational provisions and an development. Familiarity with the content and appropriate legal framework. The legal effectiveness of land law is a necessary step in framework is considered first, focusing on issues preparing for project intervention. of land tenure and the extent to which pastoralists Corporate law and other legislation covefing are permitted to manage their own affairs. The rights of association come into play when advice offered here is general because a legal operationalizing participation. In an ideal world, framework is very country-specific, and country it would be necessary only to delegate NRM statutes must be studied word for word to responsibility to the appropriate decisio.naking understand what is legally possible to help body in a pastoral society, provide back-up pastoral development (as shown by the case services, and leave matters there. But seldom is study in Lane 1996). that a realistic strategy. In most situations where group Land Tenure responsibility involves holding money or land Land law is usually written to codify and title, or taking decisions that may be disputed by legitimize sociopolitical concepts of ownership persons not susceptible to societal control, the and leasehold. Legislation follows to control land concerned group needs legal identity. This may use, whether to avoid destruction of the land be unnecessary if there are local government resource or to ensure that land use conforms to authorities competent to represent local group planning models. Where the State disallows or interests in court or in dealings with central discourages the ownership of land, the second government or commercial institutions, but category of legislation dominates the statutes. seldom is local government geared to this task. Seldom is statutory law written specifically to Two key questions about legal codes need legitimize customary law, although sometimes priority attention: legislation is enacted to enable customary rights * the forms of organization that are already to receive legal recognition. Major differences recognized in law, and whether any of these can occur among neighboring countries (Box 5- have the simplicity and flexibility to be 1) h operated using existing customary The value of land law in pastoral situations procedures; and depends on the extent to which pastoral land is * the possibilities for not just grass-roots under threat from other users, and the extent to organizations, but also for recognizing the which those who aspire to take over pastoral land authority of traditional leadership to keep (including the State itself) are likely to abide by organizations with responsibility for NRM statutory law. Obviously, legislation will not within the jurisdiction of customary control land grabbing if the parties concerned do controls. not use or abide by the law. On the other hand, if there is nothing to stop the acquisition of land by The case for reform is spelled out in most of the powerful individuals or cliques, then there may literature on pastoral development. The thrust is 31 Part One - Guidelines for Project Preparation usually on comparing theories of tenure without At that point, the argument flounders unless reference to the many different types of related to real localities. In principle, however, pastoralism that occur in practice (Lane and the argument would proceed to show how rights Moorehead 1994). Within the total matrix of can be allocated, and how the situation might pastoral systems, there are situations where each look after twenty to thirty years. One future of the current theories applies, even 'the tragedy scenario, for a dryland or semi-desert pastoral of the commons'. Also, the case for reform is system that is now peripatetic, might be: seldom expressed in terms attractive to poitcin.. * residential areas designated where water IS There is, however a strong political most abundant; X'here is, however, a strong political 0 preferential rights attached to outlying wells argument in favor of land reform, since there is and their associated grazing areas; no doubt that: * wet-season grazing areas shared among * expectations are changing in pastoral several groups; societies, * more of the population absorbed into paid * there will be increasing settlement, employment; * ad hoc settlement leads to impoverishment . herding devolved to the minority (or to paid and discontent, and herders), following grazing patterns much * discontent is a threat to national security. the same as those now in use; and Hence action is needed if standards of living * transferable grazing rights introduced to are to be acceptable in pastoral areas, and that limit the number of animals using the range action must include allocation of user rights since (especially those of absentee owners). permnanent water is highly localized and neither rainfall nor groundwater can be increased at will. Box 5-1. Land Tenure in the Maghreb The complexities of pastoral land tenure are starkly illustrated in the rangelands of the Maghreb (Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia), where the divergence between statutory and customary law is compounded by very different state policies. The present confused situation can be traced back to changes which occurred during and after the colonial period. Large areas were expropriated during the colonial period, and statutes governing collective ownership of tribal land and rights of cultivation or plantation were established. During the post-independence period, forests and rangelands were transferred to the State and private appropriation of collective land increased. Today, collective lands continue to be important in Morocco, whereas the policy of privatization in Tunisia has considerably reduced their importance. In Algeria, all collective lands are the property of the State. Rangelands According to Land Tenures Regimnes (percent) Country Collective Private State owned Algeria 0 13 87 Morocco 59 v- 41 - Tunisia 25 30 45 The functioning of traditional pastoral systems is now constrained by (a) conflicting pastoral laws, (b) numerous customary rangeland utilization practices, and (c) lack of coordination among the various actors. Future development in collective rangelands will have to support flexible positions which take into account all these issues. Source: World Bank 1995a. 32 Institutional Framework Whether or not events follow that particular This all takes time - probably at least two development path is not the point, but it is years from conceptualization to enactment - important that: and is only worthwhile if the country has an * the pastoral society itself has a major say in independent judiciary to which the citizenry has access. Without such ajudiclary, there is no detoverrinengthe p idirecn of cabnge; basis for safeguarding pastoral rights and hence environment in a manner that encourages no basis for pastoral development. envtaironmblentina mhanner thatencourageThe most critical step in the whole process sustainblomen chaiminge; ddresses pastorali of legal reform is probably when the ideas that * development planing addresses pastorainsm emerge from participatory planning pass into the in trmecansiti anot hands of those who draft laws. The latter are a systesstudies and process monitoring are unlikely to comprehend fully all the nuances in * systems ~~~~~~~~~the minds of the planners, and the planners allowed to guide the process (discussed in n later chapters). seldom have any influence on the wording of the legislation once it becomes the property of the Changing legal codes must be identified as a office in charge of legal affairs. The operational specific task because too often perceived needs deficiencies of the Land (Group Representatives) are expressed without reference to what Act, which was added to Laws of Kenya in 1968 legislative change they imply. There are two to confirm the customary land rights of steps - first to specify the forms of tenure that pastoralists, arose in the manner described. are required, and then to make the appropriate textual changes to the existing legal code. Essential Services The proposed tenurial provisions need to be Pastoral areas are usually among the worst spelled out in terms of: served parts of any country. Where all-weather * the social groups and land areas to be given roads exist, it is more likely to be for reasons of security (not easily defined below the tribal national security or to serve tourism than to level); facilitate the flow of services and goods. Road * any seasonality of use and/or reciprocal improvement itself is not usually given high arrangements that need to be priority by pastoralists, however, and those who accommodated; are mobile have a capacity that is often under- * the form of security envisioned (freehold rated to move essential goods (for example, diesel title or a form of leasehold or right of fuel for a borehole), provided that a supply point access); and exists within the combined range of a truck and a * the form(s) of organization that would hold camel. The most compelling reason to have roads rights of tenure, including the forms of in the view of pastoralists is usually access to constitution envisioned. medical services. It is basic social services that are given precedence below. The review of the existing legal code must establish: Mobile services are likely to need support prior to improvement in fixed facilities. The latter are * where existing legislation suffices; needed in almost all districts, but should be * which missing provisions require new organized within the framework of a regional legislation and which can be covered by plan. The tendency to site new facilities where instmrments external to the law; and some facility already exists must be resisted until * the draft bills required, including cross- growth centers have been selected. This is checking through the legal code for especially necessary in arid lands, where *nconsistencies. permanent water is sparsely distributed and limited in quantity. If a master plan does not already exist based on water supply and the other 33 Part One - Guidelines for Project Preparation customary criteria of regional planning in Chapter 1, and further specific suggestions (demographic trends, land use, and axes of appear in Chapter 12. growth and trade), this must be organized at an earl stge.Manydisric andlocl cnter intheTechnical services include extension, the back- early stage. Many district andlocalcentersup needed in research and ensuring animal health arid zone are already taxing finite water and water supplies, and provision for marketing, resources, and it is irresponsible to add to the banking, and credit. All these require attention load. during project preparation. An early priority Health services usually separate human and would be training and retraining in order to animal health, even where it is manifestly produce people competent in pastoral extension illogical to do so. The two services must be kept and the provision of back-up services. separate down to the district level, but primary Furthermore, the need for credit must be assessed health care at lower levels could often be as a policy issue because expensive items such as improved by unifying delivery. boreholes may warrant subsidy. Literacy requires early attention because, as Institutional Arrangements for participatory planning and development progress, Develont Spr t more responsibility passes to those in the Development Support conumunity who are literate, and those not literate Much hinges on the institutional arrangements are liable to be sidelined. The World Bank's for the actual delivery of services and inputs. project record already shows increasing attention These arrangements need scrutiny as close as any to literacy so there is no need to dwell on this part of the development process. A wide range of point, but it is important to initiate adult literacy services is involved, from counseling on how to programs at the first opportunity and focus these make use of available legislation to ensuring that and other training programs on issues and tasks needed drugs are available. with which the conmmunity will engage (Box 5-2). The available options can be sunmmarized in Education has dimensions far beyond literacy, terns of five models: Although project involvement may be confined to The departmental delivery model delegates adult literacy and the skills needed for to each line ministry responsibility for the communities to participate in development, there delivery of its part of the program. The model is scope for much more, both among pastoralists may assume that local authorities oversee or and those with responsibility for assisting coordinate the prograrn and that the program pastoral development. The rationale was outlined Box 5-2. Experience vith Literacy in World Bank Projects In Senegal, functional literacy was seen as an important requirement to achieve producer participation in the management of herder associations. From the start of World Bank assistance in eastern Senegal in 1979 to its end in 1989, some 9,000 people passed through the literacy program (over 10 percent of the population). The literacy campaign proved effective to train livestock auxiliaries capable of keeping accounts for the herder associations for their purchases of drugs and cotton seed. The presence of livestock auxiliaries and their pharmacies was regarded by local herders as the major contribution of the projects. There is little information, however, on who benefited from the literacy campaigns (in terms of age, gender, and socioeconomic category). In Senegal, literacy training and materials were mainly in Pulaar, the vernacular language of the pastoral peoples. In the Central African Republic, the Feddration National des Eleveurs Centrafricains (FNEC) continues to provide adult literacy training for Groupement d'Intdret Pastoral (GIP) members, especially women, and train them to run the GIPs. After a period during which the choice of the language was an issue, this training is finally conducted both in the Foufoulde and Sango languages. Source: World Bank internal documents 34 Institutional Framework originates from proposals from the grassroots also successfully in Mauritania and Niger. It is level, but ultimately what happens (or not) is important, however, to keep the cash-flow of determined by the will and efficiency of commercial and social functions separate. individual ministries. This is often regarded as Commercial functions should be self-financing, the best model to develop technical skills and to whereas social and public services should be ensure post-project sustainability, but in practice funded through general levies or transfers from it perpetuates compartmentalized and top-down the treasury to the service organization. thinking, often leading to misconceived and Disappointing experience with service poorly coordinated development support. organizations almost always stem from mixing The coordinating department model social and commercial objectives. designates one department with responsibility to Decentralization is a means of devolving coordinate and ensure delivery of inputs from all responsibility, facilitating democratic processes, relevant sources. This offers the possibility of a . . p coordinated flow of inputs, but the relevance of applying principles of subsidianty, and the flow is still suspect and its delivery is only as encouraging participation. good as the budget and the influence of the hresponsibility to comunities and local coordinating department. A department close to organizations is considered here as the political center would have influence, but 'decentralization' since most goverment systems may still have difficulty ensuring that technical start as being heavily centralized. There are two ministries define relevant inputs. avenues to consider - allocating responsibilities The unified area authority model downward to local govenment and beyond, and establishes an extra-ministerial authority with building the capability of conmnunities to reach overall responsibility for organizing all inputs in upward to contribute more to the development a designated geographical area. This is often the pronrevl most efficient model to assemble a motivated pocss. staff ad meettarget. But t is cmmonlyLocal government was portrayed earlier as staff and meet targets. But it is commonly having a stronger role to play in pastoral associated with an autocratic style, more development than is commonly allowed. This will proactive than demand-driven, and often attracts not readily be achieved because the present only grudging support from the rest of the neadf be and recauseibilitesen government machine. It is often not sustained balance of power and responsibility is goncemmentenachin. s t has oftennotpp ustained orchestrated by the central government. A shift in once extemal support has stopped. position will only occur if the higher echelons of The local government model attaches the government perceive it to be in the interests of role of a unified area authority to local good government and able to be put to political government so that services are brought under advantage. If so, the following initiatives could the control of the democratically elected be among the most practical ways of representatives of the people served. This is an strengthening the role of local goverment: unpopular notion with central governments because it implies relinquishing power from the * District planning should take precedence center, although local government structures are over centralized planning. This procedure is usually in place and looking for a more already adopted in some countries, requiring meaningful role in development. ministries to base their sectoral plans on The service cooperative model involves integrated plans from the district level. As herder groups directly in delivery of private long as district plans remain the product of goods (such as animal health and water services), district-level ministerial staff, however, it is and eventually in sub-contracts from the difficult to break the sectoral mold and government for public goods (such as education). obtain a real expression of community The idea of producers forning a service priorities. organization is tried and tested, mostly in higher * Staff secondment from central to local potential or more conmmercialized situations, but government should be considered as a 35 Part One - Guidelines for Project Preparation strategy to improve the competence of local means of channeling funds and goodwill from authorities. After pilot testing, this could be those with a social conscience to those in need. considered as standard procedure. It should No doubt these organizations have much to help integrated district planning and also contribute to future pastoral development. provide wider benefits by bringing technical However, they also have limitations. They are staff into closer association with the people often unrepresentative, absorbing large inputs for they are expected to serve. only localized benefit and with only sketchy * Training of councilors and others associated evaluation. Care is needed, therefore, not to place with local government (including herders so much reliance on NGOs that efforts are themselves, so that they can participate as relaxed to improve the support capability of equals in the planning process) should be democratically elected local bodies, both local stepped up so that these officials and government and community-based organizations. representatives are better equipped to Community-based organizations are contribute to pastoral development. considered later in the context of herder Local government revenue may be an area organizations (Chapter 7). The attraction to requiring external advice, examining central government of sponsoring their revenue collection and reducing central establishment will lie largely in their ability to subvention. One possible source of revenue facilitate cost-sharing. The main contribution that is the introduction of a property tax on central government can make to their livestock, applicable where the individual or establishment is to extend formal recognition to family holding exceeds a level calculated in customary organizations, and ensure that simple relation to subsistence requirements. This forms of organization are available to meet the could specifically target absentee owners. functions outlined in Chapter 7. Undoubtedly the response would be to The commercial private sector should also transfer animals to the ownership of poor be encouraged to participate where feasible in the families, but this may not be bad if it serves delivery of services to pastoral areas. The sorts to provide those families with better food of services that might be provided in this way are security. considered in more detail in Chapter 8. The first Charities and other NGOs have repeatedly step in that direction is to establish a clear shown their ability to assist at a community level understanding of the distinction between public to facilitate development. They also provide a and private goods (Table 5-I). 36 Table 5-1. Insfitufional Frameworkfor Natural Resource Management Responsibility Individual herders, Type of good commercial and private Service or good or service State (national) level Local government Private associations entrepreneurs Basic infrastructure, including basic physical infrastructure and social services, as conditioned by regional conditions Physical planning (at Public good Regional planning Surveys to update and Participatory input into Studies contracted out to regional level) framework based on improve regional plans, planning. consultants. resource distribution and issue of zonation and other use, demographic and permits according to economic trends, and water agreed plans. availability. Primary road network Public good Trunk roads serving all Shared responsibility for Link roads serving Subcontracts of road main administrative trunk and toll roads, individual association construction and centers. organize in (cooperation markets plus cost-sharing maintenance to private with others) food-for-work for access to remote areas. companies. road building. C4 Other conmnunications Toll goods A policy framework that n.a. Strong participation in the Inputs by the commercial facilitates private inputs design and content of radio sector in the expansion of and regulates public inputs messages. the communication into the expansion and network. modernization of communication. Basic education Public good, some Teacher training and Basic education adapted to Inputs, often substantial, Koranic schools and other specialized education primarv education, based the needs of the from religious organizations private training for which is private good. on targets and curricula set pastoralists, including adult and other NGOs. beneficiaries choose to pay. regionally. literacy. Potable water Public good (where Policies and provisions that Supervision of the Collective planning and New facilities installed by natural sources are not set regional targets for implementation of regional operation of water points by contractors under cost- already in place). water quality and supply. water supply targets associations. sharing arrangements, and private wells maintained and improved. Table 5-1 (continued) Responsibility Individual herders, Type of good commercial and private Service or good or service State (national) level Local government Private associations entrepreneurs Primary health care Public good with Policies and procedures that Regional supervision of the Distribution of Develop, produce, and externalities for most ensure adequate protection quality of disease pharmaceuticals and further distribute pharmaceuticals; preventive actions, against epidemics, enabling prevention, basic education health care programs. plus basic animat health private goods for most environment and quality in hygiene, child and care systems provided by clinical treatment of control for the sale of mother care, etc. private operators. individuals. pharmaceuticals. Specialist services, including inputs most commonly associated with economic development in the range livestock sector Specialized education Mostly private but Establishment of centers of Establishment of Management of facilities. with strong enabling excellence on the basis of appropriate (mobile) role from public sector. population density and centers and vocational stage of economic training. development. Water development Public good w ith Establishment and Control of the geographic Main responsibility for the Responsible for externalities supervision of appropriate distribution of water points, operation and maintenance construction of private ,vater policy. monitoring of water of group water supplies. water points, operation of resources and abstraction. private wvells; subcontracts for communal/group water supplies. Preventive animal Public good with National disease control Monitoring of disease Participate in policy and Produce vaccine and health services extemalities and moral strategies, border protection outbreaks; supervision of implementation, including pharmaceuticals by hazard issues and overall responsibility for compulsory vaccination compulsory vaccination commercial sector, disease surveillance, quality campaigns, regional campaigns. subcontract most control on vaccines and quarantine measures, preventive animal health veterinary pharmaceuticals. inspection of livestock tasks to private products. professional or paraprofessional veterinary agents. Table 5-1 (continued) Responsibility Individual herders, Type of good commercial and private Service or good or service State (national) level Local government Private associations entrepreneurs. Curative animal health Mostly private goods Limited to overall Training and monitoring of At the regional level, Combinations of private interventions supervision (plus some private paraprofessionals. responsible for drug sector veterinarians and inputs to training). distribution; at the grass paravets in herder roots level, responsible for associations can be servicing/supervising envisioned. paraveterinary agents. Animal production Mostly public goods Conservation of genetic Provision and supervision Operation of marketing All other production and services with externalities resources in cooperation of marketing structures, infrastructure, supervision marketing operations. (private goods with breeder associations, shared responsibility with and monitoring of increasing with development of appropriate associations for advisory extension. commercialization). advisory policies and services. systems in livestock production and NRM. W Research Mostly public good, Establishment of priority- Ensuring participation by Major role in priority- Inputs only with high value private where setting mechanisms to stakeholders in priority- setting and eventual lirnited products where it is developer can capture ensure a balanced program, setting, supporting relevant degree of cost-sharing. worthwhile for the private benefits of the research reflecting zonal needs and research on arid range- sector to invest in research products. opportunities. livestock production. (e.g., vaccine and drug development). Drought monitoring, Public goods at Establishment of national Supervision of data Data collection in Inputs to handle the mitigation and regional level; private drought preparedness policy collection and local cooperation with local accelerated off-take of recovery goods at on-farm level. and netvork, followN-up analysis, responsible for government, use of livestock in times of actions through national food aid distribution and traditional support drought and provide food banks and support for supervision of restocking mechanisms in case of animals for restocking. accelerated off-take in case programs. droughts, participation in of wvidespread drought. credit and insurance schemes for destocking and restocking programs. Other services Mostly public Generation of alternative Monitoring wildlife Some scope for joint ventures in ecotourism and other non- employment opportunities resources. livestock resources of arid lands. Table S-l (continued) Responsibility Individual herders, Type of good commercial and private Service or good or service State (national) level Local government Private associations entrepreneurs. Law and order are usually takenfor granted in development planning, but often callfor specific attention in pastoral areas. Allocating and Public good with Establishment of national Survey and registration of Operation and adaptation of Subcontract surveys to ensuring land rights externalities land tenure policy and legal customary land rights. customary tenure systems consultants. framework. within the framework of the law. Maintaining security Public good (unless Maintaining and deploying Monitoring security Customary control of n.a. insecurity an intemal national security force, situation and alerting incursion, possibly by issue, of little/no including assurance of national security forces in delegated responsibility, national significance). access. case of incursions. border control. Preventing criminality Public good with Establishing and upholding Enforcement of criminal Imposition of customary Parents (and Koranic externalities criminal code. code in parallel with codes of sanctions to the schools, etc) instill codes of customary law. extent that they do not ethics in the young. conflict with the civil code. C Promoting the civil Public good Establishment of civil codes Enforcement of civil code Maintenance of customary Parents (and Koranic code that encompass subsidiarity in parallel with customary ethics, use civil courts in schools, etc.) instill codes and reflect societal ethics. law. disputes (usually fiscal or of ethics in the young. territorial, invoking statutary law). Promoting subsidiarity Public good National policy, allow self- Assumption of delegated Maintenance of customary Herding families exercise determination through responsibilities; review procedures (pastoral customary and delegated democratically elected local processes. societies are well versed in procedures. bodies; register responsible subsidiarity); fulfill new bodies. responsibilities as delegated by the State. Promoting Public good National policy and legal CatalNze and support Maintenance of societal Contributions as members associations framework, including creation of new associations hierarchies and groupings and officers of associations. provision of adequate and act as an intermediary effective in the areas of independence of pastoral behveen associations and decisionmaking for which associations national government. they are designed; new forms of association as appropriate for new activities. 6 Essentials in Project Design All projects need information on which to base collect during field appraisal, and (c) topics likely their planning, as well as participation in order to to require further study. ensure relevance and local support. And to ensure relevance and localsupport. And toProject area needs careful definition because ensure sustainability, the packaging of a project pastoral development can be tackled through (in terms of timing, flexibility, etc.) is no less pastof velopment cale including: important. These needs vary, however, according projects of very different scales, including: to the orientation of the project - the relative * national projects that provide the overall emphasis given to economic, environmental, and institutional support needed for government social objectives, and the scale of operations. and community action; The implications of scale are dealt with as * district-level projects that address the they arise, but the orientation is assumed to be development needs of a specific constant, and directed at: administrative area, usually through a enabling pastoralists to adapt to their mixture of infrastructure and field-level changing environment in ways that improve cminputs; and food security and the economic choices open m cmuiy-ae prJCSta fcso n food security sainditheonothe capacity of the or more pastoral groups and address wider to them, while sustaining theortpastofalismissues only to the extent needed to facilitate natural resource base to support pastoralism progress in the group area. or future forms of range resource use. This objective implies an open-ended Sometimes these scales get mixed within one development process. Projects supporting the project - often with a conflict of interests (as in process would not be open-ended, but they would the Central African Republic, Box 6-1)-but ensure the instruments of change for an initial the basic divisions are well known. Sometimes pensur unth instruments of chane for inial pastoralism also receives attention indirectly pastoralists to influence future events. Such through sectoral projects (such as education or projects need a monitofing system to adjust tourism) or under gender or poverty initiatives. In inputs based on experience. Monitoring implies all situations, however, a correct definition of that data gathering will continue throughout the participants and project area is essential. project term. There would still be a need for A project assisting pastoralists in NRM baseline data to guide and justify the initial must embrace the entire area used by a pastoral inputs, but less reason to know everything at the population, including all of their seasonal grazing outset concerning the pastoral system(s) areas and drought reserves. The only situation involved. where it is straightforward to fix a boundary for project intervention is where the focus of Baseline Information attention is a semi-sedentary pastoral system set in an area of relatively reliable rainfall. In other The infornation required to start a project falls situations, the outer limits of project intervention into three.categories: (a) the database needed to will not be clear until qfter the first round of prescribe a project area, (b) the information to participatory discussion. 41 Part One - Guidelines for Project Preparation Even if there were a mass of information on and ensuing enquiries, as discussed below in the ecology and pastoral practice, it would be context of participation. At the outset of project unsafe to define a perimeter until there has been identification, however, the net must be cast wide consultation on customary mobility and drought because then there is no 'target' population and strategies. This applies even where the project the field itself is uncomfortably wide with legal area is nominally prescribed as an administrative aspects, environmental sensitivity, and special district. needs in water engineering and veterinary Data collection is more time-consuming in medicine. pastoral situations than in most fields of rural Sources of information need to include non- development. Much of the required informnation government as well as government institutions. ,. , . , ,.w , X ~~~~This im lies tapping universities remote sensing comes from participatory rural appraisal (PRA) p ppig g Box 6-1. Delivery of Livestock Service in the Central African Republic The National Federation of Central African Livestock Producers (FNEC) was formed by herders in the 1970s to fill the gap left by the collapse of the public sector in the Central African Republic. It was rehabilitated and took effective responsibility for veterinary drug marketing and distribution in 1982 (under the World Bank assisted Livestock Development Project). Concurrently, training programs were reoriented toward teaching herders the proper use of these drugs, and members of the FNEC were trained as auxiliaries to supplement the clinical and preventive services provided by the public sector. Total sales of veterinary drugs and feed increased dramatically after being taken over by FNEC. By the end of 1986, sales had jumped to US$ 1.7 million (from $9,000 in 1981), and to $2 million at the end of 1992. FNEC's general success in drug imports and distribution activities encouraged individual herder associations to expand into the sale of other inputs. In 1989, FNEC began providing extension services and expanded education programs for its members (under the National Livestock Project). Lapses in management, combined with political interference and price controls, led to a decline in effectiveness in 1992. However, FNEC's statutes were revised in 1993 to ensure majority grassroots representation, widen its sphere of activity, and confirm its non-political character under the recently launched Livestock Development and Rangeland Management Project (LDRvP). In 1995, sale of veterinary drugs recovered to reach 1992 the value again. Shift from public to private 2E1 1.5 0.5 0 8 Value of Veterinary Drug Sales (and Other Inputs) in the Central African Republic, 1980-1995 (sales in millions of U.S. dollars; data for 1989 and 1990 are missing) Source: Umali, Feder, and de Haan 1992; personal communication 1993-1995 42 Essentials of Project Design units, and donor agencies (not least NGO environment - is usually beyond the scope of offices), as well as informed people associated project preparation. Process monitoring is a good with existing pastoral networks. Pastoral substitute if continued long enough, but networks operate both internationally and in opportunities should be sought in parallel to several countries. They are active in information ongoing development projects to encourage exchange and often as lobby groups. While the additional systems studies. This topic is pursued representation of pastoralists in such forums is in Chapter 12. limited, consultation with network members provides insights on current pastoral organization Key data fall nmto three categories: and issues. Such sources can also advise on the Environmental data. Planning depends on full isspetrSumof goernmesant instavittons thateed being able to relate territories to ecoclimatic full spectrum ofgvementnsttuzones. If there are no ready-made zonal maps, to be consulted. Sometimes there is one then original thematic data need to be scrutinized: coordinating unit, but otherwise obtaining a government perspective on pastoral development . climatic data, particularly long-term rainfall involves a lengthy round of consultation. Because records, need to be examined for seasonality there is often a rapid turnover of staff, it can also and periodicity; be difficult to obtain a full spectrum of * geomorphological maps help by background data from government sources. differentiating landscape types (such as Steps in data collection pass through three basement, laval, and sedimentary surfaces); levels of study. The first level uses the existing * hydrogeological data are essential to define database and PRA to define whether the situation the potential for expanding settlements and under consideration requires: dry-season grazing areas; a satellite imagery can be useful in the field to * an emergency operation or abandonment of siuaedsuso ihhreso plans, stimulate discussion with herders on plans,. resource use and production seasonality; * a standard project with clear-cut investment and goals, or • a process project of the type needed in most * vegetation maps form a useful reference in p astprocessiprojectiofnthestype.needed inmost PRA discussions and in delineating key pastoral situations. resource areas (although their use in Assuming a process approach is selected, predicting carrying capacities and additional data collection (the second level of development strategies is usually study) can fit into the project as it proceeds. misleading). Process projects are described in more detail later Resource use statistics. Most statistics are in this chapter, but in the present context are recorded by administrtive area but usually can characterized by having a built-in mo ,ntoring be broken down to give an idea of the status of system to ensure that the project receives the flow rangelands in and around the prospective project of information needed to keep it moving in an reands mlant ar e: appropriate direction. From a financial area. Most relevant are: perspective, the process approach is a procedure * territorial limits of groups as recognized by that allows investment in research to be deferred government; until it can focus on relevant issues and inputs, at * legal status of land (State, trust, and the same time avoiding wasteful expenditure on allocated land); inputs that otherwise may be made unnecessarily, * the social strata requiring attention, with prematurely, or detrimentally. Were it not for the particular reference to gender, caste, and process approach, a much heavier investment in wealth; research would be needed prior to the project. * recent land use changes (for example, crop The third level of study - systems studies encroachment in key resource areas); of sufficient scope and detail to analyze the responses of pastoral systems to their fluctuating 43 Part One - Guidelines for Project Preparation * human and livestock populations (including, community and those with vested interests who if possible, trends broken down by age and volunteer to participate in PRA. To avoid this gender); and trap it is necessary either to start with such high- * input/output data (such as livestock sales, powered publicity that everyone believes seasonality of price fluctuations, participation will be worthwhile, or to begin cereal/livestock price ratios, famine relief, quietly and slowly and diffidently in order to etc.). build personal rapport. The latter is probably the Categorization ofpastoral systems. While better strategy, but to be effective, it requires it is essential to know which pastoral systems time, personality, and linguistic ability on the operate in and around the proposed project area, part of those who are initiating the process. it is rare to find a categorization in use along the Superficiality, although generally lines tabulated in Chapter 2 - information must recognized as inherent in PRA, is a particular therefore be gleaned and put together through problem in pastoral situations. Apart from PRA and subsequent studies. sensitivities in specifying livestock numbers, there are many pastoral practices, including Participation mobility, so deeply embedded in societal and environmental lore that it takes a long time to Participatory planning involves at least two reveal their rationale. Nor is it easy to separate stages - the initial rounds of enquiry and the perspectives of overlapping pastoral groups, discussion, usually through participatory rural or sometimes social strata within one group, appraisal (PRA), and the more detailed studies without subjecting these to separate enquiry. that are needed to decide specific inputs. The Pastoral PRA is likely to comprise several normal way of arranging participation is to: steps and lead to follow-up studies. The lines of • hold discussions with the local leadership enquiry to be pursued during PRA are indicated and any existing associations, by the list below, which itemizes topics - hold open meetings according to customary commonly requiring detailed study. The output of procedures, PRA, however, should be more than an agenda of - form small groups of individuals with further studies. PRA should establish whether fnterest and acknowledged expertise for there is a basis for proceeding with a project, and initial detailed discussionsw if so, whether there is an investment component - use this experience to identify (a) interest- that can precede further studies. groups not initially covered and (b) Detailed studies can be expected in three individuals for in-depth review of specific principal areas. Some, such as modeling, are issues, and iterative and open-ended, but most should be * take ideas and conclusions back for completed in a year. community review. Modeling of the pastoral system(s) helps to Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) is now a clarify links between the resource base, climatic well-docuinented and well-tested procedure rhythms, NRM practices, and family and societal (Niamir 1990; Waters-Bayer and Bayer 1994). A goals. A first approximation would arise from summary of concepts and methods is included in PRA, but invariably the initial model can be Annex E, and an example of recent World Bank expanded and improved. It can be usel to experience is added in Box 6-2. There are, incorporate data into a mathematical model, however, two problems in PRA that need to be although the models developed within a stressed. participatory framnework would be expressed Survey fatigue is evident in many exclusively in words and pictures. The inputs to communities which have been subject to repeated modeling would come from the individual studies social enquiry for little or no return. In such indicated below. cases, it is only the most vocal members of the 44 Essentials of Project Design Building blocks of the pastoral system(s) * imposed and voluntary components of need to be firmly established, with particular movement (Annex A), reference to (a) diet, including adaptations to * uses made of key resource areas, drought; (b) the basic structure of social- . complementarity of the livestock species territorial organization and resource tenure; (c) present, conflict resolution, decisionmaking, and . non-livestock uses of vegetation, sanctions; (d) welfare support mechanisms; and * drought strategies, and (e) economic links with market econornies and * relationships between NRM practices and other groups. stockwealth. Components of NRM requiring detailed Participatory development must be the outcome study include: of participatory planning. It is the subject of later chapters, dealing both with forms of local Box 6-2. PRA in the Matruh Resource Management Project (Egypt) The Matruh Governorate is located in Egypt's western desert. The majority of the inhabitants (85 percent of 250,000 people) are Bedouins who still maintain a traditional society, but one that has been modified during the last decade as people adopted a more sedentary lifestyle. When a Bank-assisted project came under consideration in 1990, World Bank staff argued that a traditional livestock project was not appropriate, and recommended that central and local government officials collaborate with the Bedouins in identifying and preparing the project. A local task force with seven teams identified the project using PRA techniques applied over a three-month period. Meetings with women were held by a female consultant teamed with a female Bedouin veterinarian to cover the same ground covered by the all-male meetings. The local task force and the local community took about one year to prepare the project. Consultants and World Bank staff were present only intermittently. The resulting project contained the following components: * natural resource management aimed primarily at conserving the water, soil, and vegetation of the Matruh Governorate; * adaptive research and extension, focusing on dryland farming and livestock production systems, range management, sustainable agriculture, and training directed at the local communiities; . rural finance for small farmers, the landless, and rural women to help them engage in income- earning activities. Community action plans are being prepared by community groups built upoII traditional Bedouin lineage structures. These community groups will be involved in implementing the plan and monitoring the results. Participatory planning enabled: (a) community empowerment and action, (b) trust and respect between Bedouin and Government experts, (c) ease of negotiations (just over 3 years elapsed from the first identification mission to effectiveness), and (d) community commitment and the prospect of sustainability. A weakness is that the project description in the loan documents is still too prescriptive and lacks the flexibility to allow for changing perspectives and innovation by individual communities. Similarly, monitoring indicators still focus on physical achievements and not on progress achieved in beneficiary involvement Thus, more work is required to ensure that participatory planning translates into participatory development, with flexible project documentation and the monitoring of well-identified and relevant process indicators. Source: World Bank 1995d 45 Part One - Guidelines for Project Preparation organization and individual project components, Building community participation is and so warrants only passing reference here. The especially important. Central govermments point to be made here is that preparations for the usually have great difficulty servicing pastoral establishment of appropriate forms of areas, so the more that communities can do organization must start at the earliest possible unaided, the more sustainable are project stage, by: initiatives. * introducing communities (especially their Building local government capability works leaders) to the options open to them under in the same way by enabling locally elected existing land and corporate law, bodies to provide services that central • discussing modes of representation and the governments have difficulty delivering. This types of group constitution that would suit point is elaborated in Chapter 8. their circumstances, and Environmental sustainability is an inherent * possibly inviting them to try, in an informal objective when intervening in NRM. The chances manner, the forms of association which are of achieving that objective decrease, however, as expected to be introduced formally later. rainfall reliability decreases, population pressure How long it takes to proceed from PRA to increases, and freedom of movement diminishes. investment depends on circumstances, but three Also, the feasibility changes according to the to four months of initial PRA and an additional goals that are set - whether to stay somewhere six months following up on key issues, should within the derived ecological state or to move formn a reasonable basis for initiating an closer to the natural state. A statement of these investment project. It is, of course, easier to make goals and the standards of living being sought is an early start if the initial investment component basic to the design of a project that seeks focuses on inputs that are ecologically and environmental sustainability. socially 'safe', and yet help toward more Generalizing, there are three situations that sustainable NRM. Some ideas are given in a project may face: Chapter 10. (1) Where population pressure is not compatible with any notion of environmental Sustainability sustainability, and where progress requires: In the context justcited,'sutainab an increase in land area (usually not In the context Just cited, 'sustainable NRM' esbe rohrotest upr ato refers principally to environmental sustainability. feasble) or other outlets to support part of Projects are also expected to be sustainable, the population, or however, in the sense that their initiatives are maintained by governments and communities. project inputs). But in either case, the notion of sustainability (2) Where there is some scope for that is imputed is not absolute but related to our supporting and supplementing customary NRM, capacity to predict change. A sustainable but where the resource base is eroding with little pastoral system might be expected to cope with a chance of arresting the decline without: few years of drought but not with a decade * recourse to one of the above strategies, or without rain that might result from a climatic * heavy investment in land rehabilitation. shift. Methods for achieving relative sustainability are considered here. (3) Where there is no major obstacle to development, but where different targets or Physical sustainability (ensuring that project strategies are required depending on whether: initiatives last) is sought in all projects by scaling inputs at a level deemed to be manageable under . resources are valued solely for pastoralism, post-project conditions. However, two ploys have or particular significance in pastoral development * wildlife or some other value is added. projects. 46 Essentials of Project Design One factor that will influence how easily expressed in environmental, social, regional, goals are attained is the provision that is included and economic terns; to accommodate dry years and drought. A * a representation of likely development paths, number of drought management strategies are indicating assumptions and incremental outlined in Chapter 9. Even so, rainfall remains inputs at each stage; and unpredictable, and there are few goals that can be * costs and justification for the initial inputs realized through a blueprint for action that does proposed. not adapt to circumstances. A monitoring system Charting likely development paths is essential is an essential complement to any environmental and a task in its own right. There is nothing strategy.ats mISonngt hr I Oh stra sgyn unusual in thinking through the direction that Itrsource ae valed sole stoatism is development is taking, but it is not so comron to Tesources are valued solely for pastoralism ta do this formally as a means of deciding sequences of incremental inputs. Most pastoral follow in Part Two, with occasional reference situations require not one development path, but made to other situations. several in parallel for: Process Approach . different social strata with variable systems of livestock production and NRM; Projects that are intended to assist development * different areas that vary in their potential processes must have a different style from those and season of use; whose job it is to implement a pre-formed . individual elements of the system, charting blueprint. How a process approach differs from a the order in which constraints to livestock blueprint model is shown in Table 6-1. production or a major institutional issue Project identification is based more on an would be tackled; and overall assessment of development goals and * two or three alternative assumptions about priorities than on isolating sectoral opportunities demographic change or land or fiscal policy. and quantifying potential inputs and outputs. Nothing very complicated is required. The Need may be given more weight than aim is to state where a system (or component) opportunity. The product of identification is: starts, where it is going - particularly a relatively comprehensive although mainly demographically and in terms of lifestyle - and qualitative statement of the present situation what needs to be done to keep moving in the Table 6-1. Comparison Between Process and Blueprint Approaches Blueprint approach Process approach Project identification Focus on sectoral constraints and opportunities Focus on constraints and opportunities as they affect fanners or pastoralists, leading to a statement of the present situation and likely development path(s) Project appraisal Focus on physical inputs (boreholes, etc.) and Focus on first phase inputs and management of outputs (meat, etc.) processes and risk (after confirmation of goals and validation of proposed actions) Project implementation Assess progress against the appraisal report Focus on adapting inputs (and development patlhs through prescriptive monitoring as necessary) on an ainual basis, guided by process monitoring 47 Part One - Guidelines for Project Preparation desired direction. Institutional as well as economic, environmental, and social technical inputs (including research) are impacts; scheduled with consideration for the time needed * confirming or elaborating environmental to get results. goals and projected impact on standards of Preparation of development paths must be a living; participatory exercise. Planners will have their . ensuring arrangements for implementation, own ideas on what is important - for example, especially to establish community-based the flow of benefits to poor families and women organizations, support systems, and an and children - but it is important that the appropriate monitoring system; and priorities of the community are given full weight. * recommending a budget for phase one, One of the main advantages of the method is that presented within an indicative framework it helps avoid ill-considered steps by forcing for a five- to ten-year period. consideration of where each step leads, both Implementation proceeds on the basis of the immediately and in the longer termn under appraisal report, with provision for annual (or at different scenarios. Participatory preparation is most eighteen-month) reviews of progress, at educational for both sides. which recent monitoring data and participatory Project appraisal is undertaken on the basis of consultation would establish the forward the presentation indicated, supported by further program and budget for the next twelve to consultation (and PRA) as necessary. Particular eighteen months. There is no blueprint, and the attention would be given to: development path is used (and revised as assessing the comprehensiveness of the necessary) only as a guide to make forward situation report and the validity of proposed commitments. Supervision missions would phase one inputs, including their projected review progress and conceptualize adaptations to the plan against actual monitoring data and not just the appraisal report. 48 Part Two Guidelines for Specific Project Components The next five chapters focus on individual sequencing of inputs, so that they do not conflict project components. Chapter 7 concerns herder or overburden local management capability, is organizations. These are the organizations - one the most critical aspects in the introduction both customary and introduced - through which of technology, and there is now considerable herders organize and receive development inputs experience on which to draw. The final chapter in and exercise NRM. The chapter covers a range this section concerns the design and operation of of organizational formns, and assesses their the monitoring system which all process projects suitability for particular situations and services. need in order to adjust development inputs Chapter 8 concerns mechanisms to support according to progress that is being made. herder organizations, followed by a chapter on Users of this section should appreciate the drought management. Drought is a central speculative nature of pastoral development. concern in all arid zone pastoral systems, and Although there is much experience and improved supporting or amplifying existing drought understanding on which to draw, the packages strategies must be the first consideration once an now presented as 'good practices' are still institutional framework is in place. unproven because there have yet to be pastoral Technical inputs are considered in Chapter development projects based on all that we now 10, with emphasis on the phasing of inputs rather know. than offering technical prescriptions. The 49 7 Herder Organizations Herder organizations have a central role in Grazing management, while often pursued pastoral development. Considerable experience within a framework controlled from a higher has now accumulated in World Bank projects, level, is organized principally at the level of especially in West and North Africa. The West family units and neighborhood groups. Groups African experience was reviewed in World Bank are involved when decisions are taken on major Discussion Paper No. 175 on resource movements and reserving areas for later use. management and pastoral institution building in Different functions are involved when protecting the Sahel (Box 7-1). But neither that discussion grazing for use later in the year and when paper nor earlier papers supporting the concept accessing grazing for use ahead of other users of community-based organizations (e.g., and before it deteriorates. The planting of fodder Sandford 1981, 1983) devote much attention to shrubs and trees (Atriplex, Acacia) can also be the manner in which organizations must adjust delegated to community organizations, as is according to the tasks expected of them. happening in the Matruh Natural Resource The main thrust of this chapter is in general Management Project in Egypt (Box 6-2). accord with the recent contribution by Swift Water management also involves several (1994, Figures 7-1 and 7-2), but gives more organizational levels, but with an additional emphasis to adjusting organizational forms distinction that surface water and shallow wells according to the category of pastoral system and can be managed without heavy inputs from the functions that organizations are expected to outside sources, while boreholes require fuel and fulfill. The chapter deals first with functions, other external inputs and often serve users from before reviewing options and focusing on the several groups. main categories of organization that are likely to Securing territorial rights is a matter of feature in future development. concem to all, although responsibility for preemptive or defensive action rests usually at Functions of Organizations the higher levels of social organization. There are also additional organizational distinctions that: Herder organizations can be called upon to exercise NRM and fulfill a variety of service, * exclusive customary rights are maintained marketing, and advocacy functions. Depending through the institutions of one pastoral on the resource being managed or the other society; functions envisioned, organizational requirements * shared access rights are maintained through vary. melding the institutions of the sharing groups; and NRM involves principally (a) managing grazing * statutory rights can be held only by persons and water, (b) defending territory, and (c) or organizations entitled by law to hold such negotiating and resolving conflicts over access to rights. resources. An additional function is to hold devolved statutory rights and responsibilities in Conflict resolution must be exercised at the these fields. level appropriate to the conflict. Territorial conflict comprises (a) local disputes that can be 51 Part Two - Guidelines for Project Components resolved within a neighborhood group; (b) intervention. Disputes over water follow a similar disputes that societal leaders can resolve; and (c) pattern, although with the distinction that even major incursions that can only be resolved (at local disputes (for example, over a single well) least in favor of the weaker party) by State often require referral to higher authority. Box 7-1. Pastoral Institution Building in the West African Sahel A 1991 review on the experience of establishing pastoral organizations (POs) as instruments of NRM in Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, and Niger, and subsequent experience, led to several conclusions: Rationale. POs can become instruments of decentralization and local development. In particular: . at the international and national levels there is a new consensus on the need for community-based NRM institutions; and * at the local level pastoralists realize that they have to come to terms with the State for economic and political reasons and therefore feel a need for POs and literate leaders. Policies. There is continuing dominance of top-down procedures in PO formation. Also, land and water rights remain unresolved to varying degrees in all countries, in part because pastoralism is not seen as an activity that uses land efficiently. Project lessons. Projects have not given high priority to creating enabling environments for PO development, have underrated the probability of drought, have been staffed predominantly by veterinary personnel, have lacked participation of women and social scientists, and have not clearly defined who the project was supposed to benefit. Issues at the community level. Pastoralists give high priority to food and resource security and services such as water, health, credit, and literacy. Water points provide an opportunity to organize cohesive groups. Absence or low levels of literacy, management skills, and revenue generating abilities are major obstacles to institution building and sustainability. Noteworthy achievements. POs have contributed to the growth of environmental awareness. They have contributed variously to dune stabilization, flood plain pasture rehabilitation, coniflict resolution, animal health services, functional literacy, and increased political awareness. Future progress. A shift is needed from the present project approach to an institutional program approach, guided by a long-term perspective with commitment by govermnents to promote improved NRM and pastoral development at the local level. Requirements include: . an enabling environment for POs that implies institutional refonns based on decentralized tenurial control and pastoral institution building, strengthening human resource capacities, encouraging popular participation in planning and implementation, and establishing national-level coordination units and pastoral development centers at subproject level; * increased budget allocations for PO formation, both within projects and for national pastoral institution-building programs, with an active role of pastoralists in revenue-generation and cost- sharing; * extended national literacy programs and primary education, with adapted training for development agents and pastoral organization leaders and recognition of the role of women; . better public health facilities and privatized animal health services where practical; and . improved system of PO formation and NRM. Decentralization. This is a key issue because dominance by central government in the creation of POs can only lead to suppression of local institutions and excessive dependence of pastoral groups on the public sector. Furthermore, future programs must ensure forms of organization geared to the specific functions expected of them. Source: Shanmugaratnam et al. 1992. 52 Herder Organizations Service functions have different organizational of inputs likely to attract an entrepreneurial implications depending on the nature of the input. solution. More often a community-based Veterinary and medical supplies are widely approach would be required, perhaps based on a used and yet require specialized procurement and small core membership that retails water to other handling. This implies one of two forms of users. organization (or both forms operating in Other services are often seasonal by nature. parallel). One is a specialized commercial When services do not have to be organized on a enterprise, self-governing and entrepreneurial, regular day-by-day basis, responsibility is likely that retails supplies at prices that ensure a profit, to devolve to an organization with another role and the other is a community-based entity that that can be activated as required. This would operates by subscription across a wide apply, for example, to the organization of membership and employs a trained dispenser. If drought feed supplies. the organization is to procure in bulk, then it is Livestock marketing may involve all members likely to need letters of credit and so requires a of a community, but more usually will involve no form of organization that is recognized as a legal more than half of all households and possibly entity for that purpose. Borehole operation calls for a trained about 20 percent. It makes sense for a marketing operator and regular supplies of bulky fuel. Only where there is a cluster of boreholes is the supply Figure 7-1. Present institutional and organizational relationships in the administration ofpastoral tenure Types of Present key organizational actors Geographic management area decisions Present legal regime Cutstomary Formal Fornal Dispersion/ Negotiations on Law Inter-clan coullcils Local government refuge territory reciprocal access in bad years Annual Access/ Clan/lineage cotinicils Technical services clan/lineage infrastructure grazing territory development, major conflict resolution Dry season Access, water Sub-clan/lineage Technical services territorial base infrastructure, councils conflict resolution Key resources Access, local Groups of Technical services investment/local households/camps conflict resolution Individual/point Access, investment, | ,,, 'iy|Households Teclnical services resources individual conflict resolution Source: Swift 1994. 53 Part Two - Guidelines for Project Components organization to draw its membership from those Multi-purpose organizations without a clearly who are most likely to be selling livestock. It may defined role often run into difficulties, especially also be appropriate to have separate when governments dictate the form that local organizations for different species if they are to organizations should take. For example, those be marketed to separate outlets at different times now operating in the Sahel of West Africa are all of year. either groupements d 'interef economique, or are Advocacy and political representation require classified by orientation as being associative, an organization that ensures input from those mutualiste, or cooperative, rather than in terms whose needs are being advocated, while leaving linked to customary concepts of scale and lobbying to those most likely to succeed (by purpose. They operate - even those that have power of persuasion and freedom of access to the been in existence for twenty years - more as right people at the right time). Such organizations dependencies of governnent than as expressions are likely to be most effective when operating at of conmmunity purpose. the national or district level. National A further feature of the Sahelian organizations now exist in Morocco, Mauritania, organizations is that they are village-based, with Niger, and the Central Afiican Republic, and are no provision to ensure the rights of pastoralists starting to become important instruments in engaged in transhumance. Indeed groupements herder empowerment. are sometimes seen by village-based communities Figure 7-2. Potential institutional and organizational relationships in the administration of pastoral tenure Future key organizational actors Geographic area Legal regime Customary Mixed Formal Dispersion/ Inter-claii Local councils Local refuge territory Forma] councils government \ Law l technical service Annual Clan/lineage Federations of Enabling clan/lineage councils pastoral framework only grazing territory associations Dry season Sub- Pastoral Enabling territorial base clan/lineage associations/ framework only = | C%stonmay couincils committees Key resources Groups of Pastoral Enabling households/ associations framework only camps Individual/point Households resources Source: Swift 1994. 54 Herder Organizations as a means of gaining precedence over more Organizational support needs to be mobile pastoralists. Those so motivated then provided at two or three levels, one or two seem more inclined to follow official advice on relating to specific functions such as animal NRM, while others focus more narrowly on health or water management, and another infrastructure and services. In the case of service supporting the leadership structure, not cooperatives in Ethiopia, interest focuses on necessarily in terms of any physical input, but to shops and services rather than on NRM. ensure official recognition so that lower-level organizations can receive customary support in Establishing Herder Organizations conflict resolution. Ensuring appropriate herder organizations Subsidiary users often need to be rEnuires apphree-step approaherr first accommodated to ensure that seasonal rights of requires a three-step approach -first access are honored by primary project understanding existing social-territorial ben s are met in othera organization, then formulating development objectives and priorities, and finally identifying Evaluating organizational options relies on and assisting forms of association that build being able to differentiate organizations in terms appropriately on customary institutions. of their principal attributes. Table 7-1 is a check- list of the six most basic attributes that must be Social-territorial organization raises two points considered in order to assess the competence of important in the present context. an organization in any particular context. Decisionmaking needs to be thoroughly Apparently innocuous features can be highly understood. There is a tendency to identify the influential. An inappropriate constitution, for principal organizational unit and then to load that example, can cripple an organization that holds one structure with all responsibilities envisioned far-reaching responsibilities. More information under the project. Instead, it is necessary to on constitutions and links between organizations establish how individual functions in NRM are and security of land tenure is included in the next exercised and then to proportion responsibilities section. and strengthen local management capability accordingly. Resource tenure warrants particular Categories of Organization attention. If land is being lost from the pastoral Although the variables listed in Table 7-1 system, upgrading NRM capability is not going potentially lead to a great variety of to be of much help. If local institutions are organizational types, the forns of organization proposed for legal recognition in order to counter likely to be used can fit within a frarnework of incursion, then it is necessary to ensure a form of five categories. Each has its own character that organization that the law can recognize as fits for some tasks and not for others. Some can competent to exercise authority over land. also fit within a hierarchy of organizations - an Development objectives and priorities should arrangement that often needs to be adopted in be set out in the form of a development path. The order to ensure coordination among several immediate concern is to decide what goes into the activities. first phase of operations, and the process The five categories are described under titles approach will then take care of what follows. that provide a best fit in plain English, while Three points are important. avoiding terms with a specific meaning in law Institutional capacity should be allowed to such as 'group' in Kenya. The term group or guide project content. Inputs that are thought to grouping is used here, as elsewhere in this paper, be desirable but do not have an existing to describe sets of families who are linked mechanism for their management or control socially and geographically but in no other probably do not belong in the first phase of the specified way. project at all. 55 Part Two - Guidelines for Project Components Committees are groups of people self-selected or traditional or 'modem' (usually government- appointed by decision of a larger body for inspired). Obviously they can also be purposes of reviewing or overseeing a matter of differentiated according to their function. A common interest. They may be action-oriented standing local committee (traditional or modem) decisionraking bodies and able to commit might exercise management responsibility for a resources, but they have no status in law and so village well, while an ad hoc supreme traditional cannot own property or be held legally committee might be convened for inter-tribal responsible for their actions. Membership seldom discussion on a new aspect of government policy. exceeds twenty, and they work to a simple Permanent authoritative commnittees, however, constitution or terms of reference. are classified below. Committees can be differentiated on the Councils are permanent and authoritative grounds of being permanent ('standing') or ad decisionmaking bodies that derive their authority hoc; high-level ('supreme') or local; or either from a statutory source or from societal Table 7-1. Checklist of Key Attributes to Differentiate Organizations Attribute Significance Principal categories to differentiate Affiliation Differentiates organizations as * prescribed by (a) central or (b) local government; or being: * an indigenous structure, either (a) traditional or (b) "modern" (expressing popular grass-roots aspirations). Representation Characterizes the membership in * ethnicity, whether (a) unified by language and mores terms of: or (b) involving two or more disparate groups; and 0 qualification for entry, whether by (a) residence, (b) common interest, or (c) social or economic status (and specifying criteria and restrictions by age/gender).a Purpose Specifies whether the primary * social advancement or security, whether through (a) motivation is: political advocacy, (b) territorial defense (by land title or force of arms), or (c) organizing social welfare measures; or * NRM or economic benefit, specifying (a) resources nanaged, (b) services delivered or (c) commodities involved (produced or marketed). Size Distinguishes whether the . localized (e.g., up to district level), differentiating organization is: membership as (a) <40, (b) 40-200, or (c) >200; or * extensive (regional or national), differentiating membership as (a) <200, (b) 200-1,000, or (c) >1,000. Governance Differentiates organizations in * officers (a) elected by democratic process or (b) terms of: appointed by 'higher authority'; and * the written constitution (a) formulated by majority decision or (b) furnished by the State. Legal status Differentiates organizations as * a legal body corporate, or being: * without legal status, either (a) 'registered' (conferring quasi-legal status) or (b) 'informal' (with no State recognition). a. In the case of established organizations, it is also useful to quantify membership as a proportion of those eligible since an organization that has attracted the majority of its potential membership is clearly in a more effective position than one that represents a minority interest. 56 Herder Organizations convention. They usually oversee a range of Associations should be differentiated as activities and are often valuable in project registered or informal and according to their role coordination. Statutory and traditional councils, in management or advocacy. Management with their accompanying executive structures, responsibilities could be specific to grazing can be distinguished as follows: resources, water supply (such as a borehole), Statutory councils are either government other services, or marketing. Although some of structures with a mandate for sectoral or area these functions could be combined as the development, or they are the instrument of local responsibility of one association, focus and government. They may have pastoralists as effectiveness may be lost. When introducing new members, but seldom practicing herders, and so associations to build management responsibility are not herder organizations. and capability in unaccustomed fields, it is best Traditional councils and their leadership to focus initially on the inputs and activities in structures maintain societal values and are the greatest demand (for example, new water custodians of customary law. One feature of supplies or animal health services). Associations leadership in pastoral societies is that it usually should have a relatively homogeneous embodies both vertical and lateral extensions, membership. A typical association might reaching down to the neighborhood level and comprise 20 to 200 families. sideways to recognize the authority of specific Corporations are legally constituted 'bodies individuals in designated areas of religion and Corporat,wi ari to own landend other custom. Although governments are often corporatey, with right to own land and other antipathetic to traditional leadership, these property anendsociety be sued. The nonnmal type structures cannot be ignored in project of registered society does not qualify on these formulation and management. They are often the grounds, but cooperative societies and companies best rallying point for NRM at the neighborhood do, as do groups in Kenya with registered land level. At higher levels it may be sufficient to nghts. Invariably these organizations are known ensure their role in conflict resolution and by their corporate name (as companies or perhaps to codify unwritten rules of conduct. cooperatives, etc.), so the corporation title is Leadership structures can possibly be used in a seldom used. project context to help ensure liaison within a There are legal requirements covering hierarchy of organizations, but it is more likely registration, adoption of a constitution, election that the project will need to set up a committee of of officeholders, keeping accounts, and its own for this purpose, including government procedures for dissolunion. These requirements officials. make corporations unwieldy vehicles for pastoral development. Some form of legal corporate status Associations are common interest groupings, is necessary, however, where secure tenure calls either traditional or modern, that provide a for land title or where the community concerned framework for concerted action by a substantial wishes to engage in business (such as hiring body of people. Associations hold no statutory contractors or taking a substantial loan for water responsibility for land or property, although if development). If pastoralists and planners are registered with a government department or local adamant that corporate status is needed and yet authority, they may enjoy quasi-legal status the forms prescribed by law are all too sufficient to allow them access to credit (and to complicated, then it may be appropriate to rights in property other than land if registered as legislate for a new form. a society). In such cases they would have a Corporations can be differentiated as (a) written constitution provided or approved by the freehold or leasehold (or untitled if they hold no overseeing authority. Traditional associations land), (b) commercial or subsistence, or (c) seldom have (or start with) a written constitution, production, marketing, or service oriented. There although their functions and procedures are is usually latitude within the prescribed legal usually prescribed by customary law. framework for corporations to adopt their own 57 Part Two - Guidelines for Project Components constitution and procedures in matters relating to is competent to manage affairs internally. It also specific corporate objectives. Much hinges on has the advantage of formally recognizing using this provision wisely, and corporations customary leadership structures that can be should be encouraged to stick as close as possible critical to effective pastoral development. A to customary provisions with which they are variant would be to recognize rights only in familiar. If the legal framework is too onerous, a homelands or dry-season grazing areas, while project may be able to use its influence to amend leaving wet-season areas unallocated and open the law. In any event, officeholders need for negotiated access. counseling. Local group rights can be confirmed within Federations are alliances of associations or or instead of societal recognition. This approach corporations formed for overall grazing applies only where there is a relatively tight form managemntions for sharng resources orain of social-territorial organization within which the ventures such as water development This rights of individual clans or other groups can be category will certainly find a place in future recognized. The smaller the units, the more pastoral development. The assumption is that necessary it is to attach provisions for reciprocal participating bodies would retain their existing access. The option of recognizing local group status and that federations would opt for rights while withholding societal recognition whichever status best suits their individual could be used as a ruse to exclude the leadership functions. The constitution that they adopt structure, or it could be the means to bypass a particularly for goverance and provisions for customary tenure system that has become badly conflict resolution - would be critical to their corrupted. effectiveness. Government institutions need to provide internediaries to begin confirmation of rights and Legal Implications to provide longer term inputs to registration of If customary institutions or organizations are to rights, monitoring, and counseling. be given legal recognition, then it is necessary to nastoralists to the procedures available for review which institutions are to be 'upgraded' patrlsst h roeue vialo review whichgovemm institutions are tbeeaded'o improving security of tenure. This could be the and what government nstitutions are needed to role of the district administration or of a pastoral development unit, depending on the structure of Customary institutions need careful review goverwnent. If allocation of freehold title is an because they do not now always work for the option within the law, then intermediaries have benefit of their constituency at large. If land title the extra task of ensuring that pastoralists are is to be granted through a process of statutory aware of the need to present themselves for adjudication, then the outcome will be determined adjudication in groupings that will pass by how the law is written and how pastoral adjudication as being 'customary', while also groups present their customary rights for combining social cohesion and ecological adjudication. Otherwise recognition of land rights integrity.1 is open to negotiation, and is likely to involve one Registration of land rights is necessary to or two levels: counter disputes. Registration is usually best Societal recognition would arise if the State arranged at district level because centralized were content to recognize the territorial rights of registration can become remote and cumbersome. complete pastoral societies at clan or tribal level. If there is a legal requirement for a central This could be done without necessarily confirming or denying rights existing below that 1. Freehold title has disadvantages (see under group level. Societal recognition is the most direct and ranching in Annex B), but if it is an entitlement that simple means of safeguarding pastoral land is open to pastoralists, the choice should be theirs rights, provided that the customary tenure system and should not be made paternalistically for them by officials or development advisers. 58 Herder Organizations registry, it may still be possible to designate an Counseling will be discussed in the next existing cadre of officials at the district level to chapter as a function that local government exercise the registrar's functions. Bear in mind should extend to newly-formed herder also that recording reciprocal rights can be just organizations. The job is similar to that described as useful as registering principal rights. for intermediaries, but calls for more intimate knowledge of the organizations concerned. 59 8 Support Systems The surest route to pastoral development is movement or presiding over a descent into through strengthening pastoral institutions and sedentary squalor. The final step is to ensure minimizing dependence on external inputs. enabling legislation as the bottom line in creating Nonetheless, external support is needed. The a policy environment supportive of pastoral traditional approach has been to strengthen the development. capacity of government ministries to deliver such Projects should contribute where needed to support, but it is now evident that public budgets all of the foregoing, including any field research cannot cover all requirements. The present trend needed to define appropriate resource use is toward cost recovery and devolving service strategies. This is not a call for open-ended delivery to the private sector, with central research, but for specific information on key government focusing on policy and control and aspects that should determine the direction for providing essential infrastructure. project intervention: This chapter examines the contributions that Population pressure and poverty levels should come from central government, local need to be interpreted in terms of whether government, and the private sector. Seven areas 'development' means optimization based on of support for development are considered (Table present populations, or seeking redeployment into 8-1). As might be expected, there are several other areas or occupations. areas of responsibility that cannot be devolved Capacity for cost sharing needs to be and so remain with central government. established for the pastoral economy as a whole and for each social stratum represented. Most Central Government projects proceed on the basis of a rather hazy notion of the ability of households to contribute, Policy frameworks establish the level and nature although thi ition isebas to kongrif of development support that is provided, subsidies are a policy issue and if the private including the role of contributors other than sector has a role. central government. The policies cannot just be Ran geland values need to be established in restatements of national goals and aspirations- tRmsgolbo presned ptoralismad wi for policies to have meaning in pastoral areas, and ongerte pesectives (apter 3). they need tobe grounded n concepts o and longer-term perspectives (Chapter 3). they need to be grounded in concepts of Sometimnes future values cannot be predicted (as sustainable resource use. Resource use strategies, when thes anunscovere miedepos in turn, must reflect the realities of population butwile poteundilscovered ma leral deposit)o pressre, apactiesfor cst-sarin, an thebut wildlife potential can usually be evaluated to pressure, capacities for cost-shanng, and the decide if there is a case for moving closer to the values attributed to rangeland resources,ntrlsae including regard for the ecology, water resources, and pastoral systems of the area. These strategies Basic infrastructure usually needs to be establish the basic forms of resource use and improved to enable support services to function social-territorial organization that projects need efficiently. Three points deserve attention during to preserve. The need is most pronounced where project preparation: the choice is between preserving seasonal 61 Part Two - Guidelines for Project Components Physical infrastructure, like policy, should should consider who is to run them. Local support what is strategically important. It is more government or herder organizations may be better cost-effective and less disruptive environmentally able to keep remote centers staffed and to plan roads and other facilities to serve a provisioned than central government, which often resource use strategy, rather than to let other has difficulty maintaining centers far removed criteria deternine where facilities are sited. from district headquarters. Service centers are needed to bring technical The institutionalframework for and social services closer to people. Their siting development support derives from the policy Table 8-1. Development Supportfor Natural Resource Management Support area Activity Primary responsibility Policy framework Research to assess: Central government (with the * population pressure, possibility of contracting out * capacity of pastoralists for cost-sharing, studies) * value of range resources Leading to: * strategy for resource use, * policy statements, * enabling legislation Environment Inputs with environmental objectives, e.g., Local government, implementing protection . tree planting, central policy and encouraging * alternative fuels/stoves, private sector input where feasible - fire-control, - wildlife management Drought management Inputs to counter low and erratic rainfall: Central/local government with the - early warning systems, possibility of inputs by traders and - contingency measures, banks * strategic livestock ofllake (and banking) * food-for-work * grain reserves - recovery measures Basic infrastructure Physical infrastructure Central/local government * road network, * other basic facilities Institutional framework Social services Health services Central/local government, with Primary education inputs by NGOs Adult literacy Technical services Extension Private sector (through Credit subcontracting and subsidies from Animal health services central government), with local Water supply systems government becoming increasingly Marketing support involved in backstopping Agronomic inputs (especially in agropastoral systems) Institution building Counseling/training (aimed at herder Local government, with increasing organizations and helping pastoralists plan, contributions from national and operate, and monitor development activities) regional herder federations 62 Support Systems framework already discussed. Unless central but the whole idea is usually unpopular with both government delegates a role for local government central authorities and the technical staff. and adopts fiscal policies conducive to private As a compromise, project planners turn to sector involvement, neither will be able to NGOs to deliver services to pastoralists, but this participate in the manner suggested later. does little to achieve longer-term sustainability. Other inputs expected of central government The preferable approach may therefore be to Other~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~inov local evxrnment in selected soveomen depend on the extent of devolution just noted. volve local govemment m selected support Some specific requirements are noted as they activities to which they are particularly suited, arise in the sections following and in the chapter such as: on drought management (Chapter 9). Basically, * institution building in herder organizations, the role of central governnent is to encourage * contributing to drought management, and local initiative, ensure necessary infrastructure, . inputs to environmental protection and social and mobilize adequate inputs in times of need, services. including, in the case of drought management, Institution building has several dimensions. The famine relief goods from outside the country. policy framework established by central Central government also retains responsibility for government will determine how much recognition ensuring quality control in all areas delegated to is extended to customary institutions and others and in the control of insurgency. Although organizations but local goverment has a role m traditional leadership structures could play a promoting the decisiob naking process. more active role in conflict resolution (Chapter Thereafter, local government should be involved, 7), situations arise periodically where conflict is either directly or by guiding the inputs of others, beyond societal control, particularly where blthe capabilte therder incursion comes from outside the country. Often governments are reluctant to admit incursion and organizations by: insurgency as a problem, but such situations need * counseling on organizational mandates and to be identified since conditions of insecurity can constitutions; nullify all development efforts. * advising on how to adapt customary procedures to new tasks; Local Government * training in tasks relevant to each organization (covering options open to the organization, Shifting responsibilities from central to local recordkeeping, contract services, operating government fits well with current development health services, boreholes, etc.); concepts of decentralization, subsidiarity, and * brokering necessary social and technical democratization. Although national governments services, and are becoming more democratic, pastoralists often * ensuring inputs to drought management and remain far removed - geographically, monitoring. linguistically, culturally, academically, and economically - from those who run the country. Drought management offers a pivotal role for Pastoralists can usually identify better with their local authorities, by providing a coordinating locally elected representatives. On the other hand, office set between the pastoralists who are local governments usually have limited resources operating their front line strategies and the and are less efficient than central government, so central government that is fulfilling the role improving their competence implies seconding already described. It is at this middle level that staff from central ministries, where most trained grain stocks and other drought emergency personnel are presently concentrated. This would reserves can most conveniently be held. improve accountability - by bringing ministerial Environmental protection is another area in staff under the day-to-day control of elected which local govermnent can help bridge national representatives of the people they are serving - and local perspectives. Tree nurseries and tree 63 Part Two - Guidelines for Project Components planting are best organized at district level. inputs that combine low volume with regular Control of overcutting through tree planting or demand. provision of new energy systems can readily Animal health services are the prime example. serve both interests and warrant a place in Government still must ensure an enabling middle-level support systems. Not too much environment - extending in this case to should be expected of alternative fuels and new permitting importation and trade in veterinary devices in pastoral systems where wood fires have multiple uses as a social focal point andardcs-btte hre soitoso detrent mltoiplsesdats andocial focl poaint w e corporations can provide the economies of scale deteffent to predators, and for roasting whole needed for primary suppliers to include pastoral carcasses. areas among their outlets. The low productivity Wildlife management schemes are also and density of the livestock population usually sometimes of mutual interest. Such schemes are precludes private professional practices, but commonly conceived centrally but then operated conmmunity health assistants (paravets) can be through local authorities. This is bow the trained and backstopped by a few professional Communal Areas Management Programme for veterinarians. Sub-contracting of 'public good' Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) started in tasks such as compulsory vaccinations to private Zimbabwe. Although a dispute has arisen over veterinarians, as in Morocco (Box 8-1), is a good whether revenue from safari and trophy fees way to encourage private veterinary practice in should go to Rural District Councils or directly low-potential environments. to the households concerned, CAMPFIRE is still Other services need to be assessed individually a model on which other schemes can build within each project for potential delivery by the (World Bank 1996). private sector. Individual households in pastoral Social services also benefit from strong local systems vary greatly in their capacity to pay a involvement even though the overall direction is commercial price for services that they want. centralized. One advantage of local government Water supply systems offer varying structures is that they are not forced to think prospects for private sector involvement. Drilling sectorally. For example, where ministries have for water and excavating ponds attracts difficulty developing unified delivery systems, a contractors, but maintenance is more difficult to local council can readily train and equip assure. Federations would find it easier than auxiliaries to deliver primary health care for both smaller organizations to negotiate competitively- people and livestock. priced maintenance contracts. Agronomic inputs for agropastoral areas Private Sector could in many instances be delivered by the private sector. Accelerating a switch to private Many factors conspire against private sector sector delivry mayino a much sense involvement in pastoral development. Distances however, i al astane bend e are great, people and markets are scattered, and ser cility isn tone beffecivaeu there s usualy mor moneyto be ade b sector capability Is needed to ensure effective use there is usually more money to be made by of the technologies being introduced. trading elsewhere. Nonetheless, there is potential Crpoedteandlomreting sup ead tioal in some lines of business, especially if herder a review. Private sector ioement organzatinsinludesevc copraie tha areas for review. Private sector involvement organizations include service cooperatives that through commercial banks and traders often can act as intermediary between pastoralists and represents a better option than direct govefment suppliers. Technical services, although now invlveent. ause creithandmretigo ae mainly the preserve of goverment departments, icularly Because credit and mofemarketing are ~ . wot ex.digfrpoetarvt seco particularly Important in the context of marketing are worth exarminng for potential private sector for drought management, they are considered involvement. The best prospects lie in specific further in the next chapter. 64 Support Systems Box 8-1. Sub-Contracting Compulsory Vaccinations to Private Veterinarians in Morocco The Moroccan Livestock Service began to privatize veterinary services in 1983. Since then the number of private veterinarians has increased from N umber of1 P rivate 2 to more than 200, about half of the country total. Veterinarians in Morocco Today private veterinarians care for 50 percent of 1983-1996 the cattle and 40 percent of the sheep in the country. The continuing factors for this success are: 200- * the political will of the Livestock Service to 150- make privatization a success; * the immediate suspension of curative services and non-compulsory vaccinations by the 50- Livestock Service once a private veterinarian has established a practice in an area; 0- . a well-functioning national association of D veterinarians; and * a clear subcontracting policy for compulsory vaccinations, leading to a higher proportion of Source: MAMVA (Ministere de livestock being covered at 50 percent lower I'agriculture et de la mise en valeur cost (Umali, Feder, and de Haan 1992). agricole, Direction de l'elevage). Personal comimunication. Source: World Bank 1994. 65 9 Drought Management Drought is a natural feature of arid areas, yet 'normal' for an area. Although past performance projects often treat it as external to pastoralism, provides no guarantee of the future, it is covered by sensitivity analysis as though drought irresponsible to ignore past patterns. The essence were a freak of nature rather than the surest of drought management is to ensure a capability feature of the project environment. Projects need to respond to drought episodes of different to be designed with drought management intensity. There is no excuse for being surprised permeating all components, or with a separately by the only sure element of arid zone pastoralism. identified drought management component. Such Drought intensity must be interpreted a component should support customary drought relative to the status of a pastoral system. A strategies, improve drought management healthy pastoral system should be able to treat as capabilities, and provide drought recovery 'normal' years in which (barring very freakish assistance. The starting point is to agree on a distribution) rainfall is 75 percent of the long- definition of drought. term average. Drought should only need to enter the vocabulary of pastoralism when seasonal Definition rainfall lapses to about half of the long-term Drought is a condition of unexpectedly low average, or where two or more years pass rainfall - an important criterion because there is without exceeding 75 percent of the average. To a tendency to invoke drought whenever grass or be realistic, however, with increasing population crops fail and people suffer, even when rainfall is pressure, it is now quite usual to invoke drought above average. The suffering is real, but its when rainfall is 150 percent of average. treatment will not be helped by misdiagnosis of Table 9-1 illustrates this relationship. The the cause. table should not be taken too literally, but it does What constitutes drought, in terms of help to identify three intensities of drought rainfall, can be established only by analysis of against which to consider how strategies might be long-term rainfall data to appreciate what is brought into play. Table 9-1. The Relation Betiveen Rainfall (average = 100) and the Duration and Severity of Drought as Affected by the Status of the Pastoral System 'Healthy' system Depleted system Severity 1-2 2-4 1-2 2-4 of consecutive consecutive consecutive consecutive drought poor seasons poor seasons poor seasons poor seasons Mild <75a <100 <125 <150 Average <50 <75 <100 <125 Acute <25 <50 <75 <100 a. For example, rainfall is less than 75% of average, but greater than 50% of the average. 67 Part Two - Guidelines for Project Components Mild drought can usually be borne by using drought-tolerant livestock and detailed knowledge up grazing reserves and perhaps selling more of the vegetation so that the best use can be made livestock than would normally be the case. As of available resources. drought lengthens, additional livestock would be In principle, drought resilience could be sold and herders would dig deeper into available gained by switching to more drought-tolerant reserves, especially browse resources. Movement breeds as the risk or intensity of drought patterns would not be much affected, nor should increases, but this degree of flexibility is seldom famine relief be needed. practical. A pastoral society that is cattle-based Average drought begins to affect customary tends to favor cattle even when living in an movement by changing transhumance schedules environment that is better suited to camels and or detaining animals in their dry-season grazing goats. However, pastoralists commonly change area. The last of any preemptive livestock sales the relative proportions of the species in their would take place. Remaining reserves of grass holdings, and may turn to 'new' species as an and browse would be used up, perhaps aided by adaptation to radical change in the accustomed deepening wells or otherwise providing water in environment. outlying areas. Famine relief would be needed, The effectiveness of strategies depends in first by poor semi-sedentary families and then part on their timing, whether applied as a more widely as drought lengthens. preemptive or reactive response to drought. Acute drought would first be accommodated Reactive responses are more usual in pastoral as indicated above, and by migration into drought situations, except when movement has become so retreats if these are available. If migration were institutionalized that people move automatically not feasible, there would be increasing at a time when there is not a current threat to life concentration around reliable water points (often or livelihood. Otherwise, the response tends to be in the vicinity of district headquarters) and left until the last minute, when possibly fewer increasing dependence on famine relief, options are open than would have been the case Although 'depleted' systems can be treated had action been taken sooner. It is often a project in the manner indicated, they really need more objective to replace some of these last minute fundamental help since they fall into the first two decisions by preemptive strategies. situations described in the section on environmental. sutia.t in Chpe_ 6o Migrating to avoid drought IS a characteristic enviro,unental sustainability in Chapter 6, Npastoral strategy. Most forms of transhumance does Table 9-1 distinguish between the incorporate this principle and can achieve added circumstances of the drier and wetter cycles drought security simply by adjusting the timing mentioned in Chapter 1. If there is reason to of movements. Less mobile systems would also believe that a dry cycle is starting, a more have used migration to avoid drought at times of considered response than the 'one step at a time' real need, although these days there are fewer scenario implied above is necessary. For . . , , ~~~~~~~places where pastoralists can go to escape example, provision for the 'average' responses drought. Only pastoralists whose acknowledged might be put in place permanently. territory extends across a wide ecological spectrum can now use mobility as their principal Analysis of Drought Strategiesdruhstaey drought strategy. The basic strategies used by pastoralists to Relying on local grazing reserves without long- counter drought have been indicated for three range reserves with ld intensities of drought. Drought is either absorbed, rnemvetsresoltocpwihid intenie odrought. The practicality of this reliance depends avoided by moving elsewhere, or under certain on area, ecology, and population pressure, and circumstances, dealt with by disposing of works best if applied preemptively by setting livestock and turnig temporarily to other sources aside areas for later use and using the remaining of subsistence. There are many different ways to areas more intensively or efficiently. Part of the absorb drought. It helps to start with hardy, reserve' can be coarse grass or relatively 68 Drought Management unpalatable browse that is used when there is Impacts on rangeland arise when imported nothing else available. The technology of adding feed leads to more animals being maintained on polyethylene glycol ('browse plus') to stock the range, not only during drought, but also after water to increase the intake and utilization of the first rains arrive. At that critical stage of browse is still at the testing stage under ranching recuperation, range vegetation is subjected to a conditions and is not yet available for pastoral stocking rate far higher than would occur if the areas. drought had led (whether by death or sale) to Preemptive sale of livestock in advance of fewer animals. This extra grazing pressure drought - before their condition worsens and jeopardizes the survival of perennial plants and value decreases - makes sense economically, the capacity of annuals to flower and replenish and also makes it easier to nurture the livestock seed stocks. The art of managing 'non- that remain. This sale presupposes, however, that equilibrium' situations is rapid destocking in an effective banking or credit system is available times of drought, and restocking once the rains to facilitate restocking when conditions improve, return. It also requires that grain foods be available at a Long-term effects on pastoral economies fair price to fill the dietaiy gap left when occur when, as in many North African and faivesoc prie tofild.lWhe thedietary cftis when Middle Eastern countries, the provision of livestock are sold. Where these conditions are subsidized feed becomes structural, as noted in met, the strategy is worth promoting, at least in Chapter 4. This use of feed increases or pastoral systems already trade-dependent or maptains s us at insises or sem-seentry.Its introduction elsewhere would maintains stock numbers at consistently high semi-sedentaryt. Iri tion elsewherezwon levels. Figure 9-1 shows this effect on small encourage sedentarization unless monetarization ruminant numbers during a twelve-year period in of the economy leads instead to motorized Morocco (without any consistent change in range herding. management). Where subsidized feed is less Buying feed during a drought another way to readily available, such as in sub-Saharan Africa, mitigate the situation. It is not unusual for livestock must be sold to obtain cash for animal ranchers or settled pastoralists to buy hay or feed. The key issue is timing - as a drought concentrate feed and whatever is needed for progresses, livestock sales are hindered by low family subsistence. Governments also often take demand and depressed livestock prices. Figure 9- the same approach when helping their pastoral 2 shows the effect of drought on cattle and grain constituency through free famine relief or the prices in West Africa (Blackburn et al. 1993). supply of subsidized feed. The supply of subsidized feed seldom has the desired effect: Packaging Project Assistance Equity imbalances arise because usually it is the most powerful (and therefore wealthier) The assistance that a project gives to individual herders who acquire the largest share of strategies will vary greatly among pastoral subsidized feed. Little quantitative information is systems, but the framework needed to provide available on the equity aspects of subsidized feed overall support for drought management remains distribution systems because the topic is fairly constant. There are three basic politically sensitive and there is not much requirements: (a) early warning to inform experience on which to base the targeting of everyone of impending drought, (b) drought inputs to less well-off herders. Possible strategies response mechanisms to ensure timely to be tested include providing feed supplies only government responses, and (c) drought recovery to smallholder feedlots, packaging and measures. Box 9-1 describes the Emergency transporting feed in small quantities, ensuring Drought Recovery and Arid Lands Projects in strong community involvement in the Kenya. organization of the distribution, voucher systems, Early warning systems follow a standard form, etc. whether monitoring a natural system or a production line - analyzing a flow of relevant 69 Part Two - Guidelines for Project Components data for indications of a critical state. Several infornative about ground conditions when countries already operate a drought warning vegetation is sparse and desiccated, its main use system, but with a tendency to rely on remote is to monitor the lapse of vegetation at the onset sensing more than on data collected in the field. of drought and to track weather systems both Remote sensing implies using satellite then and throughout the dry season. Imagery is imagery and the digital data from which the best used as a supplement to field monitoring. imagery derives. Whereas air photography and Field monitoring is essential in order to aerial survey are too expensive to commission at maintain a monthly flow of information about the monthly or fortnightly intervals (the frequency availability of grazing and water and the general required), imagery is readily available and even state of crop and livestock production. Useful real-time weather data can now be received production parameters include trends in directly on-site for the cost of a satellite dish and marketing (particularly the balance of trade a terminal. The interpretation of satellite data is between livestock and grain foods) and household still a specialized field, however, and is best done parameters relating principally to diet, activities, nationally or regionally and then disseminated as and dependency across a social cross-section, required. Because imagery is not particularly including poor families. Figure 9-L Rainfall and Distribution of Feed and Small Ruminants in Morocco, 1980-1991 500 450- 400- 350- 300 - Feed (103 tonnes) 250- aRainfall (mm) 200 -.S1(105 head) 150 ... 100 50 0 2 79-80 80-81 81-82 82-83 83-84 84-85 85-86 86-87 87-88 88-89 89-90 90-91 Source: Internal World Bank documents. F-igure 9-Z. Effect of Drought on Cattle and Grain Prices in West Africa Price per 8 [fiff ~~~~~~~~G~rain -2 -1 Drought +1 +2 +3 Year Source: Blackburn et al. 1993. 70 Drought Management Maintaining awareness of these points need forwarded to higher authority. If not be onerous, and much of the information can responsibility at this level does not rest with be furnished by herder organizations or village local government, it might usefully be held groups. Indeed, it is better to delegate the by the traditional leadership. responsibility than to set up an independent . Central coordination is needed to monitoring team since it then gives the disseminate remote sensing data and ensure community a genuine participatory role. a degree of standardization in field data Coordination of these activities involves collection. Standardization helps central three levels: government to prioritize drought relief when District coordination is pivotal because it is required. at this level that key parameters and More important than data collection is the participants can best be identified. Also at use made of the data. Because the response this level decisions must be made about how mechanisms described next are also multilayered, to use the information most beneficially. it helps to involve the same parties in both Lead responsibility might best go to local functions. Interest and commitment are government, with others asked to join a heightened if those who collect the data are also coordinating committee, and with technical involved in the use of those data. assistance to get the process started. assLaca c tion ist needproceds srto lec aDrought response mechanisms are built upon Local coordination IS needed to collect and trecmoet.Ec utb sue , . . ~~~three components. Each must be assured consolidate information at the subdistrict individually and then melded into an operational level. This reduces travel and is particularly whole. The aim should be to arrive eventually at important when a drought is in progress so that a prioritized picture of needs is a mechanism that is activated as herder Box 9-1. Drought Recovery and Preparedness in Kenya - the Emergency Drought Recovery and Arid Lands Projects The Kenya Arid Lands Project (ALP) is intended to institutionalize at the national and district levels a structure to effectively manage all phases of drought (preparedness, mitigation, and recovery). The project would implement a Drought Monitoring System (as tested under the previous Emergency Drought Recovery Project), establish a Drought Contingency Fund for immediate drought interventions, and an Emergency Cereal Reserve to maintain grain stocks at the district level. The project would also continue drought recovery activities for people made destitute by the 1993 drought, and finance other drought preparedness and mitigation interventions such as establishing dry-season and drought-grazing reserves and strategic water supplies. The ALP could be a model for other arid land development efforts. The project follows a strongly decentralized approach, with responsibility for the planning and implementation of most activities transferred to district committees of local authorities and beneficiaries, and the operation of key pastoral input services, such as management of water points and distribution of veterinary phanraceuticals transfefred to pastoral associations. A major challenge for the future of ALP will be to develop new drought preparedness approaches and strategies - including the identification of appropriate baseline infonmation and monitoring indicators, promotion of regional pastoral associations, and further analytical work on livestock marketing as a key factor in drought management. More attention will also focus on exchange of information between West and East African efforts in the area of arid lands development. Source: World Bank internal documents 71 Part Two - Guidelines for Project Components organizations - with growing competence and * the medical and veterinary supplies needed confidence - decide what is necessary, with a to help people and livestock overcome the response office at the district level and debilitating effects of drought; established procedures for mobilizing support * cash or credit to encourage livestock owners from other sources. However, the components to offer animals for preemptive sale early in must first be established: the drought; Scales of 'drought alert' need to be . mobile abattoirs to allow field processing of established, ranging from a baseline (situation remaining drought-stricken livestock; normal) to increasing levels of threat and * portable generators and tankers for lifting or hardship. In effect, one preliminary stage of alert moving water where concentrations of is needed, followed by others that match or people make unaccustomed demands on slightly anticipate the three drought situations water supplies; noted in the previous section. Emphasis should be * food or cash for work; and on defining the early stage of alert that triggers . necessary transport and fuel. the convening of a district drought committee. Thereafter, that committee can decide for itself Apart from money, strategic supplies of whenafurtherthat significantte detrioion hastkenf essential items need to be held in stock. There is when further significant deterioration has taken no point in having a drought response capacity place. Nonetheless, the indicators of worsening that takes several weeks to mobilize while drought need to be agreed. Drouhteedsche s ld b d essential items are imported. The whole point of Response schedules should be decided for drought preparedness is that it reduces the each stage of alert. For the early stages, . . specifications should include: (a) the stage at waiting (or dyng) time. vhich he disrict roughtcommitee isto beTactics to ensure timely response might which the district drought committee is to be include (a) building up reserve food stocks from convened; (b) the specific measures of seasons of plenty; (b) holding back part of the preparedness that need to be reviewed (such as total development budget for release only in the grain stocks, the state of reserve grazing, last quarter of each financial year (after it is seen emergency watering points, and livestock that no emergency situation is intervening); (c) marketing facilities, etc.); and (c) the stage at establishing a mechanism for public subscription which central government and other interested that can be activated at short notice; and/or (d) parties are informed so that they have time to designating, equipping, and training selected prep are their possible response. .elntg .qlpg n rmgslce Obvparetheirpouslyithe m bershipofs thedismilitary units for logistical support during Obviously the membership of the districtdogteegnis drought committee must also be decided, along drought emergencies. with matters relating to the logistics of its Drought recovery is as important as drought operation. Indicative bills of quantity need to be mitigation. Some degree of natural recovery can prepared for the action attached to each stage of be expected because surviving livestock drought intensity. populations show high natural fertility in the first Means must be ensured to allow each party years after drought. There is a 'pent-up' fertility to make the response expected of it at each level in these populations that expresses itself in high of alert. This probably implies establishing a calving and lanibing rates once rains return. contingency fund of a size that provides, for However, project-led rehabilitation is still often example, 50 percent of the maximum likely necessary. expenditure. It is clearly impracticable to tie up a The main component is restocking to enable very large sum of money, and yet there must be herders to reconstitute their herds, either using sufficient to make a substantial emergency money or credit derived from preemptive sales to response. Indicative budget categories are: buy back livestock, or restocking destitute * strategic reserves of famine relief, families in the manner often practiced by NGOs. There may also be need for rangeland rehabilitation, but it should not be assumed that 72 Drought Management reseeding of depleted rangeland is always needed Restocking destitute pastoralists is (see next chapter). normally best organized through societal Buy-back requires supplies of livestock for restocking procedures. The best value for money purchase (especially young breeding stock) and (restoring the maximum number of families for buyers with the means to purchase. The livestock the money available) is obtained through can normally come through standard marketing restocking with sheep and goats rather than with channels, with no exceptional input beyond the cattle or camels. Adding a donkey helps to extra effort needed to draw livestock into the transport goods and water and generally marketing system if the drought has been facilitates mobility. Details would need to be widespread. Ensuring that prospective purchasers discussed with the society that is to be assisted have the means to purchase, however, is likely to concerning: (a) the number of families to be require banking or credit schemes. Banking restocked, (b) the level of that restocking, (c) the schemes are relatively straightforward once there capacity of the societal system to cope, and (d) are herder associations that can deal directly with the cost of project support, including monitoring. the commercial banking sector, but credit If the proportion of families needing assistance schemes require more planning. exceeds about 20 percent following an average Livestock credit schemes have few drought, then probably another strategy is precedents but offer interesting possibilities to indicated (note the section on sustainability in facilitate drought offtake and restocking. One Chapter 6). Otherwise, environmental issues possibility, if redeemable credit is extended when arise only if the basis of restocking is importation animals are bought during drought, is to express rather than redistribution of animals. In principle, that credit in terms of livestock units, either to societies should decide sources, recipients, and cover the higher price of animals bought after the allocations per family, although a project is drought or weighted in favor of one species or entitled to set standards and intervene to ensure another. Setting up a livestock credit scheme equitable distribution of benefits. The experience appropriate to the country or area concerned of NGOs such as OXFAM and Heifer would require a feasibility study. Terms of International can be brought to bear, although reference and some of the options that may be always ensuring that schemes are adapted to the worth exanining are suggested in Annex F. specific society and that the breeds used are adapted to the environment and pastoral system. 73 10 Phasing of Technical Inputs Technical intervention in pastoral systems has a necessary in order to gain approval for long history. Early interventions focused on institutional innovation that otherwise would be increasing water supplies, improving veterinary withheld. services, formalizing livestock marketing, and The relevance of technologies to NRM is encouraging rotational grazing. Sometimes summarized in Table 10-1, and each intervention technical intervention went further, to include listed is reviewed briefly in the following rangeland improvement, feeding during drought, paragraphs. Or upgrading livestock. When assessed individually, many of these Water development is irresistible in arid inputshen assessetationd ual many ofehealse pastoral areas as a means of easing the hardship inputs met expectations and many were also of pastoral life, but it also carries environmental popular. Inputs to restrict grazing patters or risks. Although arguments abound that additional livestock numbers were not popular, but other water points enable better utilization of grazing interventions were. Pastoralists appreciated life- and that any new supply will be put to its saving veterinary inputs and were especially appropriate seasonal use, this seldom happens in appreciative of extra water. Indeed, borehole practice. New facilities that offer a (near-) technology led to a misconception that deep pract wates thattract drilling can cause water to spout anywhere, and permanent water supply readily attract *, rnfon the local economy. permanent users, with sedentarnzation and loss of so trans the lchnolo yonomy mobility, while also disrupting the established But while technology worked, it did not equilibrium between wet- and dry-season succeed. Development was seldom achieved grazing. 'Better' utilization of grazing causes because technology was applied out of context, more grass to be consumed as it emerges and with too little attention to how pastoral systems before it has had much chance to operate and how the inputs themselves interact. photosynthesize, which restricts further growth This chapter focuses on how inputs interact and andtleatesize as restring. Such impacts on ho tecnoloicalinterentins cn bet beand leaves little as reserve grazing. Such imnpacts on how technological interventions can best be usually reflect population pressure, but also arise brought on-stream. Relevant technologies are from insensitive design, especially surface water reviewed, and the rest of the chapter then frages. considers how to phase or sequence inputs. storages. Surface water storages are unreliable in Relevant Technologies arid areas because of uncertain rainfall and runoff on which they depend. The engineering If the development objective is as stated in response is to build relatively large storages - Chapter 6, then inputs must contribute socially dams or ponds, according to the site - which and/or economically while also being then attract settlement during wetter years and environmentally benign and manageable. In prove unreliable during drier periods. Smaller addition to conveying direct benefits in the areas storages, especially covered cisterns that do not just listed, technology can be used to generate induce permanent settlement but which are indirect benefits, such as when boreholes are strategically useful to maintain mobility, are introduced into a project earlier than might be frequently to be preferred. Sites can be chosen 75 Part Two - Guidelines for Project Components where water harvesting can be used to fill such become dependent on one unreliable pump and a storages. falling water table. Water spreading applies only where Range management has been downgraded on the landscape and streamflow are conducive to development agenda over the last decade as the diverting water by simple structures onto land merits of customary pastoral practices became suitable for growing grass or crops. This is not a more widely appreciated. Yet many pastoral technology to introduce precipitously, but it is situations need a range management input to help valuable under the right conditions to increase reintroduce the enviromentally sound food security. management practices that pastoralists used to Groundwater development is potentially apply, but which are now being relinquished in destructive because of the permanence of the favor of a more sedentary lifestyle. It is a strange water it makes available. There is usually no paradox that pastoralists are now increasingly harm, and much potential good, in contributing to opting for the styles of resource use that critics of the maintenance of hand-dug wells. Ecological past development efforts saw as representing destruction is usually associated with boreholes, Westem bias, and range science is left to and mostly with single boreholes. To discover champion the merits of pastoral practice. and develop a new aquifer that has the capacity Opportunities lie in several areas: to support multiple boreholes - and hence a new Grazing management in the ard zone needs dry-season grazing area - can be regarded as to concentrate on maintaining seasonal movement good news. But single boreholes, even if patterns. Where movement is between dry- and conceived as serving a drought reserve, end up wet-season grazing areas, the latter need to be supporting a settled population in a state of increasing degradation as more and more people substantially larger than the forrner. Although Table 10-1. Technological Intervention in Support of Pastoral NRM Area of intervention Relevance in arid zone NRM Water development Potentially disruptive Shallow well improvement Usually a top priority Water spreading A priority locally Surface water storage Valuable if strategic Borehole development Can be highly disruptive Range management Benign provided no fencing Browse and woodland uses (gums, charcoal, etc.) Usually a top priority Fire use and control A priority locally Seeding Locally relevant Grazing management ('rotational' systems) Relevant for existing and potential perennial plant associations Animal health and production Neutral if offtake assured Veterinary inputs A top priority Animal husbandry (hygiene, calf rearing, etc.) Often useful Breed improvement Usually a low priority Supplementary feeding Costly and often disruptive Other areas Other commnerce Usually a top priority, e.g,. goods in/gums and honey out Livestock marketing Usually relevant Cropland improvement Essential in agropastoralism Wildlife utilization and (eco)tourism Locally relevant 76 Phasing of Technical Inputs dry-season grazing areas often appear devastated management - in this case because there is now by the end of the grazing season, they have the often a demand for 'improved' breeds which, if benefit of a rest each growing season. This rest not controlled, could seriously impair the innate can enable perennial grasses to persist where tolerances that characterize indigenous breeds. otherwise they would give way to annuals. It is Veterinary inputs are always in demand. helpful if there is good browse in the dry-season The issue in project design is usually the delivery grazing area and if the community has access to system: how best to devolve health care to a higher rainfall area to use during protracted communities, involve the private sector, and drought. ensure government backstopping. Building on The scope for more sophisticated grazing local interest in health care and medicines may be systems depends on conditions - site potential, the best way to encourage herder organizations vegetation type, livestock species involved, and toward broader involvement in NRM. the competition that may exist among pastoral Breed improvement may also be in demand, groups for the grazing on offer. Rotational but is unlikely to feature in the early stages of grazing systems work best in semi-arid and project design. Projects in arid zones are more wetter areas with diverse vegetation available for likely to be concerned with maintaining the purity manipulation. All areas with potential to support of indigenous breeds. There may be scope, perennial grasses, however, are likely to benefit however, to encourage use of desert-tolerant from grazing regimes built on the principles of species and breeds, and genetic improvement holistic resource management (Box 10-1), within existing breeds using selection through an provided that the ecological guidelines attached open nucleus breeding system (Box 10-2). to the HRM model are interpreted in relation to Animal husbandry is of increasing local ecology. importance as herders become more dependent on Fire is seldom used as a management tool in fewer animals than they formerly controlled. the arid zone, not just because there is little Adoption of unaccustomed methods of biomass to burn, but because recovery from husbandry, especially in calf rearing and housing burning is slow and valuable perennial plants are and caring for small stock, may be required. often killed along with less useful species. On the Inputs in agropastoral systems also need to focus other hand, periodic burning can be very helpful on the perfonnance of oxen and other draught to control bush in the semi-arid and subhumid animals. zones. In those zones it may be necessary to Supplementary.feeding may need to feature persuade authorities to ease current burning in new methods of husbandry, especially in restrictions, as Coppock (1994) describes for agropastoral systems, but only selectively and not Ethiopia. In the arid zone, however, external so as to create dependency on ever-increasing assistance is more likely to be needed to make quantities of imported feed. Feeding cottonseed to and maintain firebreaks to control unwanted fire. lactating animals has been shown to reduce calf Browse can be immensely valuable. Inputs mortality in agropastoral systems of Mali and are needed only for unaccustomed uses or if Nigeria (ILCA 1994). existing stocks are to be supplemented by Commerce and marketing systems need plantations, which can also help provide attention to facilitate trade in livestock and other fuelwood and other products. Planting and commodities, including timely destocking and overseeding of rangeland is much more practical restocking in the context of drought management. in semi-sedentary than in mobile systems. There The greater initial input is likely to be is often scope for collecting naturally occurring institutional rather than physical, but there are gums and resins or other products as a source of exceptions: supplementary income. xetos Livestock marketing facilities may be Animal health and production is another field required in the form of trek routes and associated that experiences a paradox similar to range infrastructure. The extent of investment in 77 Box 10-1. The Principles of Holistic Resource Management HRM is grounded on the thesis that sustainable life, (b) the production to attain the desired quality of grazing. The testing guidelines help users to select resource management is possible only if all life, and (c) a vision of the landscape and ecosystem the proper tools that are expected to improve the four interacting ecological, economic, and social factors that will sustain the necessary production. blocks of the ecosystem. HRM is a continuous are taken into accout in the management process (the HRM methods are based on the recognition of: monitoring-control and replanification process. 'whole' referred to by Savory 1988). HRM starts (a) the difference between 'brittle' and 'non-brittle' Although HRM incorporates a powerful planning with a process of discussion and negotiation during environments, (b) the importance of animal impact tool, the setting of a 'common goal' is far from easy which resource users set a common goal made up of on soils and vegetation, and (c) the importance of the with large pastoral groups with extensive and three interacting parts: (a) their desired quality of time during which the rangeland is exposed to overlapping grazing orbits (authors). GOAL QUALITY OF LIFE PRODUCTION AND LANDSCAPE DESCRIPTION ECOSYSTEM FOUNDATION BLOCKS -4, n Succession Water Cycle Mineral Cycle Energy Flow TOOLS Human ( Rest Fire Grazing Animal Living Technology ) Money Creativity Impact Organisms & Labor GUIDELINES WVhole WVeak Cause Marginal EnergJ Society Tirne Stock Herd Population Buning Flexibility Biological OrganizationJ $ Eco- Link & Reaction Wealth & Density Effect Management -Stratetic Plan Personal Plan System Effect Source Culture -Tactical Monitor Growth Monitor Gross & Use -Operational Control Control Margin Replan Replan Analysis TESTING MANAGEMENT l Source: Savory 1988 (model) and Lihil 1992 (text). Phasing of Technical Inputs infrastructure depends on the strength of private encourage ecotourism in their area, requiring sector interest - sale facilities might be roads and safari-type accommodation (Annex G). contributed from that side, with watering points Cropland improvement is central to and holding grounds along primary routes development in agropastoral systems, and it is installed with public funds. Pricing policy and also in and around cropland that most incentives for private sector participation need to opportunities arise for planting fodder shrubs and be sorted out before investing in infrastructure. seeding grasses. Fodder banks, based on legumes Also important are marketing policies and established with low-input techniques on old infrastructure designed to contribute strategically corral sites and fallow lands, have been to offtake. Strategic solutions must consider (a) introduced successuly in Nigeria (ILCA 1994). the trade orientation of the pastoral systems Likewise, fodder shrubs such as Atriplex and served; (b) the categories of livestock that each Acacia are being introduced as windbreaks in system has to offer (as opposed to those that need Middle Eastemg projects. to be retained within the system); (c) the need to Inputs to crop production itself are likely to ensure pre-drought and crisis offtake; and (d) the focus on water-efficient crops and tillage distribution of benefits within pastoral society. systems, and improved delivery of essential Urban demand may be strongest for beef, but services. Rarely would fodder replace food crops, even if a pastoral system has cattle, it may only but leafy sorghum or millet with robust stalks, be able to offer sheep and goats if it is to remain and possibly cowpea, certainly have a role. viable. A pastoral system may derive greater Storage systems also need attention so that part advantage from mobile abattoirs processing half- of the extra feed produced is available at the end starved camels and goats into meat-and-bone of the dry season for the oxen, donkeys, or meal or pet food than from a facility designed to camels that are used for land preparation. deliver fat stock to market. Although agropastoral systems offer wide Retail stores are often much appreciated by scope for technical intervention, it is necessary to pastoralists in outlying areas as a supply point know the system before intervening. Introduction for domestic goods and sometimes for storing, of improved fodder production is frequently products on their way to market. Small amounts impaired by lack of labor at planting time. of start-up money - probably to end up in a Perennial fodders may be acceptable under these locally controlled revolving fund - may circumstances when annuals are not. Other therefore be a sound investmnent and more than constraints also need to be understood. For incidental to NRM if the outgoing products example, if manure is used as fuel in a region include items such as gums, resins, and honey. with cold winters (as in eastern Anatolia), that Medicines are usually held apart from other items u use will take precedence over all others, and a so that they are more secure and can be dispensed subsistence herd must be defined in terms of the by someone with some relevant knowledge. number of animals required to produce a year's Wildlife utilization applies only where there is a supply of fuel. wildlife resource available for exploitation. Each case must then be examined on its merits. The Sequencing of Inputs concept is not new - even when group ownership of pastoral land was first introduced in The preparation of likely development paths as Kenya in the 1 960s, it was argued that the part of project planning (Chapter 6) helps to prospect of groups earning revenue from wildlife show potential interactions among inputs, such as could be used to encourage wildlife conservation. when one type of input must logically precede It is, however, often a long process to change another. This logic is critical-it makes no existing policies and overcome entrenched sense to start with inputs that have highly departmental viewpoints. Investment is most demanding management requirements or with likely to arise where pastoralists wish to 79 Part Two - Guidelines for Project Components those that risk damaging the environment or the the speed with which a project unfolds and the integrity of the pastoral system. precise order in which inputs are made will vary These considerations are the main from case to case. Apart from the technical determinant of the three phases set out below. inputs listed, establishing herder organizations They might conform with successive two- to and an adequate support system will always be three-year stages in a process project, although part of the opening phase of project activities Box 10-2. Open Nucleus Breeding System (ONBS) The Open Nucleus Breeding System (ONBS) developed from cooperative breed improvement in Australia and New Zealand. By concentrating selection in part of the livestock population (the nucleus), ONBS offers the potential for higher rates of genetic progress than would be obtained by classical within- herd selection (closed nucleus breeding system). Herd and flock sizes are often small in developing countries, and the basic infrastructure for recording performance and pedigree does not exist, so within-herd selection is not an option. The particular advantage of ONBS in this case is selection concentration so that the performance of a smaller number of animals is recorded, and more detailed information can be obtained on each animal. At the same time, genetic gains achieved in the nucleus are still transmitted to the whole population The principles of the system are shown below. The nucleus is established by selecting the best males and females from the base herds. Depending on the efficiency of this initial selection, a substantial immediate gain in performance can be obtained in the nucleus relative to the base. Once the nucleus is established, all males selected to be used as sires in the nucleus are bred exclusively in the nucleus. However, a proportion of the females needed for breeding in the nucleus is taken from the base herds. Males and females that are surplus to requirements for breeding in the nucleus are transferred to the base herds. Thus the genetic improvement made in the nucleus is continuously transmitted to the base population. --- - 4 _ ------ Nucleus best test best Females Males Best Base Females Second Choice (or embryo transfer) (or artificial insemination) ----------------- 4--- ' i3 ~~~~~~~Base 2 Bae3 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - .. .. .... ................. ..... Best Base Females Note: In closed nucleus breeding systems the flow of genes is unidirectional (from the upper to the lower tiers), while in open nucleus breeding systems the flow of genes is bidirectional (from the upper to the lower tiers, and vice versa). Source: Barker 1992 80 Phasing of Technical Inputs (perhaps even a pre-project phase). The appropriate policy and legal framneworks for establishment of a monitoring system will also pastoral tenure; and (d) assurance of baseline feature in the opening phase, but that aspect is data to support subsequent monitoring. Further covered in the next chapter. physical development, however, is likely to be Firt paseinputs are likely to be restricted to restricted to the funding for community-based First phase iptarlieytbersicdtoinitiatives (as in the Kenya Arid Lands Project, strategic water development, animal health care, . o and possibly livestock marketing. Box 9-1). In that way, some of the inputs listed Strategic water development usually implies next might be brought forward into the first restricting inputs in order to maintain the phase of operations. integrity of existing wet-season and dry-season Localized or second phase inputs focus on grazing areas (or summer and winter grazing specific resources and opportunities for areas in temperate regions). This may involve managing resources for food security. enhancing the dry-season area with a few new Cropland improvement would certainly wells or an extra borehole, but more typically it feature alongside the components already means improving existing wells in that area and described in projects addressing agropastoral improving seasonal supplies in the wet-season systems. The expected focus of activities was area. The aim in the latter area would be to allow indicated when describing relevant technologies. a wider distribution of livestock for a longer Water spreading and water harvesting are period before the stock retreat to the dry-season attractive propositions if suitable sites exist, but grazing area. Rainfed cisterns may be useful are unlikely to be pursued among phase one along the way to slow the retreat. Any necessary activities unless the community is already hydrogeological survey would be undertaken in experienced in this field. In the absence of that this first phase, along with the selection of sites experience, it is best to start with mini-schemes. for future water spreading. Harvesting schemes are easier to design and Animal health care needs to be included in manage than spreading schemes. The former can phase one activities because of its importance to include harvesting for cistern storage, and in pastoral economies and as a point of entry for semi-sedentary systems, harvesting for crop participatory development. If no new water production. Harvesting or spreading for grass supplies are included in phase one, animal health production in larger schemes might follow later. care would be the first new venture to offer for Animal husbandry is likely to receive community management. The usual strategy is to attention once health care is in hand. The focus train herders in basic health care, ensure a supply would need to be guided by analysis of the of drugs under cost-recovery arrangements, and prevailing livestock production systems, but calf support government veterinary staff in providing rearing, penning arrangements, and the post- necessary back-up services. drought nutrition of breeding animals should all Livestock marketing would almost certainly repay attention. Most of the inputs are made at attract support, but with attention to institutional the household level. arrangements rather than to physical facilities. Woody plant resource utilization often Any investment component in phase one is likely offers better prospects than seeking to improve to focus on strategic marketing in support of the utilization of grazing. Even if browse seems drought management. Commercial marketing fully utilized, added value might come from would feature as a first phase input only if the reserving access or collecting and storing leaves pastoral system being supported is already trade and pods for more strategic use. In addition, oriented. stocks of the most useful components of the Other inputs in the first phase would almost natural vegetation might be increased, perhaps invariably include: (a) attention to the rest of the with the aid of runoff diverted from other sites. institutional framework; (b) literacy programs Apart from helping communities to optimize and other basic social services; (c) assurance of browse resources, assistance might be extended 81 Part Two - Guidelines for Project Components to assist in the collection and marketing of gums and pastoralist. It is easier to intervene locally and resins or medicinal plants. Options usually through a village commnittee than on a broad scale increase with rainfall and biodiversity, along with through one or more associations encompassing scope for using fire to control noxious species. greater variation in the factors just noted. Also, Where woody vegetation is sparse, tree planting although it is possible in wetter zones to apply and alternative fuel technologies may be needed. rotational grazing, there is probably nothing Later inputs, for introduction when better for the driest zones than seasonal community-based organizations are well- movement between extensive wet-season grazing established, address the broader and more and more restricted dry-season grazing areas. complex aspects of NRM. The two considered Rangeland improvement through seeding or here concex range management. As noted other means may find a place locally, but only if earlier, breed improvement might also be the community is able to rest and protect the considered along with further expansion of water treated area from grazing. As always, prospects supplies. improve with rainfall, as do prospects for Grazing management is a critical but cropping, and in that case there may be more to complicated area in which to intervene. be gained by investing in cropland improvement Customary grazing systems usually represent than range improvement. A useful review on complex adaptation to social custom and these issues has been contributed by Bayer and territoriality - including responses to factors laters-Bayer ( 1994)r . There is also quite a such as lack of water, seasonality, and literature on reseeding and overseeding in drier consideration for the well-being of livestock zones (for example, Pratt and Gwynne 1977), (Annex A). To introduce additional ecological or although the success rate is rather limited. economic criteria can be a trial for both planner 82 Process Monitoring All projects need a monitoring system that the user system. Livestock production is listed as provides a permanent record of inputs and an extension of the user system as though outputs. This is a matter of public accountability. unaffected by external market forces. A process project, however, also requires a flow Although the following sections offer of information that enables the project to be guidance on the types of data to collect under adjusted as it proceeds, and this is the principal each heading, the final decision on the attributes concern of this chapter. There are two reasons to and criteria to cover should be made during emphasize process monitoring: participatory planning and reflect the objectives set for the project and the perspectives of all * It should constitute a project component imstakeholders. its own right and requires as much design attention as any other component; and * its form is not standardized like input-output Ecological Monitoring monitoring, so is not well documented. Two general points that affect ecological There is, however, extensive written monitoring in particular need to be emphasized. material on management informnation First, all monitoring systems need to be systems and on how to plan inquiries in each designed so that they focus on what is relevant of the disciplines concerned. and avoid being swamped by background noise. The indicators that are monitored need to be In arid zones more than elsewhere, monitoring is related to project objectives, while also having liable to pick up an embarrassment of change in the capacity to highlight unexpected changes. floristics and groundcover because vegetation responds spontaneously to a nornal range of Attributes for Monitoring variation and periodicity in rainfall. If standard criteria and indicators of rangeland health and Since NRM is a product of three interacting land quality are applied along the lines indicated systems (Chapter 1), monitoring should be in Annex H, significant ecological trends would viewed in relation to these sane systems. Figure be lost entirely in a plethora of signals of 11-1 lists the main attributes to monitor impending doom or remarkable recovery. The according to the system to which they are most guidelines presented in Chapter 3 should also be closely associated. Because NRM is always the considered during operational interpretation of product of the interaction between these systems, the proposals incorporated below. the column in which an attribute is listed is The second point is that all monitoring must somewhat arbitrary. In each case, effects must be be organized within a framework appropriate to tracked through the entire matrix in the figure. the subject being monitored. Ecological Thus, although territoriality is listed as an monitoring needs to be organized within the attribute of the user system, it is also a product framework of ecological land units. These should of the geopolitical system. Similarly, herder separate major variations in climate and organizations are treated as a response to the landscape so that each locality where data are geopolitical system rather than as a product of collected can be placed in an ecological category. 83 Part Two - Guidelines for Project Components Figure 11-1. Attributes to Monitor in NRM Projects NRM I~~~~~~~~~ I Natural system User system Geopolitical and macroeconomic framework Ecological Socioeconomic Institutional monitoring monitoring monitoring Herder organizations Climate Societal status l Rainfall/drought . Demography Security status . Other parameters . Social structures Support system . Territoriality * Policy Ecological status * Welfare mechanisms * Legislation * Grass cover . Ministries * Woody vegetation Household economy . Local government . Wildlife . NRM practices . Private sector * Soil (erosion) * Inflowsa Macroeconomic changes * Water resources * Stockwealth . Exchange rates * External trade . Aid flows Production monitoring I . Herd composition . Fecundity * Mortality/offtake * Other parameters a.'lnflows' cover cash from employment, remittances coming into the household, support through societal mechanisms, and famine relief. 84 Process Monitoring Key resource sites would be separated at this recorders who revisit selected spots or transects stage for particular attention. Much of the every few years. More frequent recording is required data, however, will be forthcoming from appropriate initially while still assessing the drought management (Chapter 9), which has baseline situation, but recording every three to requirements of its own for information on five years is sufficient to assess ecological trends. several key ecological and socioeconomic Close attention should be given to how woody parameters. These data will emerge from that vegetation is monitored. While the presence or source at more frequent intervals than is required absence of species (annual-perennial, noxious- for purposes of monitoring longer-term trends. palatable) suffices for monitoring ground Climate is monitored through standard vegetation, other indicators must be added for parameters and instruments. Rainfall is the most trees and shrubs (density, vigor, and extent of critical parameter, and projects should expect to cutting or browsing). add to the existing network of rain gauges. There Wildlife are normally assessed needs to be one standard rain gauge per 100 to independently. Specialists are needed to relate 1,000 square kilometers, depending on zone habitat status to wildlife scenarios. There are topography, and the availability of conscientious many scenarios that may be relevant, and wildlife residents willing to do the recording. Automatic monitoring should not be confined to areas where rain gauges and weather stations are not there is interest in conserving or restoring the recommended because they are relatively original fauna. Ensuring habitat suitable for expensive and prone to sabotage. The objective is lesser fauna, or maintaining plant species of merely to have a modestly reliable record of special economic, genetic, or esthetic interests, rainfall over the project area to which other data can be legitimate objectives. As with vegetation and observations can be related. Other climatic monitoring, details should be fornnudated on site. parameters are far less critical. There can be Annual or biennial monitoring may be needed in situations where excesses of cold, heat, or wind order to track population dynamics. are important, but in most situations the data Water and feed resources are routinely from the nearest meteorological recording station monitored to give early warning of drought. will suffice. Seasonal fog or mist presents a These data supplement rainfall records to build a special problem because it is ecologically vital picture of drought cycles useful to adjust project but tricky to measure. Where fire is being used or strategy. For purposes of determining ecological controlled, data on wind and air humidity are trends, however, the most significant needed. hydrological indicators are spring flow and the discharge and rest level of wells and boreholes. Ecological status is easier to conceive than to While wells can be monitored by their measure. It is best to record individual features supervisors, borehole testing requires periodic as quantitative justification for any subjective input by a hydrogeologist to interpret recharge- synthesis, rather than attempt a single composite discharge data and assess what is happening to interpretation of ecological status. Satellite the regional aquifer. imagery does permit an overall interpretation, but only by differentiating areas according to the Socioeconomic Monitoring reflectance of their land surface as determined by Although no branch of monitoring is intrinsically the density and greenness of the vegetation cover mori inno and the smoothness and color of the soil surface. more important than another, socioeconomic Neither that interpretation nor an assessment on monitoring is operationally the centerpiece of more detailed criteria has much meaning without process monitoring. If project objectives are being able to refer to records of past rainfall and similar to those adopted in this document usage. (Chapter 6), then changes in the circumstances of Grass cover, woody vegetaion, and soil are the user system - whether attributable to the usually monitored together by one or more 85 Part Two - Guidelines for Project Components project or not - could profoundly affect the demographer or social anthropologist and the direction in which that project is guided. community itself should also be involved in the Socioeconomic monitoring needs to be monitoring process. undertaken within two frameworks: that Demography is an important area for represented by pastoral society as a whole, and monitoring in order to keep track of population that established by differentiating households of growth and emigration, and to update population different wealth and social status (Figures 11-1 trends and their implications for the future. If a and 11-2). demographic study is part of project planning, Societal status is a more vague concept than then the preparation of guidelines for future ecological status, and its attributes cannot all be monitoring can be required of that study; quantified. Nonetheless, assessments need to be otherwise the local university should be able to made periodically andnetutss the ssnne advise. One aspect that is difficult to judge from frequency, unless there is need to step up afar is the extent to which ethnicity should be monitoring because sudden disruption is incorporated in the monitoring framework. threatened, such as loss of land to outsiders. A Figure 11-2. Interactionsfor Monitoring at the Household Level m otockoldi)( Depndoncmont 4 easonal and 86 Process Monitoring Sometimes this is a non issue or is glaringly to suggest ways of reducing the amount of data obvious, but there can also be nuances of clan or collected. ethnic relationship that are fundamental to the NRM practices can be the focus of one functioning of society. monitoring package. However, the monitoring Social structures and territoriality are should differentiate the practices of: (a) poor likely to be monitored through dealings with households with few or no livestock, (b) herder organizations (covered here under households with a subsistence livestock holding, institutional monitoring). If these organizations and (c) wealthy households with large herds or are not built upon customary social structures, flocks. Group discussion involving all strata is separate monitoring of the latter will be needed. useful for exploring interdependencies and A loss of effectiveness in customary institutions differing perspectives, but the main data should (as measured by breakdown in customary come from enquiries with individual families in controls and conflict resolution) could have wide each stratum. It is not advisable to pursue implications and call for a shift in project detailed enquiries with more than ten families per strategy. Even more damaging would be loss of stratum, partly to contain costs, but mainly territory or mobility. These are fields of because it is difficult to build and maintain monitoring in which project management might personal relations with more than about thirty wish to participate directly. Key parameters are: families in total. The aim is to establish how (a) settlement or privatization of resources families of different size, composition, and against societal interests and wishes, (b) the resource endowment vary in their dependence on marginalization of elders in decisionmaking NRM, access to resources, mobility, and drought processes, and (c) decline in the effectiveness of strategies. The matrix of these interactions resource tenure and welfare support mechanisms. includes the factors just indicated plus the effect Welfare mechanisms need to be monitored of season and project inputs (Figure 11-2). as and when they are brought into intensive use. Initially, enquiries would need to be Even if constantly in operation, the most undertaken once or twice a year, but the revealing time for assessing their effectiveness is frequency can be relaxed once a picture of the when they are under increased pressure. Routine normal range of variation has been established. monitoring of a project's drought management However, a capacity needs to be retained for component may suffice, although welfare returning to assess the impact of any extreme mechanisms serve not just drought victims event that occurs - particularly drought, but (Annex A). Criteria for deciding who should get also loss of land or a potentially influential how much of what forn of assistance vary with intervention. pastoral system, demand, and availability of Itflows into households need special famine relief. attention in order to establish what can be done to Household economy needs to be assessed within help families become more independent of a framework established through wealth ranking. external assistance, and to assess the impact of Sometimes social status unrelated to wealth must initial moves in that direction. All inflows are be incorporated in the ranking. Since each relevant, including remittances and famine relief, stratum differs somewhat in its NRM practices although particular attention should be given to and is influenced differently by project inputs, inflows from paid employment and societal household-level monitoring is essential to the support systems to provide information to guide operation of a process project. Since household- new initiatives in those areas. level monitoring is also labor intensive, the Other parameters would need to be amount of information collected per household monitored if trade and cash flow are relevant to and the number of households included in the project objectives, or if inputs are made to sarnple are critical decisions. The size of the cropland in agropastoral systems. It is wise to be sample must be decided locally, but it is possible selective, however, since the more data that are collected, the greater the likelihood of survey 87 Part Two - Guidelines for Project Components fatigue and the greater the burden of data * evidence of complementarity with customary analysis. institutions and relevant public and private Production monitoring is treated here as an sector bodies; and extension of socioeconomic monitoring because it * level of indebtedness and related controls, is only really informative when organized at the considered by object of expenditure and household level within the framework already possible sources of income. described. The methods, however, are quite A specific role of monitoring is to identify different from those used in other types of where performance is constrained by the terms of monitoring, and require an input from an animal reference or legal constitution of an organization, scientist familiar with systems studies. The and where the constraint lies in training or principal parameters include: counseling. A project that itself is institutionally * herd and flock composition, particularly effective should then be able to make or broker reproductive capacity; the appropriate adjustment. At the same timne, * fecundity, reproductive disorders, and allowance should be made for the value systems mortality as affected by breed type, age, and procedures of the society. If, for example, season, and management; organizations do not avail themselves of credit * offtake as determined by seasonal conditions facilities, it may reflect indecision or (also establishing if low sales are due to incompetence, but it may also be that the society market deficiencies or overriding benefits of does not approve of indebtedness. not selling); and Security status is more than an institutional . other parameters relating to animal issue, but belongs here because it often defines husbandry and animal health care, a the institutional environment for pastoral relevant to the project being monitored. development. When armed conflict disrupts Institutional Monitoring mobility and the flow of development inputs, other institutional issues fade in significance. Monitoring the functioning of institutions and Projects therefore need to keep security risks organizations involved in project activities is under revie need to cnieisecurity especially critical during the first phase of under revlew and may need to consider insecurity operations. Close and direct scrutiny at that stage Whether it is possible or worthwhile to actually might be relaxed later to the annual review of montor it ss deped onthe fo that records kept by each organization. An essential insecurity take s terenis on fh point, step, oweve, is t drawup a lst ofthe isecurity takes. If there is a known flash point, step, however, is to draw up a list of thethnimabepsbltobanadnc functions of each entity, and to adopt indicators warnin by keepoin th under eviw ev appoprateto hos fuctos warming by keeping this under review, even if the monitoring system has to be informal. Herder organizations can be assessed ultimately Support systems should be monitored in a through ecological and socioeconomic monitoring manner similar to herder organizations, although that will show the effectiveness of organizations with allowance for their different functions. on the ground. Meanwhile, the institutional status Policy and legislation appear in written of herder organizations is revealed by: form and so are easily monitored. But less easy * membership relative to constituency; to monitor is how the relevance of policy and law * records of meetings and decisions changes as social and economic circumstances (frequency, attendance, and relevance of change. This is a necessary part of keeping up- decisions relative to needs and mandate); to-date on reforms needed to support pastoral * extent to which members are aware of development. It may be sufficient to incorporate decisions taken and place value on what the additional lines of enquiry every few years in the organization is doing; monitoring of herder organiizations, but more elaborate monitoring may be needed if a project 88 Process Monitoring has responsibility for advising on policy or legal Programming would seek to involve all relevant reform. A lawyer needs to be involved if organizations and field personnel in order to monitoring land litigation or drafting bills is part miniimize the project's direct role in data of the project brief, collection. The actual time given to data Ministries and local government often collection is small when considered in terms of feature as partners in development, and may have individual components, so there should not be received substantial inputs to improve their strong resistance to participation. Assuming that institutional capability. Monitoring performance three or four principal participants have been can usually be based on the annual review of identified, these could form the basis of a operational capability, plus field studies every working group to complete the initial planning, two to three years of the extent to which the identifying any additional skills that need to be needs of pastoralists are being met. Unless absorbed or contracted. The same group could organizations that are being supported under a also establish the cost to the project, working process project report in timely fashion or submit within the total budget established during project themselves to scrutiny, their funding would need preparation. That cost would depend on project to cease because there is then no basis to define circumstances, but it would be reasonable to their continuing role. expend up to 5 percent of the budget on keeping Private sector contributions need to be the project on course. monitored according to the service delivered. Different criteria apply, for example, to banking Codnto snee ntoaes siffervitcs, eria supplyo , for ixaxnputs to waterng Data collection should be organized through services, supply of drugs, or inputs to water a time sheet that enables the coordinator to development. It helps if at the outset there are remind each participating group when a task is agreements with each major contributor detailing due. The need for requisitions and reminders can the necessary records of services delivered. If be reduced by ensuring that the working group client confidentiality or other reasons prevent detailed information on the distribution of referred to above continues in existence and services nforomaeion released thedistribon omeets on a regular basis. Regular discussion is services from being released, then as en oajs oioiga proportionately more effort will need to go into also a means to adjust monitoring as field monitoring of the effectiveness of private circumstances anexein rue, and of sector inputs. ~~~~~~~airng impressions gained in the field. sector inputs. Data analysis is likely to cause more problems than data collection. As much analysis as possible should be done as close as possible Managing a monitoring system of the type (in terms of time and personnel) to the point of described involves: (a) programming the system collection. Nonetheless, the project needs to have so that all parts come on stream in the capacity to undertake or redo as much of the complementary fashion, (b) coordinating the data analysis as necessary. Results must be system in such a way that there is a timely flow reported promptly according to a schedule of digestible data to relevant parties, and (c) established in parallel with the time sheet for data canalizing results into project operations. collection. Someone must have overall management Canalizing results begins with exchange of data responsibility. That person should be able to so that relevant project staff and professional comprehend the project and the monitoring advisers receive the results of monitoring in time system as a whole, and should be part of the for personal review pror to formal review. The project management team. Even where there is a results of monitoring are then fed into project ready-made monitoring team in a participating operations through: (a) annual or eighteen-month agency, there needs to be someone dedicated to process reviews, and (b) analytical workshops ensuring that monitoring meets project held every four to six years for retrospective requirements. review of progress (for ten-year projects, these 89 Part Two - Guidelines for Project Components would comprise the mid-term and final review). strategy and investrnent, they are also likely to In addition, full data sets should be left by each specify adjustments for the associated project to guide new projects. monitoring. This is also the time when additional *The main feedback to the monitoring system studies might be conceived to pursue a trend or itself would come from formal process reviews. opportunity identified through the monitoring Although the main purpose of these reviews is to process. chart the future course of the project in terms of 90 Conclusion 91 12 Broader Implications for International Agencies Application of the guidelines from earlier sunmmarize the main implications for task chapters lead development agencies into managers. As will be seen, there is not much that procedures and activities that lie outside the is new, although existing procedures are normal confines of sectoral projects. This final combined in a different way. chapter examines four of the broader aspects of Project preparation will vary in time and inputs aiding pastoral development: as in any other type of project, although it will * management issues associated with the take longer overall because of the need to process approach; categorize the pastoral systems and define the * improving baseline knowledge of pastoral scope of the project accordingly. More time than systems and their environment; average is needed for (a) retrieving and analyzing * assisting technology development; and existing data, (b) conducting PRA, and (c) * overcoming attitudinal problems about preparing likely development paths. pastoralism. The minimum period from identification to pre-appraisal is about one year, with another six Managing Process Projects months for appraisal. It is better to involve people familiar with pastoralism than to try to Onefet ofnthe ps approach is ta a incorporate representatives from each of the ten project commitment s a tembsi of an or so relevant specializations. On that basis, an idicveosmnt, sporths.Deted byaostsaten aililel allocation of twelve staff months should suffice, development paths. Detailed costs are availableinlsvofcsutttmebtotonig only for the first phase of operations, with the icial an communt representatin. rest determined by monitoring. The result may a pre-pojcfiity iseusalysnt not be much different from the current practice of n extrafeld studis a sometimessother adjutingand xtening bluprin proect s afund extra field studies and sometimes other adjusting and extending a blueprint project as amiputs once pre-appraisal has shown that a basis result of supervision, but it is a significant step a oje exists her input a t to for a bank to fund projects whose dimensions are rproect exsts. Other puts are dnfficult to known to be uncertain. ~~~~predict, but studies are needed to assess the known tohbe uncretain, variety ofprojectcapacity for cost-sharing and other strategic Given the increasing variety of projectaset,snodinCper8Abuegh affangements,~~~~ ~ itmyb.htthsadtoa aspects, as noted in Chapter 8. About eight variangements,itlmaydbeithat thi adtion a months of staff or consultant time should be on variant can be allowed without subjecting it to cal wthmracesbeined.Stis foma poic revie. If it wer juge call, withl more accessible If needed. Studies formal polcyreiew weeudealone, without capital input, may not need a unacceptable, then it is better that the World project-tied facility (see Portfolio Management, Bank avoids process situations altogether rather next page), but the principle of pre-project than continue trying to force problematic areas of funding, from whichever source, certainly needs rural development into a standard project mold. to be assured. On the assumption that a process approach will be used, the following paragraphs 93 Conclusion Project implementation proceeds within a time decisionmaking, supervisors should assess the frame and budget ceiling determined at appraisal monitoring system itself to ensure that it is and negotiations. A process approach does not focused on essentials and is cost-effective. mean that projects are necessarily longer term Portfolio management becomes increasingly than standard projects - usually they would be, important as the variety and style of individual but the provision for regular review of 'what projects becomes more diversified. It has already happens next' actually provides more been suggested (Chapter 4) that range-based oppotunities for terminating a sterile project projects need to be categorized according to than normally would arise. whether their aim is environmental conservation, Funding arrangements would probably be livestock production, pastoral development, or left open for decision during negotiations. There . ' . . . .oa several~ ~~~ fo no,ai soa emergency relief. The categorization IS importanlt are several reasons for g because requirements are different at preparation development projects in a preconceived financial and during implementation (Table 4-1). mold: With such extreme differences, a lot of Institutional arrangements could follow one backtracking is involved if a project is wrongly of several models (Chapter 5), ranging from one categorized at the outset. It is usually clear to executing agency to an interdepartmental which category an intervention belongs, although consortium. Local government and/or NGOs are its likely to be involved, with provision over time for intermedate situations do arise: - . . ~~~~~~~~~~~~Livestock projects are usually associated devolving financial and management with semi-sedentary systems under semi-arid to responsibility to herder organizations. . To Capitall content could be relatively smallnuhmdcniin.Tesm odtos with a low economic rate of retuie Apart from however, could call for a process approach if the with a lo ecnmcrtfrtr. Apr.fo system iS not already comlmercialized -or even facilities for executing agencies, capital items could be restricted to limited road improvements, an emergency operation if population pressure is groundwater developments and servce centers, exacerbated by drought. The possibility of gunarevelthesemayopmeonst,an service ceters , subsidy is entered in Table 4-1 on the assumption the project rather than at the outsetr More critical that elements of rural infrastructure (roads and to project success will be the oput to Mostitutional service costs) are not charged to livestock to pojet scces wll e th inut o istiutinal production. An economic rate of return (ERR) of development, studies, and monitoring. Levels of cost-sharing and subsidy need to be decided for around 30 percent might apply to a project where cost-sharing and subsidy need to be decided for ipt lo h aktn flvsokta each project or pastoral system according to its oeputs allow the market dg of lSvestock that situation. ~~~~~~~~otherwise would not be marketed. Some livestock situation. Cash flow is episodic - the outlay can be projects have claimed an ERR of over 50 percent predicted as accurately for the first phase as for at appraisal, extending to infinity in the case of any project, but thereafter release of funds would Kenya Animal Health Services, but performance . . ' ~~~~~~~~~~has never reached these heights. be conditional upon agreements reached at Pastaeve lopment progetsa reua rjetrves Pastoral development projects always Regular projetrviews. needtobeheldeveryyearrequire a process approach, although quite often Review meetings need to be held every yearcopntsoudhveoomcjticao, or two. The frequency cited in earlier chapters is schpas a omarketin coneor, junst om twelve to eighteen months. The object is to plan conditions,adrought.manageent ande tcna and approve the forward program on the basis of services. The cost of the monitoring that progress, heavily influenced by data from the ac es a poss poe however, shol projct onitrin sytem.Theactal fequncyaccompanies a process project, however, should project monitoring system. The actual frequency be inlue in an aclto fERh of meetings and the composition of the review mnting in a sarate or otna t. group are important matters for task managers to m ergency p are notin the keep under review. Although the monitoring astream of World Bank lendg, but are not system (described in detail in Chapter I) is excluded either. Morocco, Kenya, and Zimbabwe expected to provide all the infornation needed for 94 Implications for International Agencies have recently had emergency drought recovery is usually conducted in stages over more than one projects. Justification is greatest where the year, and may culminate in testing interventions. emergency operation is followed by a longer-term The orientation is usually towards input to pastoral development, as in the case of production, examining how households and Kenya. A short-term project of the type cited in larger groupings utilize resources for purposes of Table 4-1 gains nothing from a process approach livestock or crop-livestock production. This unless it is a prelude to a more substantial project means that the study is a form of farming to follow. A longer-term emergency project systems research (FSR), although that term is aimed at the relocation of pastoralists would, of avoided here because much of FSR is just course, need a process approach. socioeconomic research with token levels of It is easier to assimilate a variety of project ecological and biological input. types if they are conceived as components of a The result is a report on the dynamics of the managed country portfolio. The concept of system(s) that can guide future research and managed country portfolios has the advantage of development. Examples include the ILCA assuring coherence in World Bank operations and Systems Study series, several of which concern national development. An added advantage for dryland pastoralism (Wilson, de Leeuw, and de pastoral development projects is that it is easier Haan 1983; Solomon Bekure et al. 1991; to encourage policy and legal change in pastoral Coppock 1994). land tenure if the encouragement can be More of these studies are required. Apart presented within the context of a total program from their value to the development of the actual rather than as an isolated pastoral issue. Finally, systems under study, wider coverage would help a country program framework facilitates the both theorists and development planners escape liaison necessary to separate initiatives that are the trap of working to a generalized model of better left to other donors and NGOs and those of pastoralism. Three or four in-depth studies in a scale to warrant World Bank involvement. each of the categories of systems described in Chapter 2 would counter the overgeneralizations Improved Understanding of that prevail at present. Studies of desertic Pastoral Systems pastoral systems and of confined vs free-range systems across an arid to subhumid gradient are Perhaps the most common risk attributed to particularly needed. More studies will show the pastoral development projects is drought, but this individuality of pastoralists' responses (as is a superficial interpretation. The real risk lies in determined by ethnicity, education, and relations superficial knowledge of how pastoral systems with the State), as well as commonalities linked and ecological processes operate. with climate and resource availability. Systems studies have been referred to at various Ecological processes need to be better points in previous chapters. The term is used to understood for much the same reasons that denote enquiries to establish how systems of present generalizations are an impediment to resource use function and how they respond to pastoral development. Recognition of change and intervention, including opportunities disequilibrium is certainly better than an for diversification. In the context of pastoral assumption of equilibrium, but better still is to systems: regard both as snapshot interpretations of The system comprises the people, their ecological processes at work over time (Chapter resources, and the environment in which they 3). operate. The environment comprises natural, Even casual observation over a few years is social, and geopolitical components. sufficient to show that vegetation and The enquiry is interdisciplinary, conducted productivity vary seasonally in the arid tropics. by a team that is able to integrate individual Observation over a few decades will then skills and work with the community. The enquiry 95 Conclusion demonstrate that these changes are not random, Research on ecological processes lies or at least not without reason. For example: upstream of most organizational mandates so that it is less clear who should take the international * Arid zne vegeation cn cyclethroughinitiative. Such an initiative is needed, however, several forms, with Commiphora trees becoming senile and giving way to grassland since ecological research is not a priority for until the grassland is invaded by Acacia, national systems. University linkages - bridging and then by Commiphora again. the North-South divide and combining arid zone * Semi-desert grassland can cycle through interests-are one possibility. perennial and annual forms, with perennial grasses fading away during dry decades and Technology Development returning again during wetter cycles. Technology development has bypassed These changes occur as one state shifts to pastoralists. While technology has less to another, speeded or slowed by the intercession of contribute in the arid zone than in zones of higher a really wet year, a hot fire, or (with potential, not much effort has been made to Commiphora) a surge of elephant activity. It is understand or meet pastoralists' needs. Under just not plausible to write plant succession out of arid pastoral conditions, technological inputs are arid zone ecology. Savory (1988) is nearer the best categorized according to whether they (a) mark when he invokes a scale of brittleness add to the supply of stockfeed and water or (b) rather than the equilibrium vs non-equilibrium improve the utilization of what is already concept, but even this has its limitations, as available. The principal areas of intervention are indicated in Annex C. As also noted there, it is listed in Table 12-1 according to these categories, likely that chaotic behavior within ecological with options discussed below: processes is accentuated by aridity. Increasing the resource base is not often Research on ecological processes is needed practical. Additional land is seldom available to sort out these ideas and inconsistencies. (outside the tsetse belt of Africa), and there are Placing a few ecologists in the field for a twenty- not many untapped aquifers. The hazards of year spell would help, although computing power plowing up more rangeland for cultivation and is needed to explore chaos and speed the progress increasing groundwater extraction further reduce through ecological modeling. Such clarification options. will not necessarily make NRM any easier, but at Seeding or planting rangeland has least it would allow planners to complement the attractions locally, mainly in temperate or semi- indigenous knowledge of pastoralists. and to subhumid areas and in semi-sedentary Institutional responsibility for these types of pastoral systems. Testing plants for those areas study is not easily allocated. has been extensive, and the main priority for Systems studies are in principle suited to further research is to seek legumes adapted to a national research, although it can be difficult to wider range of conditions. Undersowing with form and maintain interdisciplinary teams from legumes has the advantage of upgrading soil government sources. Universities offer better fertility without heavy dependence on fertilizers, prospects if someone else is paying and faculties which are usually too costly to apply to are communicating, but for comparative analysis rangeland. Research in agroforestry, for fuel as of systems across ecological gradients (as much as for other products, may have higher recommended above), it is still necessary to look prority than range improvement per se. to international research. As an interested party, Diversifying use qf cropland offers great the World Bank should bring its influence to bear scope in agropastoral systems. The first stage of through the Consultative Group on International diversification can usually be supported by off- Agricultural Research. the-shelf technologies, but there is need for research into more innovative options for later 96 Implications for International Agencies use. The focus needs to be on water-use brought to bear, but only a few of wide efficiency and plant material that either combines application. food products and stockfeed or that will fill Grazing management research is identified niches in the farming system. Research problematic because it is difficult to simulate on tree crops should not be forgotten. pastoral practices experimentally. One possibility Mist capture is only an option in areas to overcome this problem is to use holistic which experience a misty season. Under those resource management in a semi-experimental conditions, mist capture offers a rare opportunity mode - applying HRM guidelines thoughtfully to actually increase water resources. Wire as primarily a participatory learning process, screens can collect several liters per square meter mainly in arid to semi-arid areas with perennial per day during the mist season. However, large grassland. Under very arid conditions, monitoring screens are cumbersome as well as costly, so the movements and resource usage is all that is method is unlikely to provide more than strategic needed initially, while in wetter zones there is domestic reserves. Nonetheless research is more scope for devising grazing rotations to meet warranted in appropriate regions on screen specific needs. The latter rotations would be designs and harnessing mist collection by trees designed around seasonal growth patterns and the for their own benefit and that of plants in their palatability of target species, and often the need vicinity. to allow rest and recovery before and after Intensifying the use of existing resources is the periodic use of fire. essence of NRM. There is a wide range of Burning is not normally a recommnended management techniques that theoretically can be practice in arid areas, although it may still be the Tablk 12-1. Strategiesfor Increasing Availability of Stockfeed and Water Resource Increase supply Intensify use Rangeland Area Usually fixed, unless won by conquest Grazing Undersow legumes Use grazing rotation [Use fertilizer] [Burn thickets] Browse Plant browse Manage access; harvest or use 'browse-plus' a Fuelwood Plant woodlots lmprove fuel use Cropland Area Plow up more rangeland Conserve soil/water Crops Diversify crops Conserve fodder Water Groundwater [New wellfieldl [Increase pumping] Streamflow Protect watershed Water-spreading Rainfall n.a. Water-harvesting Air humidity IMist caLturel n.a. n.a. Not applicable. Note: Underlining indicates strategies of particular potential; brackets denote strategies constrained by cost or limited availability of the relevant natural resources. a. See next page. 97 Conclusion most practical means to control thicket formation engineering solutions to old problems, but there on run-on sites. If more were known of the is also need to ensure that the harvested water is tolerance of individual plant species to different put to best use. Sometimes the water will be intensities of fire, it would assist in the strategic stored for drinking, but harvesting runoff for use and control of fire. This is not a plea for crop or fodder production is also a possibility, more research, but rather for a more precise requiring selection and testing of appropriate approach where burning is under investigation, planting material. such as recording fire temperature and responses Institutional responsibility for technology by species and age-class. ntttoa epsbl frecoog Browse utlizaton is probably the most development is shared between international rewarowse utilization resear. Tero y te mot centers and national programs. The only point to rewarding area for research. There are two stress here is the need to ensure that the bulk of the research effort is conducted in or in close * Because heavy utilization kills palatable association with the pastoral systems that are browse plants without the rapid replacement being served. It is easy to say that research that occurs with grasses, there is need for focuses on real problems, but less easy to ensure more information about how plants (by that constraints are being addressed rather than species and age) react to browsing and the ambitions of researchers. cutting intensity. One way to ensure requisite research is to - Because many woody species have low write a research component into development palatability, there is need for more projects, or at least to invite active participation information about what determines by relevant research organizations. This palatability and how palatability and approach has not been examined in detail in the utilization can be improved. guidelines, but it is one to bear in mind during the This second problem area is particularly preparation of major projects. It sometimes meets wide. It opens possibilities for managing access with resistance on the grounds that researchers to coincide with season of value, collecting and are fully committed to 'real' research, but there is curing browse material (at least from large-leafed nothing more likely to yield useful results than to or heavily-podded species), and dosing livestock focus research on the needs of ongoing to improve the utilization of browse (along the development. lines of 'browse-plus,' Chapter 10). Also, the more that is known of naturally-occurring Overcoming Attitudinal Problems browse, the easier it is to select and introduce 'Attitudinal problems' drew comment in Chapter additional plants that fit local needs. I as a major constraint to pastoral development. Conservation offeedfrom cropland is a Systems studies help to correct false images, but more restricted field for research, but nonetheless it is still necessary to ensure that understanding useful in order that the storage of crop residues of pastoral development improves. and other products becomes more practical for agropastoralists. The conservation of materials Information networks are a step in the right from cropland is usually more practical than direction, although one feature of networks is that making hay from rangeland, although the latter they tend to attract participants with academic should not be overlooked. The value of conserved interests rather than those with policy and field material can sometimes be increased by chemical responsibilities in pastoral development. The treatment, and always by rationing it by class of most useful are probably the ODI Pastoral animal and season. Development Network (currently under threat of Water harvesting probably ranks with closure) and some of the country networks. browse utilization as the most rewarding area for Those with a disciplinary bias are more helpful to research. Research on actual harvesting systems career development than to pastoral development. need not extend much beyond seeking novel 98 Implications for International Agencies Selective dissemination of information (SDI) is are useful, but the essential message should be provided by a number of documentation centers, that it is necessary to: including the International Livestock Research * appreciate the diversity of pastoral systems, Institute (ILRI).' The standard procedure is to * make the most of available data and past record each participant's interests and then experience, and furnish summaries of whatever documentation is experlence, and * apply a process approach to new pastoral relevant to each profile. The problem with this development. procedure is that accessioning procedures are so generalized that the information provided still The rationale for focusing on these themes is contains a high proportion of information of self-evident from earlier chapters, but the middle marginal relevance to the recipient. This defeats one needs elaboration - since scant use is made the purpose, and often what is received remains of past records and project experience. Even unread. unsuccessful projects can be very informative if the steps that went into the planning and Short courses are much more likely to instill an ipementat ae analyze in aiT in-deth apreciaion o whatis inolvedin iplementation are analyzed in detail. The in-depth aeveoppeiati ofvwhaltypis involve iu tendency to write off old projects as attempts to pastoral development. Several tyr es of courses .mos wetr racigoratrlssmse r s~~~~~mpose western ranching on pastoralists niisses 1. The International Livestock Centre for Africa the point - even if the concept is changed, many (ILCA) merged with the International Laboratory for of the barriers to progress remain the same. It is Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD) to form still necessary to ensure that pastoral land is not ELRI. grabbed by others, and to find the means to delegate management responsibility to Box 12-1. Incorporating Past Project Experience in Short Courses on Pastoral Development Full use should be made of the experience in Iran, Kenya, Syria, and Tunisia, all of whichl have a history of development efforts extending back over thirty years. The Kenyan experience is particularly instructive in that it sought to incorporate new legal instruments to recognize customary rights. A course of the type proposed would also draw on other examples, but could, for example, include the experience of group registration in Maasailand, with attention to: * the baseline situation (1966); * stages in drafting enabling legislation; * changes incorporated at World Bank appraisal; * subsequent land adjudication; * institutional responses to adjudication; * issues related to group constitutions and counseling; * impacts on schooling, resource management, etc; * loan applications, supervision, and repayment; * environmental, social, and economic responses and impacts; * the predicament of the second generation; • stages in the trend to individualization; * impacts of individualization; * lessons learned; * exercises in redesigning the program; and * inputs now required to help title holders (1996). Without studying the steps taken to assess ecological potential, social-territorial organization, and stockwealth, as well as to delegate responsibility, the present generation of plainers and managers is unlikely to do any better than earlier efforts. 99 Conclusion pastoralists. Short courses could usefully dwell in universities must bear responsibility for the detail on past project experience in these fields dominance of reductionist thinking that is now (Box 12-1). the bane of managing and developing complex Educational systems must also be targeted if systems. No opportunity should be lost to help attitudes are to be changed. This may lie outside universities fulfill their intellectual potential. the direct scope of pastoral development projects, School curricula need to include more but World Bank suppoftasoral the education sector ecology at an earlier age. By secondary school, provides an opportunity to ensure that curricula curricula must ensure the subjects needed for are attuned to development needs. Information on career development. The primary school years how aridity affects development needs to enter are the time to build on what pastoral children curricula aall levels of educatione already know about herding. It can do no harm Universictes could be the venue for the short when children start school for them to learn that courses already described. University staff may they are not ignorant, and that people earn PhDs also be invited to participate in process in what the students already know, except that monitoring. Through such linkages the World the PhDs call it ethnobotany. To learn something Bank can play a part in encouraging inter-faculty about arid zone ecology and civics based on collaboration that is often lacking. One of the pastoral organization would not be detrimental to most disappointing aspects of university those who leave pastoralism, and could help bureaucracy is that faculties so often work in those who remain to be better pastoralists. The isolation and miss the opportunity to lead starting point, of course, must be teaching the interdisciplinary activity and thinking. Indeed, teachers. 100 Annexes 101 Annex A paid employment in livestock kept in their home usually benefits NRM, as when imposed areas. But even without these trends, there are transhumance ensures annual rest from grazing. always households that have few livestock Motivation comes into play when there is a because they are newly established, have suffered choice of where and when to move, either within some calamity, or are improvident or incompetent an imposed framework or where no such as pastoralists. framework exists. Movement is then determined The effect of this imbalance on NRM by three or four principal motives, sometimes depends on the extent to which societal working in unison and at other times in mechanisms support needy families, whether by opposition: absorbing them into wealthier households, * optimizing livestock production and family offering subsistence in exchange for services, or welfare (moving so as to keep livestock restocking deserving cases. All such mechanisms welfare with family.needs); help to maintain solidarity. Their effectiveness output in line with famly needs); declies, hweve, as roupwealt decines nd . conserving resources, particularly breeding declines, however, as group wealth declines and stock (in order to have the capacity to as social differentiation widens. Clearly poor families with just a few goats access different recover from stock losses) but also feed resources and have different priorities than later use); wealthy families with many cattle or camnels. * avoiding hazards of disease, drought, and MobIlity predation (which become compulsory MobilitY movement when the hazard is great); and Mobility is a key feature of pastoralism. * diversi,fying or commercializing production, Geographers were quick to differentiate which applies when pastoralists rely on food nomadism and transhumance on the basis of grain or on maximizing the sale price of patterns of movement (free-ranging or following livestock (when movements are organized to set seasonal shifts). Ecologists have since be near croplands or markets at appropriate emphasized the value of shorter range movements times of year). in utilizing key resource sites. However, the Predilection operates in ways that cannot pattern and the range of movement describe only readily be generalized. Where once the the superficial aspects of mobility. More predilections of leaders would have been fundamental to NRM is the rationale for paramount, education and politicization now movement. instill new allegiances. When predilection for Rationale for movement is often complex. Some nomadism wanes, more sedentary lifestyles movements are inescapable, when responses are follow. Without conservatism or mutualism, by compulsion or compunction, while others pastoralists tend to deviate from customary involve choice, guided by the motivations and movements. Opportunism is essential for predilections of pastoralists. optimizing wet-season grazing areas, but is Imposition occurs by compulsion when potentially antisocial in dry-season areas and climatic imperatives are involved (of the type anarchic when used to expand territory and noted above under 'seasonal access'), and by stockwealth. compunction when movement is determined by Implications for NRM are discussed where customary ethics (for example, joining clan relevant in the main text, but four general gatherings, moving with phases of the moon, or conclusions can be drawn: otherwise conforming to societal norms). Compunction becomes compulsion when non- . Although mobility is the principal tool of compliance attracts serious social stigma or customary NRM, movement is often due to retaliation (for example, from farmers who want factors unrelated to NRM. livestock out of their area while crops are * Effective intervention requires prior vulnerable to grazing). Imposed movement knowledge of the extent to which movement 104 Customary NRM is imposed by climatic or other imperatives, ramifications, so that a supreme authority can and the motives underlying other moves. become involved in ruling on matters of detail, * Little is published on rationales for such as the ownership of an individual well. movement, and tapping indigenous The example most commonly cited of knowledge requires more time and effort supreme authority exercising unifying influence than is provided by rapid appraisal. over NRM is the case of the interior delta of the * The current predilections of pastoralists are Niger river. By all accounts, a highly not always compatible with sustainable sophisticated management system was in NRM. operation (in what is now Mali) during precolonial times, whereby access to the Resource Tenure resources of the Niger delta was closely controlled according to locality, date, and The concept of tenure comes into play only after pastoral group. rights of access have been established. Tenure anotherexpl refers to the procedures by which a pastoral c nciheetig pta si take aceevry fe society controls access to the resources under its years in southern Ethiopia to maintain 'the Peace control, and through which members of that of t oran'. Bindin d on emerge from society access both these resources and resources the meet ing m erssuhs eter a controlled by others. those meetmgs on matters such as whether a This duality, allowing movement between group is entitled to preclude other users from w . . ~~~~~~~what traditionally were kept as communal reserve territories, is one of the characteristics of pastoral grazing areas. tenure. Another is that pastoral tenure systems are defined in terrns of individual resources and Area management varies from being a nebulous not of total area resources. Even if an concept (as in nomadic societies) to being agropastoralist or other cultivator has exclusive structured through two or three societal levels. In right to cultivate an area, that right is resource- the latter case, area responsibility lies with based, applying to the soil (and of course the kinship or neighborhood groups and their crops rooted therein), and not necessarily to trees leadership. Unless the leadership is installed by growing in the cultivated area or grazing that is higher authority, its character is usually diffuse, on offer after the crops are harvested. operating by consensus while acknowledging the How tenure relates to individual resources authority of individuals in specific aspects of was explained in Chapter 1 and is not repeated pastoral life. Decisions on major movements are here. What is relevant in the present context is commonly taken at this level, along with how NRM is managed. decisions about resting specific areas and controlling access by outsiders. Management Systems Individual resource management focuses Customary NRM arises from a web of principally on water. It is sometimes permissible interacting needs, pressures, and responses. The for families to reserve grazing for their own use, extent to which the network as a whole comes but more usually this is a group decision. The under management is a matter of historical group may also oversee water management, chance and the emergence of unifying leadership. although always with an individual or family in Normally, however, pastoral societies are charge of each strategic watering point. structured with both vertical and horizontal Privately-owned wells and reservoirs are the divisions of responsibilities. responsibility of owners or their clans, while elsewhere it is the job of a manager (sometimes Supreme authority is principally about hereditary) to organize maintenance and apply maintaining ethnic identity and societal ethics, or customary rules of access. sometimes maintaining the authority of a ruling Women make or influence many family. But upholding pastoral ethics has many management decisions, but their ownership of 105 AnnexA resources seldom extends beyond livestock. relatives. And sometimes 'ownership' rests with Issues of livestock ownership and management the clan and not with families at all. Clan are often complicated. Either sex may manage ownership extends only to the species that livestock of the other (depending on species, represent the greatest asset, usually cattle or location, and stage of lactation), both at family- camels. level and when minding livestock of friends or 106 B External Intervention in Pastoral NRM The freedom of pastoralists to move and operate or perverted - to expropriate pastoral land for their own systems of social organization and other uses. Agricultural settlement, ranching, and control has come under acute challenge this wildlife reserves have all encroached, often century. Colonialism and totalitarianism have taking the most valuable grazing areas. both taken their toll, as has population pressure. Administrative systems designed for colonial Subsequent development efforts have not been rule often sidelined or suppressed indigenous much help either, as outlined in this annex. systems. This did not happen when administrators saw their principal task as reinforcing timely movement among seasonal The effects of colonialism in Africa are of grazing areas, but even light levels of colonial current interest for two reasons - on the one administration undermined local capabilities in hand, these effects persist, but they also give an management and conflict resolution. Colonial indication of what to expect as totalitarian and bureaucracies almost invariably proved too related regimes are dismantled in other regions. expensive for post-independence budgets, and too top-heavy for effective development in remote Rules of tenure were introduced that were alien areav. to local custom, and newly established areas. boundaries restricted movement and split pastoral Inputs to pastoral development were modest, groups between States. Introduction of the but the basis for present-day veterinary services concept of ownership led either to the State was laid and a significant amount of water owning everything or provisions for private development took place. Research was better ownership that disadvantaged pastoralists and funded under colonial regimes than now. Systems left them as second-class citizens. Land law and research started later, but it is remarkable how other legislation was modeled on the legal code of many of the resource maps and sociological texts the relevant colonial power. in use today date from the colonial period. Not all was negative, however. The The colonial attitude to pastoral establishment of boundaries and their firm development was based on a mixture of administration helped some of the weaker paternalism and environmentalism, coupled with pastoral societies maintain their identity where designs to commercialize livestock. The otherwise they would have been overrun by more environmental lobby was led by soil and wildlife aggressive neighbors. In addition, discriminatory conservationists. The few ecologists involved land laws were sometimes changed to improve drew their intellectual support from Europe and pastoral rights. South Africa rather than from range science in But most legal codes have retained their North America. original character or have been adjusted to the political character of the State, with input by Project Interventions, 1966-1993 lawyers trained in western or Islamic concepts The aid that burgeoned in the 1960s as and with little grounding in customary law. colonialism waned brought new influences, Meanwhile, the law has frequently been used - including that of American range science. Initial 107 Annex B inputs to pastoml areas, however, went into In-depth monitoring would have shown, for planning, and material assistance was slower to example, the folly of expanding land adjudication arrive. In the meantime, conditions were in Kenya and increasing the number of entitled worsening - pastoral land continued to be lost groups while the original group ranches were still to other uses, pressure on resources continued to laboring under inappropriate constitutions and grow, and sometimes insurgency and policies of inadequate counseling (Pratt 1990). Equally sedentarization added to other woes. The unfortunate was the expansion of ranching in institutional framework for development support Botswana and the attempt in the arid zone of remained inadequate, and when investment northern Kenya to introduce year-round grazing projects started in the late 1 960s, they faced a in former wet-season grazing areas. The latter daunting task. initiative, however, attempted through water The World Bank has been one of the main development in demarcated grazing blocks, was financiers. Table B-1 shows how projects have the fault of planners and not of monitoring. changed in their attitude to pastoral development, Not until 1975 was it accepted that project with the main conceptual shifts summarized at types were inadequate to deliver the expected the bottom of the table. economic benefits or contribute positively to NRM. Thereafter, from 1976 to 1979, new Pilot projects were designed to extend r.ct so htt sals cm i-ae agricultural sector lending to cover range-based projects sought to establish community-based livestock production. The first project was the organizations that could exercise NRM Kenya Livestock Development Project (KLDP), responsibility without the heavy institutional which the World Bank justified at appraisal in trappings of the Kenyan group ranches. The 1967 on criteria modeled on those used for livestock projects of eastern Senegal and Niger livestock projects in Latin America. Other pilot were of this type. projects, similarly justified on livestock Retrenchment marked the next seven years, as a performance parameters, followed in quick result of general disenchantment with range- succession in other parts of Africa. Some were based projects. There were few free-standing located in the wetter zones, but like KLDP, three livestock projects, although there were new rural or four affected dry-area pastoralism. development projects with livestock components The best way to describe these projects is (such as in Mali and eastern Senegal), and a that they extended government policies and plans Botswana project that linked livestock for the national livestock industry into pastoral development to land management. In addition, the areas. They have since been categorized as Morocco Middle Atlas-Central Area Agriculture ranching projects inspired by Hardin's 'tragedy Development Project sought to establish pastoral of the commons', but in fact only one out of three organizations in a silvicultural/agropastoral arid zone projects had a ranch component. In environment to assist in range management. The other projects, ranching was confined to few free-standing livestock projects that were subhumid and semi-arid zones, and all were started all focused on animal health services, conceived before Hardin's paper (1968) became seeking to reduce project complexity by tackling influential. just one component. Projects of this type in Portfolio expansion began in 1973. Second Somalia and Kenya were no more successful than phase projects (starting nith KLDP 2) and their predecessors, but one in the Central African expansion into new countries meant that the Republic that relied more heavily on private number of livestock projects doubled by 1979, initiatives was a definite success (Box 6-1). accompanying a general expansion in World Reentry to pastoral situations began in 1987, Bank lending for agriculture. The fact that albeit on a modest scale. A rangeland component expansion took place at all in pastoral areas can was included in Ethiopia's Fourth Livestock be attributed to inadequate monitoring during the Development Project, and range-based projects pilot phase. followed in Mauritania and Chad. Like the Niger 108 External Intervention project of 1979, all of these focused on forming and degraded govemorate in the western community-based organizations with NRM desert. responsibility, although the Chad project aimed While these projects deal with semi- to restructure the entire livestock subsector. Most sedentary production systems, others are in line of these projects also aimed to achieve more to support mobile pastoralism. There are several explicit decentralization and privatization than projects under preparation or early their predecessors (Boxes B-1 and B-2). It was implementation in West Africa (Burkina Faso, not until 1993-94 that the World Bank moved to Mauritania, and Niger) and one in Kenya. The adopt projects described explicitly as NRM Kenya Arid Lands Resource Management Project projects. is destined to cover the northern half of the country, with components for drought management, marketing and infrastructure, and NRM projects are all too recent to have shown community microprojects (expanding on work clear results. Initiatives began first in West Asia initiated during a two-year Emergency Drought and North Africa (WANA) in: Recovery Project). Viewed together, these projects show WaTurkey, where the Eastern Anatolia increasing commitment to providing direct Watershedsoil Ronseh ation Pndrojget support for pastoral development. Especially improvemen soi54 conervationhnderngscoverinoteworthy is the extent to which the Kenya management sn 54 aicrocatchlrents covering project is seeking to decentralize decisionmaking 400,000 hectares, as part of a larger effort to and involve NGOs in supporting community protect the upper Euphrates watershed initiatives. The project also calls for a *Tunisia, where the Northwest Mountainous comprehensive review of policies and legislation Areas Development Project addresses rural cmrhnierve fplce n eilto Aovereasndevelopm Projectadressudesgrurain bcovering pastoral land tenure. On the other hand, poverty and natural resource eradin these projects are proceeding with only participatoay and sociliserice, superficial knowledge of social-territorial pstartichipatoryd watershedorbilations, organization and limited provision for systems establishing credit associationsr study and monitoring. They are not process facililtating planning and research. • Egypt, where the Matruh Resource projects (Chapter 6). Management Project is providing (along with Other initiatives by the World Bank include research and extension, rural finance, and field testing of holistic resource management project coordination) an NRM component to (HRM) under Sahelian conditions and improve water management and the use of maintaining a dialogue on other approaches. The soil and vegetation resources in a deprived involvement with HRM is summarized in Box B- 3 and the significance of other concepts is reviewed in Annex C. 109 Table B-l. Approaches to Pastoral Development in World Bank Projects in Arid and Semi-arid Zones (1965-1995) Early livestock and rural development projects, Current NRAM projects and concepts now being operationalized, Parameter 1970s and 1980s 1990s Type Conmmercial ranching Range/livestock Integrated rural NRM projects Opportunistic HRM f (in countries where development in pastoral development (mostly in management e commercial ranching areas agropastoral areas) a already featured) Focus Capital investments Earlier - land rights, Addressing pastoral Pastoral production Advocates mobility, Advocates an in fencing, water, group ranches/pastoral development as one NRM; private maintaining access to holistic approach to etc.; ranching units for comnmunal component of district or institutions; large areas and key resource planning, technologies, private areas, infrastructure regional development incentive and resources; efficient involving detailed and parastatal (water, roads, regulation drought contingency, goal setting of all ranches markets ...) framework; better marketing range users and Later - policy involvement of all arrangements identification of framework, need for actors necessary tools mobility and flexibility in grazing rights allocation, less rigid grazing control, ° organization of herder- managed services Issues Stratification of Increased Mobilizing cross-sector Sustainability; Herder organizations, production b, commercialization; inputs; delivering needed NRM; livestock- drought contingency; intensification grazing rights services on an crop-forest definition of through allocation; herd size area/community basis integration; public/private sector sedentarization control traditional systems roles; management of cost recovery schemes Results Disappointing Limited success c Disappointing Too early for Too early for Too early for assessment assessment assessment Causes of Rigid organizational Inappropriate incentive Over reliance on (a) Too early for Too early for Too early for failure formrs; inadequate framework;d rigid coordinated action by assessment assessment assessment appreciation of imposition of grazing (uncoordinated) ministries, traditional system; and land rights; or (b) creation of area assumption that institutional development agencies, pastoralism is wveaknesses in seldom sustained post- market-driven implementing agencies project; inadequate provision for local participation Projects Botswana Livestock Earlier - Eastern Eastern Senegal Rural Mali and Burkina Kenya Arid Lands Sahelian sub- Development Senegal Livestock Development project, Faso NRM projects, Resource regional pilot projects, Kenya Development project, Somalia Central Egypt Matruh Management project, program (see Box Livestock Kenya and Burkina Rangelands Development Resource Mauritania and B-3) Development project, Faso group ranches, project, Ethiopia Fourth Management /Niger NRM projects, Yemen conununal area Livestock Development project, Turkey Iran Rangelands and components of the project, Morocco Middle Eastern Anatolia Livestock Botswana projects Atlas Agriculture Watershed Development project, Development project, Rehabilitation Later - Mali Mopti China Xinjiang Area project, Tunisia Area Development Development project Northwest project (5th Region), Mountainous Areas Niger Livestock project, Development Somalia Livestock project Health Services project, Chad Livestock projects, Mauritania Livestock projects Capital investment Institution building ^ Blueprint planning Flexibility(moving toward a process approach) Short-term detailed project agreements Shift Long-term flexible program financing Centralized/public sector decisionmaking 1965 > 1995 Decentralized/private and pastoralist decisionmaking Livestock development Sustained resource management Reducing stocking rates Living with uncertainty g Source: from de Haan 1994. a. This model attracted more support from UN and bilateral agencies than from the World Bank. b. Model in which national production is stratified into three zones - pastoral zone (zone of birth); agropastoral zone (growing-out); and agricultural zone (fattening). c. Not successful in all aspects; some encouraging results involving herder organizations in range management. d. Especially in WANA region through the effect of subsidies (interest rate, food supply, services, prices). e. As outlined by Behnke, Scoones, and Kerven 1993 f. Holistic resource management (FRM), Savory 1988 g. Coining Scoones title (1 994). Annex B Box B-i. Experience wth Decentralization in Box B-2. Experience in Privatizing Rural Development Projects Services in Pastoral Areas The poor performance of early integrated rural Privatization of services earlier delivered by development projects is now thought to be due government or parastatals is now well- mainly to overcentralization, with planning advanced in the livestock sector, especially remote from reality, cumbersome coordination, in animal health services. Lessons learned project designs unsuited to local conditions, and from past experience should contribute to insufficient beneficiary participation. These issues the delivery of other services to herders. are being addressed in current projects by decen- Most critical when privatizing livestock tralized decision .aking and financing, and services is to find the appropriate balance improved comnunity participation. Initial work between public and private sector inputs reveals both positive and negative aspects: (Umali, Feder, and de Haan 1992). To do Successes so, it is necessary to have a clear * Decentralization releases latent local capacity understanding of the nature of each of the suppressed by centralized rule. services requiring delivery. One important * Communities and local authorities have step is to establish the capacity of the local proved especially capable at identifying and population, in their various social strata, to implementing microprojects, and improving contribute to the cost of services and goods. the delivery of services. Privatization cannot and should not be un- * Other benefits include improved transparency dertaken as one broad strategy. and accountability, more effective targeting In a policy of selective privatization, the of the poor, and in many cases, improved Sta pold: cost-effectiveness and increased local State should: revenue. . promote the transfer of 'pure private' Remaining problems goods to the private sector; * Resistance at the center to relinquish power * create mechanisms to correct market and responsibility. failures whenever possible; and a Lack of a clear legal framework for . provide the services that are 'pure decentralization. public' goods. * Inadequate funds, fiscal support, and Because the private sector can only operate professional staff at decentralized levels, in areas with relatively high economic compounded by inadequate equipment and returns to delivery, the public sector must buildings. continue to support the delivery of many Significant lessons services in pastoral areas. This implies: . Decentralization requires concurrent political, administrative, and fiscal * delegating powers to local government, devolution. . sub-contracting tasks to private * Decentralization fails if transfer of adequate operators and community-based fiscal powers is withheld, although a test organizations, and period of delegated responsibility may need . subsidizing services that are .public to precede formal devolution of power. goods' in nature. * Strong political commitment is needed to Examples of sharing responsibilities allow popular representation through local between the public and private sectors democratic elections and legal clarification of according to the economic character of responsibilities. services are provided in Table 5-1. . More research is needed to establish how Source: Interal World Bank decentralization can best be applied iU documents. contrasting rural situations. Source: Based on World Bank 1995e. 112 External Intervention Box B-3. Experience with Holistic Resource Management in Pastoral Development Past attempts at checking the degradation of collectively used rangeland have been mostly unsuccessful. On the one hand, pastoral communities were barely involved or not involved at all when blueprint or rigid grazing schemes were supposed to be enforced. On the other hand, the technical principles of these interventions have often been shaky, to say the least, with overemphasis on stocking rates that have little relevance under unpredictable rainfall and mobile production systems. The holistic resource management (HRM) model addresses these shortcomings. The model (Box 10- 1) requires resource users and the concerned community to (a) establish the goals that should be achieved; (b) assess the health of the ecosystem in terms of water and mineral cycles; (c) select the tools and technologies most likely to achieve their goals; and (d) continuously monitor results and adjust management plans accordingly. Given the growing support for this approach among ranch managers, its relevance to pastoral development was explored at the end of the 1980s by a UNDP-FAO project in six countries in North Africa and the Middle East. Despite the interest expressed by pastoral communities, little progress was made on the ground, due mostly to the reluctance of governments to transfer significant decisionmaking authority to these communities. Since 1990, Bank staff have pursued discussions in a number of Sahelian countries, with pilot perimeters of 5,000 to 10,000 hectares established in three countries (Mauritania, Mali, and Chad). Following promising preliminary results in 1994, four additional countries (Guinea, Senegal, Burkina Faso, and Niger) joined the program, and eleven pastoral pilot perimeters (PPPs) were established during the rainy season of 1995. Preliminary results from the Chadian PPP show that resident pastoral communities have understood and are implementing the improved management plan, and have convinced temporary users (transhumants) to do likewise. Although measurement of the physical impact of improved management based upon ecological indicators will take several years to yield statistically significant data, herders are convinced that improved management under the program has already contributed to a return of grasses that had disappeared, and to a longer grazing period. The herders also believe that the management scheme has improved relationships with transhumants and agriculturists farming within the perimeter. For these reasons, they have requested a continued and expanded test. The origins and content of the HRM model are described in more detail in Box 10-1 and Annex C. Source: John Hall, Task Manager of the Sahelian PPPs Program. 113 I New Concepts in NRM As the World Bank became more responsive Societal welfare mechanisms need to be to environmental and social issues in understood before any intervention is considered development, these issues moved from secondary for the benefit of the poorer members of society. considerations in project justification to become As elaborated in the main text, targeted part of the substance of its lending. These moves intervention is likely to be most effective if are still at an early stage of evolution, however, channeled through existing mechanisms of and are still in need of intellectual support in the welfare support. areas outlined in this annex. Empowerment should be guided toward the groups relevant to the targeted tasks. Participatory Approaches Inappropriate links between tasks and groups mnay be worse than no empowerment at all. Seeking local participation in development is m ore e ec go mus t hv afoo not itself new. Consultation is evident even in the organizationhaprop t he a at hn earliest of development projects, and few Mobiity andfthe om tie oask tora development workers now question the sobilito anization otobe desirability of participatory rural appraisal unraledrbyojust paricaton ral a l (PRA) and other participation in the planning Time and resources for ti-depth study need to be process. Where the gap remains is in allowing provided both por inteeti and n the participation in development. This requires a pourse of project monitoring. realignent of power and decisionmaking, and This is wort memberingw compromise between what is desirable and what Ti swrhrmmeigwe ikn compromisble be whcat communisesirabw.h pastoral development with land-use planning and is manageable by local communities. environmental management. Several countries Because the World Bank now has a source now have schemes for gestion des terroirst or book on participation (World Bank 1995d), only environmental action plans at village level. When points specific to pastoral NRM need be these are introduced in pastoral areas or on considered here. If it is accepted that participation is essential to rural development rotes o trnshuan tout adezate and that participatory planning is pointless unless are iable to assign local manageioent it leads to participatory development, then four responsibility in a manner disruptive to the points suffice: pit suffice: regional pastoral economy. Community participation is all important since pastoralism is a communal activity. What Holistic Resource Management (HRM) constitutes the relevant community, however, must be determined for each situation. Pastoral HRM is a management package promoted by the societies, as noted in Annex A, are differentiated Center for Holistic Resource Management organizationally and in stockwealth. Invariably, (CHRM), Albuquerque, New Mexico. HRM is two or three organizational levels need to be really more than a management package, but that involved and inputs varied to meet the different needs of poor and wealthier stockholders. 1. For a review in English, see Toulmin (1994). 115 Annex C is the mode in which HRM is most relevant to most practitioners it is an approach to NRM, at NRM - offering a means to define and operate the center of which are procedures and guidelines management plans that conform both to for range management. It is in this format that ecological guidelines and the goals of the HRM has been most rigorously tested (see Box managers and beneficiaries. C-1 for an overview of the results of ecological The package already outlined in Box 10-I grazing management over a twenty-year period in also provides economic guidelines and fosters Namibia). It is now being tried with World Bank human development, but its ecological support in the Sahel (Box B-3). It is this model component is pivotal because HRM stems from also that is elaborated in the 1988 textbook by concern for the environment and a grazing system Allan Savory (complemented by the Bingham founded on ecological principles. The grazing and Savory workbook of 1990). Any resource system is the rapid 'rotational' system developed manager who can absorb that material and has more than twenty years ago in Zimbabwe (then ecological appreciation and control of the area Southern Rhodesia) by Allan Savory. It was under management should be able to benefit from experience in implementing this system that led the application of HRM. The issue here is the Savory to integrate ecological resource relevance of HRM to pastoralism. management with precepts of holism (Smuts Merits of HRM include: 1926) to form what is now FIRM. an holistic approach, leading to actions that Now HRM is projected by CHRM as a way meet the broader objectives of those to sort out priorities and allocate time and med, helbroadereolve oflts resources in any field of human endeavor, but to Box C-1. Ecological Grazing Management in Namibia Under extensive grazing management on Namibia's semi-arid conditions, a new form of Annual rainfall (mm) ecological resource use based on the HRM method - To'al number of cattle has been sucessfully developed over the last 20 years. A comparison' of farm profitability where resources 900 .. are managed traditionally (reference farms) to farms 800- using ecological resource management clearly 700 . showed that where the HRM method is applied, both 600 :.5.......... greater efficiency of resource use and higher factor 500 ' productivity can be achieved. 400 - The time series analysis at right shows that 300 farms applying the HRM method are not only able to survive periods of drought, but also maintain 200 productivity without any appreciable change in herd 100 size through deliberate reduction or cattle losses 0 (compare 1979-84 to 1974-75). Ecological grazing V v v v 9 e 1 management enables farms to survive fodder Stocking Rate Using HRM Over 20 Years shortages without: * appreciably reducing herd size, since it is 'ecologically appropriate' in the long term; Ths last po8 t 8 s evider t rm the figure at right. * destabilizing grazing resources, since their ecological carrying capacity has been respected; m When initial soil and climate conditions are and the same, stock density is almost twice as * suffering economic losses, since herd reductions high as on the reference farms. are not necessary. 116 New Concepts and discourage 'quick fixes'based on undue Ecological guidelines currently dominance of one perspective over others. incorporated in the HRM model are a mixture of * a logical sequence for preparing basic ecological truths and guidelines specific to management plans and adjusting them in the the ecologies with which Allan Savory is light of experience (plan-monitor-control- familiar. Some situations are not covered, such replan is an HRM maxim); and as semi-desert and camel-based systems, and * criteria, especially ecological criteria, environments characterized by cyclic succession against which any input or output can be between bush and grass or between annual and tested. perennial grasses. Limitations of HRM in pastoral situations are Conclusions about the use of HRM in pastoral that: development include three points: Goal-setting becomes increasingly First, although small and homogeneous complicated and ambiguous as group size and pastoral groups may have no difficulty in setting interests multiply, and is barely feasible where goals, success cannot be expected if customary groups overlap and survival depends on mobility is restricted in order to create a more aggression. manageable situation. If external advisers make 'Biological planning' as recommended by management decisions, the main merit of HRM, the HRM model is an intricate process that as perceived by its founders, is lost. readily attracts more external input than is Second, the ecological limitations are largely conducive to pastoralists applying HRM for self-inflicted by the construction of the HRM themselves. * The management system reduces veterinary * The capital-intensive paddock technique costs (by 80 percent) and eliminates the need for reduces labor input (52 percent lower labor mineral supplements. costs per animal compared to reference * Productivity of the land in terms of gross income fanns). per hectare is well above that of the reference . The return on total factor input (grazing farms (3.7 times higher) because of the stocking resources, equipment, machinery, and labor) density. is far higher oni the ecologically managed * Capital investment (machinery, water supply farms (1.18 Rand/ha) than on the reference equipment, fencing, and pasture improvements) fanrs, where it was negative after 6 years of is more than 50 percent higher than on the drought (-0.94 Rand/ha). reference farms, reflecting changes to allow for 1. The study is based on a database of several years, a paddock rotations. rarity in developing coutntries. Source: Otzen 1989. Reference farms wtih traditional grazing management = 100 400- 350- 300 - 250- 200- 150 100 50 - CL ~~~~~~EE -J~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_ Comparison of Reference Farms to Those with Ecological Grazing Management 117 Annex C model, which compresses the whole variability of expressed in terms of 'opportunistic range world environments into one scale of brittleness. management'. The new literature, however: A parallel ecoregional categorization would be .provides a theoretical base by differentiating helpful, so that new thinking (see below) and new rangeland systems that exist in a state of research could be incorporated, as appropriate, in relative equilibrium (the ranch model) from guidelines for each specific ecoregion. those characterized by disequilibrium Third, some people claim to use HRM when (where much of pastoralism is practiced), they are merely using a rapid rotational grazing and system. Moreover, the grazing system is often elaborates implications for pastoral applied in a prescriptive form, with fixed grazing development with particular reference to periods instead of plant growth monitoring to pastoral systems that retain a capacity for adjust rest periods, as the HRM model requires. free movement. The point ofHRMA is not to follow prescriptions, butfor resource users to use the HRM model to In addition to the two books cited, a useful make their own decisions. sunmmary appeared as the first issue of the Overseas Development Institute's Natural Rethinking Range Ecology Resource Perspectives (Behnke and Kerven 1994). As American-trained ecologists began to The main value of the contribution to date influence pastoral development, it became evident has been to highlight the merits of pastoralism that much of formal range science was and the need to approach pastoral development inappropriate in that context. Written differently from ranch development. Pastoral commentary grew during the 1980s and led to the strategy tends still to be cited as 'opportunistic', workshops of 1990 and 1993 that produced but now with the useful distinctions between: Range Ecology at Disequilibrium (Behnke, Scoones, and Kervan 1993) and Living with . tracking, meaning 'prompt realignment of Uncertainty (Scoones 1994). Both books focus livestock forage demands with fluctuating on pastoralism in Africa. levels of primary production', and The thesis is that pastoralists do not . buffering, meaning 'shielding of pastoral habitually overgraze their land. On the contrary, incomes from the worst effects of the the intensive use to which they subject rangeland climatological and biological roller-coaster' represents efficient range management, given (a) (Behnke and Kerven 1994). the management objectives of pastoralists, (b) the 'Absorbing ' could also be recognized as a extreme variability of rainfall and grass third category of response to cover situations production, and (c) the capacity of African where pastoralists absorb the vagaries of an arid rangelands to recover, with rainfall, from a environment by keeping physiologically adapted depleted state. breeds, adjusting family diet, or following Under those conditions, the use of the practices that limit the rate of population concept of carrying capacity as a decisionmaking increase. It seems better to keep these types of tool is irrelevant, if not dangerous. It might suit response separate from the other two. ranching, but not African pastoralism. Under However, the main limitations of the pastoral conditions, mobility and flexibility in contribution to date lie in its tendency to polarize stocking are the key requirements. and generalize situations that are far more subtle This thesis is not entirely new. There are than the new thinking allows: papers from colonial times that make some of the Polarization, for purposes of emphasis, has same points. Gilles and de Haan (1994) also sidelined the majority of the situations which show that World Bank-funded projects in West planners need to address: Africa already contain provision for mobility and flexibility, even though the projects are not 118 New Concepts * Ranching vs pastoralism acknowledges have been decimated or forced out of ranching only in its confined and pastoralism in the process. commercialized mode and assumes tht It is not helpf that the new thinking pastoralism is still always freely mobile. perceives rainfall as extemal to pastoral * Equilibrium vs non-equilibrium makes two production (when pastoralism is itself a response disparate states out of what in reality is a to rainfall). The model also largely ignores time continuum (and devalues succession as atorifl)Thmdeasoaglygnesie facntoinuum (and-eqilbiue situccionas. aas an ecological factor - although periodicity in factor in non-equilibrium situations). rainfall and ten- to twenty-year events are irDegradation is defined so that only enormously important in maintaining diverse irreversible change rates as important (while vegetation. In terms of NRM-oriented human degradation is disregarded development, 'opportunistic management in non- altogether). equilibrium situations' is appropriate to mobile Generalization has compounded pastoral systems that occupy moderately polarization, specifically: productive grasslands on dissected landscapes * The resilience of African rangelands does within an arid to semi-arid environment. It is not not apply to all grassland types, and well-suited to semi-desert or to areas with highly especially not to browse. When browse erodible soils, and is limited under other plants are killed by overuse, it takes not one conditions as summarized in Table 3-2. good season to restore productivity, but In the future, more use should be made of more usually ten to twenty years in the semi- chaos theory in seeking to explain the behavior of desert, where browse is the main feed arid zone systems. This is not the place to suppey. elaborate on chaos, but it is now a recognized Caricaturing all past development as field of study, a science of process rather than 'ranching' obscures the other problems that state (Gleick 1993). Chaos is more likely than must be recognized if new thinking is to loss of equilibrium to characterize arid zone produce results any better than the past. pastoral systems. The notion of aridity increasing Idealizing pastoralism obscures the suffering chaotic behavior is certainly more plausible than that opportunistic management brings to the notion of equilibrium and non-equilibrium pastoral fanilies during drought - the existing as disparate states, with the latter society recovers, but not the families that somehow washed of the physical, physiological, and temporal processes that drive plant succession. 119 D Features of Pastoral Systems This annex elaborates on Chapter 2 by describing becomes known to the owners. If there are each of the pastoral systems cited in terms of sufficient oases or wells, pastoralists may stay their environment, territoriality, and livestock, year-round in the semi-desert, although retreat and by outlining relevant development elsewhere is unavoidable if browse supplies fail. interventions and the nature of allied systems. Livestock are principally camels because only Mobile Pastoral Systems this species can simultaneously: Mobile pastoral systems are forms of pastoralism . utilize the feed on offer (from grass to tall in which family herds or flocks, and often the trees), families themselves, transit tens or hundreds of * traverse dunes and the long distances kilometers each year, shifting every few days or between water points, weeks. The movement may be nomadic if * be a productive milk animal under these unpredictable and without fixed abode, or it may conditions, and involve transhumance on a regular seasonal . transport all household chattels when schedule between fixed localities. In between is families move. peripatetic movement - not fixed in its timing or As a result, the camel has a high sale value direction, yet not random either. within and among desert communities, although the size and value of an animal means that it is an Desert Camel Herding extravagant source of meat. Partly for this Environment of the 'desert' includes semi- reason, goats (or sheep in central Asia) are kept desert, and it is there that most activity is as a supplementary species. Small stock are also concentrated. Mean annual rainfall is less than readily marketable, whereas in some countries 200 millimeters, and plant productivity is due as urban demand for camel meat is low (Table 2-2). much to water flowing into the zone as to Development interventions are likely to focus incident rainfall. The vegetation of water courses, on maintaining existing territoriality and easing particularly browse, is the basis of animal water lifting and perhaps adding extra wells. The subsistence. Flushes of annual grass that follow training and equipping of mobile health rare rainstorms are often wasted, and the annual auxiliaries to serve both people and animals flora provides no guide to grazing or population would also receive early attention, perhaps pressure. Dead perennials may indicate overuse, followed by provision of service centers at although dry cycles and changes in water course strategic points. Specific inputs to NRM would configuration also cause trees and shrubs to die. focus on managing browse stocks, agreeing on a Territoriality focuses on the resources of water drought strategy, and diversifying oasis courses. Each drainage system is commonly agriculture where feasible. associated with a kinship group that ranges up Actual inputs would, of course, reflect local and down the one system. Individual wells can perspectives. Local variation to be considered assume enormous strategic value and may be includes the different drought expectancies in defended most vigorously if unauthorized use monomodal and bimodal rainfall areas, and the 121 Annex D trade-related issues noted below. 'Rethought' colder uplands and cultivated (often irrigated) range ecology (Annex C) has little relevance to valleys. these areas because of its orientation to grass. Territoriality is conditioned by the cold season, Allied systems arise when subsistence systems involving transhumance between higher elevation become monetarized. Desert camel herding is summer grazing areas and lower elevation winter usually milk-subsistent in the tropics, but more areas. Where there is no marked transhumance, trade-oriented where Bactrian camels are kept. movement is more peripatetic than truly nomadic. Both the Bactrian camel and sheep that Movements are also conditioned by the need to accompany them have coats appropriate for a access markets in order to sell livestock and cold desert climate, so surplus hair and wool can purchase grain and other commodities. Dryland be sold, as well as sheep. Apart from that shepherding is thus often trade-dependent. dichotomy: dInvetoment-based herding is becoming more Livestock are sheep and goats. Sheep are used Investment-based herding is becoming more for subsistence and sale. Although meat is the common as non-residents invest proceeds from staple diet, grain for the accompanying bread employment or business in livestock. The usually must be bought, as is the case with most practice is more common with cattle in dryland meat-based subsistence systems. Milk products areas, but extends to desert camels also. These supplement the diet, and wool is used for home animals are not always obvious because they weaving Sometimes cheese and uIgs are sold. often run with residents' herds, but the system is, The wool is mostly sparse and coarse, although nonetheless, distinct. The primary role of the The wool gros sparse in brs with animals is to combine owner satisfaction and some pastoral groups specialize in breeds with capital growth with longer-term social security. higher-quality fleeces or pelts. AIthogh th animls ad to otal tockwalthGoats are a useful complement because of Although the animals add to total stockwealth the different attributes of their meat, milk, and and provide subsistence for their herders, they coat. They are also useful because of their more also reduce the feed available to residents' herds. inquisitive and sharper nature - when in a Motorized desert herding is now quite v common in oil-rich countries. This system also mixed flock, they lead sheep to succulent pasture and give warning of impending danger. Transport mnvolves investment, but with the money investedanmlaruslywhcereqiepcess in the procurement and operation of a vehicle. The vehicle may be used to transport drums of most readily available. water, and even camels, to waterless areas where Development interventions have better there is good grazing. Alternatively, feed may be prospects than in many systems, but need a taken to areas where there is water but no grass framework that gives priority attention to: or browse. The system is now attracting milk- a social organization and present social subsistent families with just enough animals to services; convert a few into a truck to manage the rest. ' . . . * . ~~~trading options as conditioned by dietary practices; and D NRM options in the individual parts of the Dryland shepherding describes the most widely grazing orbit. distributed pastoral system of the non-desert Range improvement is relatively easy in areas of the Middle East and central Asia. Sheep terms of overseeding and establishing fodder and goats are the principal species, with no more shrubs, but management of improved areas is than a few larger animals kept for transport. always difficult in mobile pastoral systems. But Environment is relatively uniform - dwarf since shepherding proceeds at a slower pace than shrub grassland formed under an arid climate herding and needs less water at each supply with monomodal rainfall and a distinct cold point, it is easier to control access and affect season. The main variation is topographic, with NRM with the help of small, strategically-placed, 122 Features of Pastoral Systems water storages. Peripatetic educational and health normally peripatetic and not fixed to one pattern programs should also be easier to organize in this of transhumance. Determining the basis of system than in many others. movement and reciprocal access is a precondition Allied systems involve variants of breed type and of effective intervention. Each pastoral society extremes of aridity or cold. Obviously systems and group must be assessed individually. that use breeds noted for the quality of their hair, Livestock comprise cattle, sheep, goats, and wool, or pelt offer opportunities to improve the sometimes a donkey or two as a load-carrier. The production and marketing of those items. A more small ruminants are kept principally for meat, distinct system, important in central Asia, is and as 'small change' for purchases and minor where horses are the principal species and sheep social exchanges. Sometimes they are milked, but are secondary: most milk comes from cattle. Herd composition Horse-based systems are mostly the steppic is geared to milk production (although because equivalent of the milk-subsistent cattle herding this is the same composition needed to rebuild discussed next. Where horses are the centerpiece herds from heavy stock losses, it is not of the pastoral economy, the system is usually a significantly different from that of other cattle- relic of a former militarily mobile system. The based pastoral systems). horse is also particularly well-adapted to Development interventions must be preceded by temperate uplands, and still retains the advantage analysis of social-tertorial organiztion with of allowing pastoralists to keep in touch socially particular reference to drought strategies and and with trading centers across long distances. specific strategies for helping to maintain milk The trading element of the system is as likely to production. Animal health, as always, is an derive from the sale of sheep as from the sale of important area for support, but there may be little horses. value in seeking to improve livestock marketing, except to facilitate the offiake of small ruminants Cwhere these are abundant. Opportunities for Many of the pastoral systems of East Africa are breed and range improvement depend entirely on of this category. Zebu cattle are the basis of the local conditions. Key sites warrant priority economy, although with highly significant attention, as does wildlife potential sometimes. contributions from accompanying small Allied systems lie in three directions - toward ruminants. Ale ytm eI he letostwr trade-dependent or investment-based cattle Environment influences NRM and development herding, and toward using camels instead of to a greater degree in these pastoral systems than cattle for milk-subsistence in the drylands. The in most dryland systems. This is partly because investment-based system has already been of environmental variability, but also because the described in the context of camel herding. The systems are milk-based. Because milk-subsistent trade-dependent situation and the overlap systems must try to keep cows in milk year- between camels and cattle in milk-subsistence are round, each range type must be used when it considered below: best contributes to maintaining milk supply. Camel herding is not confined to deserts, These systems are therefore especially vulnerable but overlaps with cattle herding across the whole to loss of key resource sites. Most of these areas of the Sahel and through East Africa into the can support perennial grasses, but vary greatly in Arabian peninsula. In addition to camel herders value and accompanying woody vegetation. extending into the drylands, milk-subsistent cattle Territoriality reflects the points just made. Some herders sometimes keep a few camels. While the cattle-herding systems are confined to the arid two species are complementary in their feeding zone, but most occupy or overflow into the semi- habits and several other respects, conflict often arid zone and several have access to wetter areas arises between thie two societies when they for dry-season or drought use. Movement is overlap. Also, in Oman, cattle herders complain 123 Annex D that concentrations of camels spoil the grazing planted at a suitable site on the transhumance for cattle. The persistence of camel odors and route and are left untended until the group returns effects of dung, however, have not been at harvest time. This system is less common than investigated. it was because of the risk of damage to untended Trade-dependent cattle herding arises crops. where pastoralists or herding systems become Livestock include a mix of cattle and small dependent on purchased goods. The most typical stock, although with more male animals than situation is where pastoral groups adopt grain as usual in the herd to ensure a sufficient supply of a dietary staple while not themselves cultivating, work oxen. There is also advantage in having a This is the practice over much of West Africa, whr trd for gri is aide by trnhuac milking type of sheep or goat so that fewer milk where trade for grain is aided by transhumance cows need to be held back when the cattle leave into agricultural areas each dry season, a pattern on transhumance. that also has environmental logic because the latter areas are subhumid and unusable during Development interventions should give the rains without tsetse control or trypanocidal particular attention to the cropland, including the drugs. Prospects in trade and crop-livestock nutrition of oxen. Cropland provides complementarity open a whole set of opportunities for technical innovation not usually development options not found elsewhere. There associated with pastoral development. Greater is also scope to use fire and seeding in the net benefits are likely to accrue from focusing subhumid zone beyond that found in East African inputs in that direction than from spreading the systems or in the Sahel. same resources over the animals and areas involved in transhumance. That said, keeping Agropastoral Transhumance transhumance routes and options open is critical Environment is important in agropastoral to the viability of the whole system. systems because the comparative advantage of Semi-Sedentary Systems these systems hinges on successful cropping, which requires a favorable site. Sometimes the Before continuing with the description of specific cropping area is in a zone of higher rainfall, but systems, three general features of semi-sedentary often lies in a flood plain or run-on area within systems warrant stress: the arid zone. The direction of transhumance also Loss of mobilit Semi-sedenta systems varies, towards a wetter or a drier zone, and may coss of mobil ery systemsy change over time as competition increases in continue to be formed as mobile systems lose outlying areas. mobility. This may arise because: Territoriality is more easily described. Usually * pastoral territory is lost to other uses; the area where the cropping takes place . the State has a deliberate policy of constitutes the homeland, and grazing areas on sedentarization; the route of transhumance are shared with other p people prefer-and new wells allow- users. The timing of movement is geared to the fewer moves; or needs of the cropping component - work oxen * loss of stock wealth enforces reduced need to be on hand for plowing, and stock should mobility. be elsewhere when growing crops are susceptible Depending on the causes, different systems to damage. Some animals stay near at hand, may appear. In the last case, the resulting semi- however, to ensure a milk supply for those who sedentary system arises within the mobile system, remain at home. practiced by families with fewer and less mobile That synopsis applies where the pastoral livestock than those who move freely. group maintains a year-round presence in the Systems that are naturally immobile. There are cropping area. There is another type of also systems that are semi-sedentary because agropastoral transhumance, where crops are 124 Features of Pastoral Systems there is no need to be mobile. Usually this Livestock may include sheep as well as goats, situation arises in zones that are subhumid or but not other species except possibly a house cow wetter, but it also happens in arid zones where and one or two donkeys. Donkeys are there is a reliable source of dry-season feed from strategically very important in agropastoral irrigation, a processing industry, or marine situations, since even one can help cultivate a resources. Dried sardines have supported larger area than would be possible using hand pastoral systems bordering the Arabian sea for labor alone. The area difference may be critical many generations. to family survival. Preconditions for intervention. Distinguishing Development interventions are likely to give the causes of reduced mobility is essential for priority to improving goat husbandry through effective intervention in semi-sedentary systems. housing and health-care. Where high-quality In general, development should aim to assist browse is scarce, there may be scope for planting mobility, but where there is no need to be mobile additional species to widen the spectrum of or a poverty trap is involved, semi-sedentary browse plants. Planting is always more systems warrant full support. manageable in a semi-sedentary system than a mobile one. Goat Herding Semi-sedentary goat herding probably engages Institutionalized Herding more pastoralists and agropastoralists than any Pastoral systems that operate within an other system, at least in Africa. The system could institutional framework prescribed by the State be termed 'resource-poor goat herding', except cannot be generalized in terms of environment or that the implication would be that the goats are livestock enterprise. They are located wherever resource poor! The system is practiced both by the State sees fit to exercise its influence, and resource-poor pastoralists within cattle-based they start with whatever livestock existed before systems and by agropastoralists who have no the new institutional framework was introduced. cattle. What they do share, however, is circumscribed Environments for goats should be ard or semi- mobility and decisionmaking. arid with abundant browse. The only way that There are two principal types of goat-based systems can fulfill their primary institutionalized herding-one the result of the fiunction of supporting needy families is to have central planning associated with totalitarian access to sufficient browse to keep the goats governments, and the other the result of productive when sheep and caKle are suffering extending land adjudication into pastoral areas. from dry-season stress. Both are outlined here. Territoriality is prescribed by the need to keep Centrally-planned herding is now in decline, the means of family subsistence close to the following the liberalization of regimes released homestead, yet there is also a natural constraint from the control of the USSR. The aftermath to goat mobility. Although agile and capable of remains, however, in both Asia and African roaming far, goats do not tolerate environmental countries that chose a socialist path for a period change. If faced with unfamiliar browse or following independence. And several pastoml moved to an unaccustomed damp environment, systems still have politicized leadership mortality can be ve-ry high, with disastrous structures and work to targets set by the State. In results for a family dependent on just a few such cases, development inputs need to be animals. A further factor is that a goat-herding conceived within a strategy appropriate to the family is likely to be a small family, with political environment. Initial emphasis is likely to insufficient labor to engage in long-distance be on reforming legal instruments and local treks. organizations, although conditions created under totalitarianism may favor technical intervention 125 Annex D and commercialization, provided that the area is ranching. Commercial ranching is the type that not too arid or movement too constrained. does operate for profit. It is not practiced much Group ranching is the system that most people in pastoral areas, although some group ranches associate with land adjudication in pastoral may move in that direction, as may cooperatives areas. The result of land adjudication, however, and other forms of State-sponsored enterprise in depends on how the law is written, how people pastoral areas. present themselves for adjudication, and what Environment for ranching extends over a wide follow-up is provided. In Kenya, where the idea range of climates and vegetation types - into the started, the law allows any size group, from a subhumid zone where there is available land and tribe to a family, to be granted freehold title to to the semi-desert for karakul sheep ranching in the area to which they can demonstrate southern Africa. Most ranches, however, occupy customary right. There is also provision (unused the middle ground, with relatively productive to date) to register rights not amounting to perennial grassland or savannah in the semi-arid ownership. The result of land adjudication in zone. Maasailand - although not yet in other parts of Territoriality has three dimensions - the size of Kenya - has been subdivision and trade in land, the ranch, the extent to which the ranching leading to two conclusions:.'. ladn ad ,. cod ionis a r ir enterprise is confined within its boundaries, and Lan aduiaini.adclitreto the NRM practices that are adopted. that is best reserved for controlling land grabbing telNRm prac ces ta are adopted Seldom are ranches of a size that IS in medium- to high-potential range areas. It sufficient to meet management objectives in all wvould be wrong to withhold land title from would b wrongto withold lnd tite fromyears. For this reason, it is normal ranching pastoralists if other citizens have that right, but practice to eagin ItInent, sending in ard areas procedures need to lead to large epractice to engage in agistment, sending livestock allocations and associated organizations based on renting ot granlnd t s whenuthe customary authorit an dcsomkn. renting out ranch land to others when the cusomryeutorinty andtdecisions king areaswavailable grazing exceeds needs. Breeding Deeomn , nevnin i ra hr ranches, where it is preferred to keep valuable land title has already been granted need to focus brenges, freiefero d eae hazarsm on helping pastoralists improve NRM on their rseek to avoid agistment but that IS the exception existing holdings and avoid ill-advised action that sekt vi gsmn,bu hti h xeto jexisigdings andavoid rather than the rule. The practice of agistment is jeopardizes future development. detailed here because commentators on group CommercialRanching ranches in Kenya mistakenly thought that movement between group areas in times of Ranching describes the practice of running or drought was evidence that ranching was not exploiting animals on a demarcated area of working. rangeland that is privately owned or allocated for There are other points of similarity between that purpose. The land may be held or allocated ranching and pastoral practice. It is quite normal under freehold or leasehold title or in the form of on ranches to manage key resource areas just as a legal right of occupancy. The animals may be judiciously as in pastoral areas. Of course, a wild or domesticated (hence game ranching, ranch is unlikely to have the same variety of key cattle ranching, etc.) and they may belong to the resource sites as a pastoral area one hundred title holder, a tenant, the State, or someone who times larger, but it is still possible to embrace has rented grazing or otherwise secured right of substantial variety in an area of 20,000 to access. 200,000 hectares if the topography is right. And Unless the title or certificate of occupancy many pastoralists are almost as restricted in their rules otherwise, the resource users are under no mobility. obligation to stay confined to the area allocated, Livestock on commercial ranches are chosen exclude or allow other users, or maximize profits. Consequently there can be many types of considerig: 126 Features of Pastoral Systems * climate, vegetation, and disease hazards; Development interventions will be different * ranch infrastructure; when starting ranch development from scratch * operator's preferences for breed and than when aiding existing ranches. In the former enterprise; and case, a heavy input would be required to * market forces and available support determnine social and ecological feasibility, the services. units from which ranches would be formed, and It is unnecessary here to consider all the legal instruments through which land would be perInutations. Suffice to say that the outcome demarcated and held. Commercial ranching is the commercial success of a ranch - is a likely to be appropriate only where the existing product of choices, management skills, and the pastoral system is semi-sedentary, trade-based luck that graces the chosen enterprises. cattle herding, with exclusive use of an adequate area of productive semi-arid or subhumid rangeland. 127 l E Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Methodologies PRA is a collaborative community-based discussions that may lead to more visual decisionmaking procedure that supports techniques. participatory development. It evolved from rapid Case histories and animal biographies rural appraisal (RRA). While the latter enables provide data on livestock output, mortality, and development practitioners to collect and analyze fertility by systematically recording information data relevant to rural development, the former is from herders. based on data collection and analysis by local Ethnoveterinary question lists provide people, with outsiders acting to facilitate rather details of local perspectives on animal diseases. than control. The use of PRA enables Visual aids are used in both capturing and development practitioners, government officials, analyzing information: and local people to work together on context- Social and wealth mapping locates and sensitive programns. records the distribution and circumstances of households and the superficial social features of Mvlethods and Tools the area. PRA is an exercise in communication and Opportunities and services mapping transfer of knowledge. The learning-by-doing and investigates the availability of animal health teamwork spirit of PRA require transparent services, marketing opportunities, reserve grazing procedures. For that reason, a series of open areas, etc. meetings generally frame the sequence of PRA Resource mapping indicates which natural activities. The following non-exhaustive list of resources in the area are used by which livestock techniques illustrates the range of methods at what season of the year. available. Mobility mapping provides a representation of where, why, and how often people travel, Enquiries are by observation and itervilew: either with or without their livestock. Direct observation is an essential first stepAntmclbdmpigisuetohp for outsiders to learn something of local livestock und tadlcal kodg and pereto of management and production through first-hand animaltanatomy an ology and tereffects of obsevatin an reogniion f ky inicatrs.animal anatomy and physiology and the effects of observation and recogniton of key indicators, diseases or treatments. Transects are systematic walks taken with ysems anasi key informants through an area to give an discsis onathe deails othlvt overvew ofthe poducion sstem nd nauraldiscussions on the details of the livestock overview of the production system and natural production system (inputs/outputs, services, resources. opportunities/constraints/solutions, etc.). Indigenous knowledge is the key source of Processlflow diagrams summarize sequences information about local production systems. of events (such as production operations or daily Semi-structured interviews complement other participatory methods by using a flexible activities). interview guide to explore issues and generate 129 Annex E Venn diagrams (institutional maps) explore Organization the relative importance of services and institutions to a community. A typical PRA involves a team of people working Network diagrams investigate the different for several weeks or months (according to the networks surrounding livestock production. scope and study area) on workshop discussions, Decision trees help to identify the range of fieldwork, n a nalyses. Techniques can be strategies available to livestock producers. combined in a number of different ways Livelihood analysis encourages people to depending on the topic under investigation. consider income and expenditure in relation to Mapping and modeling are good techniques to goals and past and present coping strategies. start, while wealth ranking is best done later. The Problem and solution diagrams draw current situation can be shown using maps and perceived and actual solutions for problems faced models, but subsequent seasonal and historical by producers. diagramming can reveal changes and trends. Preference ranking is a good ice-breaker at the Change over time can also be presented beginning of a group interview and helps focus visually: the discussion. Later individual or small-group Seasonal analysis calendars establish how interviews can follow up on different preferences seasons are defined and indicate the distribution and explore reasons for these differences. of activities and trends over the year and across longer time periods. Specific Requirements for Pastoral Activity profiles explore typical activities and Development routines, including livestock and household duties. Literature on participatory enquiry has Time lines and trends plot significant past mushroomed since the late 1 980s, but most work events and show changes that have occurred in a focuses on crop farmers. Experience with commnunity. participatory pastoral planning, however, has Historical maps and transects are used to recently been reviewed by Waters-Bayer and explore resource and social change over time Bayer (1994). (past, present, and perceived future). Specific needs In pastoral planning. Historical matrices help further to Speic ned inpsoa.lnig Participatory planning in pastoral settings differs understand community livelihood and coping from planning in other agricultural settings strategies, past and present. because of Ranking is necessary for several attributes: * mobility of animal assets; Wealth ranking groups the community into . variability and unpredictability of forage different wealth strata to show how attitudes, resources; decisionraking, and production priorities are territoriality (wet- and dry-season grazing affected by wealth, and to provide a baseline and emergency reserve areas), against which the impact of future interventions . dependence on common property and can be measured. can be measured. evolving multiple resource uses and users Preference ranking and scoring ranks (requiring negotiations to access, manage, people's priorities, action, and interests, either and improve the resources); and using a game board or by other scoring . flexible decisionmaking (not rigorously techniques. institutionalized collaboration among Matrix ranking and scoring enables a range independent basic operational units). of different items to be assessed against selected criteria. These characteristics highlight the primacy Proportional piling establishes informants' of institutional over technical concerns in perceptions of relative proportions by using local pastoral development planning. For these natural materials built into piles. reasons, conflict management, pastoral 130 PRA Methodologies organization, and land-use planning are of and renegotiation in response to changing greatest interest. PRA techniques can help to conditions. create forums to discuss and negotiate these * Also in Mali, an NGO working with the issues. Tuareg designed a self-evaluation approach Field experience, while growing, is still weighted based on GRAAP methods.' heavily towards the initial stages of planning Issues and lessons for donors. Application of rather than to later stages and post-planning PRA requires considerable skill and sensitivity to activities. avoid pitfalls: Participation in initial planning (situation Communication. Facilitators need both to analysis) is evident across a wide range of listen and ask relevant questions, avoiding an situations and countries: extractive way of applying PRA techniques. PRA * PRA methods have been used to assess visualization methods help overcome language forage resources (Nigeria, Ethiopia, barriers, but people who speak the local language Zimbabwe) or plan animal health care and understand local 'codes' must be well- projects (Afghanistan, Tibet, Somaliland, represented in the PRA team. Kenya) using methods that give a quick Inequity. Superficial PRA can easily allow overview of factors affecting productivity, small powerful groups to dominate the process. * In Mongolia, government administrators and PRA should involve an analysis of differences researchers are being trained in PRA to help among social groups, with planning activities pastoralists evaluate their own situation and organized accordingly, as with the Borana in familiarize officials with pastoralism. Kenya (Swift and Abdi 1992). Elsewhere (for example, Tanzania) seminars Concepts. Confined views of location and have been held to sensitize policymakers to time can readily ignore seasonal resource users. pastoral land use. PRA is best applied by people working continuously, or at least repeatedly, in the project Participation in later stages (in planning, area. Certain PRA techniques impose foreign implementation, and monitoring) is evident concepts not readily understood in all pastoral mostly in old projects started before PRA was 'in societies (for example, pastoralists in vogue': Afghanistan with a strong verbal culture had In Kenya, consultations in the field with difficulty expressing themselves in diagrams, and influential Maasai and herding families Tuareg in Mali explicitly requested a shift from helped shape the concepts and legislation that visualization to the written and spoken word for formed the basis of group ranch development assessment and planning activities). In mapping, (although the later stages of implementation concepts of space based on villages with clearly proceeded without such input). defined boundaries may prove alien to * Also in Kenya, a series of participatory pastoralists and require a conceptual shift to workshops was organized by the Forestry focus on centers of activity such as key resources Department to agree on action to protect the and movements. natural vegetation. This approach helped to Quality. The rapid spread of PRA methods guide forest policy, including drawing up in recent years has revealed a major problem of new legislation to integrate traditional rules quality control. To permit judgement on the and modern laws. * In Mali, herders were encouraged to draw up a drought management plan of action, 1. GRAAP stands for Groupe de Recherche et implement their plan, evaluate the results, d 'Appui pour / 'Autopromotion Paysanne. ACCORD and plan further activities. Other herders and has produced documentation on this process, giving farmers are negotiating joint management of an overview of the strengths and weaknesses of natural resources, with frequent monitoring monitoring and evaluation applied over six years 131 Annex E quality of the data (particularly judgement of the may differ from state policy, care must be taken degree of participation by local people), that the information derived from PRA is not documentation must describe how these methods used primarily to strengthen central power. are applied and by whom. Review of experience with PRA in pastoral Ethics. In promoting participatory planning, development has led to the set of recommended donors should be clear about the ethical issues techniques indicated in Table E-1. For more involved. In particular, they should accept that details on PRA techniques, also see the case participatory planning must be followed by studies in IIED (1994) and Waters-Bayer, Bayer, appropriate follow-up. Since pastoral practices and von Lossau (1995). Table E-1. Recommended Methods and Tools for Participatory Planning in Pastoral Situations Type of information or purpose Methods suggested Planning phase and establishing rapport History of area (past trends, accomplishments) Timelines, oral history General information on area and production Transect walks, participating in daily tasks conditions General information on people and relationships Listen and learna Situation analysis first-round enquiries with key informants and at group meetings) Relative importance of livestock in livelihood system Livelihood analysis, proportional piling Resources available to livestock Seasonal resource mappingb Resource use Bioresource flow diagram, mapping,b proportional piling, matrix Grazing pattern/forage resource use Calendars, resource use mappingb Fodder preference Rankingb Animal husbandry practices Seasonal calendars, mobility maps Local knowledge of livestock diseases Etlmoveterinary guide,b causal diagram History of livestock diseases Timelines Preferred traits of livestock Matrix scoring Relative mortality in different species/age groups Proportional piling Livestock productivity parameters Progeny histories, herder recall Livestock linkages with other sectors Flow diagram Seasonal trends, for example, disease and parasite Calendars, proportional piling load; mortality of livestock; livestock sales and prices; prices of inputs products, items needed; birth events in livestock; milk yield Proportional income from livestock products Proportional piling, diagramming Labor requirements Seasonal calendars, daily tinielines, learning local tasks Stock loaning and sharing relationships Social mapping Social organization Venn diagram, social mappingc Institutional links Venn diagram Wealth differences Wealth ranking Marketing structure Flow diagram Conflict analysis Venn diagram, flow diagram, critical incident 132 PRA Methodologies Table E-1. (continued) Type of information or purpose Methods suggested Situation analysis (flrst-round enquiries with key informants and at group meetings) [continued] Innovation history Pathway diagram charts Services available Venn diagram, services and opportunity map Problem analysis Problem tree, causal diagram Detailed planning (deciding development inputs through group consensus)d Prioritizing problems Brainstorming /ranking Prioritizing solutions Brainstorming /ranking, problem and solution game Allocating tasks, time planning Process diagram, matrix Deepening situation analysis Same tools as situation analysis but more topical Monitoring and evaluation (meetings/workshops to review progress)e Ranking and scoring techniques, series of calendars and/or maps, impact diagram a. The source recommends taking photographs and giving and discussing prints. This can be useful, but in some societies would cause offense. b. These methods require as a first step the collection of vernacular names for localities, plant species and parts, and other natural resources, including categories and conditions of livestock production. Uses external to livestock production (in human health and household economy) should also be covered. c. Also in-depth discussion with elders and others, encouraging elaboration of their procedures in comparison with those of other societies known to them. d. Semi-structured interviews can be used in all stages of planning, but are particularly useful here, when discussion needs to be guided toward decisions. Decisions should be made mostly by group consensus, although for purposes of deepening situation analysis, it is necessary to identify individuals who are recognized authorities in the subject areas under discussion. e. Participatory monitoring and evaluation is much enhanced by involving the community at the outset in the selection and recording of indicators of progress (Chapter 11). Source: After Waters-Bayer, Bayer, and von Lossau 1995. 133 i F Livestock Credit Schemes Livestock credit schemes were mentioned in * the differential between the resale or carcass Chapter 9 as offering scope for innovation. Aside value of animals acquired and those to be from suggesting that this as an area that bought as replacements; governments may wish to examine through a task * likely operating costs for the scheme given force or consultancy, guidelines are constrained the expected throughput and price by lack of experience. The following outline of differential; terms of reference shows the options that need to * the case for extending the scheme to fulfill be explored. additional functions; 0 the desirability of operating more than one Draft for a Study Team scheme, whether separated by region or function; and Objective. A conceptual and operational plan is * management options, including potential needed for a livestock credit scheme that will roles for govenment (central and local), provide pastoralists with credit redeemable at a herder organizations, the banking sector, later date, in order to replace livestock ' relinquished during drought. It is envisioned that the credit will have a value expressed in livestock Areas for detailed examination. Particular units rather than cash. Consideration will be attention should be given to the following: given, however, to extending the scope of the Issuance. One livestock credit would be scheme to allow credits to be acquired in ways issued for one live animal relinquished under other than relinquishing livestock at times of drought conditions when the stock offered have a drought and to be used for purposes other than low value. What would be the implications of restocking. The scheme need not be run by also issuing credits for: government if higher standards of reliability and carcasses or hides/skins (perhaps two accountability can be assured using other carcasses for one credit)? operators. * quality animals (perhaps plus cash payout)? Scope of study. Through consultation and data * traders to use instead of paying out in cash? collection in government offices and pastoral * others to use in poverty-focus restocking? districts, the study team should establish: Redemption. Should the credit be * the likely demand for livestock credit in redeemable: relation to animal species, district, and * only for the same species as that drought intensity; relinquished? * potential uses for the animals acquired, * for other species (at what rate of exchange)? considering grade of animal or carcass as * in the form of other goods, for example, well as species; services provided by herder organizations or * any facilities needed for handling animals others? acquired or for ensuring a supply of . just at government or community outlets? replacement stock; 135 Annex F Management. Should the whole scheme be * other inputs to post-drought restocking? operated by: These issues have numerous ramifications * one government department? that require detailed analysis. In the case of * government and a consortium of traders? mobile abattoirs, for example, the scope for * local government, backstopped centrally? private sector involvement will require in-depth * inviting bids from the private sector? analysis of (a) potential outlets for products Logistics. The most problematic parts of the (such as meat and bone meal, pet food, low- scheme are collecting and disposing of drought- quality hides and skins), (b) commercial stricken stock and ensuring stock for purchase at operators who might be interested and competent the time of redemption. What needs or to participate, and (c) the form and extent of opporthuiities exist for: inducement or subsidy that may be necessary to attract competent operators. * mobile abattoirs for salvaging stock? * herder organization inputs to restocking? 136 G Wildlife Management Projects To ensure acceptance and long-term commitment the community and help ensure that rules by local people, wildlife management projects are respected by community members. (WMPs) should ideally be initiated and executed * Participation in decisionmaking will require by the rural communities themselves. WMPs a different type of community organization, should therefore aim to create an enabling with training in technical aspects of wildlife environment (for example, adequate policies and ecology and management, communication, local capacity building) within which local people community organization, and motivation appreciate the value of and derive significant methods. benefits from wildlife resources. * Participation in management and project execution will require the highest level of Project Planning training and preparation in technical, Several elements should be considered when business, and policy aspects. planning WMPs: Communication is vital. In the planning Distribution of responsibility and benefits phases, a clear understanding of local sociology is important. The objectives of the project and the and community dynamics is needed, while limits of the authority that will devolve to the implementation requires a mechanism for local people must be very clear. In general, it is interaction between all actors developed by best to leave the distribution of responsibilities trained people and institutionalized as a project and benefits to the community's own component. In any WMP, environmental decisionmaking process. education should have a high priority. The nature and value of wildlife resources affect both project direction and prospects for Measures of Success success. If the aim is to preserve whole success.If the im is t presere wholeOn the basis of present experience, success ecosystems, potential for tourism development is On teas s of peasuente ree scess critical. In the long-run, involving local participants may be the most effective and low- Do they advance our knowledge of how to cost way to maintain a protected area. If the aim implement community-based wildlife is sustainable consumptive use of wildlife, types management, thus leading to better designed and numbers of animals available, support projects in the.future? capacity of the environment, and available WMPs are still experimental. So far, WMPs markets are very important. Contracting with the have (a) contributed to our understanding of how private sector is likely to be the most effective to pursue wildlife management with local way of mobilizing external support. participation; (b) identified the key elements of Local technical and institutional policy and the problems that can arise in arrangements depend on the level of local implementation, and generated a variety of participation envisioned. possible solutions; (c) demonstrated the value of Participation in benefits will require a wildlife resources and the possibility of * Participation in benefits will require a mechanism to allocate those benefits within rebuilding depleted populations; and (d) 137 Annex G demonstrated the critical importance of that they saw benefit their neighbors. More needs understanding the sociological and economic to be known about specific features that attract factors that motivate rural people and govern follow-up activity. their behavior, as well as of maintaining good How well are WMPs achieving their stated communication channels. More needs to be known in all these areas and the potential for objectives? The direct obiectives of WMPs commonly expanding WMPs into new situations. include one or more of the following: Do or will WMPEs stimulate the Wildlife conservation. The lesson to date development of additional projects? seems to be that partnership with local Several projects have stimulated follow-up communities can be effective as long as benefits activities, in some cases initiated by local continue to flow to the people directly involved, communities seeking to participate in programs and as long as they are clearly linked to Box G-1. Lessonsfrom CAMPFIRE In 1993, the Zimbabwe CAMPFIRE program (Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources) included twelve communal lands of more than 19,500 square kilometers. This communally owned land was officially designated to include wildlife in the resource-use and management system under the program. These districts manage wildlife with participation of the local population, obtain revenue from wildlife utilization, and distribute benefits to participating communities. Two key reasons account for success. First, reduced macroeconomic distortions in Zimbabwe and a more competitive marketing system increased returns from wildlife. Second, local property rights assignment enabled financial rewards to be channeled back to local communities. Although revenue distribution remains controversial, CAMPFIRE has now issued guidelines that recommend a limit of 15 percent of revenue allocated to the district council and no more than 35 percent spent on management costs. Thus at least 50 percent of revenue can be passed to the community in the form of cash or project benefits. These guidelines were met in four of the eight districts for which data are available. Four issues are still outstanding: * District council authorities receive all the wildlife revenue and then allocate this revenue over a much wider population than that which is actually living with and conserving wildlife. A uniform distribution of the benefits between all areas is unlikely to result in benefits outweighing costs in the important producing areas. * When wildlife revenue is used to fund social services and infrastructure projects in an area, the links between costs and benefits become weak. * Appropriate authority is only granted to the district council, and local communities have yet to be given the opportunity to form effective resource management units. Devolving authority to village levels would reduce costs in wildlife management because villagers would have greater incentives to police themselves and report outside poachers. * Training and assistance should be provided to develop project implementation skills at the community level. CAMPFIRE has generated much debate over access to resources. With the migratory nature of wildlife, it is difficult to closely define producer communities, and even more difficult to ensure that those paying the highest costs receive the greatest benefits. Yet those who both live with and pay the costs of maintaining the wildlife must be made the primary beneficiaries. Both wildlife and tree resources are generally viewed as belonging to all Zimbabweans, but progress is being made in some districts toward recognizing that, for people in marginal areas, "their wildlife are their cattle." Source: World Bank 1996. 138 Wildlife Management Projects conservation objectives. Whether it will be and benefits is not always clear because of possible to pursue this approach on a larger scale confusion between community and individual remains to be tested. inputs and rewards. Overall, there has been Economic development based on considerable progress in increasing the role and sustainable wildlife utilization. WMPs that aim interest of local communities in conservation of to mobilize wildlife resources as an economic wildlife resources, but the goal of ensuring local asset for rural development should ultimately be management of wildlife resources remains measured in terms of returns on total investment, elusive. including the opportunity cost of labor and Sustainability. Wildlife can offer an leisure. The revenue earning potential of wildlife environmentally sustainable use of marginal means that financial returns can sometimes be lands. The main advantage is the possibility of quite high. Questions to be addressed include (a) increasing income without increasing pressure on whether the quest for higher returns will diminish the environment. Institutional sustainability of the positive environmental impacts of conserving WMPs faces the same constraints as rural or managing wildlife in marginal lands, and (b) development generally: (a) the pursuit of short- the relative merits of, for example, leasing safari term returns and rapid physical implementation hunting rights to private operators vs more and (b) the tendency to proceed with projects complex and costly projects. despite an unfavorable policy environment and Local participation. The level of intended lukewarm government commitment. participation and how success in obtaining that objective is to be measured are usually not Source: Kiss 1990. clearly defined. The connection between wildlife 139 I H Monitoring Procedures Chapter I I is explicit about the types of relevant under some circumstances, but they information that should be collected in the course mean different things as circumstances change. of process monitoring, but stopped short of In the case of LQIs (Box H-I), for example: specifying the precise methods to collect that information. This annex does not fully correct * The ratio of livestock to people means thtoisinu it doe exli wh it ase. nothing unless related to a baseline that ornission, but it does explain why it arises. situation, the sources of subsistence, and the There is no one set of ready-made methods species kept. that can be applied to process monitoring in all Thecies pept. pastoral situations. When recording vegetation, * The ratio of perennial to annual vegetation for example, the configuration of transects and loses all significance in environments suited sampling intensity that would be appropriate for only to annual species. thesubumi zoe wuldbe wasteful and even * The rate of out-migration can (as in Yemen the subhumid zone would bewseu n vnand northwestern Kenya) reflect cultural or deficient in recording ecological change in the endrnmentalsternorsnya)gieflect cultral arid zone. The same wastefulness and deficiency environmental factors orginating several would arise from applying the recording methods generations ago. appropriate to a trade-oriented pastoral system to Likewise, the indicators recommended for a milk-subsistent one. Methods need to be rangeland monitoring (Box H-3) are not all selected to suit the specific ecology and pastoral equally relevant under all conditions. Moreover system. their significance varies according to the time This specificity conflicts with the preference period over which any particular trend is of institutions, the World Bank included, for observed. It seems not to be acknowledged that indicators and methods of universal application. some sites can cycle through several states and The three boxes that accompany this annex forms of vegetation over time. illustrate recent moves towards standardization in The predicament of which guidelines to land quality indicators (LQIs), project follow can be resolved in several ways. One is to performance indicators (PPIs), and rangeland let consultants design and execute the monitoring monitoring (Boxes H-I, H-2, and H-3). component. But unless the consultants who In these examples, standardization has not define the work plan are excluded from executing been taken to the point of specifying the actual it, chances are that unnecessarily labor-intensive parameters and methods to be used. Yet that methods will be proposed. The safer option is specification is implied if the aim is that proposed in Chapter 11 - forming a local standardization in the interests of comparing task force to work with project management to situations and responses to intervention. ensure relevance in the monitoring program. The The plea that is made here is that like should temptation to side-step formal monitoring in be compared with like. There is a danger in favor of ad hoc analysis during supervision and standardization of failing to recognize basic at mid-term should be strongly resisted. differences and drawing erroneous conclusions. Subjective impressions are no substitute for All of the indicators listed in the boxes are objective time-series data collected during the life of a project. 141 Annex H The best way to ensure relevant monitoring episodic events affect rangeland vegetation and -that is, to avoid collecting superfluous data NRM practices. And the monitoring of with no management value while ensuring that socioeconomic parameters must always be critical data are not omitted - is to start with a guided by the character of the pastoral systems zonal analysis. The manner in which climatic and what changes are construed as constructive zone influences monitoring is illustrated in Table in the context of the development path being H-1. It is still necessary within that framework to followed. examine all available sources on how cyclic and Box H-i. Land Quality Indicators (LQls) Land quality indicators (LQIs) developed by OECD within a framework of pressure-state-response (PSR) are currently being adapted for application in the World Bank. The PSR framework links: . pressures exerted on land by human activities, . the resulting status of land resources, and * the response of society to these changes. Based on this framework, LQIs are grouped into: - indicators of pressures upon lands, - indicators of the state of the land quality and change in state over time, and . indicators of responses by society to changes in land pressure and land quality. LQIs vary according to the scale of application. As project indicators for use by task managers, LQIs relate closely to land management practices and processes in agroecosystems. They demonstrate changes over a short time period, and to ensure credibility need to be implemented in a standard manner in all projects. On a broad scale, they relate more directly to the policy arena. Subject to ongoing work in the World Bank, the following indicators are proposed for pastoral systems in arid zones: Issues LQls Pressure Population pressure on rangelands Ratios of land/people and livestock/people State Vegetation condition and cover Ratio of perennial/annual vegetation, density of living perennial vegetation, ratio of vegetation biomass/feed demand Vegetation quality Ratio of palatable/unpalatable vegetation, ratio of young/mature perennial vegetation Soil water storage capacity and runoff Ratio of crusted soil surface area/total area Response Response of land users Rate of out-migration, range and quantity of products for sale, human diet, ratio of cereals/livestock products Societal commitment Budget for livestock and social services, number and cohesion of pastoral associations, number of conflicts over resources Source: World Bank 1995c 142 Monitoring Procedures Box H-2. Project Performance Indicators (PP1s) Project performance indicators (PPIs) in use by the World Bank for the livestock sector cover input, output, and impact for three broad types of project activity. The following indicators have been proposed for range and pastoral development projects. Objective Common inputs Input indicator Output indicator Impact indicator Improve or at Range improvement Costs for an area Biomuass Soil conditions, least maintain investments using per improvement production vegetation trends range production different techniques technique and animal and condition (deferred grazing, offtake overseeding) Improve food Establish early Costs for early Cereals/cattle Stability of security, warning system and warning system prices, number of household especially to face food and feed banks and food/feed herders using the income, human droughts and banks food/feed banks nutrition status enhance the and health status quality of life Market and market Number of Increased Share of information systems markets and type flexibility as unproductive of systems to be shown by rate of animals in the established change in herd size herd and degree and degree of price of herder stability participation in outside saving schemes Create viable Organize pastoral Number of Percentage of Viability of institutions associations associations to be herders belonging associations, created and to pastoral involvement in pastoralists trained associations animal health, water and range management Assure adequate Institutional Area of exclusive Number of grazing rights capability to grazing rights internal and register and established external conflicts enforce grazing involving rights herders, degree of assured access to key dry-season and water resources Source: World Bank 1995b. 143 Annex H Box H-3. Revised Rangeland Monitoring The United States National Research Council (NRC) has recommended a three-phase approach to assessing rangeland health, and has proposed criteria and methods to make that assessment. The rationale for a new approach is that while much research and experience supports the relationship of soil surface characteristics to rangeland health, basic knowledge of the effects of other soil properties is limited. Examples might include the effects of organic matter content and water holding capacity on nutrient cycling, energy flow, recovery mechanisms, and other aspects of rangeland health. The effect of grazing and other management practices on soil properties is also not well understood, therefore indicators of rangeland health are currently better developed for phase 1 than for phases 2 and 3. More effort is required to identify and test indicators of change in nutrient cycling, energy flow, and self- induced recovery mechanisms. As is evident from Annex C and Box 10-1, there is a close parallel between the NRC approach and that already incorporated in the HRM model, which calls for diagnosis of the status of the four ecosystem blocks (succession, water cycles, mineral cycle, and energy flow) through comprehensive biological monitoring. Phase Criteria Indicators Soil stability and watershed Soil movement by wind and A-horizon depletion, rills and function water gullies, pedestaling, scour or sheet erosion, sedimentation or dunes Distribution of nutrients and Spatial and temporal Distribution of plants, litter energy distribution distribution and incorporation, rooting depth and distribution, photosynthetic period Recovery mechanism Plant demographics Age class distribution, plant vigor, germination and status of microsites Source: NRC 1994. 144 Table H-1. Zonal Variation and Process Monitoring: the Effects of Relative Aridity on the Design of Monitoring Procedures Other arid zones Features to monitor Semi-desert zone Annual grassland type Perennial grassland type Wetter zones Basic characteristics Location, Fringing all major deserts: The Sahel of West Africa Much of the subtropical and Pastoralism is not much practiced environment, oppressively hot (with (between the Sahelo-Saharan temperate drylands of the world in humid zones outside of Africa, and challengingly cold nights and Sahelo-Soudanian belts) (excluding deserts and their but there it extends across much vegetation and vinters as latitude and and more locally elsewhere fringes) and the bimodal of the sub-humid zone of West altitude increase); (e.g., Dhofar highlands of rainfall areas of tropical Africa: Africa and locally into highlands: desiccating winds; Oman): less extreme arid to semi-arid climate; not dry seasons can last 6-7 months vegetation concentrated in climatically than semi-desert; necessarily higher rainfall than but rainfall is relatively abundant; depressions and uvater seldom <150 mm rain per year the Sahel, but shorter or cooler vegetation is tall-grass savanna or courses, forming a mosaic of but consistently long (9 month) dry seasons; vegetation mostly fire-induced grassland of various wvooded or dwvarf shrub dry seasons; relatively well- shrubland with (or with forms. en grassland within vegetated although with few potential for) perennial grass. predominantly barren land. perennial grasses. Rainfall in a Around 150 mm 250-300 mm Bimodal: 200-250mm 500-1,500 mm 'good' wvet Monomodal: 300400 mm season Land use Opportunistic seasonal Traditionally wet-season Pastoralism or (under pressure Included on routes of grazing or year-round grazing, but increasingly of population or because of transhumance in West Africa; dry occupancy reliant on oases sedentarized; grazing animals favorable site conditions) season or drought reserve and/or camels. have difficulty survihing once agropastoralism; fewver else vhere; giving wvay the annual grasses start to nutritional constraints than the increasingly to crop agriculture or disintegrate during the latter Sahel, although access to wetter locally to ranching. part of the dry season. Cropping zones is still a great help. Has very risky except on flood important wildlife reserves. plains. Table H-1. (continued) Other arid zones Features to monitor Semi-desert zone Annual grassland type Perennial grassland type Wetter zones Environment As a general rule, ecological monitoring is only useful if undertaken within a framework of ecological land units and accompanied by data on NRM. Key parameters for monitoring follow: Climate Daily rainfall data (say, one Daily rainfall data (say, one site Daily rainfall data (say, one site Daily rainfall data (say, one site site per 1,000 kin2), plus per 800 km2), plus mistfall per 400 kin2), plus e.g., air per 200 kin2), plus other data as other relevant data, e.g., where relevant humidity where fire is involved relevant to crop production temperature and wind (evapo-transpiration, etc.) Groundwater Monitor abstraction/ Usually sufficient to monitor just Same as for annual grassland Reduced sampling (-20% of recharge and water quality a sample of wells in each type wells) usually suffices for each major groundwater groundwater province province (sampling every well) Springs Monitor spring-fed oases Monitor according to Same as for annual grassland Same as for drier zones, but with occurrence/importance type more springs to monitor River flow May be relevant, but Monitor seasonal discharge of Same as for annual grassland Monitor runoff and streamflow requires monitoring of all major rivers type on a sample basis catchment outside the zone Grass cover Only relevant if perennials Only relevant in flood plains or Monitor perennial cover and Same as for the arid perennial present or likely if obnoxious annuals likely changes in grass flora grassland type Browse Monitoring of overuse and Monitor overuse/regeneration of Same as for annual grassland Monitor also fire-tolerance plants regeneration is critical selected species type Table H-1. (continued) Other arid zones Features to monitor Semi-desert zone Annual grassland type Perennial grassland type Wetter zones Environment (continued) Bush density Concentrate monitoring sites Focus on settlement and where Systematic monitoring required, Same as for the arid perennial on flood plains and near change in fire or grazing recording all species and effects grassland type, including effects settlements regimes is likely on grass growvth on tsetse Soil erosion Monitor dune formation Monitor selected sites for Same as for annual grassland More intensive monitoring accelerating erosion type needed as rainfall and cropping increase Fauna Termite activity is as Wildlife often sparse, selected Monitor biodiversity and Relate monitoring to the fauna important as large fauna species may warrant monitoring selected species remaining (if any) Demography Relate the baseline situation to the support capacity of the zone, and monitor change accordingly. Remember that diet (milk, meat, or 4 grain-based) partly determines support capacity Population Very low support capacity, Relate to seasonality of use and Same as for annual grassland Much higher support capacity. intensive sampling needed nature of pastoral system. type Reliable data may derive from low sampling intensity Diet Monitor seasonality as xell Same as for semi-desert More intensive monitoring Monitoring should allow for the as longer term change (greater biodiversity means that fact that grain foods abundant more bush foods are available) and that quicker change in diets is likely Health and Standards/expectations are Expectations somewhat higher; Standards and the need for Expectations much higher; education relatively low, and services mobility still important mobile services wvill vary with quicker change likely; less need to encourage mobility pastoral system need for mobile services Out- Monitor in the expectation Should be a common strategy; Often indicative of population Usually indicative of migration that out-migration is a differentiate transhumant and pressure population pressure common drought strategy settled communities Table H-1. (continuea) Other arid zones Features to monitor Semi-desert zone Annual grassland type Perennial grassland type Wetter zones Social structure Kinship usually outweighs Similar to semi-desert (except Neighborliness may outweigh Neighborliness likely to neighborliness where settlement is recent) kinship outweigh kinship Leadership A key parameter is strong Similar to semi-desert (except Often many overlapping users: Customary institutions mostly leadership, essential to where settlement is recent) usually both tribal and superseded by civil sunrival neighborhood leadership need administration to be monitored Retribution Monitor that deterrents Same as for semi-desert Same as for semi-desert Expect civil procedures to be against incursion, etc. vork, used more than customary w%thout being excessive sanctions Conflict Access to water likely to be Settlement and seasonality of Same as for annual grassland Conflict with farmers likely to CS resolution the overriding issue access likely to be as important as type, although with conflict arise: customary solutions are water per se priorities and procedures still worth exploring in lieu of varying greatly between litigation pastoral systems Politicization Monitor whether Focus on the extent to ivhich Same as for semi-desert, but Usually already politicized: politicization helps or transhumance is disadvantaged by expect major differences further monitoring may be hinders mobility and societal the political voice of settlers between systems unnecessary mechanisms Indebtedness The cohesion of pastoral Give separate attention to Expect that attitudes to External debt usually accepted society depends to some attitudes in mobile and sedentary external debt will vary between as a structural feature of society extent on internalizing debt: communities pastoral groups and the economy the drier the zone, the more valid is the case for avoiding external debt Table H-1. (continued) Other arid zones Features to monitor Semi-desert zone Annual grassland type Perennial grassland type Wetter zones WVelfare support Although part of 'social structure', societal welfare systems need separate monitoring. Because support mechanisms evolve with societies, they may show greater cofrelation with ethnicity than with zone Mechanisms Large stock are likely to be Different mechanisms are likely The gifting of animals may be More diversified mechanisms treated as clan, not private among transhumants and (more more prevalent here than in are likely because grain and property recently) settled communities drier zones employment are more readily available to Beneficiaries 'Need' likely to be defined Possibly restricted to drought and Expect major variation between Probably greater expectation broadly disease-loss victims systems (agropastoral vs that families in need find their pastoral) and vith population own solutions pressure Exclusions See above (but expect Settled communities commonly Incompetent pastoralists likely See above kinship to be influential) seek to exclude transhumants to be excluded from restocking Table H-L. (continued) Other arid zones Features to monitor Semi-desert zone Annual grassland type Perennial grassland type Wetter zones NRk( The aspects considered below relate to societal, not household, NRM (see 'stockwealth,' below). Monitoring should clarify emergency strategies and give early warning of loss of mobility Territoriality Defined in terms of river Was defined by transhumance Defined usually in terms of Usually involves inter- systems and escape routes itineraries; now often confused winter or dry season or cropped relationships and competition homelands and outlying grazing vith agriculturalists areas. Mobility Maximum flexibility Focus on dry-season strategy Focus on (changing) rationales Mobility less important required a' ° Reciprocity Focus on arrangements for Same as for semi-desert Relate sharing arrangements to See above under 'Territoriality' sharing key resource areas the resources offered by each and accessing other zones major ecological land unit Drought Focus on flood plains and Different approaches apply to Focus on making best use of Give particular attention to the reserve reserves outside the zone wet-season and more permanent available biodiversity potential of croplands occupancy Stochovealth and Stockwealth is a key indicator. What constitutes a subsistence holding certainly varies among zones, but also depends on the uses to other indicators which livestock are put. It is an attribute that needs to be monitored at the household (not societal) level. Such attributes are excluded from this table. 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"Privatization of Animal Health Development, 14-15 Feb. 1995, Eschborn, Services. Improving Veterinary Efficiency." Germany. Agriculture Technology Notes No. 3, Waters-Bayer, A., and W. Bayer. 1994. March.. Washington D.C. Planning with Pastoralists: PRA and More. A Review ofMethods Focused on Africa. 153 User Guide Deserts and rangelands account for the greater * trading in order to allow the regular part of the earth's surface. Some rangelands are consumption of grain foods, and reserved for wildlife and others are allocated for * trading for other purposes. ranching, but these areas are small compared In addition, it is now commonplace for with those occupied by com.unities of individuals of pastoral origin who are engaged in pastoralists. business or salaried employment to invest their Pastoralism is more than an agricultural savings in livestock kept in their home area. sector activity. It is primarily a means of Those livestock then fulfill a very different role occupying territory. And like all forms of from the livestock that are contributing to family occupancy, pastoralism is diversified. A large subsistence. part of the diversification is contained in the Populatence. many roles which livestock play - as sources of Population pressure and the distribution of subsistence and capital, in esthetics and social stockwealth also greatly influence development relationships, and in transport and trade. strategy. The basic elements in pastoral Cnonsequently, the value of an animal in a development concern improvement in natural Conseuentl, thevalueof ananima in aresource managem-ent and social services - but pastoral economy is determined by the function the goals, pathways, and strategies that are that it fulfills, relative to the other animals that followed are all greatly affected by population are available, which often bears little relationship pressure and the economic circumstances of to its market value. pressual heholds. Diversification also extends into the individual households. exploitation of mineral and other natural Moreover, the natural environment imposes resources (including cropping, in the case of constraints on what is feasible to accomplish in agropastoralists, and sometimes tourism), and pastoral development. Mobile pastoralists cannot often into artisanal acttimes or paid employment, be settled and provided with 'luxuries' such as oftenaintoaralistsnwho actiitakes paid employment.o piped water, except in those few localities where Pastoralists who take paid employment or who ph pae eorei ufcett upr provde ood orservices to the market economy the water resource is sufficient to support provide goods or services te mat settlement. Even then, the livestock need to be may do so as a step towards entering that kept mobile in order to avoid degrading land and economy - but often the primary motivation is starving the animals. Standards of living and to assure their identity in pastoral society. Thus, food security appropriate to other rural situations pastoral systems vary not just in the livestock are seldom attaiate to one, species that are used and in their mobility and The implications are that while the vastness associated activities, but also in their basic of the area and the acuteness of the need assure economic orientation fattention for and zone pastoralism on the Development strategies need to be adapted to development agenda, there is need to be clear on the orientation of the pastoral system(s) that are the development paths that are being followed. being addressed. The primary distinctions in Occasionally a project may focus exclusively on livestock marketing or wildlife utilization, or on * maintaining a milk-based diet, relieving an emergency arising from drought or 155 User Guide other calamity. But more usually projects will 2. Assurance of the support and essential seek to bring to bear a cross-section of measures services needed by community-based that aim to improve food security and the organizations, as provided by central and sustainability of NRM in a designated pastoral local government and the commercial sector. system. 3. Inputs specific to drought management, Setting the scene has three requirements: which is the essence of food security in arid lands. This may involve setting up early * information on demography and regional warning sTs maynd senting response ecology, expressed spatially so that land use capilitems and locally,etailoredpon and physical infrastructure can be related to caaiiis etal adlcly alrdt theaandaphsi ifa atedsto increasing intensities of drought. Certainly it the avcategriabii of wsteg pasu alesy s will involve screening all technical inputs - * a categorization of existing pastoral systems,wtrs lismkeifalte,an differentiating communities and present g s practices by reference to mobility, livestock inputs to animal health and nutrition - to and uses, associated enterprises, and ensure that they contribute optimally to the specaties with other economies; and mechanisms by which pastoralists currently relations with other economies; and * * 1 ~~~~~~~~cope with drought. * the fonnulation of likely development paths,cpwihdogt * the frmulatin of lkely deelopmen paths 4. Establishment of a monitoring system that expressed in terms of the standards of living that aebisogtteumeasures the impact of project interventions and that re beg souht, he uss to hlcnnon-project events in a manner than can guide water and other resources will be put, steps succssvests in t develpmn ces The in te pogresio towrd hesegoa, an th successive steps In the development process. The inputh proguresi towgetsardthesedgoal.andt monitoring must cover all aspects of NRM - the inputs required to get started. natural systems, the user system, and the T'he types of information required are set out geopolitical framework - and needs to focus on on the following pages in the form of a check list. those indicators which, for the concerned site, In most cases, the resulting project will be provide the earliest and clearest indication of constructed around four elements, as elaborated positive and negative change. in Part Two of this book: Guidelines specific to each of these areas are 1. Support for the establishment and operation appended to the check list that follows. of herder organizations, tailored to the tasks expected of the concerned communities. 156 User Guide Check List of Key Issues and Information for Planning Pastoral Development Natural Environment c) Widespread in all age classes d) Forming dense thickets 1. What is the mean annual rainfall? e) Depleted by overcutting for firewood a) <150mrn b) 150-300 mm 9. What is the extent of soil erosion? c) 300-600 m a) Mild d) 600-1,200 mm b) Severe but localized e) >1,200 c) Requiring urgent attention 2. Over what period are rainfall data available? 10. What are the main sources of drinking a) <25 years water? b) 25-50 years a) Permanent lake or river c) 50-100 years b) Deep groundwater d) >100 years c) Shallow groundwater d) Seasonal pans 3 Is there evidence of alternating wetter and drier cycles, each period lasting: 11. What is the occurrence of wildlife? a) <7 years a) Inconsequential a) 7-20 years b) Important for tourism or other economic use c) >20 years c) Minor hazard (e.g., by predators or biting flies) 4. Which months normally constitute the d) Major impediment to livestock production growing season? Pastoral System(s) 5. Is the dormant season just dry or also subject to heavy frost or snow? 1. Is ethnicity simple or complex? 6. Does the ratio of rainfall to evapo- 2. Are there several pastoral systems transpiration support perennial grass? overlapping? On what is the variation based? a) Consistently a) Ethnicity b) During wetter cycles only b) Household circumstances c) Differences in the livestock species held 7. Is there evidence of cyclic shifts in vegetation type: 3. Is there seasonal competition for resources? a) Between annual and perennial grasses a) For dry season or winter grazing b) Through a more complex succession of b) For wet season or summer grazing woodland, grassland, and bushland c) For drought reserve d) For any other specific resource 8. What is the distribution of wood vegetation? a) Concentrated depressions and water courses b) Widespread but mostly in one age class 157 User Guide 4. Is dependence on livestock (for most 8. Is mobility constrained? families) total or partial? a) Freely mobile a) Livestock alone b) Movement still possible but increasingly b) Plus cropping (= agropastoralism) unwelcome c) Plus employment outside or pastoralism c) Recent loss of drought reserve or other key resource area 5. Is change taking place rapidly or only d) Enforced sedentarization gradually? e) Feed supply adequate without movement a) Situation relatively static b) Rapid deterioration under population 9. What drought management strategies (other pressure than mobility) are employed? c) Changing expectations but little advance d) Positive changes evident 10. How well do societal welfare mechanisms function? 6. How is stockwealth distributed? a) Fallen into disuse along with other societal a) Most families with at least a subsistence mechanisms holding b) Rendered ineffectual through overuse b) Most families sub-subsistence c) Effective for some (who, when, how?) 7. What is the dietary staple? 11. What is the level of dependence on famine a) Milk relief and feed aid? b) Meat a) Rarely invoked c) Home-grown grain b) Regularly needed by poor families d) Purchased grain and additives c) Widely used in most years Main uses of livestock (to be assessed separately for each pastoral system) Direct subsistence Draught! Capital Manure Species Milk Meat transport growth Sale Fuel Fertilizer Cnamel Cattle Horse/mule Donkey Goat Sheep Enter *** to indicate principal use, ** for secondary use, and * for occasional use. 158 User Guide Institutional Framework 4. Is local government effective? a) Representative of the people 1. Does existing social territorial organization b) In receipt of adequate support from central offer the institutions needed for community government management in NRM and associated services? c) Competent and poised to help herder organizations 2. Does government policy support pastoral 5. Does land law recognize the needs and rights development? of Doralztsg a) Encouraging mobility in arid zone pastoral of pastoralists? systems a) Confirming customary rights in homelands b) Recognizing customary law b) Preventing land grabbing c) Permitting decentralization c) Recognizing subsidiary rights of access 3. Are essential services funded and staffed 6. Does existing corporate law allow effective appropriately? local organizations? a) With equitable funding (for the size of the a) Managing facilities pastoral population) b) Defending territory b) With staff who can communicate effectively c) Accessing credit with the pastoral population d) Dealing with state and commercial c) With adequate mobility institutions 159 Distributors of COLOMBIA HAITI ITALY NEW ZEALAND ROMANIA SWITZERLAND Inloenlace Ltda. Culture Diffusion Licosa Commissionaria Sansoni SPA EBSCO NZ Ltd Compani De Librarii Bucuresti S A. 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(30 1) 364-1826 Fax: (46 8) 27-00-71 Fax: (263 4) 621670 Fax: (30 1) 364-8254 E-mail: mail@wwi.se RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS (continued) No. 318 Taylor, Boukambou, Dahniya, Ouayogode, Ayling, Abdi Noor, and Toure, Strengthening National Agricuiltuzral Research Systems in the Huimid and Suib-huzmid Zones of West and Central Africa: A Frameworkfor Action No. 320 Srivastava, Lambert, and Vietmeyer, Medicinal Plants: An Expanding Role in Development No. 321 Srivastava, Smith, and Forno, Biodiversity and Agricudlture: Implicationsfor Conservation and Development No. 322 Peters, The Ecology and Management of Non-Timber Forest Resolurces No. 323 Pannier, editor, Corporate Governance of Public Enterprises in Transitional Economies No. 324 Cabraal, Cosgrove-Davies, and Schaeffer, Best Practicesfor Photovoltaic Houtsehold Electrification Programs No. 325 Bacon, Besant-Jones, and Heidarian, Estimating Construction Costs and Schedules: Experience with Power Generation Projects in Developing Coutntries No. 326 Colletta, Balachander, and Liang, The Condition of Young Children in Stub-Saharan Africa: The Convergence of Health, Nuttrition, and Early Education No. 327 Valdes and Schaeffer in collaboration with Martin, Sutrveillance of Agricultutral Price and Trade Policies: A Handbookfor Paragutay No. 328 De Geyndt, Social Development and Absolutte Poverty in Asia and Latin America No. 329 Mohan, editor, Bibliography of Puiblications: Technical Department, Africa Region, July 1987 to April 1996 No. 332 Pohli, Djankov, and Anderson, Restructuring Large Industrial Firms in Central and Eastern Europe: An Empirical Analysis No. 333 Jha, Ranson, and Bobadilla, Measuring the Buirden of Disease and the Cost-Effectiveness of Health Interventions: A Case Stutdy in Gutinea No. 334 Mosse and Sontheimer, Performance Monitoring Indicators Handbook No. 335 Kirmani and Le Moigne, Fostering Riparian Cooperation in International River Basins: The World Bank at Its Best in Development Diplomacy No. 336 Francis, with Akinwumi, Ngwu, Nkom, Odihi, Olomajeye, Okunmadewa, and Shehu, State, Commutnity, and Local Development in Nigeria No. 338 Young, Measutring Economic Benefitsfor Water Investments and Policies No. 339 Andrews and Rashid, The Financing of Pension Systems in Central and Eastern Eutrope: An Overview of Major Trends and Their Determinants, 1990-1993 No. 340 Rutkowski, Chlanges in the Wage Structure dutring Economic Transition in Central and Eastern Euirope No. 341 Goldstein, Preker, Adeyi, and Chellaraj, Trends in Health Status, Services, and Finance: The Transition in Central and Eastern Europe, Volutme I No. 343 Kottelat and Whitten, Freshwater Biodiversity in Asia, with Special Reference to Fish No. 344 Klugman and Schieber with Heleniak and Hon, A Suirvey of Health Reform in Central Asia No. 345 Industry and Mining Division, Industry and Energy Department, A Mining Strategyfor Latin America and the Caribbean No. 347 Stock and de Veen, Expanding Labor-based Methodsfor Road Works in Africa No. 350 Buscaglia and Dakolias, Judicial Reform in Latin American Courts: The Experience in Argentina and Eculador No. 352 Allison and Ringold, Labor Markets in Transition in Central and Eastern Eutrope, 1989-1995 No. 353 Ingco, Mitchell, and McCalla, Global Food Supply Prospects, A Background Paper Prepared for the World Food Sufmmit, Rome, November 1996 No. 354 Subramanian, Jagannathan, and Meinzen-Dick, User Organizationsfor Suistainable Water Services No. 355 Lambert, Srivastava, and Vietmeyer, Medicinal Plants: Rescuiing a Global Heritage No. 356 Aryeetey, Hettige, Nissanke, and Steel, Financial Market Fragmentation and Reforms in Sub-Saharan Africa No. 357 Adamolekun, de Lusignan, and Atomate, editors, Civil Service Reform in Francophone Africa: Proceedings of a Workshop, Abidjan, January 23-26, 1996 No. 358 Ayres, Busia, Dinar, Hirji, Lintner, McCalla, and Robelus, Integrated Lake and Reservoir Management: World Bank Approach and Experience No. 360 Salman, The Legal Frameworkfor Water Users'Associations: A Comparative Stuldy No. 361 Laporte and Ringold, Trends in Edutcation Access and Financing dutring the Transition in Central and Eastern Elurope No. 362 Foley, Floor, Madon, Lawali, Montagne, and Tounao, The Niger Houisehold Energy Project: Promoting Ruiral Fuelwood Markets and Village Management of Natutral Woodlands No. 364 Josling, Agriculitural Trade Policies in the Andean Group: Issues and Options 5:* - - a / A}JlI bl _ w - -- l i f - I - _0 - - - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ _ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ _ n _w m -0 3 t