Public Disclosure Authorized \\,-"' •i ... Antarctic}'Arctic, Mediterranean,, Northwest. Atlantic, NC?_rtheast Allantic,_and Baltic ·::\: _. (~: t · 0 Public Disclosure Authorized ., , ', . ' I .:• 24762 Volume 1 ~ '--------·---~------__,,.'i,i . . ·>:.: • •• ,, • f. 'l --~ - ~- ... "' •' ., °. •" J• •••.• ;_-:,.o •- Public Disclosure Authorized ~ -, I f<. • t .. r ,.'~ Public Disclosure Authorized ~ ' . ' u' A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Principal Editors Graeme Kelleher, Chris Bleakley, and Sue Wells Volume I The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority The World Bank The World Conservation Union (IUCN) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. Manufactured in the United States of America First printing May 1995 The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. This publication was printed with the generous financial support of the Government of The Netherlands. Copies of this publication may be requested by writing to: Environment Department The World Bank Room S 5-143 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. WORLD CNPPA MARINE REGIONS 0 CNPPA MARINE REGION NUMBERS CNPf'A MARINE REGION BOUNDARIES ® North West North East Pacific 'Pacific ·-. r·---.. ...J Q '', "'· '"· .r·, '·. ,._ Ali?.f it.-rr.i11i?,m ' ' \\ \ ·--· ".... --.. / fl)\-'\ .-', . ,•' ·,.,. \,\ ,./ I / \ ,,'--- ~,. -·· . ,... ,. , / L 1.. . \ t''-~· , ,I I :]: ·,, ,-· -1 / '/. "',: J I• , , 1.. 1(-, J t .,·· 4D ... - - ·-. . ,:'\- ' ' . '': South Pacific ,. m I . .''• () rgfffl." ' .' I ' .:, ,. ' ., _,.,. . '-.,~, ~~--::- l I.. -~ so,.n, E,1:at ,../ r .. :r P.1,ifi, , r ~l .· • IL .. ' A11;tra/i,11 f\!""'' Zu1/.i11d Q A11tarct1c Contents Foreword v Preface vii Cooperating Organizations ix Acknowledgments xi Acronyms xii Introduction 1 Objectives 1 Methodology 2 Criteria for Selection of Priority Areas 3 Overview of Marine Biodiversity and Factors Relevant to the Identification of MP A Priority Areas 5 Initiatives that Recognize Globally Important Sites 9 Biogeographic Classification 11 Conclusion-The Way Forward 23 Summary Tables 29 Bibliography 41 1. Antarctic 45 Biogeography and Marine Biodiversity 45 Status of Existing MPAs 50 Priority Areas and Recommendations 55 Appendix 1.1 Potential Sites for the Establishment/Improved Management of MPAs in Antarctica 57 Notes 58 Bibliography 58 2. Arctic 61 Biogeography and Marine Biodiversity 61 Assessment of Existing MPAs 68 Priority Areas and Recommendations 71 Bibliography 75 3. Mediterranean 77 Biogeography and Marine Biodiversity 77 Assessment of Existing MPAs 88 International and Regional Initiatives Relating to MPAs 95 Assessment of Representation of Biogeographic Zones 97 Priority Areas and Recommendations 98 Appendix Priority Areas for the Establishment of MPAs in the Mediterranean Marine Region (RAC/SPA) 103 Bibliography 104 4. Northwest Atlantic 105 Biogeography and Marine Biodiversity 105 Assessment of Existing MPAs 117 Assessment of the Representation of Biogeographic Zones 121 iii iv A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas National Priority Areas for the Establishment and Management of MPAs 121 Regional Priority Areas for the Establishment And Management of MPAs 124 Bibliography 125 5. Northeast Atlantic 127 Biogeography and Marine Biodiversity 127 Assessment of Existing MPAs 133 Priority Areas and Recommen~tions 141 ,Bibliography 150 6. Baltic 153 Biogeography and Marine Biodiversity 153 Assessment of -Existing MPAs 162 Priority Areas and Recommendations . 167 Areas of Highest Regional Priprity for MPAs_ 179 Appendix 6.1 Marine Species Found in the ,Baltic Sea Region .180 Appendix 6.2 HELCOM Recommendatio!} JS/5 Regarding System of Coastal and Marine Baltic Sea Protected Areas. 180 ' · · Bibliography 182 Contributors . 185 Index 187 Cumulative Index 195 · Map Sup~lement Foreword Biodiversity is a major prerequisite for a sound sustainable environment. -Jacques-Yves Cousteau The oceans cover 70 percent of the earth's ment of existing ones in each of the world's surface. Within this vast underwater realm 18 major marine regions. and along its coasts is found a tremendous Shortly after the establishment of the diversity of life. Many people depend on the Global"Environment Facility (GEF), the Bank resources of the sea for food, income and identified ari urgent need to determine prior- employment. However, with growing num- ity areas for biodiversity conservation for bers converging on the world's coasts and which funding could be provided. The Bank exploiting its seas, profound changes are tak- initiated a consultative process to identify ing place in the marine environment and in such priorities and subsequently agreed to its biodiversity and productivity. Yet despite collaborate with the World Conservation Un- these alarming trends-reflected in the de- ion's (IUCN) Commission on National Parks cline in fisheries, the demise of coral reefs and Protected Areas (CNPPA) and the Great and the periodic mass mortality of marine Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) mammals and shorebirds-actions over the who were carrying out a program aimed at loss of the world's marine biodiversity have establishing a global representative system not been accorded the deserved priority. of marine protected areas. Action is required at all levels to rectify This joint effort illustrates the process to this situation-action involving national and be followed if the world community is to ad- local governments, national and interna- dress the fundamental environmental prob- tional NGOs and, most importantly, local lems it faces against limited financial and people. Marine protected areas are a practi- skilled human resources. Expertise must be cal way of conserving marine biodiversity, mobilized from all quarters, using the motiva- maintaining the productivity of marine eco- tion of communities rather than depending systems and contributing to the economic solely on financial reward. The World Bank, and social welfare of human communities. IUCN and GBRMPA have supported this pub- Realizing these complementary goals will re- lication but much of the credit should go to quire development of the human capacity the numerous individuals and organizations and commitment to managing these sites ef- affiliated with the CNPPA who have voluntar- fectively. It will also require the promotion ily devoted their time and energies. of integrated coastal zone management ap- The real value of this project lies in the proaches, of which marine protected areas recommended actions and their implementa- are a key component. tion. Consequently, the next step is the for- This publication provides a basis for mulation of priority regional and national development and implementation of a projects and the identification of investment global system of marine protected areas to opportunities which contribute to the main- protect and manage representative examples tenance of marine biodiversity and sustain- of the world's rich marine biodiversity. It able development. Our success therefore, will identifies priorities for establishing new ma- depend upon the durability of the partner- rine protected areas and improving manage- ships forged, and our commitment to demon- V vi A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas strating the benefits of conserving the and investors and above all, local communi- world's marine biodiversity to the global ties-to join in creating the necessary mo- community. The recommendations are a call - mentum for conserving and benefitting from to stakeholders around the world-from con- the world's marine biodiversity now and in servationists and managers to governments the future. Graeme Kelleher Ismail Serageldin David McDowell Great Barrier Reef Vice President Director General Marine Park Authority Environmentally Sustainable IUCN (Chair, 1979-1994) Development The World Bank Preface Through its Commission on National Parks tegrated way if it is to be able to sustain hu- and Protected Areas, IUCN has been carry- man use in the future, without progressive ing out a program to promote the estab- degradation. An almost identical resolution lishment and management of marine was passed at the 4th World Wilderness Con- protected areas (MPAs) around the world. gress in 1987. With its policy framework in To coordinate the MPAs Program, CNPPA es- place and an emerging global consensus on tablished a vice-chair for marine affairs in the need for urgent action to conserve ma- 1986 and appointed Graeme Kelleher, Chair rine biodiversity, the foundation for the of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Author- MPAs Program was established. A major first ity, to the position. Since this time the activi- step was taken with the division of the ties of the Vice-Chair (Marine) have been world into 18 biogeographic regions, enhanc- supported by GBRMPA. ing the development of a global repre- This first step of the program was to con- sentative system of marine protected areas. tribute to the development of IUCN policy In planning the Program it became clear on marine protected areas to provide the vi- that there was a need for practical guidance sion and mandate for a long-term program. for the establishment and management of IUCN determined its policy position on ma- MPAs per se. In 1987 work began on this rine protected areas at the 17th General As- and in 1992 the Guidelines for Establishing sembly held in Costa Rica in 1988. The Marine Protected Areas (Kelleher and Kench- primary goal of marine conservation and ington 1992) was published. These guide- management and the means to achieve this lines, reviewed by over one hundered goal are defined in Resolution 17.38 and the international experts, contain principles and 17th General Assembly of IUCN (1988). The techniques that have been demonstrated to primary goal is: to provide for the protec- be successful when applied to natural re- tion, restoration, wise use, understanding source management. and enjoyment of the marine heritage of the The World Bank, which had become in- world in perpetuity through the creation of a creasingly involved in biodiversity conserva- global, representative system of marine pro- tion, particularly through its partnership in tected areas and through the management, the Global Environment Facility (GEF), sup- in accordance with the principles of the ported a systematic, transparent and partici- World Conservation Strategy, of human ac- patory approach to priority setting for tivities that use or affect the marine environ- investment in biodiversity conservation in ment. The following definition was adopted the marine realm. However, in contrast to for the term "marine protected area": the terrestrial realm, there was little guid- ance for the marine environment (Norse Any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, 1993). Consequently, in 1990, several work- together with its overlying water and asso- ciated flora, fauna, historical and cultural shops were held to explore ways in which such an approach could result in a product features, which has been reserved by law that would be useful to governments and or other effective means to protect part or aid agencies. In parallel, the CNPPA had es- all of the enclosed environment. tablished a network of 18 regional marine Resolution 17.38 emphasized that the ma- working groups to implement its MPAs rine environment must be managed in an in- Program. With the initiative by the CNPPA vii viii A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas providing an adequate framework to build their role in the preparation and implementa- upon, in 1991,the Environment Department tion of the .:11etwor~ of MPAs. This will be of the World Bank contracted GBRMPA and mediated through consultation with the CNPPA to help prepare a report to identify working groups and further consultation at priority areas for marine biodiversity conser- the local level with stakeholders and deci- vation, with each of the world's bio- sion makers. geographic regions being represented. With the completion of this report the · The following report provides-for the next stage will be to develop and implement first time-a worldwide inventory of marine regional and national projects that aim to es- protected areas with a significant subtidal tablish and manage on a priority basis a component. It documents biogeographic global representative system of marine pro-' and ecological characteristics by zone in tected areas. Project proposals should be for- each of the 18 marine regions and summa- mulated with financing 'from a number of rizes the range of marine biodiversity within sources such as, governments, the donor each region and the major threats to its con- community, the GEF, the private sector, and servation. Using a comprehensive selection NGOs. Strategies should also be developed criteria, including ecological, social and eco- for longer.:term self-financing. It is hope4 nomic factors, the working groups identified that IUCN, CNPPA, GBRMPA, the World. sites of, national and regional priority for the Bank, UNEP, UNDP and the many other or-· conservation of marine biodiversity in each ganizations that have contributed to the · region. These include existing marine pro- preparation of this document will continue tected areas in- need of improved manage- to work together in this next critical phase. - ment as well as new areas proposed to fill The maps have been compiled on the ba:.. in the gaps in biogeographic representation sis of best available information; accord- within the existing MPA system. These priori- ingly, comments; corrections, and other ties are based on the best available informa- feedback would be most welcome. A poster tion and should be viewed as investment map illustrating regional priorities for marine tools updated as conditions change. protected area establishment and improved· The regional working groups established management has been produced to accom- under the CNPPA are expected to continue· pany the four-volume study. Cooperating Organizations GREAT BARRIER REEF MARINE PARK plemented by grant funded projects under .AUl'HORITY the Global Environment Facility (GEF), an in- ternational donors' fund jointly administered The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Author- by the World Bank, United Nations Develop- ity (GBRMPA) is an independent Statutory ment Programme (UNDP) and United Na- Authority of the Government of Australia. tions Environment Programme (UNEP). The goal of the Authority is to provide for The Freshwater, Coastal and Marine Re- the protection, wise use, understanding and sources Management Team ("Blue Team") of ~njoyment of Australia's Great Barrier Reef the Land, Water and Natural Habitats Divi- in perpetuity. The Authority has developed a sion in the Bank's Environment Department unique experience in managing this vast provides Bank-wide leadership and coordi- mult_iple use area of more than 34 million nation for development and implementation hectares that includes tropical reef, continen- of Bank polici~s and practices in support of tal shelf, estuarine and island environments a "blue agenda". and in preparation and im- and has successfully implemented an exten- plementation of innovative programs and sive marine planning, management and re- projects. that promote en~ironmentally sus- search program. Tiu-ough its External Services tainable management of freshwater, coastal Section the Authority makes this expertise and marine systems and their resources. available nationally and internationally. IUCN, Tim WORID CONSERVATION nlE WORID BANK UNION The World Bank is a.multilateral develop- IUCN, The World Conservation Union, ment institution whose purpose is to assist brings together in a unique partnership, its developing member countries to further states, government agencies, and a diverse their economic and social progress so that range of nongovernmental organizations. their people may live better and fuller lives. IUCN is comprised of more than 800 mem- Founded in 1944, the Bank is owned by bers in all, spread across more than 120 more than 174 countries and functions as a countries. large cooperative in which members are As a union, IUCN exists to serve its mem- shareholders. Responding to the concerns of bers: to represent their views on the world its members, the Bank began to fully inte- stage· and to provide them with the con- grate environmental concerns into its work cepts, strategies and technical support they in 1987. By fiscal year 1994, annual lending need to achieve their goals. Through its six for environmentally sustainable develop- commissions, IUCN draws together over ment was a record $2.4 billion. Almost half 5,000 expert volunteers in project teams and of all Bank lending supported environmen- action groups. A central secretariat coordi- tally sustainable development. Today the nates the IUCN Program and leads initiatives Bank is canying out 118 environmental pro- on the conservation and sustainable use of jects representing $9 billion in loans and the world's biological diversity and the man- credits. The Bank's lending portfolio is com- agement of habitats and natural resources, ix x A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas as well as providing a range of services. The within wider strategies for the sustainable Union has helped many countries to prepare use of the earth's natural resources. National Conservation Strategies and demon- strates the application of its knowledge through the field projects it supervises. Op- THE WORID CONSERVATION erations are increasingly decentralized and MONITORING CENTRE are carried forward by an expanding net- work of regional and country offices, lo- The World Conservation Monitoring Centre cated principally in developing countries. (WCMC) is an independent nonprofit organi- IUCN, The World Conservation Union, zation established by the three partners of seeks above all to work with its members to the World Conservation Strategy: IUCN, the achieve development that is sustainable and World Wildlife Fund (WWF), and UNEP. It that provides a lasting improvement in the maintains information describing biodiversity quality of life for people all over the world. at the global level and runs a number of large databases including a major Geo- graphic Information System (GIS), the Biodi- COMMISSION ON NATIONAL PARKS versity Map Library, and a protected areas AND PROTECTED AREAs database. The latter includes data for some 39,000 protected areas, held in a FoxPro da- CNPPA, IUCN's Commission on National tabase. For some 4,000 of these there are de- Parks and Protected Areas, serves as the prin- tailed data sheets that provide information cipal source of technical advice to the Un- on physical and biological features as well as ion, its members, and its collaborating legal protection, management systems and organizations on all aspects of the selection, threats. These data sheets have been pre- planning and management of protected ar- pared for all internationally designated sites eas. Its mission is to promote the estab- under the World Heritage Convention and lishment and effective management of a all Biosphere Reserves as well as most major worldwide network of terrestrial and marine nationally designated sites. The Centre is re- protected areas. To this end, CNPPA aims to sponsible for producing the United Nations demonstrate the value of protected areas List of National Parks and Protected Areas. Acknowledgments This study could not have been Clive Wilkinson {Australian Institute of completed without the active and Marine Science). generous participation of members of Technical, editorial and the CNPPA Marine Network who administrative support was provided by committed their time and energies to a number of individuals over the course this project, mostly without monetary of the report's preparation. The high- recompense. Their valuable quality color maps were prepared by contribution far exceeded the financial Jeff Lecksell (World Bank), with data support provided by the institutions from Chris Bleakley (GBRMPA) and the involved, making publication of this WCMC and technical support from four volume study a highly cost- Puneet Kishor and Petter Nyborg, also effective and timely effort. Individual of the World Bank. Editorial and authors who contributed to the administrative support was provided by preparation of regional reports are listed staff of the GBRMPA Canberra Office: in the relevant regional section. Amanda Cohen, Maria Hawke, Helen The principal editors, Graeme McGregor, and Allison Pearson. Kelleher, Chris Bleakley and Sue Wells, Assistance with references and research and World Bank staff who contributed was provided by GBRMPA Library staff to and supervised production of the in Townsville, Australia: Karen Adler, publication, Colin Rees, Marea Rozel Brown~ Clare Cappa, and Suzie Hatziolos, and Jan Post, would like to Davies. In Washin~on, indexing of the acknowledge the strong support and four volumes was prepared by Jeanne assistance provided by many people Moody (Beaver Wood Enterprises), and from the organizations that cooperated Charlotte Maxey and Cynthia Stock in preparing this study. In particular, (World Bank) coordinated the final recognition is given to the following design and composition of the individuals: publication. Danny Elder (Marine and Coastal The editors are.grateful to Jan Post Areas Program, IUCN), Jeremy and Carleton Ray for proviru.11g photos Harrison (Protected Areas Data Unit, for the cover and accompanying poster WCMC), Richard Kenchington (External map and to Tomoko Hirata (World Services Section, GBRMPA), Bing Lucas Bank) for the cover design. Finally, (former Chair, CNPPA), Carl Gustaf GBRMPA, the World Bank, and IUCN Lundin (Land, Water and Natural would like to express their sincere Habitats Division of the Environment thanks to the Government of Sweden, Department,~d Bank), Jeff -through Sida, for their support in McNeely, (Biodiversity Program, carrying out th~ study, and the IUCN), Ken Newcombe (Global Government of the Netherlands for Environment Coordination Division of their generous support for publication the Environment Department, World costs. Bank), Adrian Phillips (Chair, CNPPA), Dave Sheppard (Protected Areas Program, IUCN), Mark Spalding (Habitats Data Unit, WCMC), and xi Acronyms AIMS MAB Australian Institute of Marine Science Man and the Biosphere Programme CITES MARPOL Convention on International Trade in Endan- International Convention for the Prevention gered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora of Pollution from Ships CNPPA NGO Commission on Nati9nal .Parks and Pro- Nongovernmental Organization tected Areas (IUCN) . PADU GBRMPA Protected Areas Data Unit Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority SSC GEF Species Survival Commission Global Environment Facility TNC GIS The Nature Conservancy- Geographic Information System UNDP HDU United Nations Development Programme Habitats Data Unit UNCED ICLARM United Nations Conference on Environment International Center for Living Aquatic Re- and Development source Management UNEP IMO United Nations Environment Programme International Maritime Organization UNESCO IUCN United Nations Educational, Scientific, and- The World Conservation Union Cultural Organization LME WCMC Large Marine Ecosystems World Conservation Monitoring Centre. MPA WWF Marine Protected Area World Wildlife Fund Data Note Billion is a thousand million; trillion is a million million. xii Introduction .. - The marine environment is critical to the ronment and Development (UNCED), specifi- natural and cultural heritage of the world. cally requires that states should identify ma- Many marine areas support a great diversity rine ecosystems exhibiting high levels of of plants and animals; the oceans play an biodiversity and productivity and other criti- essential role in climatic cycles and other cal habitat areas and provide necessary limi- global processes. Marine ecosystems and tations on use in these areas, through inter resources are fundamental to the sustainable alia designation of protected areas. The Con- development of coastal countries, providing vention on Biological Diversity requires food, minerals, pharmaceuticals, construc- states to implement conservation policies to tion materials and a vast range of other maintain biodiversity. products. They also often support a grow- The aim of the study is to identify priority ing .tourism and recreation industry and play areas for the establishment and management a vital role in transport and in the culture of a global representati~e system of MPAs. It and lifestyle of coastal people (Dixon, Scura, provides strategic guidance to governments, and·van't Hof 1993). However, throughout aid agencies, and others working to achieve the world, marine ecosystems face increas- marine biodiversity conservation and sustain- ingly serious threats from pollution, overex- able use of the marine environment on ploitation, conflicting uses of resources, where to focus investments. The study offers damage and destruction of habitat, and a series of general and site specific recom- other harmful consequences of human mendations which are summarized at the development. Loss of biodiversity is espe- end of this chapter. cially at risk. Conserving marine biodiversity is there- fore a priority. Decisions and actions must 0BJECI1VES be taken without delay. Chapter 17 of Agenda 21, the Action Plan drawn up follow- The objectives of the report were to produce ing the United Nations Conference on Envi- three main products: 1 2 A Global·Representative System of Marine Protected Areas First, maps of the 18 biogeographic re- ever possible of both marine resource man- gions into which the CNPPA has divided the agers and marine scientists. The aims of the world, have been produced showing the lo- working groups have been to: cation of: • Summarize the main physical and biologi- • Existing MPAs (identifying those that are cal characteristics of the marine environ- national or regional priorities for manage- ment ment strengthening) • Divide each region into its constituent bio- • Proposed new MPAs (specify whether of geographic zones national or regional priority). • Make an inventory of existing MPAs • Identify gaps in the representation of the Both existing and proposed MPAs are de- biogeographic zones in MPAs picted on the accompanying maps as a • Identify areas of national priority for the point representing the center of an area. In establishment of new MPAs or for man- the latter case, this may be a well-defined lo- agement strengthening and support to ex- cation or a general focal area for biodiversity isting MPAs conservation requiring further investigation. • Identify areas of regional priority for the Second, supporting information for each establishment of new MPAs or for man- of the regions has been compiled, including: agement strengthening and support to ex- • An overview of marine biodiversity and isting MPAs biogeography in each region, particularly • Prepare other recommendations to pro- as they relate to MPAs mote the establishment and improved • Available data on existing MPAs in each management of MPAs in each region. region, including information on repre- sentation and management effectiveness Workshops were held in the East Asian • Justification for the selection of priority Seas (February 1993) and the Baltic (June areas 1993), Northwest Pacific (September 1993), • Identification of further information re- the South Pacific (October 1993) and Latin quired for a network of MPAs to cover America (January 1994) regions to allow ma- each region's marine biological and geo- rine resource managers and marine scientists graphic diversity. to identify priorities. In some regions this was the first time these two groups had co- Third, recommendations have been formu- operated in this way. During the next phase, lated for the specific actions needed in each national and local level workshops will be region. required to build consensus in advancing These recommendations are offered to the MPA selection process to the point of help organizations, governments, and local agreeing on potential investments. communities collaborate efficiently as they Information from the Protected Areas Data decide the next steps in each circumstance. Unit (PADU) and Habitats Data Unit (HDU) at the World Conservation Monitoring Cen- tre has been made available to GBRMPA METIIODOLOGY and the World Bank for this project, and these organizations now maintain an identi- The CNPPA divided the marine areas of the cal computerized database on MPAs. This da- world into 18 regions largely on the basis of tabase, which has been substantially edited biogeographic criteria but, for practical rea- and updated for the purpose of this report sons, also considering political boundaries · by the Bank and GBRMPA, has been used to (see Map 1). In 1990, working groups were generate maps showing the location of the established in each region, consisting wher- Mi>As, each region's biogeographic classifica- Introduction 3 tion scheme, and the location of priority ar- The report concentrates primarily on the eas for the conservation of global marine subtidal marine environment in coastal areas biodiversity. Portions of this database may and does not attempt to assess intertidal, es- be made available to institutions on request. tuarine and wetland areas. In some in- stances there is a lack of available information on boundaries of protected ar- CRn'ERIAFORSELECDONOFPRIORl'IY eas that appear to have marine components AREAs and it is difficult to determine the extent to which the marine environment is included. The criteria used to identify priority areas in Based on the information available, a judge- this report were developed by Kelleher and ment has been made to identify areas that in- Kenchington (1992) and have been adopted clude a significant subtidal marine by the International Maritime Organization component. (IMO) for use in the identification of Particu- Whenever possible national priority areas larly Sensitive Sea Areas and by the parties were identified by national representatives to the Helsinki Convention for identification and regional priority areas were identified of a system of marine protected areas for the by the regional working group leader. This Baltic Sea. process stretched over 3 years and every ef- Priorities were identified on the basis of fort was made to incorporate contributions ecological and biogeographic criteria in the from marine resource managers and marine first instance, using available data. Other, scientists in each country. equally important, criteria were used to pro- The selection of sites is to some extent vide additional justification for or against se- subjective, and the lack of information and lecting a particular area and in considering of a well-tested and accepted global system the probability of establishing and success- of biogeographical classification makes the fully managing a marine protected area. All determination of priorities difficult. How- priority areas were therefore assessed as hav- ever, priorities in each region have been ing a reasonable chance of success as a ma- identified within the consistent framework rine protected area. of a biogeographic classification system Within these guidelines, each working adopted as appropriate for that region. group applied the specific criteria shown in Many nations are carrying out programs Box 1 for the selection of priority areas. for conservation and development of the ma- rine environment. As far as possible, the pri- Priorities for Conservation orities identified in this report are consistent with expressed national priorities, as identi- Priorities in this report have been identified fied by national representatives or in docu- on a regional and national basis using avail- ments such as National Environmental Action able data. In some regions and countries, Plans or National Conservation Strategies. there has been limited information available It is recognized that priorities for marine on some subject areas. Consequently, the re- biodiversity conservation will change in the port reflects the variability of these data be- future as further information becomes avail- tween regions and countries. able, communities and decision-makers be- Recommendations on the management of in- come more aware of the role and dividual MP As require detailed assessment importance of marine environments and eco- of these sites. Unfortunately, the limitations systems, and as the priorities identified in of time and resources meant that carrying this report are acted upon. out such assessments was beyond the scope Indeed, new information resulting from of this report. management experience, community educa- 4 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Box 1. Criteria for Selection of Priority Areas Biogeographic criteria inhabitants, appreciation by tourists and • presence of rare biogeographic qualities others or as a refuge nursery area or or representative of a· biogeographic source or'e~oh.omically'important species). "type" or types • unique or unusual geological features.- Social importance • existing or potential value to the local, · Ecological criteria national or international communities be- • an essential part of ecological processes cause of its heritage, historical, cultural, or life-support systems (for example, is a traditional aesthetic, educational or rec- source for larvae for downstream areas) reational qualities. • area's integrity, or the degree to which the area either by itself or in association Scientific importance with other protected areas, encompasses • value for research and monitoring. a complete ecosystem • the variety of habitats International or national significance • presence of habitat for rare or endan- • potential to be listed on the World (or na- . gered species tional) Heritage List, declared a Bio- • nursery or juvenile areas sphere Reserve, or included on a list of . • feeding, breeding or rest areas , areas-of international or national impor- • rare or unique habitat for any species tance, or is the subject of an international • genetic diversity (is diverse or abundant · or national conservation agreement. in species terms). Practicality/or feasibility Naturalness • degree of insulation from external de- • extent to which the area has been pro- structiVC: influences tected from, or has not_ been subject to, •. social and political acceptability, degree human-induced _change. o( community support . • accessibility for education, tourism, rec-. Economic importance . reation · • existing or potential contribution to eco- • compatibility with existing uses, particu- nomic value by virtue of its protection larly by locals (for example, protection of an area for • ease of management or compatibility recreation, subsistence, use by traditional with existing management regimes. tion, research, and monitoring should be conservation strategy in the coastal zone. taken into account in making decisions and MPAs are successful only if they are man- taking action. this means regular review aged as part of broader programs that pro- and updadng of the priorities identified in vide for management of all uses of the sea· this report. · and adjacent land. L~uge, multiple-use MPAs It is beyond the' scope of this report to covering complete ecosystems are a major. deal with issues relating to broader coastal step toward this goal. .. zone management. However, the high de- Although this report is concerned with gree of linkage between marine environ- · site's ofregional hnportance for marine bi~di- ments and between the land and the sea versity, it recommends that all .countries imposes an urgent need for the integration within a region sho~ld attempt to conserve a of protected area management a11;d overall b~ogeo~raphically repres~ntative set of ~it~ Introduction 5 at the national level, in accordance with well known, but there have been few global Resolution GA 17.38 of the IUCN (1988). overviews of any other marine ecosystems. These ecosystems are primary candidates for representation in MPAs. Other·ecosyst~ms OVERVIEW OF MARINE BIODIVERSITY AND have particular significance in some regions. FACTORS REI.EVANI'T0111E IDENimCA'DON For example, sea ice makes up a large part OF MPA PRIORI1Y AllEAS of the habitat of diatoms, arctic fish, some birds, walruses and seals; sea walls and con- This section provides a brief overview of ma- tinental slopes attract aggregations of pelagic rine biodiversity and outlines social and bio- carnivores. logical factors relevant to the selection of priority areas for the establishment and im- Species Diversity proved management of MPAs. Annex 1 describes some existing initia- At higher taxonomic levels, marine ecosys- tives which identify important sites for ma- tems are far more diverse than terrestrial rine biodiversity conservation. Further ones; for example of the 33 animal phyla, information on these is provided in tables only 11 occur on land (one endemic) while ~7. 28 (13 endemic) occur in the oceans (May 1988). Total numbers of marine species have Overview of Marine Biodiversity been estimated at 250,000 (Winston 1992), with possibly 150,000-200,000 species still to Recent reviews have provided detailed dis- be described, excluding micro-organisms. Ta- cussion of global marine diversity in the ble 2 reviews information on species diver- overall context of biological diversity (for ex- sity for some of the major taxonomic ample, Thome-Miller and Catena 1991; groups, and a general review is given in WCMC 1992; Norse 1993). A brief summary Winston (1992). of marine biodiversity at the species, genetic Patterns of species diversity in the oceans and ecosystem levels, and a discussion of ex- are still poorly known compared with terres- tinction in the marine environment are pro- trial species. However, two basic gradients vided below. of diversity can be discer:ned. First, as on land, for many taxonomic groups, diversity Ecosystem Diversity incr:eases from the polar regions to the equa- tor; for example, the highest species diver- The diversity of ecosystems and habitats in sity for fish, crustaceans, corals, mollusks, an area, or the presence of unique habitats, foraminifera and seagrasses, is in the tropics provides a measure of its importance for (for example, Stehli, McAlester, and Helsley conservation. In Agenda 21, the following 1967; Buzas and.Culver 1991; Veron 1993). ecosystems are accorded highest priority, on However, recent studies have revealed high the basis of their diversity and productivity: species diversity in the Southern Ocean for coral reefs, estuaries, temperate and tropical certain groups, notably sponges, bryozoans, wetlands including mangroves, seagrass polychaetes and amphipods (Clarke and beds and other spawning and nursery areas. Crame 1989). Table ,1 provides a summary of some of The secqnd distinct pattern is a longitudi- the key information on these ecosystems, nal one. The Indo-West Pacific area while tables 8 and 9 provide further informa- bounded ~y the Philippines, Indonesia ~nd tion on the status of coral reefs and man- Northeast Australia has for some time been groves. The general distribution of reefs, known· as the area of highest marine biodi- mangroves and other wetlands is reasonably versity, with diversity declining to the east 6 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas through the Pacific Ocean island groups and graphic range in the marine environment, oc- to the west through the Indian Ocean island curring wherever substrate and water quality groups. The Atlantic has its highest diversity are suitable, recent work is showing that ge- in the west, particularly the Caribbean, and netic variation within marine populations lower diversity in the east. Kay (1984) as- can be substantial. Many populations are sessed patterns of speciation in the Indo- highly diverse at the genetic level and geneti- West Pacific by analyzing distribution cally distinct populations of the same spe- records of about 3000 species and 500 gen- cies may occur in different locations (see era of marine mollusks, echinoderms, crusta- Norse 1993; Benzie 1994; Meylan, Bowen, ceans and fish. Three centers of endemism and Avise 1990). were identified: the Indian Ocean, the west- The preservation of genetic diversity is a ern Pacific and the Pacific Basin. The open basic requirement for sustaining popula- boundaries between habitats and the relative tions, resistance to disease and adaptability ease of dispersal means that extinction in to changing environmental conditions. If the se·a is not yet as great a concern as it is populations are genetically and physically on land, except for the limited number of en- separated, efforts to protect one population demic species, some of the large air-breath- may have little impact on others. In the ab- ing species and those with low fecundity. sence of sufficient information to determine The few recorded recent marine vertebrate the extent and seriousness of losses in ge- extinctions comprise three mammals and ten netic diversity, the implication is that a sys- seabirds that were mostly wide ranging, but tematic approach should be taken in the with small breeding ranges (Vermeij 1993; design of marine management and protected Norse 1993). The only recent recorded inver- area strategies. tebrate extinction is the eelgrass limpet Lot- tia alveus from the northwestern Atlantic Social Factors in the Identification of MPA (Vermeij 1993). Priority Areas However, the lack of knowledge about the distribution of many species and the fact In most countries, there is a long history of that pollution and disease can spread rapi 1,000,000 22 Questions about the effectiveness of protec- unknown 315 tion of marine biodiversity cannot be an- Total 1,306 swered without information on the extent to Introduction 15 Table 3. Representation of Blogeographlc Zones · Number ofBtogeograpbtc Number of Btogeographtc Marine Region Zones wltb at least one MPA Zones with no MPAs 1 Antarctic 2 Arctic 4 1 3 Mediterranean 8 2 4 Northwest Atlantic 10 0 5 Northeast Atlantic 5 1 6 Baltic 8 1 7 Wider Caribbean 5 1 8 West Africa 4 1 9 South Atlantic 4 1 10 Central Indian Ocean 4 2 11 Arabian Seas 8 5 12 East Africa 3 2 13 East Asian Seas 8 0 14 South Pacific 12 8 15 Northeast Pacific 8 1 16 Northwest Pacific 7 1 17 Southeast Pacific 3 3 18 Australia/New Zealand 17 2 Total 118 32 • High: Generally achieved management ob- assessed as having High management level jectives and generally achieving their management • Moderate: Partially achieved management objectives. Some 155 (40 percent) MPAs objectives were recorded as having Moderate manage- • Low: Generally fail to achieved manage- ment level and 111 (29 percent) as having ment objectives Low management level. The reasons for MPAs failing to achieve Table 5 shows the numbers of MPAs as.:. their management objectives vary between sessed as having a High, Moderate, or Low Regions; as reflected in the 18 regional re- management level. ports. However, there are some commonly re- A total of 117 MPAs, or about 31 percent curring themes which can be summarized as: of those for which data were available, were • Insufficient· financial and technical re- sources to develop and implement man- Table 4. Frequency of MPAs agement plans lack of trained staff in Biogeographic Zones • Lack of data for management decisions, including information on the impacts of MPAs per Zone Number ofZones Table s. Management Level of MPAs 0 32 1-5 60 Management Level Number ofMPAs 6-10 .22 11-15 9 High 117 16-20 6 Moderate 155 21-25 9 Low 111 26+ 12 unknown 923 Total 150 Total 1,306 16 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Table 6. Number of National and Regional Priority Areas, by Region National Priorities Regional Priorities .Existing Proposed .Existing Proposed Marine Region MPAs MPAs Total MPAs MPAs Total Antarctic 0 0 0 0 0 0 Arctic 4 30 34 4 2 6 Mediterranean 0 59 59 0 4 4 Northwest Atlantic 0 12 12 0 4 4 Northeast Atlantic 25 12 37 18 5 23 Baltic 29 22 51 5 5 10 Caribbean 66 3 69 3 3 6 West Africa 13 61 74 3 9 12 South Atlantic 10 4 14 5 3 8 Central Indian Ocean 7 24 31 4 5 9 Arabian Seas 4 16 20 0 11 11 East Africa 13 25 38 6 3 9 East Asian Seas 18 5 23 9 1 10. South Pacific 18 68 86 0 0 0 Northeast Pacific 7 19 26 3 3 6, Northwest Pacific 1 13 14 0 6 q' Southeast Pacific 10 15 25 6 2 8 Australia/New Zealand 7 20 27 7 16 23 Total 232 408 640 73 82 155 resource use and on the status of biologi- been identified by national representatives cal resources and areas of regional priority by the relevant • ,Lack of public support and unwillingness working group leader in consultation with of users to follow management rules, members of the working group. often because users have not been in- Table 6 identifies the number of national volved in establishing such rules and regional priority areas identified in each • Inadequate commitment to enforcing man- Region. The number of national priorities agement includes areas also identified as a regional • Unsustainable use of resources occurring priority. within MPAs A total of 640 MPA sites have been identi- • Impacts from activities in land and sea ar- fied as national priorities for marine biodiver- eas outside the boundaries of MPAs, in- sity conservation. Of these, 232 (36 percent) cluding pollution and overexploitation are existing areas which require support for • Lack of clear organizational responsibili- improved management and 408 (64 percent) ties for management and absence of coor- are proposed MPAs. A total of 155 MPA sites dination between agencies with have been identified as regional priorities. Of responsibilities relevant to MPAs. these 73 (47 percent) are existing areas which require support for improved management MPA Priorities for Marine Biodiversity and 82 (53 percent) are proposed MPAs. Conservation· I'tf!ormation Gaps The methodology used to identify priorities is outlined in the introduction to.this study. It has not been possible to determine re- In general, areas of national priority have gional priority sites for the Antarctic and the Introduction 17 Table 7. Main Information Gaps Marine Region Country/Area Antarctic Not J?.OSsible to identify priorities due to absence of agreed biogeographic classification Arctic Russia (Siberian coast) Northeast Atlantic Atlantic coasts of Spain, France and Portugal; Madeira; the Channel Islands (U.K.) West Africa north coast (Former Spanish Sahara, Morocco), south coast (Angola, Namibia), the Gulf of Guinea (Cameroon, Gabon), offshore islands (Tristan da Cunha, Canary Is., Sao Tome and Principe, St. Helena) South Atlantic Argentina, Uruguay, the Falkland Islands (U.K.) Central Indian Ocean eastern Bay of Bengal (Myanmar) Arabian Seas Gulf of Aden (Somalia, Yemen Djibouti), western side of the Red Sea (Sudan, Eritrea), southeast Arabian Gulf (Qatar-DAE), the northern side of the Arabian Gulf and Gulf of Oman (Iran, Pakistan) East Africa Somalia East Asian Seas Cambodia, Brunei Oarusallam, west coast of Luzon, Sarnar and Mindanao (Philippines), south coast of Jawa, Sumatera and the lesser Sunda Islands (Indonesia) South Pacific Insufficient information to identify regional priorities Northeast Pacific Bering Sea (United States) Northwest Pacific Sea of Okhotsk, Bering Sea (Russia) Southeast Pacific Central America (Nicaragua, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador) Australia/New Zealand Northwest Coast, Southwest Coast, Lower East Coast and South Gulfs Coast biogeographic regions (Australia) South Pacific because of a lack of informa- for MPAs. 'In some cases data on these sites tion. In the South Pacific many areas have may exist in the country concerned but have been identified as candidate sites at the na- · not been available in the preparation of this · tional level. At the regional level broad areas report; iri others it may represent a lack of in- of priority have been identified but more de- formation on the area concerned. Table 7 de- tailed analysis, in which an assessment of so- scribes the main information gaps, including cial and economic factors must play a Antarctica and the South Pacific. Further de- central role, is required to determine specific tails can be obtained from the relevant re- sites of priority. Several sites have been high- gional report and maps. lighted for the Antarctic for conservation ac- There is a lack of detailed information on tion. This may be as much to do with the the management and characteristics of · fact that they have been well-studied in com- MPAs. Only in a few Marine Regions is there parison to other areas. Because there is no any systematic assessment of the degree to accepted marine biogeographic classification which 'MPAs achieve their management for the Antarctic and the task of determining objectives. relative priorities at the regional level proved impossible. There are a number of other regions in Conclusions from Results which major biogeographic types or large ar- eas are not well represented by existing The Recommendations of the IVth World MPAs or priority areas identified in this Congress on National Parks and Protected study, or where available information is un- Areas (IUCN 1993) call for 10 percent of certain. The primary reason for this is lack each biome of the world to be included in of a~ailable information,on candidate sites protected areas. Although the lack of an ac- 18 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas cepted global classification system makes General Recommendations comparison between Marine Regions diffi- cult, broad conclusions can be drawn. Recommendations and actions relevant to In the overwhelming number of cases the protection and s-ustainable manage- the area of each marine biogeographic ment of marine biodiversity, including zone included in MPAs is much less than 1 MPAs, are contained in a number of percent of its total area. Furthermore, most sources. These include Chapter 17 of of the biogeographic zones are large areas Agenda 21 from the United Nations Confer- which include a range of different ecosys- ence on Environment and Development tem types. More detailed information on (UNCED), the Biodiversity Convention, the range of ecosystem types present in Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustain- each zone and in each MP A would be re- able Living (IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1991), the quired to determine the extent to which Global Biodiversity Strategy (WRI/IUCN/ the biodiversity of each zone is adequately UNEP 1992), Global Marine Biological Di- "represented." However, there must be versity: A Strategy for Building Conserva- doubts about the extent to which MPAs of tion into Decision Making (CMC/IUCN/ a median size of 1,500 hectares can protect WWF/UNEP/World Bank 1993), the Gu_ide- a representative sample of the biodiversity lines for Establishing Marine Protected Areas of a large zone, particularly given the inter- (Kelleher and Kenchington 1992), Marine connectedness of the sea and the degree and Coastal Protected Areas: A Guide for to which material (pollutants, larvae etc) Planners and Managers (Salm and Clark and impacts are transferred. 1984), and Parks for Life (IUCN 1993), the From the available information on the proceedings of the IVth World Congress size, number and distribution of MPAs ac- on National Parks and Protected Areas. cording to biogeographic type, it is clear The recommendations below specifically that the coverage of existing MPAs falls well address priority issues for the estab- below this target figure of 10 percent of all lishment and effective management of a marine biomes. One-quarter of the marine global representative system of marine pro- biogeographic types identified have no tected areas for the protection and sustain- MPAs. A total of 81 new MPAs have been able management of the world's marine proposed as regional priorities. biodiversity. Although there are a few very large MPAs, The recommendations are based on an most are relatively small areas of less than a analysis of the 18 regional reports and a syn- few thousand hectares. Many are threatened thesis of the recommendations contained in by activities beyond their boundaries and these reports. Where appropriate they also outside the scope of management control. draw from the sources outlined above. The Data on management effectiveness are recommendations address the following is- sketchy. The difficulty of obtaining such !n- sues relevant to MPAs: formation presents a major difficulty in evalu- • Integrated management of the marine en- ating management effectiveness. Achieving vironment effective management of existing MPAs is of • Application of science to management equal priority to the establishment of new • Securing of community support areas. In most regions a significant number • Development of the human capacity to of MPAs exist on paper only with no man- manage agement plan and no management activity. • Achievement of a balance between plan- In total, 73 existing MPAs are considered to ning, implementation and evaluation (as- be of regional priority for improved manage- sessment of management effectiveness) ment. • Funding. Introduction 19 Integrated Management of the Marine nomic and conservation objectives. Achieve- Environment ment of ecological sustainability should be the overriding goal of management. Wher- It is beyond the scope of this report to at- ever possible management agencies should tempt to address issues relating to coastal not have the conflicting responsibility for zone management and marine biodiversity. economic optimization of any activities However, the establishment and manage- within the MPAs, which should be in any ment of MPAs is likely to prove to be a fu- case subordinate to the goal of ecological tile exercise unless it occurs within regimes sustainability. which provide for integrated management of Ideally, integration should extend to coor- all uses of the adjacent land and sea areas. dinated management of marine and terres- In particular, land-based activities such as trial areas in the coastal zone and beyond; clearing of forests, agriculture and urban de- however, in many circumstances the com- velopment can result in pollution of the ma- plexity of boundaries and competition be- rine environment and in many areas are the tween governments and government major threat to marine biodiversity. This can- agencies regarding jurisdictional responsibil- not be addressed by MPAs without linkages ity effectively preclude this. to wider coastal zone management programs. The establishment of a large, multiple use There is a variety of legal and jurisdic- protected area with an integrated manage- tional systems governing the management of ment system, preferably covering a complete marine resources and MPAs. Overlapping re- ecosystem, has the advantage that co-ordina- sponsibilities among different agencies are tion of regulation of different human activi- common, and a number of different agen- ties can be automatically achieved when the cies may have jurisdiction over the resources overriding responsibility for management on of a single marine area. In some countries an ecologically sustainable basis rests with several agencies establish MPAs under a vari- one agency. Furthermore, the minimum vi- ety of different designations. able size of a MPA is likely to be many Frequently there is little or no coordina- times that for a terrestrial reserve (Kelleher tion between such agencies. This leads to and Kenchington 1992). The optimal goal is conflicts in the use of marine resources in for integrated management of each of the and around MPAs and may result in overuse marine ecosystems of the world, along the and degradation of marine biodiversity. Coor- lines of that proposed under the LME man- dination of management in the marine envi- agement model. ronment is in many ways even more In the absence of, or as a precursor to, an important than it is in the terrestrial sphere effective coastal zone management program, because the high degree of connectivity in a large multiple-use MPA may provide the the seas facilitates the transmission of sub- basis for integrated and sustainable manage- stances and effects throughout the water col- ment of an ecosystem. In this regard, the umn. There is a need for clearly defined UNESCO Biosphere Reserve model is one responsibilities for management and for insti- which finds ready application to MPAs. tutional and administrative mechanisms to ensure coordination of existing agencies. The Application of Science to Management Management agencies also require the neces- sary legislative backing and resources to Scientific knowledge must play an important manage MPAs effectively. role in the determination of management pri- Conflicts can also arise when the organiza- orities for MPAs. The lack of such knowl- tions with responsibility for MPAs are edge severely hampers management charged with simultaneously achieving eco- planning in many MPAs. 20 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Adequate baseline or referenced ecologi- to address these problems and in the imple- cal characteristics of the marine environment mentation and application of the results. is essential in order to monitor the changes wrought by human activities and to develop The development of representative MPA appropriate management response strate- systems requires knowledge of the distribu- gies. The absence of comprehensive, long tion of marine ecosystems and species. It term monitoring programs for most MPAs can be argued that an accurate assessment prevents definition of the level of stresses of biogeographic cover at the global level that exist now and the trends in those levels. cannot be made until a single biogeographic The development of such long-term monitor- classification system has been applied at that ing programs should be a high priority for level and an analysis made on the basis of all MPAs. This should include the develop- the system. However, it can also be argued ment of monitoring techniques. which can that, provided that such an analysis is car- be widely applied and easily understood. ried out within each region based on any Where practicable, these (echniques should competent internally consistent bio- have the capacity to use local people in the geographic classification system, the degree collectio~ and interpretation of primary data of coverage or representation of bio- and should also make use of traditional geographic types can be assessed ade 7 knowledge. This builds commitment tp man- quately and MPA priorities identified. agement programs which implement the re- At present there is no generally accepted sults of research. global classification system although systems Science also has a vital role in providing do exist at the regional level. Further devel- information to allow prediction of the type opments in biogeographic classification and scale of effect likely to be produced by should proceed in parallel with the imple- indjvidual activities and combinations of · mentation of immediate MPA management thein, so that the intensity and distribution priorities. Providing information in a form of usages can be controlled-but not over- that is useful to managers for the protection controlled-in a manner compatible with · and management of marine biodiversity the overriding goal of management. There is should be a primary objective of all such a need for research to determine existing systems. and planned levels of use of the marine envi- ronment and the likely effects of those uses. Securing Community Support In most countries the amount of funds available to carry out research relevant to Most coastal marine areas around the world marine biodiversity conservation is limited. It have a long history of use by local people. is essential that the funds available be di- In some cases this extends to traditional rected towards those areas of research ownership over marine resources. Where which have a high likelihood of answering there .is continuing use or custody over ma- management questions. rine resources the chances of establishing ef- In co~idering how to ensure the applica- . fective MPAs depend to a very large extent tion of scientific research to management on voluntary acceptance of management there are two fundamental principles: measures, which usually depends on planning • Managers and scientists must work to- involvement and participation in management gether in the identification of environ- programs. With few exceptions, examples of mental problems that can be effectively effectively managed MPAs give responsibility addressed by scientific methods. to local users in the management process. • Managers arid scientists must work to- The use of traditional skills in the manage- gether in the design of research programs ment of MPAs should be encouraged. Introduction 21 In all parts of the world there is a strong them of the need and benefits of taking ac- link between· economic development and tion to protect marine biodiversity. This will the protection and sustainable management require conducting information campaigns of biological diversity. In many countries, po- to r.a'ise the profile of MPAs and marine bio- tentially the greatest 'threat to sustainable use diversity conservation and incorporation of a of marine resources is poverty, which forces strong marine component in environmental individuals and communities to make short-· education. term decisions to exploit unsustainable ma.:.' · Nongovernmental qrganizations (NGOs) rine resources. The marine environment, ' frequently have stron:g links to local commu- traditionally considered a "commons" ~here nities and where practicable should be access to resources is open to anyone with closely consulted and involved in manage- the ability to exploit those resources, is par- ment planning and implementation and in ticularly vulnerable to such pressures. As promoting environmental awareness. In coastal populations increase, so too will · some countries NGOs are delegated respon- these pressures. sibility for day-to-day management of MPAs Community support will depend on the· · when government agencies lack the human, development of management plans which· technical or financial capacity to carry out are compatible with, to the extent feasible, this ·task. In some cases NGOs have greater traditional or customary ·practices for the· use flexibility and potential to access sources of and conservation of marine resources. It is · funds and support not readily available to vital to provide for the continued welfare of government agencies. Managers should ac- people affected by the ·creation of MPAs. tively involve NGOs in the planning and MPAs have the potential to contribute to · management of MPAs. Where appropriate the economic well-being of coastal commu- this.could include the delegation of manage- nities by providing a sustainable flow of ment responsi~ilities. benefits as well as achieving conservation · · objectives. The Biosphere Reserve· model ex~ Developing t~e Human Capacity emplifies this effect. There is likely to be op.:. toM~age position towards the establishment of MPAs and unwillingness to follow management The availability of committed and skilled measure unless the local population receive1 people is: fundamental to the success of ac- some tangible benefits from the estab- tions to establish and manage marine pro- lishment of MPAs. Tourism and fisheries are tected areas. Increases in funding for MPAs, two areas in particular where MPAs can play strong institutional arrangements and other a key role in providing sustainable financial actions' will be ineffective unless the avail- benefits to local communities. able pool of human talent for MPA manage- Ongoing consultation with local communi- ment expands rapidly. Training and the ties will be essential to determine economic,· development of national capacities for man- social, cultural and conservation priorities, agement of coastal resources are a funda- and to determine how MPAs can help mental requirement. Regions and countries achieve these priorities. The effectiveness of must become more self-reliant in developing MPAs in the long-term will depend on their the capacity to meet their own training compatibility and integration with ecologi- needs. To achieve this international and cal, social and economic objectives at both other support for capacity development in the national and local levels. marine management should emphasize the Part of the challenge is to educate local development of training capacity within re- communities on the importance of using ma- gions and countries. Such an approach in- rine resources sustainably and to convince volves "training the trainers" and the 22 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas establishment of regional and national train- and administrative effort to ensure that exist- ing centers to carry out further training. ing MPAs meet their management objectives. Training should extend to all levels, from Programs which aim to support MPAs field staff to senior managers with the aim of must provide sufficient financial and techni- equipping MPA managers with the skills cal resources over a time frame long enough they need. Politicians and high-level adminis- to allow for effective implementation, moni- trators are often not familiar with the neces- toring and review of management plans. sity, advantages and means of achieving effectively managed MPA systems, or with the adverse environmental, social and eco- Sources of Funding nomic consequences of mismanagement or neglect. Training is required to increase the Lack of funding is a primary reason why political awareness of the benefits of effec- many MPAs fail to achieve their conserva- tive MPA systems. tion objectives and why there is a large num- There are few networks for MPA and ma- ber of unimplemented MPA proposals. rine resource managers in comparison to the Sufficient resources need to be mobilized for number of such support services for marine the development and implementation of scientists. There is a demand for a network management plans, for regulatory statutory in which managers of MPAs can share and review processes, interpretation, education, learn from each other's experience and dis- training, volunteer programs, research, moni- cuss and review management priorities. toring, surveillance and enforcement pro- grams. However, it unlikely that governments alone can allocate these resources. Achieving a Balance Between Planning, If MP As are to function well in the long Implementation and Evaluation term, sustainable financing from a variety of sources must be developed. This will re- In total, 1,306 MPAs have been identified as quire innovative approaches and partner- established across all Marine Regions of the ships. Examples include revenue generation world. There is also a large number of unim- from taxes or "rent" from resource uses such plemented proposals. Available data suggest as fisheries or tourism, as well as taxes on that the number of MPAs that fail to achieve development projects which result in losses their management objectives is high. One of marine or coastal biodiversity. In some reason for this is that the resources and em- countries the establishment of trust funds phasis on planning MPAs typically exceeds has proved to be a useful tool. The develop- that given to implementation of manage- ment of public/private partnerships in fmanc- ment. There is even less attention given to ing conservation activities is also receiving evaluation of the success of management. increased attention. Opportunities in which Insufficient attention is given to monitor- biodiversity conservation can be made profit- ing the extent to which MPAs achieve their able, such as bioprospecting, ecotourism, objectives as a basis for taking action to im- mariculture, and value added industries that prove management programs. Effective im- increase the efficiency of resource use, are plementation, monitoring and review are being targeted by specialized venture capital essential for MPAs to achieve their manage- funds and are attracting the interest of inves- ment goals, and should be part of all MPA tors in many parts of the world. The interna- management programs. MPA agencies tional donor community, in addition to should commence a coordinated scientific providing direct financial assistance, can act Introduction 23 as a broker in leveraging resources from a are either proposed new MP As or existing variety of camps. MPAs which require support for improved A critical issue in financing marine pro- management. tected areas is the assessment and publica- tion of the economic benefits of MPAs, which often exceed those of any alternative CONCLUSION-THE WAY FORWARD use. This will require research to evaluate and publicize the economic benefits of This report recommends priority areas and MPAs. Such a project is being carried out by actions for the creation of a global repre- the CNPPA. Many decisionmakers and sentative system of MPAs. It provides strate- economists ignore the regional benefits of gic guidance to the GEF, the World Bank MPAs, particularly in tourism and assess the and other funding organizations for invest- benefits as only those expressed in entry ment in marine biodiversity conservation. fees. In fact, the benefits include among oth- The next phase of this program should fo- ers improved overall fish catches, revenue cus on the development and implementation from external tourism industry and employ- of specific proposals for the creation of new ment in these industries. In cooperation with MPAs and for improved management ar- local communities and other groups, man- rangements for inadequately managed exist- agement agencies should identify and estab- ing MPAs. At the same time, in some regions lish facilities to promote ecotourism in MPAs or countries additional investigations will be and make use of MPAs as a tool for fisheries required to refine priorities or to address management. gaps in knowledge preventing priority identi- Just as in mobilizing resources for manage- fication. The approach to the development ment, many developing countries will re- and implementation of MPA priorities will quire financial assistance to establish depend on whether the MPAs are within de- national MPA systems. Regional support veloped or developing countries. It can be mechanisms and technical cooperation be- expected that the funding for further devel- tween countries are essential for the success opment of national MPA systems in devel- of national efforts. oped countries will be taken by the In some cases the most effective use of re- countries themselves, using funds and re- sources might be made through the use of a sources of their own. This report will serve regional fund or system of national environ- the useful function of identifying priorities to mental funds, particularly where there is a di- guide such countries in these efforts. Few de- versity of small governmental and veloping countries have the human or finan- nongovernmental organizations managing cial resources necessary to create and MPAs. Thus, the need to diversify the base effectively manage new MPAs. Conse- of support for MPA establishment and man- quently, they will require assistance interna- agement is clear. tionally both in terms of expertise and in the provision of funds. The sources of those Site Specific Recommendations funds include international financing institu- tions such as the GEF, World Bank or the re- In total, 155 MPAs sites have been identified gional banks, UNDP, national aid as being of regional priority for the conserva- organizations, nongovernmental sources and tion of marine biodiversity (Table 8). These private organizations. areas are those accorded highest priority for The development of proposals for priority conservation action in each region. The sites MPAs in developing countries should have a 24 ,A Glo~l Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Table 8. Regional Priorities Marj~ Extsttng. or Region. Country Name Proposed 2 Canada Ellesmere Island p 2 International Beringia Heritage Inter'l. Park p 2 Russian Federation Great Arctic Nature Reserve . E 2 Russian Federation Kandalakshesltjy Zapovednik E 2 Russian Federation Ust;lensky 'Nature Reserve · E 2 Russian Federation Vrangel Island .Zapovednik E 3 France/Italy/Monaco Protection of International Waters for Cetaceans p 3 Greece/I'urkey Aegean Sea p 3 Libya Gulf of Sirte p 3 Tunisia Gulf of Gabes p 4 Canada Browns/Baccaro Banks p 4 Canada Cape Bathurst. Polynya p 4 Canada Lancaster Sound p 4 U.S. Mid:-eoastal Maine p 5 Belgium Vlaamse Banken (Flemish Banks) Ramsar Wetland and EC Bird. Directive Site ·· E 5 Denmark Vadehavet Major Conservation Area E 5 Germany Hamburgisches National Park E 5 Gennany Helgolaender Felssockel Nature Reserve E 5 Germany Niedersaechsisches Wattenmeer National Park E 5 Germany Schlesv.rig-Holsteinisches Wattenmeer National Park E 5 Netherlands Dollard.Natural Monument E 5 Netherlands klaverbank · p 5 Netherlands Sea area northwest of Frisian Islands p 5 Netherlands Waddenzee Natural Monument E 5 Portugal Baia da Maia· Natural Reserve E 5 Portugal Ilheu Chao and Deserta Grande Reserve E 5 Portugal Ilheu de Vila Franqt do Campo.Natural Reserve E 5 Portugal Ilheu do Topo Natural Reserve E 5 Portugal Ilheus das Formigas Natural Reserve E 5 Portugal Lagoon of Santo. Cristo Sao Jorge Island Special Ecological Area E 5 Portugal Monte da Guia, Protected Landscape E 5 Spain Donana National Park . E 5 United Kingdom Lundy Island Marine Nature Reserve; E 5 United Kingdom Rathlin Island p 5 United Kingdom Skomer Marine Nature Reserve E· 5 United Kingdom Strangford Lough p 5 United Kingdom The Isle of Man (8 Proposed New MPAs, including the Calf of Man) . p 6 Estonia Vilsandi National Park E 6 Finland Southern Archipelago Sea E 6 Latvia Coastal Section "Pape-Perkone" p 6 Lithuania Kursiu Nerija (Curonian Spit) National Park E 6 Lithuania Nemunas delta Regional Park E 6 Russia . Curonian Spit State Environmental National Park E 6 Sweden Graso/Singo Archipelago p 6 Sweden Landsort/Hartso/Asko/LanWiOn Deep p 6 Sweden St. Anna/Missjo Archipelago p 6 Sweden Trysunda/Ulvoama/Ullanger/Ulvo Depth p 7 Bahamas Andros Barrier Reef p 7 Costa Rica Tortuguero/Miskito Marine System p 7 Cuba Subarchipielago de los Canarreos E 7 Dominican Republic Banco de la Plata Santuario de Marino E Introduction 25 'Marine Existing or Region Country Name Proposed 7 Dominican Republic Monte Cristi Parque Nacional E 7 Lesser Antilles Barbuda p 8 Benin wetlands of the coastal plains p 8 Cape Verde Islands Sal, Banco & Raso; Sal Rei; Sao Vincente, Rombos p 8 Cote d'Ivoire Aby Lagoon p 8 Gambia Niumi/Sine Saloum National Park E 8 Guinea-Bissau Bijagos ·Archipelago p 8 Mauritania Banc d'Arguin National Park E 8 Nigeria Cross River wetlands p 8 Nigeria Lagos and Lekki Lagoons p 8 Nigeria Niger Delta p 8 Senegal Delta du Saloum National Park E 8 Sierra Leone Bunce River p 8 United Kingdom Ascension Island p 9 Argentina ·Isla Quintano/Caho dos Bahias p 9 Argentina Puerto Deseado/Bahia Laura p 9 Argentina Punta Tombo p 9 Brazil Atol das Rocas Federal'Biological Reserve E 9 Brazil Cabo Orange Parque Nacion'al E 9 Brazil Lencois 'Maranhenses Parque Nacional · E 9 Brazil Marinho dos Abrolhos Parqtie Nacional E 9 Brazil Marinho Fernando de Noronha Parque Nacional E 10 Bangladesh Sundarbans p 10 India Lakshadweep (Laccadive) Archipelago p 10 India Malvan Sanctuary E 10 India Marine (Gulf of Kutch) National Park E 10 India Marine· (Gulf of Mannar) National Park E 10 India Marine (Wandur) National Park E 10 India Sundarbans National Park p 10 Maldives Maldives Atolls p 10 Sri Lanka: Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar p 11 Egypt Southern E~t (proposed) Marine Park: Mersa Alam- Sudanese order p 11 Egypt, Saudi Arabia Northern, Red Sea: Straits of Gubal p 11 Egypt, Saudi Arabia Northern Red Sea: Tiran Islands Area p 11 Iraq Marshes of the Tigris and Euphrates p 11 Pakistan Outer Indus Delta p 11 Saudi Arabia Farasan-Gizan Area p 11 Saudi Arabia Qishan Islands-Ras al Askar p 11 Saudi Arabia Ras Suwahil p 11 Saudi Arabia Wejh Bank p 11 Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar The Arabian Gulfr Gulf of Salwa p 11 Yemen Socotra Island p 12 Comoros South.Coast of Moheli, including Niournachoua p 12 Kenya Kiunga Marine National Reserve E 12 Madagascar Grand Recif at Toliara p 12 Mauritius Carjados Carajos Shoals p 12 Mozambique Bazaruto MNP National Park E 12 Mozambique Ilhas da Inhaca e dos Portugueses Faunal Reserve E 12 Tanzania Chole Bay Marine Reserve · E 12 Tanzania Tanga Coral- Gardens Marine Reserve E 12 Tanzania Tutia Island Marine Reserve E Table continues on tbefol/owlns Jxllle. 26 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Table 8 ( continued) Marine F.xisttng or Region Country Name ProposeiJ 13 Indonesia Laut Banda Marine Park E 13 Indonesia Marine Kepulauan Karimun Jawa National Park E 13 Indopesia Marine Teluk Cendrawasih National Park E 13 Malaysia Pulau Perhentian Besar Marine Park E 13 Malaysia Pulau Redang Marine Park E 13 Malaysia-Sabah Semporna Islands p 13 Philippines Tubbataha Reefs National Marine Park Marine Park E 13 Thailand Mu Ko Similan National Park E 13 Thailand Mu Ko Surin National Park E 13 Viet Nam Con Dao National Park E 15 Canada Blackfish Archipelago p 15 Mexico Alto Golfo de California Reserva Especial de la Biosfera E 15 Mexico Islas del Golfo de California Reserva Especial de la Biosfera E 15 Mexico La Encrucijada Biotopo Natural y Tropico E 15 United. States Bering Strait p 15 United States Kachemak bay, Cook Inlet p 16 China Bohai Bay p 16 China Eastern and Southerm Hainan Island p 16 China, Hong Kong, Macao Zhujiang (Pearl River) delta ecosystem p 16 Japan Yaeya~a Archipelago p 16 Russia Komandorskiye Islands p 16 Russia Kury! Islands p 17 Chile Chiloe Parque Nacional p 17 Chile . Pinguinos de Humbolt Reserva Nacional p 17 Colombia Utria Parque Nacional Natural E 17 Costa Rica Isla del Coco Parque Nacional E 17 Ecuador Galapagos Reserva de Recurses Marinos E 17 Ecuador Galapagos Whale Sanctuary E 17 Ecuador Ma·nglares-Churute Reserva Ecologica E 17 Peru Paracas Reserva Nacional E 18 Australia Beagle Gulf Marine Park p 18 Australia Cobourg Marine Park E 18 Australia Great Australian Bight Marine Park p 18 Australia Gulf of Carpentaria p 18 Australia Hervey Bay/Sandy Straits p 18 Australia Kent Group p 18 Australia Lord Howe Island Marine Reserve p 18 Australia Macquarie Island p 18 Au~tralia Maria Island National Park (extension) p 18 Australia Ningaloo (State Waters) Marine Park E 18 Australia Rocky Cape p 18 Australia Rottnest Island Marine Reserve E 18 Australia Shark Bay Marine Park E 18 Australia Shoalwater Islands Marine Park E 18 Australia Solitary Islands Marine Reserve E 18 Australia Torres Strait p 18 Australia Waters of Jervis Bay Nature Reserve E 18 New Zealand Eastern Great Barrier Island, Outer Hauraki Gulf p 18 New Zealand Fiordland p 18 New Zealand Subantarctic Islands (4 sites: Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, Bounty) p Introduction 27 strong national focus. Accordingly, funding working groups of scientists and managers ·proposals should be developed and imple- to ensure coordination and cooperation be- ,nented with the full involvement and sup- tween the management and scientific com- port of the relevant national government m~nities. NGOs and community groups authorities, appropriate NGOs and local peo- should also be represented in the process. ple. The importance of this principle has The purpose of the consultations will be to been recognized in this report, which has in- develpp proposals to implement the priori- volved national representatives to the maxi- ties to meet the criteria for funding organiza- mum _extent practicable within time and tions and be compatible with national social resource constraints. Although in the major- and economic developmental priorities. The ity of cases proposals will be country spe- development of national and local manage- cific, it is envisaged that in some instances ment capacity must be a key element of all proposals will be developed using existing proposals. regional institutions which have national sup- The priorities in this report have been port. Examples include UNEP Regional Seas identified using the framework of the 18 organizations such as the South Pacific Re- CNPPA Marine Regions, each of which is gional Environment Program (SPREP) and headed by a working group leader. Initially, the Coordinating Body for the Seas of East at least, the leader of the CNPPA regional Asia (COBSEA). Such an approach has ad- working group which has produced the pri- vantages in promoting coordination between orities for the region will be involved in de- country efforts and in some cases may be veloping specific MPA proposals for that more efficient in terms of administrative region. In time, proposals can be developed effort. with the national working group taking the A key strength of IUCN and CNPPA is lead role with the assistance of technical ex- their broad constituency including both gov- perts from other countries if necessary. ernmental and nongovernmental organiza- These actions will need to be comple- tions. It is proposed that IUCN and CNPPA mented by a suite of other activities if a sys- mobilize this constituency, involving other tem of MPAs is to developed which org~nizations to the maximum extent practi.: effectively represents the biogeographic cable, to arrange for consultations with the zones of the world's seas and contributes to governments of developing nations which the ·maintenance of marine biodiversity as have areas which have been identified in well as to the well-being of human commu- this study as being priority for the creation nities. These actions have been discussed in of the global representative system of MPAs. this chapter and are summarized in box 2 It will be necessary to establish national on the following page. 28 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Box 2. Priority Actions for the Establishment of a Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas 1. Develop and implement projects to ad- plied for carrying out monitoring and research dress the priority areas and other recommen- in MPAs; achieve effective community support dations in this report. and participation in management of MPAs and 2. Establish national representative systems strengthen the capacity and effectiveness for of MPAs which, as far as possible, encompass planning, administration and day-to-day man- complete ecosystems or habitats and which agement. are integrated with national policies and effec- 8. Carry out training programs that develop tive mechanisms for coastal zone management. the capacity for MPA management in regions 3. Develop institutional arrangements to and countries. These programs should train achieve integrated management of each MPA trainers and develop training curricula and and provide coordination mechanisms to en- use these as a basis for regional- and country- sure that adjacent land and sea areas are man- based curricul~ and ttaining. aged in a complementary way. · 9. Establish a global network to support ma- 4. Actively involve local communities and ma- rine resource managers, based on existing re- rine resource users in the planning, manage- gional networks. ment and maintenance of MPAs. 10. Carry out further investigations to address 5. Bring managers and scientists together to biogeographic and other information gaps nec- conduct integrated, multi-disciplinary, manage- essary for the identification of priority areas as ment-oriented research and monitoring pro- part of the global system of marine protected grams to provide a rational basis for selection, areas. planning and management of MPAs. 11. Mobilize domestic resources for marine 6. Commence a coordinated effort to system- protected area management from such atically monitor the effectiveness of existing sources as natural resource taxes and levies, MPAs. user charges, joint ventures with the private 7. Develop and disseminate tools and guide- sector, trust funds and endowments, and eco- lines that can be widely understood and ap- tourism. .Summary Tables 30 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Table Sl. Ecosystem Diversity Cora/Reefs Total area: Estimated 600,000 square kilometers. (Smith 1978) This estimate is being refined through a joint WCMC/ICLARM mapping and database project. Distribution: Tropical waters, depending on surface water temperature1 availability of suitable hard substrate for coral settlement, and water clarity; greatest aevelopment in west Inda- Pacific (see Smith [1978] for regional breakdown); global distrioution of reefs to be mapped by WCMC, in collaboration with REEFBASE (see below); see also UNEP/IUCN 0988). Species diversity: Very hig_h for fish and invertebrates (4,500 reef fish, 20 percent of total world fish diversity); medium-high for other taxa; diversity highest in Southeast Asia (Veron 1993; Rosen 1988; Connell 1978). Productivity: High in terms of carbon fixation, low to medium in terms of harvestable biomass; critical habitat for commercially valuable fish and invertebrates; support important fisheries, many of which are artisanal/subsistence fisheries. Other values: Coastal protection, tourism. Vulnerability: High; widespread deterioration from both natural and human-induced causes (Brown 1987; Salvat 1987; Dubinsky 1990; Wilkinson 1994). Globally important Preliminary review in UNEP/IUCN (1988); global database REEFBASE to be established sites: by ICLARM in collaboration with WCMC. Protection: Abbut 250 MPAs with coral reefs. General references: Ginsburg 0994). Mangrove Forests Total area: About 190,000-240,000 square kilometers (estimates vary widely); fringe about 25 percent of the tropical coastline; estimates for coverage by country given in Fisher and Spalding 0993). Distribution: Intertidal, sheltered coastlines especially in estuaries in the tropics; distribution related to freshwater run-off (Saenger, Hegerle and Davie 1983); most extensive areas in Southeast Asia (40 percent) and Centra1 America WCMC nas mapped mangrove distribution for all countries with extensive tropical forest (not islands and desert countries). Species diversity: Medium. About 90 species of plants, 50-60 of which are found only in mangroves: 10 species in New World and West Africa, 40 species in Old World. About 400 fish and many invertebrates depend on mangroves for all or part of their life cycles. Numerically dominatea by crabs and mollusks; also important for birds; greatest diversity in the Inda-Pacific. Productivity: Very high; support a grazing food chain, at the base of which are detritivores, and provide nursery grounds for fish and shellfish; critical habitat for commercially lffiportant fish ana invertebrates. Other values: Coastal protection, trap sediments and prevent siltation, tourism, timber, fuelwood and other products. Vulnerability: High; 50 percent of mangroves already lost (but variability in estimates of total cover means that changes over time are difficult to measure). Globally important sites identified in wetland directories (see under "coastal wetlands" for references); some sites listed under Ramsar Convention; The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems is developing a Mangrove Area Conservation Network and database and identifying priority areas. Protection: About 700 protected areas contain man~roves (Fisher and Spalding 1993). In many countries mangroves are designated as Forest Reserves" for controlled exploitation. Generic references: CEC 1992; Wenban-Smith 1993; Por and Dor 1984; Hutchings and Saenger 1987; Hamilton and Snedaker 1984. Introduction 31 Seagrass Beds Total area: Unknown. Distribution: Tropical and temperate areas; in all seas except the polar regions; in tropics often associated with coral reefs. Diversity: Medium; about 50 species of seagrasses (Winston 1992); provide grazing for threatened marine vertebrates (green turtles, dugong), food for detritivores such as fish and invertebrates. Productivity: High; critical habitat for commercially valuable fish and invertebrates; important nursery, feeding, breeding and shelter areas for fish and invertebrates. Other values: Trap sediments, prevent erosion and trap sediments. Vulnerability: High; pollution, destruction, disease. Globally important Not known. A program has been initiated by the International Oceanographic sites: Commission to collect and exchange information on seagrasses, and a questionnaire is being circulated in 1993 to relevant institutions. Protection: Number of MPAs with seagrasses not known; proposal to determine this at WCMC. Generic references: McRoy and Helferich 1977; Fonseca, Kenworthy, and Thayes 1991. Other Coastal Wetlands Total area: Unknown. Distribution: Worldwide; cover a variety of ecosystems including estuaries, deltas, lagoons! shallow tidal ponds, salt/tidal marshes, mudflats; temperate wetlands often include sa t marshes, tropical wetlands associated with mangroves; distribution often linked to river systems. Species diversity: Medium; provide important feeding habitats for birds; estuaries in particular likely to have hign overall diversity because of habitat complexity. Productivity: High, particularly in estuaries which are often nursery habitats for marine species; often critical habitat for commercial fisheries, nursery areas for fish. Other values: Often provide coastal protection or act as sediment trap. Vulnerability: High; destroyed by development projects, including tourism development and aquaculture; mudflats and marshes vulnerable to pollution. Globally important Identified in wetland directories for Oceania (Scott 1993), Asia (Scott 1989), Western sites: Palaearctic (Carp 1980), Africa (Burgis and Symoens 1987; Hughes and Hughes 1992) and the Neotropics (Scott and Carbonell 1980); many sites identified under Ramsar Convention. · Protection: Many sites protected; proposal to incorporate habitat coding in WCMC database. Generic references: Dugan 1993; Finlayson and Moser 1991. Beaches Dunes Total area: Unknown for each habitat. Distribution: Worldwide but no global overview; cliffed coasts found most often along western margins of continents, low-lying coasts in east, due to tectonic activity (Hayden, Ray, and Dolan 1984); European sites inventoried (Doody 1991); turtle nesting beaches being mapped by WCMC. Species diversity: Cliffs and rocky coasts often have rich communities especially in tropics. Sandy coastlines often low diversity and may form barriers to species dispersal, but may have specialized communities. Sandy beaches are important breeding/nesting sites for seals and turtles. Table conNnues on the fol/owing page. 32 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Table Sl ( continued) Other values: Coastal protection, sandy beaches for tourism. Vulnerability: Often tend to be more resistant than ecosystems described above, but vulnerability to certain forms of pollution and coastal development. Globally important Have not been reviewed; some sites listed under Ramsar or World Heritage Site sites: Convention. Protection: .some protection in MPAs but no overview available; proposed by WCMC. Generic references: Thome-Miller and Catena 1991. Islands and Submerged Banks (only the marine aspects of islands are considered) Total area: ·Not known. Distribution: Worldwide; a variety of ecosystems including low and raised coral isletsi atolls; barrier islands, rocky islets; seamounts; joint proposal with Birdlife Internationa, and WCMC to map seabird colonies. Species diversity: Small, undisturbed predator-free islands often important for seabird colonies. Productivity: Seamounts and submerged banks often important for pelagic fish feeding and breeding; precious corals. Vulnerability: High on islands, but isolated islets and submerged banks often relatively safe. Globally important Islands have been reviewed in Dahl (1991), although not all small sites are covered. sites: Protection: Some islets prot~cted because of seabird colonies. Open Ocean Upwellings Total area: About 51 percent of the earth's surface has ocean over 3,000 meters deep (below the depth to which light can penetrate). Upwellings cover 0.1 percent. of ocean. Distribution: Worldwide; distribution of main ocean trenches, hydrothermal vents, and cold ~ communities in WCMC (1992) and major ocean atlases. Upwellings occur mainly off · west coasts of continents, especially in trade wind belts of tropics and subtropics and around Antarctica. Species diversity: Orc:n sea diversity caused by seasonal changes in temperature, and irradiance, and · nuxing of currents from different depths and regions; includes plankton, fish large verteorates and larvae of many species. Diversity decreases with deP.th and distance · from land. Deep-sea diversity likely to be as high as shallow tropical communities (Grassle 1991); early studies of hydrothermal vents resulted in die discovery of 16 previously unknown invertebrate families (Grassle 1985). Maximum diversity occurs at about 2,00~3.000 meters. Abyssal species appear to have wider distributions, ~ p s because there are no barriers to dis~rsal. Orily a limited number of areas have been sampled, such as off the east coast of North America. Productivity: UJ?wellings have high primary productivity; often good fishing areas (contribute one th1rd of world fishery catch) and attract large populations of t'"tSh-eating marine · mammals and birds. Vulnerability: Potentially threatened by pqllution and build up of pollutants, over-ftShing of pelagic resources, incidental take of cetaceans, turtles etc. Globally important Main upwelling areas known, and many hydrothermal vents; no global overview; sites: some internationally important sites identified as whale sanctuaries, MARPOL areas etc. Generic references: Thome-Miller and Catena 1991, Norse 1993, WCMC 1992, Angel 1982, Gage and Tyler 1991. Introduction 33 Table S2. Species Diversity "Seaweeds Distribution: Worldwide. Diversity: 12,500 species of algae (Winston 1992) but this is probably an underestimate; other estimates for algae, plankton and laq~e seaweeds in Soumia and others (1991), Anderson (1992); highest diversity m the North Atlantic, tropical and subtropical West Atlantic, Japan; lowest diversity in polar regions and tropical West coast of Africa and South America (WCMC 1992). Value: Key food source for numerous marine animals; form the base of many food chains; up to 80 percent of the biomass and productivity in open waters is contributed by uftraplankton (Anderson 1992); some al$.ae are 'keystone' species (for example, coralline algae (Porolitbon and Litbopbyllum) in coral reefs and kelp Macrocystis which forms large 'forests' in some temperate waters; commercially important for production of agar, carrageen, alginates etc. Vulnerability: Many species very abundant, but can be over-harvested. Globally important sites: No global reviews known; kelp forests proposed for inclusion in WCMC database. Generic references:. Lembi and Waaland (1989). Carats Distribution: Reef-building corals in tropical waters (see coral reefs, Table 1); other corals worldwide. Many corals have very wide distributions; recent work has shown that some have ve!Y localized distributions or are found only rarely; for example 28 percent of all the corals found in Japan are rare or have restricted distributions (Veron 1992, 1993); taxonomic databases (CORALBASE/AIMS: and TNC Caribbean database) will provide further information. Diversity: About 700 species of reef-building and reef-associated corals; about 600 in the Indo-west Pacific, and about 100 in the tropical west Atlantic (Veron 1986; Rosen 1988; Sullivan and others 1993). Southeast Asia, followed closely by areas .µl the southwestern Pacific (including Papua New Guinea, Palau, t1ie Solomon Islands and Vanuatu) is the center of diversity of the world's coral reefs. Coral diversity decreases westward across the Indian Ocea~i some eastern species and genera are substituted by types rarticular to me Indian Ocean to the west. To the east the trend in decreasing diversity is more marked, with a substantial decrease in the number of coral genera and species, to only 11 species in the Eastern Pacific. End~mism: May be high, partkularly in low diversity areas, on the edge of the range of coral reefs (such as 20 percent endemism in Hawaii); 6.3 percent in the Red Sea; ten coral species unique to Brazil. Value: Responsible for the creation of coral reefs; harvested for decoration, construction materials, jewelry. Vulnei:ability: Few species threatened with extinction-Eastern Pacific species thought to have become extinct during El Nino, but refound. Threats to corals from over-exploitation, pollution, eutrophication, dynamite fishing, sedimentation and general threats to coral reefs (see Table 1). Globally important sites: As for coral reefs; precious corals found on seamounts in Pacific. Generic references: See under coral reefs, table 1. Mollusks Distribution: Worldwide. Diversity: ., 75,000 species (Winston 1992). See also Perron and Kohn (1985) and Vermeij (1987). Endemism: Some information available; often reflects fish endemism (see below). Value:· High, for food, decoration and other products; many commercially important species. Table conttnues on tbe following page. 34 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Table S2 (continued) Vulnerability: Many species over-exploited; for example, Giant Clams and Trochus. Globally important sites: No global overview available. Protection: A few MPAs created sr,ecifically for mollusks (shell reserves in Seychelles, •rochus sanctuaries in Pacific). Generic references: Fish Distribution: Worldwide; information available on FISHBASE 6?lobal database on fish) (Pauly and Froese 1991); reef fish being mappedoy IUCN/SSC Coral Reef Fish Specialist Group. Diversity: Afproximately 25 lampreys and hagfish, 520 skates, sharks and rays, and 1 ,o75 bony fish (Winston 1992); new fish species are being discovered and described at a faster rate than any terrestrial vertebrate group; over 100 new species, several genera and the occasional family are published every year (Ray 1991; McAllister and others, in prep.). Fish are tlie most diverse vertebrates in the whole world at all taxonomic levels. About 60 percent of all fish species (22,000 total) are marine, and of these about 80 percent are coastal or littoral, 20 percent deepsea and very few epipelagic. Endemism: High endemism at Lord Howe and Norfolk; Easter I. (30-40 percent) Hawaii (34 percent), Cocos I. (7 percent), Revillagigedos (9-10 percent), Red Sea (10.-:15 percent); Mauritius, La Reunion ani:l Rodrigues; Pitcairn, Japan (Briggs 1974; McAllister and others, in prep.). Value: High; many commercially important species.. Vulnerability: High for species with low fecundity e.g. coelacanth, sharks; commercial species declined in many areas from over-fishing; species fished at spawning sites (for example, groupers), threatened worldwide (Sadovy 1993). Globally important sites: Major fishing grounds known; sites of endemism and' high diversity currently being identified. Protection: Increasing interest in creating MPAs to protect fish stocks and increase catches on adjacent fishing grounds. Seabirds and Shorebirds Distribution: Worldwide; particularly important in northern and southern latitudes. Diversity: 312 seabirds (excluding shorebirds) (Winston 1992); includes pe~_guins (Spheniscifonnes), albatrosses, petrels and their allies (Procellariijormes), boobies, (rigatebirds, tropicbirds, cormorants and pelicans (Pelecanifonnes), skuas, gulls, terns and sKimmers (Stercorariidae, .Laridae, Rynchoptaae) and auks (Alcidae). Also many shorebirds and waders that depend on intertidal habitats for feeding, stop-over sites on migration etc. Endemism: Low. Value: Many species e_xploited in the past for eggs, meat etc. . . Vulnerability: Seabirds vulnerable at colonial nest sites to predation by humans, cats, rats etc; waders in huge concentrations at stop-over sites on migration also . vulnerable to exploitation and habitat destruction. Globally important sites. Major coastal stop-over sites for migrating shorebirds (attractin~ several million waders) fiave been identified and include Banc d'Argum (Mauritania), Copper River delta (Alaska), Mekong Delta (Vietnam), Sumatran coasta swamps (Indonesia), Waddensee (North Europe); see also wetlands in Table 1; important European sites identified in Grimmett and Jones (1989). Protection: Existing and proposed protected areas for seabirds identified in Croxall and others (1984) ano Croxall 0991), but data needs extracting; Western He~phere Shorebird Reserve Network aims to establish a network of protected areas to protect critical stopovers-includes 17 sites in six countries, protecting 30 million shorebirds. Introduction 35 Reptiles Distribution: Worldwide except high latitudes and ploitation, incidental take; turtle nesting beaches vulnerable to disturbance. listed on IUCN Red List and CITES. Globally important sites: No general overview although Thorbjarnarson 0992), Groombridge and Luxmoore (1989) and Groombridge (1982) provide information on important populations and conservation priorities. Protection: Many turtle nesting beaches protected. Marine Mammals Distribution: Many cetacean species (whales and dolphins) found worldwide; polar bear circumpolar in Arctic (5 countries); manne otter in Pacific South America; Florida manatee in Caribbean, dugong in 42 countries in Indo-Pacific. Diversity: Include 75-80 cetaceans; 31-34 pinnipeds (seals, walruses and sea lions) (King 1983; Winston 1992); 2 otters: sea otter EnhJ!dra lutris and marine otter Lutra felina; 5 sirenians inc. Florida manatee Tricbechus manatus, dugong Dugong dugon (probably around 30,000 individuals left (Thornback and Jenkins 1982); one polar bear Ursus maritimus. Endemism: Low, but some species restricted to relatively small area e.g. Phocoena sinus Vaquita in Gulf of California, Cephalorbyncbus bectori Hector's Dolphin in New Zealand. Value: High. Vulnerability: Many marine mammals are threatened, due to economic value to humans and life histories that make them vulnerable to over-exploitation-polar bear, around 20 cetaceans both otters; many other threatened populations of cetaceans known; ali cetaceans, marine otters and 11 sears, ti sirenians listed on CITES. Globally important sites: Some important areas identified in IUCN/SSC Action Plans for cetaceans (Perrin 1989; Klinowska 1991), otters (Foster-Turley and others 1990) (key mating and calving grounds and migration routes probably known), polar bears (Amstrup ana Wiig 1991); others being identified in plans being developed for seals and-sirenians (main dugong populations in Austra~,_ Papua New Guinea). Global action plan for marine mammals also identines pnorities for action (FAO/IWC/IUCN/UNEP 1985). Protection: MPAs established for several species (for example, dugong, Mediterranean Monk Seal); cetaceans (Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary and proposed Southern Ocean Sanctuary) but overall representation poor; key sites often difficult to identify for cetaceans although calving and mating grounds known for large oaleen whales (Hoyt 1992). 36 . A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Table S3. LarF, Marine ~tems CNPPA M~rtne Region Large Marine Ecosystems Antarctic Antarctic Arctic West Greenland Shelf, East Greenland Shelf, Barents Sea, ,Norwegian Shelf, Iceland Shelf Mediterranean Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea Northwest Atlantic Southeast US Continental Shelf, Northeast US Continental Shelf, Scotian Shelf, Newfoundland Shelf Northeast Atlantic North Sea, Celtic-Biscay Shelf, Iberian Coastal, Faroe Plateau Baltic Baltic Sea Wider Caribbean Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea West Africa Canary Current, Guinea Current, Benguela Current South Atlantic Patagonian Shelf, Brazil Current, Northeast Brazil Shelf Central Indian Ocean Bay of Bengal · Arabian Seas Arabian Sea, Red Sea East Africa Agulhas Current, Somali Coastal Current East Asian Seas South China Sea, Sulu-Celebes Sea, Indonesian Seas· South Pacific Insular ,Pacific-Hawaiian Northeast Pacific Eastern Bering Sea, Gulf of Alaska, California Current, Gulf of California Northwest Pacific East China Sea; Yellow Sea, Kuroshio Current, Sea of Japan, Oyashio Current, Sea or Qkh()(Sk,. West Bering Sea · · Southeast Pacific Rumbolt Current Australia/New Zealand Northern Australian Shelf, Great Barrier Reef, New Zealand Shelf Introduction 37 Table S4. Natural World Heritage Sites with a Marine o'r'Coastal Component Ami (square Country kilometers) Marine A,eas (subtldal 'termtn) Alclabra Atoll Seychelles 350 Banc d'Arguin National Park Mauritapia 12,000 Cape Girolata, Cape Porto and Scandola NR France-Corsica 120 Galapagos Islands Ecu_ador-Galapagos 7,665 Great Barrier Reef Australia-Queensland 348,700 Hawaii Volcanoes National Park U.S.-Hawaii · 929 Kakadu National Park Australia . Kotor former Yugoslavia Lord Howe Island Group Australia, NSW 15 Shark Bay A4stralia-Westem Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve Mexico 5,280 Sunclarbans National Park India-West Bengal State 1,330 Tubbataha Reefs Marine National Park Philippines Ujung Kulon National Park Indonesia-Java Coastal Amis (coastal intertidal or terreslrlalfeatures) Australian East Coast Rain Forest Parks Australia-New South Wales Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve Romania Darien National Parle Panama 5,970 Everglades National Parle U.S.-Floricla 5,929 Fraser Island and the Great Sandy Australia Giant's Causeway United Kingdom 1 Gros Mome National Park Canada-Newfoundland Henderson Island Pitcairn 37 Ichkeul National Parle Tunisia 126 Komodo National Park Indonesia-Lesser Sunda Island Mont Saint Michel and its Bay France Olympic National Park US-Washington Rio Platano WHS Honduras 5,000 Southwest New Zealand (Te Wahipounamu) New Zealand St. Kilda United Kingdom 9 Western Tasmanian Wilderness National Parle Australia-Tasmania Wet Tropics of Queensland Australia-Queensland Source: WCMC (classification Into marine or coastal carried: out by editors based on available lnfonnation). 38 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Table S5. Environmentally Important Marine Areas Identified under MARPOL and Associated Treaties Special Areas: Areas to be Avoided· North Sea (Annex V) Grassholm Island and Smalls Lighthouse Baltic Sea (Annex I, II, V) (off Skomer Island, U.K.) Mediterranean Sea (Annex I, V) Shetland Islands (U.K.) Black Sea (Annex I, II, V) Rochebonne Shelf, Bay of Biscay (U.S.) Red Sea and Gulf (Annex I, V) Cape Terpeniya (Sakhalin, Russia) Gulf of Oman (Annex I, V) Nantucket Shoals (off Cape Cod, U.S.) Gulf of Aden (Annex I, V) California coast around Channel Islands NMS (U.S.) Wider Caribbean (Annex V) Florida coast (U.S.) Antarctic (Annex 1,V) Northwest Hawaiian Islands (U.S.) Great Barrier Reef (Capricomia section only, Australia) Aldabra and Assumption (Seychelles) Mahe (Seychelles) Bermuda (U.K.) Table S6. Biosphere Reserves with a Marine Component Site Country El Kala Biosphere Reserve Algeria Southwest National Park Australia Reserve de Bisfera da Mata Atlantica Brazil Yancheng China Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (including Tayrona NP) Colombia Archipielago de Coln (Galapagos) Ecuador Reserve Nationale de Camargue Biosphere Reserve France Reserve de la Biosphere d'Iroise France Atoll de Taiaro France Polynesia Guadeloupe Archipelago Guadeloupe Waddensea of Schleswig-Holstein Germany Waddensea of Hamburg Germany Waddensea of Lower Saxony Germany Komodo National Park Indonesia Siberut Nature Reserve Indonesia Miankaleh Protected Area Iran, Islamic Republic of North Bull Island Ireland Miramare National Park Italy Malindi-Watamu Biosphere Reserve Kenya Kiunga Marine National Reserve Kenya Reserve de la Biosphere du Mananara Nord Madagascar Reserva de la Bisphera de Sian Ka'an Mexico Waddensea Area Netherlands Parque Nacional Fronerizo Darien Panama Puerto Galera Biosphere Reserve Philippines Palawan Biosphere Reserve Philippines Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve Romania Astrakhanskiy Zapovednik Russian Federation Kronotskiy Zapovednik Russian Federation Delto du Saloum Sengal Reserva de la Bisfera de las Marisonas de! Odie! Spain Pare National des Iles Zemdra et Zenbretta Tunisia Introduction 39 Table S6 ( continued) Chemomorskiy Zapovednik Ukraine Loch Druidbeg National Nature Reserve United Kingdom St. Kilda National Nature Reserve United Kingdom Alutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge United States Channel Islands Biosphere Reserve United States Everglades National Park (with Fort Jefferson, NM) United States The Virginia Coast Reserve United States Central Gulf Coastal Plains Biosphere Reserve United States Carolinian-South Atlantic Biosphere Reserve United States Glacier Bay-Admiralty Island Biosphere Reserve United States Virgin Islands National Park and Biosphere Reserve Virgin Islands (U.S.) Parque Costero de! Sur Argentina Croajingolong Australia Macquarie Island Nature Reserve Australia Prince Regent Nature Reserve Australia Fitzgerald River National Park Australia Wilson's Promontory National Park Australia Reserve Kamtchia Bulgaria Reserve de la Biosphere de Charlevoix Canada Parque Nacional Fray Jorge · Chile Parque Nacional Juan Fernandez Chile Parque Nacional Laguna San Rafael Chile Baconao Cuba Cuchillas del Toa Cuba Peninsula de Guanabacabibes Cuba North-East Greenland National Park Greenland Omayed Experimental Research Area Egypt West Estonia Archipelago Reserve Estonia Biosphere Rio Platano Reserve Honduras Tanjung Puting National Park Indonesia Gunung Leuser National Park Indonesia Hara Protected Area Iran, Islamic Republic of Foret Domaniale du Ciceo Italy Yakushima Island Japan Guanica Commonwealth Forest Reserve Puerto Rico Slowinski National Park Poland Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik Russian Federation Reserva de la Bisfera de Do-ana Spain Pare National de l'Ichkeul Tunisia Braunton Burrows National Reserve United Kingdom Caerlaverock National Nature Reserve United Kingdom Dyfi National Nature Reserve United Kingdom Isle of Rhum National Reserve United Kingdom North Norfolk Coast Biosphere Reserve United Kingdom Taynish National Nature Reserve United Kingdom Cascade Head Exportation Forest and Scenic Research Area United States Olympic National Park United States Hawaii Islands Biosphere Reserve United States California Coast Ranges Biosphere Reserve United States South Atlantic Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve United States New Jersey Pinelands Biosphere Reserve United States Ba-ados de! Este Uruguay Source: WCMC 1992 data. 40 A Giobai Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Table S7. Total Area of Coral Reefs Table S8. Total Area of Mangroves and Number of MPAs with Coral and Number of Protected Areas with Reefs for Different Regions Mangroves for Different Regions Total area A-- ./"llt::U (square Number (square Number Region kilnmeters) ofM_p_As Reoion ---c,---- kilometers) ofMF_As Atlantic and Eastern Pacific 87,000 80 South and Southeast Asia 76,225 263 Indian Ocean 185,000 103 West Africa 49,500 14 West and Central Pacific 335,000 93 North and Central America 23,546 101 South America 18,138 50 Total 617,000 274 Australasia 11,815 137 r-...:1-1-..~-- n t::n'> -..i:: Source: Smith 1978 (area); UNEP/IUCN 1988 (MPA ""'111UL.A;411 7,uv"' /V representation). East Africa 6,164 34 North Africa/Middle East 497 10 Total 198,817 699 Introduction 41 BmllOGRAPHY world's seabirds. ICBP Technical Publication 2. Cambridge, U.K.: ICDP. t. Dahl, A.L. 1991. 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London: Chapman and Hall. mal)pic corals: Species of the Central Indo-Pa- MARINE REGION 1 Antarctic Antarctic Division, Australian Department of Environment, Sport, and Territories and Paul Dingwall BIOGEOGRAPHY AND MARINE • The CCAMLR area encompasses all of the BIODIVERSITY areas covered by the major international Antarctic agreements, all of which specify For the purposes of this report, the Antarctic conservation management measures and Marine Region is defined as the area of appli- are collectively known as the Antarctic cation of the Convention for the Conserva- Treaty System (ATS). tion of Antarctic Marine Living Resources • CCAMLR is the principal agreement in the (CCAMLR), namely the marine area to the ATS dealing with the management of ma- south of a boundary that closely approxi- rine resources. mates the Antarctic Convergence (see Map 1). The Convergence is the natural oceano- Apart from CCAMLR, the other ATS agree- graphic boundary formed where the cold ments are the Antarctic Treaty and its associ- waters of the Antarctic spreading outward ated measures, including the Protocol on from the continent meet the warmer waters Environmental Protection to the Antarctic to the north. The Convergence forms a bio- Treaty (the Madrid Protocol) and recommen- logical barrier, with relatively few species, dations agreed to at meetings of the Antarc- other than whales and some seabirds, migrat- tic Treaty Consultative Parties, and the ing beyond it. Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic The CCAMLR boundary has been chosen Seals (CCAS), all of which apply to the area because: south of 60°S. Thus the CCAMLR boundary • The Convergence is a natural oceano- more closely aligns with the Antarctic ecosys- graphic boundary to the region. Its posi- tem than other Antarctic agreements, an as- tion is dynamic, altering location due to pect that is particularly important to seasonal, interannual and other factors, conservation considerations. and therefore difficult to define precisely In adopting this definition, the artificiality or use administratively with certainty. of definitions and the strong links between 45 46 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas the Antarctic Marine Region and waters to the Divergence is a narrow, coastal counter the north, such as those species that breed current that flows to the west under the influ- outside the Antarctic and feed south of the ence of easterlies. Convergence, are acknowledged. The Southern Ocean is a source of inter- A total of 42 States are parties to the Ant- mediate and deep water masses that venti- arctic Treaty, 26 of which have additional late the world ocean. At the convergence, status as Consultative Members. All countries cool relatively low salinity (due to input currently active in the Antarctic are parties to from melting ice) Antarctic surface waters this treaty. Seven States party to the Treaty sink below the warmer high salinity waters also have territorial claims, these are Argen- to the north. The resulting Antarctic Interme- tina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, diate waters flow northwards in each of the Norway and the United Kingdom. There are ocean basins. The densest water in the 29 states that have acceded to CCAMLR. oceans, Antarctic Bottom Water, is formed Some other States assert that they have the during winter when salt rejection occurs dur- basis for a sovereignty claim, while others ing the formation of sea ice. This water do not recognize any claims or the basis for spreads northward through all of the deep- claims. est basins of the world's oceans. The forma- tion and sinking of these water masses Oceanography results in a significant exchange of heat, fresh water and gases such as carbon diox- The circumpolar nature of the Southern ide between the ocean and the atmosphere. Ocean results in its having some unique Understanding the circulation and water characteristics. It plays important roles in the mass formation mechanisms in the Southern climate system and in the global redistribu- Ocean is therefore critical to the develop- tion of ocean properties. ment of models capable of predicting the The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) timing arid magnitude of future climatic is the primary means by which water is ex- change. Upwelling at the divergence intro- changed between the ocean basins. The duces into the surface layer an abundance ACC therefore plays an essential role in the of nutrients that are the basis for the great global thermohaline circulation and the redis- phytoplankton growth during spring and tribution of heat and other properties. The summer. horizontal circulation has been widely de- scribed by researchers. The most important Role of Sea Ice barrier for the Antarctic is the Antarctic Con- vergence, the major oceanographic and bio- The continent of Antarctica covers some 14 geographic boundary that separates the million square kilometers and, in summer Antarctic environment from that of the rest the continental area is augmented by 3 mil- of the world. This has an average position at lion square kilometers of sea ice in the form about 58°S. South of this barrier lives the of ice shelves and multiyear ice. In winter, characteristic Antarctic biota. A second major the area covered by ice increases to some 20 oceanographic feature is the Antarctic Diver- million square kilometers, effectively dou- gence, close to Antarctica at about 65°S. This bling the area of the Southern Hemisphere is associated with deeper water that gradu- covered by ice. Formation of the additional ally rises and flows southward and that al- 17 million square kilometers has many ef- most reaches the surface at the Divergence. fects. The ice acts as an insulating barrier be- Between the Antarctic Convergence and Di- tween warm water below (-l.8°C) and cold vergence, water flow is to the east under the air (-20°C to -30°C) above. The ice is thus influence of the West Wind Drift. South of important in controlling the heat flux be- Marine Region 1: Antarctic 47 tween the ocean and atmosphere with the still happens on the shallower parts of the impact that can have on Southern Hemi- shelf. sphere weather. The shelf can be divided into two types: The freezing of the sea surface to form those facing the ocean and those on major sea ice generates a residue of high salinity, embayments (Ross Sea, Weddell Sea, Prydz high.density, cold water that sinks (thermo- Bay). The former generally appear narrow, haline circulation) to form Antarctic Bottom normally about 150 kilometers, but much of Water that is a product of a process that that perception may be a result of relativity forms half of the world's water masses, with the continent's large size. The latter are some detectable as far north as the North At- generally covered, to a significant extent, lantic. This product takes with it oxygen, dis- with permanent ice shelves (Ross, Filchner- solved carbon dioxide and other gases. Ronne, Amery). South of the Antarctic Divergence, water The Antarctic Peninsula margin is more temperatures in summer reach 0°C, but dur- dissected by canyons and trenches than the ing winter they are at the freezing point of margin of much of Antarctica. The margin sea water, -l.8°C. generally is surrounded by broad gentle Between the Divergence and the Conver- abyssal plains, but the north western Antarc- gence, water temperature increases north- tic Peninsula margin has an adjacent wards to 4-5°C at the Convergence where it trench-the South Shetland Trench-to a increases about 2-3°C over a short distance. depth of over 5,000 meters within 100 kilo- meters of the coast. Coastal Geology Ecosystem and Species Diversity The continental margin of the continent of Antarctica is unique in many ways. It is The Antarctic ecosystem has generally been about 20,000 kilometers long. The continen- defined as that occurring in the waters south tal shelf is anomaiously deep, with the conti- of the Antarctic Convergence. Recent studies nental shelf edge averaging 460 meters have, however, thrown this concept into deep, in contrast with other continents some doubt. It now seems likely that the wa- where the depth averages 200 meters. There ters between the Convergence and the Conti- is very little of the shelf that is shallow. In nent consist of concentric rings of many areas the shelf deepens from shelf interconnected ecosystems that move season- edge to continent and deep trenches are ally with the advance and retreat of the pack common around the margin, some as deep ice. There are apparently oceanic, neritic as 1,200-1.500 meters, and normally parallel and intermediate regimes as well as a well- to the coast and shelf edge. Some of these defined community associated with the pack "deeps" are closed but most open to the ice and marginal ice edge zone. The neritic deep sea through submarine canyons. or inshore community is characterized by Sedimentation rates are slow and sedi- the presence of a small species of krill ment has a high content of siliceous bio- (Euphausia crysta/lorophias) and the fish genic material, particularly from diatoms and Pleuragramma antarctica that are important sponges. Much of the sediment is glacier de- in the diet of many fishes and some land- rived. based vertebrates, especially in embayments Very little of the continental margin con- such as the Ross ·Sea and in Prydz Bay. To- sists of rock and the shelf is normally bound ward the shelf break in midsummer is found by ice cliffs. In the past, when the icecap the more familiar "krill based ecosystem" in was more extensive, the shelf surface was se- which the large Antarctic krill (Euphausia su- verely affected by gouging icebergs. This perba) dominates, often to the exclusion of 48 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas other pelagic invertebrates. This zone of · action of ice, sub-littoral communities are di-, dominance probably tracks the ice edge oc- verse and complex. Benthic communities . curring offshore of the retreating pack ice in have a great variety and abundance of ani- spring. The relationship between Antarctic mals and plants, including a high proportion krill and the ice edge in autumn and winter of species endemic to the Antarctic Marine is less certain, but krill are known to occur Region. Standing crop in the shallow sub-lit- under the ice in winter though how far they toral increases as the effect of ice scour de- extend into the pack is unknown. This zone creases, before declining again in the. deeper is where the highest primary productivity. oc- parts of the shelf. curs and is also the feeding area for·many of There is a rich and complex food web the Antarctic vertebrates, in particular the within the ice itself, which is receiving con- whales, seals and seabirds. The deep water, siderable attention. It includes microscopic oceanic zone is more typical of oligotrophic organisms that live in such habitats as brine oceans worldwide, dominated by species of channels, under the ice and attached to ice zooplankton, such as salps, copepods and floes. chaetognaths. The Antarctic bird fauna consists of some The Southern Ocean is poorly studied in· 40 species, of which the penguins are the comparison with many other oceans and the. best known and most important in the eco-, communities that occur in the various zones system. They consume an estimated 130 mil- and their seasonal changes are only now be- lion tons of krill per year. Birds are key ing described. The ecosystem associated consumers of krill and are the group most with the sea ice has only been examined in likely to be adversely affected by a marked any detail in the last ten years and it is only increase in fishery on krill. Penguins make very recently that the whole Southern Ocean up 90 percent of the avian biomass and util- has not been treated as one large krill soup. ize about 90 percent of the food consumed Antarctic krill does, however, occur in ex- by birds:: Other than penguins, the bird· tremely high abundances right around the fauna is dominated by petrels and alba- continent. Current estimates of the standing trosses. stock of Eupbausia superba are of the order Crabeater and leopard seals inhabit the of 500 million tons and its central role in the ice edge and the area marginal to it. It is be.:. Antarctic ecosystem makes its conservation · lieved that the crabeater seal, the world's an.issue of paramount importance. Its occur- most numerous seal, is a major consumer of' 1 rence in huge, densely packed swarms, krill and may have increased its population often several kilometers across and. contain- . dramatically because of the krill made avail: ing tens of thousands of tons, makes it attrac- able by the marked reduction of whale num- tive not only to the vertebrate consumers of. bers due to whaling. Leopard seals are the region, but also as a commercial fishery. much less discriminatory in. food source and , Life in the pack ice zone undergoes an in- consume virtually anything available. Ross tense short period of high productivity and and Weddell seals also inhabit the pack ice because of the special characteristics of: the 1 zone. Weddell seals consume fish, squid and environment, there is a specialised biota. Pri- benthos, while the Ross seal diet is poorly mary productivity provides food for pelagic known but squid is known to be a constitil- suspension feeders and a considerable ent. amount makes its way to the seafloor where Fur and elephant seals breed on suban- it is consumed by such benthic filter-feeders tarctic islands, and these species were the as sponges. object of the sealing industry. At present, ele- In contrast to the flora and fauna of the lit- phant seals numbers are· declining in the In- toral zone, which is impoverished due to the dian and Pacific sectors, but not in the · Marine Region 1: Antarctic 49 Atlantic. At the same time, fur seal numbers species and, in many cases, fishing is cur- are increasing rapidly. The causes of these rently banned. changes are not understood. Because they A major constraint in improving knowl- spend so much time away from the islands edge of the Antarctic ecosystem is that the and are not obvious while at sea, gaining an overall research effort, and the resulting understanding of the biology of these organ- level of documentation of the biota, is small isms has not been easy. Recently technology relative to the vastness of the Antarctic ma- has evolved to allow the use of various de- rine region. This is particularly true for the vices such as time, depth and temperature re- invertebrate fauna, but also for all levels of corders and satellite tracking equipment. the ecosystem except the highest (seals and Through these studies scientists have gained whales). an understanding of the foraging range, depth habitat and likely diet. This in tum Biogeographic Classification has led to a better understanding of the role of these species within the ecosystem. Coastal Waters ofAntarctic Continent There are two major groups of whales, both of which are found in the Antarctic- There is no recognized biogeographic baleen and toothed whales. The baleen scheme to use as a basis for developing a whales consume krill, probably about 190 protected areas system in coastal waters of million tons per year before whaling began. the Antarctic continent, and there have been This has now reduced to about 43 million few attempts to establish one. Work to de- tons per year. There are nine species of velop a classification has been carried out toothed whales in the Antarctic, including by the Scientific Committee on Antarctic Re- the sperm and killer whales. Squid is an im- search (SCAR 1977), and others such as portant element of the diet of sperm .whales. Keage (1987) and Hayden and others (1984). Commercial exploitation led to the marked However, none of these schemes have decrease in the numbers of large whales. achieved wide acceptance. The Minke whale, which is now estimated· to }:lave a population of some 760,000 indi- Southern Ocean viduals in Antarctic waters, is the only ba- leen whale that is present in large numbers. While many proposals have been advanced Whales migrate in and out of the Antarctic, for biogeographic subdivision of the South- and migrate within the Antarctic following ern Ocean realm, none is designed ex- the ice edge and their food supply. The Ant- pressly for assisting the development of a arctic sojourn of the baleen whales allows marine protected area system. Boundaries of them to build up their blubber reserves be- the biogeographic zones in these schemes fore moving to the tropics to breed in winter. vary in location depending on whether their There are about 270 species of fish, the context is oceanographic (Markov 1964); cli- most abundant and important species be- matic (Holdgate 1964); or biological. Of the long to the sub-order Notothenioidei. Gener- last category, schemes have addressed distri- ally these species are slow moving, slow butions of littoral biota (Knox 1960), island growing, have low fecundity, and are thus v!!getation (Wace 1965) and birds (Watson very susceptible to over exploitation. They and others 1971). Clark and Dingwall (1985) were subject to an unregulated fishery until provide a brief comparative analysis of sev- the advent of CCAMLR and some species eral schemes (see also Holdgate 1977; Clark were fished to virtual local extinction. and Dingwall 1985; and Smith and Lewis- CCAMLR, in recent years, has had consider- Smith 1987). As yet, there is no general able success in regulating the catches. of fish agreement on a scheme to be used for identi- 50 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas fying priority areas in the marine environ- Antarctic region, it is unlikely that long term ment. changes will be detected until they are welF Clearly, this is not a satisfactory basis on underway. which to plan a comprehensive network of The Antarctic Marine Region has, in other marine protected areas throughout the South- respects, fared significantly better than else- ern Ocean and around the Antarctic conti'- where and, for example, direct pollution of nent. There is some question whether the the Antarctic marine environment is almost concept of establishing individual protected nonexistent. areas can be scientifically justified in the vast The Antarctic Marine Region has also oceanic realms there. Angel (1987), for exam- benefited from a high level of protection ple, observes that the combined influence of that has evolved over the fast three decades the highly dynamic physical structure of the or so. There is a comprehensive environ- Southern Ocean, the strength of circumpolar ment protection regime available to cover currents, and the wide-ranging habits of the Marine Region under a complex of inter- seabirds and marine mammals, mean that at national agreements, developed specifically larger scales there is considerable uniformity to cover the Antarctic, known collectively as in the structure of pelagic and benthic-deep- · the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS). The en-· water communities over broad geographic tire Antarctic Marine Region is afforded a ranges. As a result the identification of par- high level of protection and can be de- ticular marine biogeographic zones is quite scribed as a protected area; the entire ma- difficult. While accepting the need for spe- rine area meets the IUCN definition of a · cial protection in localized nearshore envi- · marine protected area. ronments, there are strong arguments to The extent of ATS environmental protec- support the adoption of an ecosystem ap- tion measures are explained in more detail proach to management. below, but include area and species protec- tion capabilities, effective control mecha- nisms to manage commercial exploitation of STATIJS OF ExlSTING MPAs marine resources, special measures to con- · trol shipping and marine pollution, and a re- Description of Marine Protected Area quirement for contingency plans to cover System incidents with the potential for adverse ef- fects on the marine environment or depend- The Antarctic marine environment has been ent and associated ecosystems. In addition considerably altered by successive waves of to having the capability to ensure protection sealing, whaling and fishing. There is rela- of the Antarctic marine region, the ATS is· ac- tively little information available on what ef- tively seeking to manage the region, espe- fect these perturbations have had on the cially through CCAMLR. overall balance of the marine ecosystem but A recent boost to the conservation status it is likely to be significant. Because there of the Antarctic Marine Region has been the are no baseline data, it is difficult to deter- International Whaling Commission's agree- mine whether the ecosystem is currently ment to establish a whale sanctuary for all changing to either establish a new balance species in nearly all waters south of 40°S. or to revert to its old one. Additionally, be- Within the framework of the ATS there cause of the large area, small total effort and are a number of mechanisms available for difficult nature of the prevailing conditions protection of specific sites identified as hav- and because there are no accurate methods ing marine conservation significance. These available to census the major species in the measures have evolved as the treaty system Marine Region 1: Antarctic 51 itself has evolved. The primary mechanisms Site of Special Scientific Interest are described below. Established under Antarctic Treaty Consult- Spedally Protected Area ative Meeting Recommendation VII-3 (1972), Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSis) are Established under Article VIII of the Agreed intended to be sites of exceptional scientific Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic interest requiring long-term protection. Es- Fauna and Flora (1964), Specially Protected sentially, they are scientific reserves for safe- Areas (SPAs) are intended to protect unique guarding research opportunities from human or outstanding natural ecological systems of interference during the conduct of experi- scientific interest. SPAs are to include, ments, although the purposes and charac- among others, representative examples of teristics of particular areas vary a great deal. major Antarctic land and freshwater ecologi- ATCM Recommendation XIV-6 (1987) makes cal systems. SPAs are essentially equivalent specific provision for establishment of Ma- to nature reserves, and can apply only to ter- rine SSSis. Protection of SSSis is for a speci- restrial coastal and littoral sites, not marine fied period, normally 10 years, and it has areas per se. been general practice to renew protection af- There are 19 existi_ng SPAs. All but two of ter the expiry date. these are in the coastal environment and 13 There are 35 existing SSSis. Twenty-four of them are either entire or part of islands. of these are in the coastal environment, and Eleven of the SPAs have a marine orienta- 20 of them are either entire or part of is- tion, especially as protection for breeding lo- lands. Seventeen SSSis include the foreshore calities of seabirds and seals. Thus, the and 13 include nearshore waters, while four foreshores (littoral or intertidal zones) are an extend protection to deep offshore water. important component of them, but only in Five of the SSSls are entirely marine pro- two cases is the inclusion of the littoral zone tected areas: actually specified. In three SPAs (No. 8 Dion ,,._ Chile Bay, South Shetland Islands SSSI Islands; No. 15 Southern Powell and adja- No. 26: Protects two small separate cent islands; No. 18 North Coronation Is- tracts of benthic habitat, one at depths land) the nearshore marine environment is of 50-100 meters, the other at depths included, and these areas have been in- of 100-200 meters. cluded in the listing of MPAs for this region. ,,,._ Port Foster, South Shetland Islands SSSI These marine areas are either small embay- No. 27: Two small separate tracts of ments or intervening waters in island archi- benthic habitat within a sea-filled vol- pelagoes, and are not included as a primary canic caldera, one at depths of 50-150 component of the protected area. In one meters the other at 100-150 meters other case, _there is reference to the richness depth. of fish life in waters adjacent to the SPA that ,,._ South Bay Palmer Archipelago SSSI are not included in the protected area. No. 28: A 115 hectare area of embay- ment plus adjacent littoral zone, pro- The following SPAs.have been recorded as tecting coastal and sub-littoral benthos MPAs: to 45 meters depth. ,,._ Dion Island, Marguirite Bay, SPA No. 8 ,,._ Western Bransfield Strait. South Shet- ,,._ North Coronation Island, South Orkney land Islands SSSI No. 34: Benthos-rich Islands, SPA No. 18 sea floor area to 200 meters depth, in- ,,._ Southern Powell Island and adjacent is- cluding a small area of adjacent land lands, South Orkney Islands SPA No. 15. and foreshore. 52 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas ..,. East Dallmann Bay Palmer Archipelago tural and heritage values. These designations SSSI No. 35: Benthos-rich sea floor can cover both the land and the sea, or a down to 200 meters depth.· combination of both. Management plans must qe developed for all areas that are des- The following SSSis also include a marine ignated. It is intended ·that all previous cate- component: gories (such as SSSis and SPAs) will be ..,. Ardley Island, South Shetland Islands, redesignated as ASMAs or ASPAs in the fu- SSSI No. 32. ture. The Madrid protocol has not yet en- ..,. Biscoe Point, Anvers Islands, SSSI No. tered into force and as .yet no ASPAs and 20 . ASMAs have been declared. ..,. Cape Crozier, Ross Islands, SSSI No. 4 ..,. Cape Royds, Ross Islands, SSSI No. 1 International and Regional Initiatives ..,. Harmony Point, South Shetland Is- Relating to MPAs lands, SSSI No. 14. ..,. Lions Rump, South Shetland Islands, The nations active in the Antarctic have de- SSSI No. 33 veloped a c~mplex international legal re- ... North-West White Islands, McMurdo gime, incorporating a number of separate Sound, SSSI No. 18. agreements, to govern their activities and to ... Yujidori Valley, Lutzow-Holm Bay SSSI deal with the political, operational and envi- No. 22. ronmental issues that, have arisen. The agreements, which include an exten- Seal Resen;es sive range of conservation measures, are: • Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living The 1972 Convention for the Conseivation Resources (CCAMLR) of Antarctic Seals (see below), among other • Antarctic Treaty and its associated meas- things, establishes thre~ oceanic areas as re- ures; including the Protocol on Environ- seives, within which it is forbidde11 to take mental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty seals. These have a combined area of (the Madrid Protocol) and recommenda- 190,000 square kilometers. tions agreed to at consultative meetings of Treaty Parties Antarcttc Specially Protected • Convention for the Conservation of Ant- Areas/Antarctic Specially Managed arctic Seals (CCAS). Areas Collectively, these agreements are called The most recent deyelopment in prQtective the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) and form designations is set forth in the provisions of an unprecedented example of international i:he Madrid Protocol (see below), which pro- cooperation and commitment to conserva- vide$ for th~ establishment of Antarctic Spe- tion principles, especially given the jurisdic- cially Protected Areas (ASPAs) and Antarctic tional issues raised by Antarctica. Any of · Specially Managed Areas (ASMAs). These these agreements would justify the marin.e designations represent a more· holistic and Antarctic area being described as a marine comprehensive approach to those used in protected area within the meaning of the the past in that protection and management IUCN definition; in totality they provide a can be focussed on a wide variety of pur- high level of protection to the Antarctic Ma- poses, including protection of sensitive envi- rine Region. The Antarctic Treaty, and its as- ronments, management of tourism and sociated measures, and CCAS apply to the recreational activities, and protection of cul- area south of 60°S while CCAMLR applies to Marine Region 1: Antarctic 53 a larger area whose northern limit closely ap- which ensures their greatest net annual in- proximates the Antarctic Convergence: The· crease. more significant elements of these agree- • Depleted populations must b~ restored to ments are described below. such levels. In addition to the above agreements refer- • Ecological relationships between har- ring solely to the Antarctic, uiere are· several vested, dependent and related species other ·international agreements that make must be maintained. special provisions for the Antarctic; for exam- • Risks of changes to the marine ecosystem ple, the International Convention for the Pre- that are not potentially reversible must be vention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) minimized. has declared the waters south of 60°S a "Spe- cial Area." Some marine species are also pro- These principles embody what has been tected under the Convention on called the ecosystem approach to conserva- International Trade in Endangered Species tion and set the Convention apart from other of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). marine resource management regimes. Man- The ATS already provides a comprehen- agement of fishing must not only aim to con- sive range of conservation measures, includ~ se.r:ve the targeted species but take into ing area and species protection and the · account the impact of fishing on those ani- control of Antarctic· human activities, and mals that prey on o~ compete with the tar- provides the framework necessary to geted species. achieve protection of the Antarctic marine re- The Convention provides an administra- gion. As noted previously, based on'the tive structure for its own implementation: IUCN definition of a marine protected area, the Commission that is the decisionmaking the entire Antarctic Marine Region can be body, a Scientific Committee that gathers in- considered to be a marine protected area. foi:mation and advises the Commission, and The importance of the ATS is demonstrated a permanent Secretariat. The Convention re- by the extent to which it influences Antarctic quires that the Commission arid the Scien- activities; all nations, whose government tific committee. cooperate with Antarctic agencies or natio.nals undertake significant Treaty Parties on matters within their compe- activities in the Antarctic, are Parties to the tence and with the Food and Agriculture Or- ATS and thus required to comply with its ob- ganization and other specialised agencies of ligations. ATS measures are implemented us- the United Nations as appropriate. ing the various national legal frameworks of CCAMLR ha's adopted ~ number of Conser- each of the Parties; the Parties also provide vation Measures that have managed individ- the only practical management and enforce- ual species and groups of species by ment capability in the Antarctic. declaring certain areas closed for fishing, p'rohibiting fishing on particular species and Conservation ofAntarctic Marine Living the use of particular fishing methods (for ex- Resources ample, drift netting), applying precautionary limits or total allowable catches, restricting The' objective of CCAMLR is the conserva- mesh sizes and declaring closed seasons. tion of Antarctic marine living resources· CCAMLR has also established designated with conservation defined to include rational monitoring sites and is moving toward imple- use. The conservation principles in the Con- menting the "ecosystem approach" sug- vention require that: gested in Article 2 through a feedback • Exploited populations must not be· al- ·management system. This will take some lowed to fall below a level close to that time to ~esign and implement. 54 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Antarctic Treaty • Protection of the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosys- The Antarctic Treaty provides that Antarctica tems and the intrinsic value of Antarctica, shall be used for peaceful purposes only, including its wilderness and aesthetic val- prohibits any measures of a military nature, ues and its value as an area for the con- and gives priority to scientific research and duct of scientific research, including the free exchange of research data and other research essential to understanding the information. The Treaty also provides for global environment, to be fundamental regular meetings of Treaty Parties and nu- considerations in the planning and con- merous recommendations adopting conserva- duct of all activities in the Treaty area tion measures have been agreed to. While • Need to avoid detrimental changes in the most of these have dealt with non-marine is- distribution, abundance or productivity of sues, recommendations on marine aspects in- species or populations of species of fauna clude restrictions on waste disposal by ships and flora and the development of marine contingency • Need to conduct prior assessment of envi- plans. ronmental impacts for all human activities • Need to minimize environmental impacts Protocol on Environmental Protection through proper planning and conduct of to the Antarctic Treaty (Madrid activities Protocol) • Use of an ecosystem approach to analyze environmental impacts. The Protocol provides a comprehensive ap- proach to protection of the Antarctic environ- Other elements of the Protocol of special ment and dependent and associated relevance to the Antarctic Marine Region: ecosystems, and designates Antarctica as a • Provide for any area, including a marine natural reserve devoted to peace and sci- area, to be designated as an Antarctic Spe- ence. It establishes an indefinite ban on min- cially Protected Area (ASPA) or as an Ant- eral resource activities, other than scientific arctic Specially Managed Area (ASMA). research, and requires that all activities are ASPAs are designed to protect outstand- planned and conducted so as to limit ad- ing environmental, scientific, historic, aes- verse impacts on the Antarctic environment thetic or wilderness values, or any and dependent and associated ecosystems. combination of those values, or ongoing The Protocol comprises a main instrument or planned scientific research. ASMA des- and five annexes that deal with environ- ignation aims to assist in the planning mental impact assessment, conservation of and coordination of activities or minimize Antarctic fauna and flora, waste disposal and environmental impacts in a region; an management, the prevention of marine pollu- ASMA can contain an ASPA. Activities con- tion and the Antarctic protected area system. ducted in ASPAs and ASMAs must be in Although the Protocol has not yet entered accordance with the management plan into force, Treaty Parties have agreed that, for the area; additionally, entry to an until that time, they will apply its provisions ASPA requires a permit. to the extent practicable and strive for full • Provide for the establishment of a Com- implementation of the Protocol as soon as mittee for Environment Protection to ad- possible. vise Parties on the adequacy and While some of the Protocol's provisions operation of environmental protection are based on earlier Treaty meeting recom- measures. mendations, the Protocol has focussed on • Restrict the disposal of waste from ships several important principles including: by allowing conditional discharge of food Marine Region 1: Antarctic 55 scraps and sewage and prohibit dis- than those of any other Marine Region. The charges of such substances as oil, oily entire region can be classified as a marine mixtures, and plastics. protected area according to the IUCN defini- • Require the development of contingency tion, and is covered by the provisions of a plans. to cover incidents with the potential complete treaty system. In that sense its ma- for adverse effects on the marine environ- rine areas are very well represented. ment or dependent and associated ecosys- At the same time, the absence of an ac- tems. cepted biogeographic classification system for the marine areas of the Antarctic Marine Convention for the Conservation Region and a lack of knowledge about the ofAntarctic Seals marine environment mean that specific rep- resentative areas that merit high levels of The CCAS was developed by Antarctic protection or management are yet to be iden- Treaty Parties as a response to the possibility tified. Further work will be required to en- of commercial sealing occurring in the Ant- sure that the provisions of the ATS are arctic. CCAS conservation measures imple- applied to designate such areas and to en- mented/in force include the total protection sure that the marine biodiversity of the re- of three species of seals, and the estab- gion is protected and its resources used lishment of a closed season for sealing activi- sustainably. ties, seasonal catch limits for the three species allowed to be killed, and sealing re- serves at some breeding and long term scien- PRIORITY AREAs AND RECOMMENDATIONS tific research sites. Six such reserves have been established. There is no commercial Priority Areas for Marine Biodiversity sealing activity presently undertaken in the Conservation Antarctic. Although some areas within the Antarctic MARPOL have been declared as protected areas under different ATS agreements, the establishment The International Convention for the Preven- of a systematic environmental and geographi- tion of Pollution from Ships 1973, as modi- cal framework of protected areas within the fied by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL Antarctic region has yet to be achieved. 73/78) contains regulations covering the vari- Such a framework would be a major achieve- ous sources of ship-generated pollution in ment and is a key objective under the most five Annexes of the Convention. The South- recent agreement reached under the ATS, ern Ocean south of 60°S latitude was desig- the Protocol on Environmental Protection to nated as a "Special Area" on 17 March 1992. the Antarctic Treaty (the Protocol). How- The Marine Environmental Pollution Commit- ever, there are insufficient data to prioritize tee (MEPC) has made further resolutions to protection for marine Antarctic areas on a give guidance to ship operators and to pro- systematic, regionwide basis. The data vide specifications for ship-board equipment which are available suggest that the marine to match MARPOL discharge requirements. areas studied to date are worthy of protec- tion but insufficient study has been under- Assessment of Representation taken to enable comparisons. Available data of Biogeographic Zones on some sites is provided in Appendix 1 for information. Given the vastness of the area The marine areas of the Antarctic receive a to be studied, it is likely to be many years more comprehensive level of protection before this situation may change. The use of 56 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas an ecosystem approach to conservation, as divided the FAO areas on broadly geo- adopted by CCAMLR, is thus particularly ap- graphic grounds. CCAMLR originally propriate in the Antarctic. · adopted an ecosystem approach partly be- ATS Parties should be encouraged to iden- cause of the supposed homogeneity of the tify su;itable marine ar~as for protection and ecosystems of the waters south of the Polar to achieve early implementation of the sys-. Front but also because of the potential ef- tematic framework of protected areas envis:- fects of fishing on krill which is the pivotal aged by the Protocol. To ensure effective species in this ecosystem. However, the diffi- identification, and management of future pro- culty in identifying subregions is, in itself, an tected areas, it is appropriate that these tasks additional significant reason for preferring be undertaken within the framework om~r_ed an ecosystem approach to conservation by the ATS. rather than focussing on geographical areas. Future Conservatton opttons Other Recommendations In contemplating future conservation of the Ecosystem Approach Versus Spedes Antarctic Marine Region, the comprehensive and Area Protection environment protection regime of the ATS, the significant protection levels that already CCAMLR, in common with other elements 'of apply in the Antarctic and the intentions of the ATS, provides for protection of ~ubre- Treaty Parties to establish a systematic frame- gions within the ,A.ntarctj.c Marine Regiop. work of protected areas must be acknow- However, the difficulty of meaningfully de:- ledged. Any future conservation measures fining such subregions, .due largely to inade- will reql,lire the support of those people and quate ·research data, has prevented the nations active in the Antarctic; the most ef- systematic application of an area protection fective way to ensure this is to work within approach to conservation. the ATS. The ATS also offers suitable forums The CCAMLR A,rea as a whole was in- and conservation mechanisms to improve tended to encompass the region south of the protection of the marine environment. Antarctic Circumpolar Front which was usu- Achieving the goals ATS Parties have set ally considered to be t:I:ie northern boundary as part of the Madrid Protocol, especially for the Southern Ocean. The Southern that of establishing a systematic framework Ocean was until recently thought of as a sin- of protected areas, will be a major conserva- gle ecosystem although this viewpoint is . tion accomplishment unrivalled in any other now being challenged. However, there is dif- comparable region in the world. More re- ficulty in adequately delineating different search data are necessary to identify and ecosystems within the CCAMLR Area be- manage such a network. cause, in 'a fluid 'medium, the boundaries ATS Parties should be encouraged and as- may move considerably with time. Jhe pic- sisted to ensure: ture is complicated still further by the move- • Earliest possible implementation of the ments and seasonal expansion and Protocol and the development of a sys- contraction of the pack ice. tematic protected area network covering CCAMLR does use subregions, although marine and land components these are the Food and Agricultural Organi- • Continuation of focussed and internation- zation (FAO) statistical areas and have ally coordinated research, to provide the largely been defined for administrative ease data necessary to identify and manage rather than o~. an ecological basis. For man- this network, at present or higher levels agement purposes, CCAMLR has furthet: sub- of activity. Marine Region 1: Antarctic 57 The continued development and applica- Available data on potential sites for the es- tion of an ecosystem approach by CCAMLR tablishment and improved management of should also be encouraged. MPAs.is presented below. ' The five sites identified as SSSis that are en- Supporting Antarctk Marine tlrely marine protected areas could all benefit Conservation froni improved management. These are: ,.- . Chile Bay, South Shetland Islands SSSI The requirements of the ATS impose quite No. 26 high environmental standards for the man- ,.- Port Foster, South Shetland Islands SSSI agement of all ASMAs and ASPAs and of No. 27 other activities. For some states these stand- ~ South Bay Palmer Archipelago SSSI ards are appreciably higher than those ap-· No. 28 plied domestically. Limitations in technical ,.- Western Bransfield Strait, South Shet- expertise or financial resources could con- land Islands SSSI No. 34 strain their ability to attain these standards. ,.- East Dallmann Bay, Palmer Archipel- With this in mind there is a potential role ~go SSSI No. 35. for the World Bank, GEF and other interna- tional organizations and countries that sup- Consideration could be given to including port marine biodiversity conservation to the South Shetland Islands SSSis (Nos. 26, investigate providing assistance so that all 27,34) arid the Palmer Archipelago SSSis ATS Parties can achieve early implementa- (Nos. 28, 35) in two large marine protected tion of the Protocol. A proposal for such ac- areas. 1 These locations are becoming increas- tion might best be developed by the ingly popular tourist destinations and any po- Antarctic Treaty Parties as a group and could tential impact on the marine environment provide for assistance in the form of finan- · needs to be closely monitored (Stonehouse cial resources, technical assistance and train- 1992). . ing to support the establishment and In addition to the SSSis (SPAs) identified management of ASMAs and ASPAs, and for above, strong consideration should be given research programs that' aim to identify prior- to protecting a· significant proportion of the ity areas in the Antarctic marine environment. marine environment of McMurdo Sound. The ecosystem at McMurdo Sound is incom- parable with any other in the world. The ma- APPENDIX 1.1 POTENTIAL SITFS FOR rine benthic community has been described 11IE ESTABIJSHMENT/IMPROVED as one of the most stable marine systems in MANAGEMENT OF MPAs IN ANTARCDCA the world (Dayton and Oliver 1978; Dayton, and others 1974;. Oliver and others 1976). The whole marine area of Antarctica is not The community has also been compared to well known with only some areas being in- those found on deep ocean floors (Sanders vestigated. Those areas show that the Antarc- 1968). The marine communities are domi- tic marine environment is extremely diverse nated by a wide diversity of sponges includ- and unique in the global context. However, ing glass sponges that are sensitive to as noted previously, there are insufficient disturbance. The sponges come in a variety data to prioritize protection for marine Ant- of shapes and forms. Echinoderms, bryo- arctic areas on a systematic, regionwide ba-' zoans, coelenterates, ascidian.s and reef asso- sis. The data available suggest that the ciated fishes and crustacea are associated marine areas studied to date are worthy of with the sponge communities. protection but insufficient study has been un- The effects of sedimentation in marine dertaken to enable comparisons. ecosystems derived from terrestrial runoff 58 A Global Representative System of Marine ,Protected Areas are now recognized in many countries Dayton, P.K., and Oliver, JS 1978. Long-term ex~ around the world. Perhaps the only place on perimental benthic studies in McMurdo Sound. earth that has not been so affected is Antarc- Antarcttcjoumal of the United States 13(4): . tica. Any alterations to the physical environ- 13&-7. ment (temperature, sedimentary regime, Dayton, P.K., S.A. Robilliard, and A.L. De Vries. 1969. Anchor ice formation in McMurdo light level, turbidity , pollution) is likely to re- Sound, Antarctica, and its biological effects. Sci- move these ecosystems permanently. The ence 163:273-4. known sensitivity of sponge characterized Dayton, P.K., S.A. Robilliard, R.T. Paine, and L.B. communities to disturbances from changes Dayton. 1974. Biological accommodation in in ambient physical regimes (Battershill the benthic community at McMurdo Sound, 1989; McCall and Tevesz 1982; Dayton, Ro- Antarctica. Ecological Monographs 44(1): 105- billiard, and De Vries 1969) has in recent 28. times led to concern over potential impacts Hayden, B.P., and others. 1984. Classification of of increasing terrestrial runoff over the sum- coastal and marine environments. Environ- mer months as some Ross Island glaciers re- mental Conseroation 11: 199-207. cede and the permafrost melts (Campbell, Holdgate, M.W. 1964. Terrestrial ecology in the K321, 1991). The Antarctic not only provides maritime Antarctic. In R. Carrick and others, eds., Antarctic Biology. Paris: Hermann. an example of a near pristine marine ecosys- - - - . 1977. Terrestrial ecosystems in the Ant- tem but can also serve as a benchmark to arctic. Philos. Trans. Royal Society ofLondon Se- observe changes to ecosystems as a result of rles B(279): S-25. increased levels of sedimentation. Keage, P.L. 1987. Environmental zones and plan- ning units: A basis for an Antarctic terrestrial protected area network. In P.R. Dingwall, ed., NOTF.s Conseroing the natural heritage of the Antarc- tic Realm. Proceedings of 29th Working Ses- 1. It should be noted that, according to the IUCN sion, CNPPA, Wairakei, New Zealand, August. Scientific committee. on Antarctic Research Protocol Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Knox, G.A: 1960. Littoral ecology and biography Treaty, "... Spe~ially Protected Areas and Sites of of the Southern Oceans. Proc. Royal Society of Special Scientific interest designated as such by past London, Series B 152, 577~24. Antarctic Treaty consultative meetings are hereby Markov, K.K. 1964. Geographical conditions in designated as Antarctic Specially Protected Areas Antarctica. In R. Carrick and others, eds., Ant- and shall be renamed and renumbered accord- arctic biology. Paris: Hermann. ingly" (IUCN SCAR 198.3). McCall, P.L., and Tevesv, MJ.S., eds. 1982. Ani- mal-sediment interactio~ 1be biogenic al- teration ofsediments. Topics in Geobiology 2. BIBIJOGRAPHY New York: Plenum Press. Oliver, J.S'., D.J. Watson, E.F. O'Connor, and P.K. Angel, M.V. 1987. Criteria for protected areas and Dayton. 1976. Benthic communities of other conservation measures in the Antarctic re- McMurdo Sound. Antarctic journal of the gion. Environmental International 13: 105-14 . United States 11(2): 58-9. Battershill, C.N. 1989. Distribution and abun- Ray, G.C. 1985. Identification and selection of dance of benthic marine invertebrates at Cape protected areas/or Antarctica and the South- Armitage, Ross .Jsland, Antarctica. New ern Ocean. Proceedings of SCAR/lUCNSym- Zealaand Antarctic Rec. 9(2): 35-52. posium on Antarctic Conservation, April. Clarke, M.R., and Dingwall, P.R. 1985. Conserva- Bonn: FRG. tion of islands tn the Southern Ocean. Cam- Sanders, H. 1968. Marine benthic diversity: A bridge, U.K.: IUCN. comparative study. American Naturalist 102: 1243-82. Marine Region 1: Antarctic 59 SCAR. 1977. Report of SCAR Working Group on ecology in Antarctica. The Hague: Junk Pub- Biology. SCAR Bulletin (55):16S-72. lishers. Smith, V.R., and Lewis-Smith, R.I. 1987. The biota Warson, G.E., and others. 1971. Birds of the Ant- and conservation status of Sub-Antarctic is- arctic and Subanta,r;tic. Antarctica Map Folilo lands. Environment International 13:9S-104., Series No. 14. American Geographical Society. Stonehouse, B. 1992. Monitoring shipborne visi- World Conservation Union (IUCN). 1993. Proto- tors in Antarctica: A preliminary field study. Po- col on Environmental Protection to the Antarc- lar Record 28(166): 213-8. tic Treaty. SCAR Bulletin (110):20. Wace, N.M. 1965. Vascular plants. In J. van Meigham and others, eds., Biogeograpby and MARINE REGION 2 Arctic Chris Bleakley and Vera Alexander '-:-' - · · ' ... ,I) ~ iii-... ·'c..?...__ --. lo\=:;!.~- ~~;..1~,.. - ~ .' _,u..__~-~-~~:::r-:_ ~. 7 _;;=.....,-~ ~w • ......~.-.....affl>a.1a11_....• . .---._1211•L iii -~;~ ... -,~;..;.: .... -- rtr-s.-~-·-. . __ - 8IOGEOGRAPHY AND MARINE Coastal areas of the following countries BIODIVERSITY are included in the region: Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Iceland, Norway and Russia. For the purposes of this report, the Arctic re- The coastal areas of the Arctic are sparsely gion embraces all maritime areas adjacent to populated and are subject to different anthro- the western and northern coasts of Scandina- pogenic impacts than are lower latitude ar- via, the Siberian coast, the western coast of eas, Arctic areas have historically supported the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Strait, the subsistence harvesting of marine resources Canadian Arctic islands north of Lancaster by native peoples and, more recently, have Sound, and Greenland, and includes Iceland supported and been impacted by oil explora- and Svalbard. This designation does not fol- tion or development and increased marine low a conventional definition of the Arctic: it transportation. Long-distance transport of excludes many areas that belong to the Arc- pollutants is also an issue. Nevertheless, in tic climatically (the Chukchi Sea and many parts of the Arctic the marine biota Beaufort Sea coasts of Alaska, and the Cana- have not as yet been changed significantly dian mainland and islands south of Lancas- by these activities. In some nations, in par- ter Sound are included with the Northwest ticular the United States and Canada, a great Atlantic) and includes some areas (particu- deal of research and assessment work has larly the west coast of Norway) that are pre- been done in connection with or in anticipa- dominantly Boreal in character. For tion of commercial activity, and this work practicality, it was decided to cover the Arc- now provides a significant bank of knowl- tic areas of the United States and most of edge about the region. Canada in reports for other regions to avoid The majority of the region is subject to sea- "splitting" these countries into many regions. sonal or permanent sea ice cover, a long For the same reason the whole of Norway winter dark period with little solar insola- with the exception of the Skagerrak has tion, and long days in the summer. Marine been included in the Arctic Marine Region. biological systems occupy a dominant role 61 62 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas in Arctic ecosystems, and many of the near- the shallower relief of the Asian side of the shore terrestrial ecosystems depend heavily basin from the Chukchi Sea to the Green- on biological production immediately off- land Sea. Heat exchange between the ocean shore. Some of the terrestrial apex predators and atmosphere is reduced by the ice cover feed at sea-including many marine birds, to only a few percent of that found in an the arctic foxes, and polar bears. This was open ocean and the water directly beneath also true of the Inuit, and the marine envi- the ice is much more variable in tempera- ronment remains important for Inuit subsis- ture and density than is normal in surface tence hunting today. There are many waters. The variations are caused by ice migratory birds and mammals in the Arctic melting, river inflow, and freezing (which system. causes localized increases in salinity), and by the variable thickness of the insulating Oceanography ice cover blocking out the heating effect of the sun. The thin, cold surface layer overlies Except where noted, the following descrip- a deep layer of slightly warmer, more saline tion is adapted from Bramwell (1977). water flowing into the basin from the North The Arctic Marine Region is centered on Atlantic. This mid-water layer, extending the Arctic Ocean. Along the rim of the Arctic from about 180 meters below the surface to Ocean, there are a number of so-called mar- about 900 meters below, becomes colder ginal seas, such as the Beaufort Sea, the and more dense as it traverses the deep Chukchi Sea, the Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, and ocean basins. the East Siberian Sea. The region also in- The Barents Sea is shallow and stretches cludes the Barents Sea, the Greenland Sea from the northernmost parts of Norway and and parts of the North Sea and Atlantic continental Russia to Svalbard and Novaya Ocean. Zemlya. The southern part is dominated by The virtually enclosed nature of the Arctic the Atlantic current that keeps the Norwe- Ocean, its varied submarine topography and gian coast free of ice throughout the year. its perennial cover of sea ice all combine to The winter limit of pack ice is on average give the water movement and water budget just north of Bear Island, the winter limit of of the ocean a character quite unlike that of drift ice is around the midpoint between any other ocean. The major part of the Bear Island and North Cape (Holthe 1993). water inflow and outflow takes place The upper waters of the Norwegian Sea through the Greenland Sea-the only deep- are connected with the Atlantic, the North water connection with the world ocean. Sea and the Barents Sea, while deeper wa- Roughly 80 percent of the water entering ters are connected with the Atlantic through and leaving the Arctic basin passes through the Shetland-Faroe trough. The eastern sur- this narrow channel between Greenland and face area is dominated by the warm and sa- Spitzbergen; less than 20 percent passes line (7-14°C, 35°100) Atlantic current, but all through the shallow Bering Sea. Thus the the way along the Norwegian coast the less Arctic has strong hydrographic connections saline coastal current lies as a wedge be- to the Atlantic and much weaker ones to the tween the Atlantic water and the coast. Both Pacific. As a consequence, the Arctic experi- currents flow northward. Farther out in the ences most of its faunal exchange with the Norwegian Sea, Atlantic water mixes with Atlantic Ocean. the cold, southward flowing water of the The surface water circulation forms two East Greenland Current, forming large hori- easily identified systems: a broad clockwise zontal eddies (Holthe 1993). gyre in the Canadian side of the ocean and The relatively warm water along the west a more direct flow sweeping in an arc over coast of Scandinavia as far north as Spitzber- Marine Region 2: Arctic 63 gen (and on the west coasts of Canada and separated from the great submarine moun- Alaska) is brought by currents flowing from tain chain of the Lomonosov Ridge by the the south, while cold currents flowing from Pole Abyssal Plain-an elongated trough of the north along the coast of Greenland are deep water containing the greatest depth yet responsible for the considerable southerly recorded in the Arctic, more than 4,500 me- displacement of the edge of the permanent ters, close to the geographic North Pole. The ice cover. This combination of oceanic cur- Lomonosov Ridge itself dominates the sub- rents results in nutrient-rich regions that are marine relief of the Arctic basin, rising on av- still further enriched by inflowing Siberian erage some 3,000 meters above the abyssal waters. The result is high primary produc- plain and reaching within a little over 900 tion in many places and very large numbers meters of the surface at its highest points. of animal consumers. On the Canadian side of the Lomonosov For much of the year the Arctic Ocean is Ridge the ocean basin is again subdivided entirely covered by ice, which may reach a by the broad sweep of the Alpha Ridge, an thickness of up to 2 meters. The ice is con- irregular submarine mountain chain widely tinually broken by opening and closing believed to be a now inactive element in the leads of open water, and large icebergs are global ridge system. Between the Alpha formed from the ice shelves of Canada and Ridge and the Canadian coast lies the Can- Greenland. Ice is carried south by currents ada Abyssal Plain, by far the largest of the into the North Atlantic Ocean. Ice cover re- Arctic sub-basins, with an average depth of cedes from the edges of the continents sur- more than 3,600 meters. rounding the Arctic Ocean in summer, and The continental shelf areas of the Arctic massive inflows of freshwater from rivers re- form one of the ocean's most unique fea- sult in localized areas of greatly reduced sa- tures, underlying almost one-third of the to- linity (Salm and Clark 1984). tal area of the ocean. Off the northern The productivity of the Arctic is largely de- coastlines of Alaska, Canada and Greenland termined by the occurrence of light in the the shelf is generally 80-200 kilometers very brief summer season, which in the Arc- wide, but off the coast of northern Asia the tic Ocean is confined to August and Septem- shelf extends out for more than 1,600 kilo- ber. The duration of the summer is longer meters at its widest and is nowhere less than further south, and hence the duration of phy- 480 kilometers in width. This vast shelf area toplankton activity occurs for an extended is subdivided by island groups and peninsu- period. las into a number of interconnected shallow seas, the largest of which are the Chukchi, Coastal Geography and Geology East Siberian and Laptev seas. The Norwegian Sea comprises large deep- Except where noted the following descrip- sea areas as well as a broad continental tion is adapted from Bramwell (1977). shelf along the Norwegian coast. Outside Though small in comparison with other the continental shelf there is a steep conti- oceans, the Arctic Ocean has a remarkably nental slope, which in the south falls to the complex and varied seabed relief. The basin Norwegian Basin (3,600 meters), in the is subdivided by three major submarine north to the Lofoten Basin (3,200 meters), ridges. The Arctic Mid-Ocean Ridge is an ac- and in the middle is the large V0ring Plateau tive seafloor spreading center and part of (1,400 meters) (Holthe 1993). the global system of major spreading ridges. The region includes high arctic areas with It is offset from the northerly extension of rocky shores and little vegetation, with per- the Mid-Atlantic Ridge by the Nansen Frac- manent or persistent sea ice on the adjacent ture Zone. The Arctic Mid-Ocean Ridge is marine environment. Many arctic coasts are 64 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas pr~cipitous and deeply cut by fjords, as are Legendre and others 1992). Ice-algae pro- those of much of the Arctic archipelago, vide a concentrated food source for many Greeniand, Iceland, Spitzbergen:, Norway, grazing organisms and is significant in that_ it the Murman coast, Novya Zemlya and east- grows earlier in spring than any growth in ern Siberia. In contrast, the Arctic coastlines the water. · of Alaska, western Canada and most of Rus- Small-scale oceanographic structures and sia are of low relief (Schwartz 1982). There processes play a major role in the primary are also areas in which ice sheets come c;li- production regime. These include ice edges, rectly into the sea, spawning ice bergs. polynyas, oceanographic fronts, and ice- . The Siberian coast, with its broad conti- seawater interfaces. In the Arctic Ocean it- nental shelf and major freshwater influence self, the nearshore environments ·are the differs from the frozen Greenland and North primary feeding areas for secondary produc- American coasts on the other side and the tion and, therefore, provide much of the sus- northern shores of Scandinavia, which are tenance for anadromous fishes and birds largely ice free. The Siberian coast is cut by and marine mammals, although complex numerous major rivers, while the Mackensie communities may develop away from shore and Yukon Rivers are· the only two major riv- associated with multiyear ice, based on ice ers flowing into the ocean from North Amer- algae (Alexander 1992). ica (Salm and Clark 1984). · The low biomass and productivity of the High Arctic are in striking contrast to the ad- Ecosystem and.Species Diversity jacent "Sub-Arctic" areas such as the Bering Sea that contain some of the world's most Typical characteristics. of the biological sys- important fisheries and populations of ma- tem of the High Arctic (the High Arctic is rine mammals. generally defined as those parts of the re- . The intertidal biota of the Arctic is impov- gion that experience permanent pack ice) in- erished and in the High Arctic where the ef- clude low productivity, life cycles adapted 'to fect of annual ice is extreme and tidal very strict timetables and changes, and dis- amplitude is minimal, there is almost no litto- tinctive sub-ice biological communities: ral biota. Arctic beaches of Alaska and west- The principal constraints to biological pro- ern Canada have no littoral flora and a ductivity are low water temperatures and the sparse littoral fauna (Schwartz 1982). How- brief summer period of biological activity at ever, genera that are normally intertidal else- the primary production trophic level. The where in the world are found subtidally overall limitation is light availability on an both in the Arctic and the Antarctic and it annual basis. The tendency for a strong salin- might better be said that the Arctic and the ity-based vertical structure further restricts Antarctic have a submerged intertidal fauna primary production during the summer pe..: (Menzies 1975). Eel grass (Zostera marina) riod through nutrient limitation, although its occurs subtidally ori the southern Chukchi initial establishment triggers a spring phyto- coast of the United States and elsewhere;· plankton bloom at ice edges. but is not abundant in· the Arctic (Broad and In ice.:.covered seas there is ice algae others 1978). growth on the underside of the ice as soon Within the Arctic seas (defined as seas sub- as there is sufficient light' in spring. This has ject to seasonal or multiyear sea ice) the been described as an inverted benthos, dominant invertebrate communities tend to analogous to algae growing on the surface be benthic, and consequently shellfish are ·layer of the sediment on the sea bottom (Al- relatively more important than fmfish. This exander 1992) (see also Gulliksen and may be partly because many of the .waters Lonne 1989; Homer and others 1992; and covered by sea ice outside the Arctic Ocean Marine Region 2: Arctic 65 basin lie over continental shelves, in some large animals. Bowhead and gray whales are cases quite shallow shelves. Petersen and examples of large consumers. Many animals Curtis 0980) have suggested that northern such as walrus, polar bears, and seals make high latitude shelves tend to allocate a rela- use of the ice as a platform for locomotion tively large proportion of primary produc- and reproduction. The food chains support- tion to the bottom. This allocation probably ing these animals are quite short and often results in a relatively efficient system in that based on benthic systems. In these species the organic matter is accumulated in sessile there. is often a tendency toward long-lived long-living animals. The importance of adults, slow growth and delayed maturity. zooplankton as a major link in the food web This is true also for the coastal anadromous is reduced in the Arctic because of the ab- fishes. Such animals are able to store sence of phytoplankton during the long biomass over long periods of time (Alexan- winter. der 1992). Recent work from Spitsbergen (Kendall Some of the most critical areas from a bio- and Asohan 1993) suggests that the benthic logical point of view are those parts of the soft-bottom communities in Spitsbergen marine environment that are presently very fjord (78°N) are quite similar to the diversity productive. Such places are found where tur- of physically quite similar communities in bulence or upwelling has destroyed the sta- the North Sea (55°N) and Java (7°S). More ble water stratification allowing mixing of than 50 fish species have been recorded in water masses with sustained currents that the waters around Spitsbergen. These waters can gather and concentrate nutrients from a have. in addition around 150 species of porif- large area. Even in winter the ice cover of erans (sponges), around 175 species of bryo- the Arctic Ocean is not continuous, is inter- zoans (moss animals) and more than 200 sected by numerous leads of open water, species of polychaetes (worms). and is in constant motion. Coastal leads are The southern boundaries of the· Arctic used for migration by whales. In particular, seas are the sites of some of the world's ma- polynyas provide important feeding grounds jo,r fisheries, which occur at the confluence for marine mammals and birds, although lit- of polar and north temperate waters. These tle is known about their biological or physi- fisheries do not take place in truly arctic wa- cal regimes. Polynyas are defined as areas of ters, although the. Barents and Bering Seas open water in regions covered by sea ice. fisheries extend into waters covered season- Whereas ice-edge zones are known to be ally by sea ice. A number of fish species oc- productive biologically and to be critical to cur ·.in the coastal regions of the Beaufort many arctic birds and mammals, polynyas Sea including salmon ( Oncorbynchus spp.), serve as outposts of enhanced activity within arctic char, arctic cisco, least cisco, broad pack ice removed from the effects of mar- and humpback whitefish, fourhom sculpin, ginal ice zones. They appear to have both and arctic flounder. Essentially all of these biological and oceanographic significance are anadromous, migrating upriver from the far in excess of their size and extent, and . sea to breed in freshwater. without doubt, the life cycles of many arctic The principal carnivores of the Arctic are animals have evolved around polynyas. His- mammals, primarily the seals (ringed, torically, the coastal arctic Inuit people have bearded, ribbon and spotted), polar bears, used polynyas as hunting areas for at least and beluga and bowhead whale. Seals feed 4,000 years. Polynyas are sensitive to cli- on f1Sh, shrimp and smaller invertebrates; be- matic change since their size is detennined luga are piscivorous; and the bowhead by temperature and wind relationships, and whale is a plankton feeder. The top of the their spatial and temporal extent varies from Arctic food chain is characterized by these year to year. Polynyas tend to occur in spe- 66 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas cific areas as quasi-permanent structures· dur- 5. Norwegian Coast ing the period of sea ice coverage, although some open up only in the spring each year. Hlgb Arctic Oceanic Massive mortality of birds and mammals has been documented when a polynya fails to This subregion embraces the central Arctic open (Alexander 1992). Ocean basin. The biological productivity of In noting the importance of highly produc- the area is extremely low, with primary pro- tive areas in the Arctic marine system it must duction probably less than Sg C/m2/yr (5 also be recognized that many relatively un- grams carbon per square meter per year). productive areas m~y be critical for particu- There is a discontinuous but permanent ice lar species or ecological functions. These cover, and the water column has a perma- may include migratory corridors for key spe- nent layer of relatively low salinity within cies, or areas of high species richness, that the surface 100 meters. are generally areas with low productivity. Representatives of most of the main groups of bottom-dwelling invertebrates are Biogeographic Oassification present in the Arctic basin, although the ben- thic fauna seems to lack the fish. The pe- There are several biogeographic classifica- lagic fauna consists of relatively few, tions of the Arctic marine environment. Dun- although well-known zooplankton species bar (1982) delineated three major and the same is generally true of the benthic environmental marine zones: Arctic, Sub- fauna. There are no higher predators at mid- Arctic and Boreal (or Temperate), the Arctic water levels and near the deep-sea floor zone with its pure water of upper Arctic (Marshall' 1982). Ocean origin, the Sub-Arctic with its mixed Arctic and non-Arctic water, and the Temper- Hlgb Arctic Coastal ate, consisting of either Atlantic or Pacific water without Arctic admixture. The maritime areas adjacent to the northern Menzies (1975) delimited five major ma- Canadian islands, including Devon Island rine ecosystems for the Arctic, building on and Ellesmere Island, Svalbard, and part of the work of Zenkevitd~ (1963) who classi-. the coast of Greenland can be classified as fled the Arctic into marine zones on the ba- High Arctic Coastal. sis of zoogeographical criteria. According to S.ummers are short and winters extremely the global classification of Hayden and oth- long. Mean daily temperatures exceed 0°C ers (1984) the Arctic region in this report only in July and August, and daily winter can be classified into two coastal margin temperatures average below -30°C. The ter- realms: Arctic and Subpolar. restrial system is "cold desert" or "polar de- The following classification is based on sert," with sparse tundra vegetation, shallow that developed for CNPPA by Vera Alexan- soils, ice caps and glaciers, although there der. Five biogeogiaphic subregions have are local pockets of higher productivity. Ma- been selected (see Map 2). The classification rine· species are important, including ringed in many respects corresponds to the seal, walrus and polar bear and seabirds. schemes outlined above, with the first three The region is only sparsely used for mineral regions essentially being a subdivision of the exploration and subsistence hunting of ma- Arctic zone identified by Dunbar (1982): rine mammals in the coastal areas by Inuit. 1. High Arctic Oceanic Water temperature is very low, and the 2. High Arctic Coastal area may be dominated by sea ice through- 3. Arctic Coastal out most or all of the summer months. Polyn- 4. Arctic Maritime yas, especially coastal polynyas, are Marine Region 2: Arctic 67 important areas as marine mammal and bird Table 2.1 Swnmary of Arctic Coastal habitat. These are areas of thin ice or open Areas water that may periodically occur at the Indicator Descrlptton same site. Little is known about their basic productivity or food web. Tidal action can Depth of water column Shallow Oess than 100 be quite noticeable in some of the fjords. meters) The area surrounding Svalbard probably Maximum summer water temperature 10°c belongs in this region. This area includes the Salinity Low northernmost shelf of the Barents Sea and its Tides Weak Yermak Plateau. Here, only the southern re- Extent of ice cover Seasonal gion becomes ice-free, although the area is under the influence of Atlantic water (the West Spitzbergen Current). There is prob- ably downwelling of saline water from the northern portion, to depths as great as 2,600 bowhead whale, ringed seal, spotted seal, meters. Primary production is particularly bearded seal, walrus and polar bear (Frost high at the ice-edge zone, where lg and Lowry 1988). Major colonies of seabirds C/m2/day has been recorded. Annual pro- are found on the islands in the Bering Strait, duction, however, has been estimated to be with thirteen species known to breed there as low as 10 g C/m2/year over most of the (Biderman and Drury 1978). area. In the northern part, the phytoplank- Productivity of the Chukchi Sea east por- ton production period may last only two or tion (Kotzebue Sound) is low at all levels, three weeks. with primary productivity of 10~150g C/m2/yr (Schell and others 1988). Productiv- Arctic Coastal ity along the western portion is much higher, and at the Bering Strait may be as Much of the Chukchi Sea and Siberian coast high as 400g C/m2/yr. falls into this subdivision. The coastal mor- The Barents Sea is a shallow (average phology is low lying, although varied, with depth, 230 meters) continental shelf sea, in- sand and gravel beaches, isolated coastal fluenced by three water masses: the Norwe- bluffs, large deltas and estuaries. There are gian Coastal Current, the Norwegian Atlantic some coastal mountain ranges. In places, the Current and the Arctic current system (Loeng coastline is erosional, with barrier islands 1989). The production regime depends on and spits present. There are huge river sys- the hydrographic conditions, particularly the tems flowing in the Russian Arctic coast, and timing and intensity of the spring phyto- terrestrial runoff is high. This region also has plankton bloom. Ice-edge blooms are charac- some fjords and inlets, as well as large em- teristic of areas subject to seasonal sea ice. bayments (Kotzebue Sound). There are The area is extremely important for fisheries. some small islands (Diomedes) as well as A "Low Arctic" shallow region comprising larger islands along the coast (Wrangel Is-· the Barents Sea is recognized by Russian land, Nova Zemlya). The vegetation is tun- workers as transitional between the boreal dra, in many cases wet tundra. Much of the Norwegian fauna and the High Arctic fauna. coast becomes ice-free in the summer. There are coastal polynyas along the south-facing Arctic.Maritime coastlines (see Table 2.1). Marine mammals found in the Chukchi This region includes the waters surrounding Sea include Beluga whale, killer whale, har- Icelaqd and areas off the coast of the south- bor porpoise, gray whale, minke whale, eastern and western coasts of Greenland. 68 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Iceland rises from the Mid-Atlantic Ri~ge em or southern limits along the coast. The and constitutes one of the geological "hot distribution of such limits can be used in di- spots" of the world (Stefansson and Jak- viding the coast in biogeographic subregions. obsson 1989). Biologically as well as Based on the topography and the physical ocea~ographically it is an area of great con- properties of the water masses along the trasts, since it consists of water masses of di- coast, it has been customary to divide the verse character and origin. It is located at or No~egian marine habitats into six geo- near the polar front and is therefore very graphical subregions. However, a recent sensitive to climatic variability, which in tum analysis undertaken at the request of the Di- markedly influences the distribution and be- rectorate for Nature Management (see Brat- havior of marine organisms. The influence tegard 1993) using the distribution of some of climatic changes has been well docu- 2,500 benthic organisms, suggests that these mented for Icelandic waters, as for example subregions are not true biogeographic subre- the r:iorthward movement of the spawning gions. There seems to be no biogeographic of cod during the early part of this century. difference between some of the subregions, The primary production of the area varies whereas there may be a real difference be- widely between years due to hydrographic tween the areas north and south of the variability. It tends to be highest at the front Trondheimsfjord at around 65°N, with the between Atlantic water and the polar cur- waters of the Skagerrak forming another bio- rents that move southward along the east geographic unit (the Skagerrak falls within coast of Greenland. Among the marine bi- the IUCN-CNPPA Baltic Marine Region). ota, there are large numbers of fishes, sev- Given the scale of this report it is proposed eral species of marine mammals and some that two subregions be used: north coast millions of seabirds. (north of 65°N) and south coast (south of 65°N) Norwegian Coast There is also a biogeographic difference between the outer coast and the different The following information is provided by parts of the fjord systems, mainly as a result Holthe (1993). of varying salinity and temperature. Gener- The entire Norwegian shelf and coastal en- ally, the marine flora and fauna along the vironment lie within the Northeast Atlantic Norwegian coast is reduced along a gradient Boreal region, which stretches from the Eng- from euhaline coastal water to the brackish lish Channel to the Kola fjord near Mur- waters in estuarine fjords. Temperature mansk. In Norway there are two ma~e range is also an important factor in determin- biogeographic dimensions: one is the gradi- ing which species will succeed in a given lo- ent along the coast between the Swedish · cality. The result in some cases is that and Russian borders, and the other follows southern boreal species found on the coast the transect from the shelf through the do not penetrate into the inner fjords. coastal sounds and into the fjord systems. The present marine fauna of Norway has. been established after the deglaciation. Geo- AsSFSSMENT OF ExlsTING MPAs logical data show that the change from arctic to boreal fauna and flora has not been.steady, Description· and Status of National MPA but has reacted to climatic changes during the Systems last 10,000 years. The boreal species are im- migrants; when endemisms do occur, they are Canada likely to be artifacts due to incompletely known distribution outside the area. On the Parks Canada has prepared a National Ma- other hand there are species with true north- rine Conservation Areas Policy 0994) and Marine Region 2: Arctic 69 developed a framework of 29 marine natural Marine areas can be protected through the regions. Most of the regions identified as Arc- provisions of the Nature Conservation Act or tic under the classification have been in- by speciallaw. The Act provides for the pro- cluded in the Northwest Atlantic Region as tection of the natural environment through- defined by IUCN-CNPPA. The Canadian goal out Iceland, seeking to minimize damage is to adequately represent each marine re- while maintaining access. It also provides gion within the system of national marine for a number of protection categories with conservation areas. There are no specifically the aim being to ensure the protection of marine protected areas as yet. the diversity of habitats and landscapes, There is one national park in Canada flora and fauna. within the Arctic region, as defined here The Nature Conservation Council, which Ellesmere Island National Park. This park works according to this law, prepares a list · has a relatively large marine component : every third year of valuable areas that are 0,031 square miles or 2,686 square kilome- not yet protected. The list can be regarded ters), which protects the offshore waters as the Nature Conservation Council's plan to along the northern coastal portion of the protect areas in their future work. Specific park. There are no other Canadian marine protection proposals go through the Environ- protected areas in this region (Fi:ancine Mer- ment Ministry; which is the decisionmaking cier, personal communication). authority. ,.,.. Ellesmere Island National Park: Further details on Canada's program to estab- The existing MPAs are: lish MPAs are provided in the North- ,.,.. Surtsey Scientific Reserve west Atlantic regional report. ,.,.. Eldey Scientific Reserve Greenland (Denmark) These two reserves include offshore is- lands and the waters within a radius of 2 The following description is adapted from kilometers. In addition there are 12 coastal WCMC 0992). protected areas that include lengths of the Greenland acquired autonomy from Den- adjacent shoreline: mark in 1979. Protected areas can be estab- • Herdisarvile lished under the Conservation (Nature and • Reylijanes f6lkvanger Ancient Relics) Act and are administered·by • Varmar6sar the Office of Environment that collaborates • Blautes closely with the Danish Ministry of Environ- • Hellnor/Stapi ment. In addition to the protected ·areas sys- • Melrakksey tem there is a mosaic of regulated coastal • Flatey, Breidafjsrdur areas, each with its own rules depending.on • Hrisey, Breidafjsrder the season and the animal species occurring • Vatusfjsrdur (Helms 1991). • ·Homstrandir ,.,.. Greenland National Park: The Green- • 6sland land National Park is the largest na- • · Dyrh6laey tional park in the world and includes coastal marine components. This· area Norway is the only MPA recorded in Greenland. The following information is provided by Iceland the Nordic Project Group 0993). There are eleven different laws that regulate This information is provided by the Nordic land use and incursions into nature in the Project Group 0993). coastal zone. The Nature Conservation Act is 70 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas the only law that can be used to protect ar- State Pollution Authority (SFT). Monitoring eas with valuable natural assets. The law of harmful algae is also carried out. can only be used within the territorial limits. The Ministry of Environment has given the Four MPAs have been recorded for the Nature Management Directorate the task of Norwegian mainland: surveying and proposing valuable marine ar- ,.. Bliksvaer Nature Reserve eas (with the exception of Svalbard). The Di- ,.. Froan Landscape Protected Area rectorate for Nature Management has ,.. Karlsoyvaer Nature Reserve subsequently appointed an advisory group ,.. Nord-Fugloy Nature Reserve with representatives from the universities in Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim, and Troms0 as well Four MPAs have been recorded for Svalbard as the Marine Research Institute, the Director- and Jan Mayen: ate of Fisheries, the Directorate for Nature ,.. Northeast Svalbard National Park Management, the Director of National Antiq- ,.. Northwest Spitzbergen National Park uities and the County Prefect in the Nord- ,.. South Spitzbergen National Park land environmental protection department. ,.. Southeast Svalbard Nature Reserve The National Nature Conservation Council noted in its report, "New Nationwide Plan Russia for National Parks," the increased pressure on the natural environment along parts of The following information is adapted from the Norwegian coast (NOU 1986:13). The Hansen 0993). Council felt that the work of protecting un- Protected areas in the Russian Arctic are touched or only slightly affected coastal and established according to the law of the Rus- marine areas should be given high priority. sian Federation "On Environmental Protec- In Norway natural areas protected to date tion" and regulations about state nature have included marine areas, although the reserves. marine component within protected areas is generally not the main reason for protection Four MPAs have been recorded for Russia: of the area. ,.. Vrangel Island Zapovednik (Wrangel Is- In the survey of valuable marine areas, land): Includes a 5 kilometer buffer work has begun on compiling a national da- zone around the Nature Reserve on tabase of existing information on marine Wrangel Island. flora and fauna. The Directorate for Nature ,.. Kandalaksheskiy Zapovednik: Includes Management has assigned the Norwegian In- marine areas to a distance of 500 me- stitute for Nature Research (Norsk institutt ters from islands in the Kandalak- for naturforskning) the task of preparing a sheskiy gulf and the Barents Sea. standard for quality evaluation and priority ,.. Ust'lensky Zapovednik: Includes ma- ranking of valuable marine areas. rine areas in the Laptev Sea near the In Norway biological resources are man- delta of the Lena River. aged by the Directorate of the Fisheries (ma- ,.. Great Arctic Zapovednik: Includes rine fish and shellfish) and the Directorate 980,934 hectares of marine areas along for Nature Management (anadromous sal- the Taimyr peninsula and around the is- monoids, seabirds). Monitoring is carried out lands of the Kara Sea. by the Institute of Marine Research and Nor- wegian Institute of Nature Research, respec- Recent information suggests that there is tively. There is a research program that is also a nature reserve established by the Rus- assessing the stock of marine mammals. All sians in the Barents Sea, including the Frans kinds of pollution are monitored by the Josef Land archipelago. Further data is re- Marine Region 2: Arctic 71 quired to confirm the location and other de- exception of the High Arctic Oceanic, which tails about this reserve. is not represented. The High Arctic Coastal These MPAs have been declared as Strict region stretches from the Kola Peninsula to Nature Reserves (Zapovedniks) and are man- the Bering Strait and includes the most aged at the national level. The primary objec- MPAs with six. Parts of the Svalbard and Jan tive of the reserves is to provide for Majen Islands fall within this zone and in- scientific research with limited educational clude two of the six MPAs, the remainder be- and traditional use permitted in some circum- ing located along the Siberian coast, which stances. Regular research and monitoring is is not well represented considering the undertaken, and inventories and evaluations length of coastline involved. High Arctic have been completed to detect any positive Coastal areas are represented by four MPAs, or negative environmental changes occur- including the Greenland National Park, Elles- ring in the protected area. mere Island National Park (Canada) and parts of the Svalbard and Jan Majen Islands. Status of International and Regional The Arctic Maritime zone is represented by Initiatives Relating to MPAs two MPAs in Iceland (there are also 12 Ice- landic protected areas on coastal land). World Heritage Convention There are four MPAs in the Norwegian Coast zone: three in its northern component and The following states are parties to the World one in the southern component. Table 2.2 Heritage Convention: Canada, Greenland, provides a summary of the biogeographic Norway and Russia. There are no marine representation in the MPAs. World Heritage sites in the region. The situation is one where a reasonable start has been made in developing a repre- Ramsar Convention sentative MPA system, especially in some lo- cales, but with large gaps in terms of The following states are parties to the Ram- representing the overall region. A more de- sar Convention: Canada, Greenland, Iceland, tailed analysis would be required to deter- Norway and Russia. The following Ramsar mine whether the existing MPAs include a sites occurring in the region include ele- representative range of the habitat and eco- ments of marine habitat: Ora, Kurefjorden, system types within each of the zones. Ilena and Prsterodkilem, Jaeren, Orlandet, Tautra and Svaet, and Stabbursneset (Nor- way); and Forlandsoyane, Dunoyane, PRIORI1Y AREAs AND RECOMMENDATIONS Kongsfjorden, Isoyane, and Gasoyane (Nor- way-Spitzbergen). The priority areas presented here are those outlined in Hansen 0993), Nordic Project UNESject is to initiate and Iceland's coastal and marine areas include foster Nordic collaboration in the protection extensive bays, tidal mud flats, salt marshes, of areas of marine biological or.other scien- salt pans, estuaries, saltwater lagoons, steep tific value. The areas identified below for cliffs in deepwater areas with hot springs on Norway and Iceland are those sites pro- land and in the sea and archipelago areas posed by this Nordic project. · consisting of islands f9rmed as a result of re- cent volcanic eruptions. Canada Existing MPAs that require management 1he existing MPAs that require !Ilanagemen,t support: support: No areas have been identified. No areas have been identified. 1he only MPA in Canada (Ellesmere Island) is men- Proposed new MPAs (identified by the tioned below. Nordic Project Group): ·,.... Vestmannaeyjar Proposed new MP As: ,..... Myrar/L6ngufj6rdur ..,,.,. Ellesmere Island National Park: 1his is .._. Breidafj6rdur a terrestrial park with a relatively large ....... Latrabjars/Keflavikurbjarg marir:ie component (1,031 square miles .,.. Reykjanes or 2,686 square kilometers) that pro- i,,,GD Hombjarg, Hlavikurbjarg tects the offshore w3:ters along the ,,...,_ 6lafsfjardarvatn northern coastal portions of ~e park. ,...,- Nypsl6n, Sk6gal6n Waters surrounding the National Park. ..,,jlllo> Slrnrsosfj6rdur/Papafj6rdur/ are a likely candidate for 4 national ·ma- L6nsfj6rdur rine conservation area, and boundaries could be extended to make the area Norway more representative of the marine re- gion (Francine Mercier, personal com- Existing MPAs that require management munication). Studies in support of this support: are still several years in the future, and No areas have been identified. Marine Region 2: Arctic 73 Proposed new MPAs (identified by the .,... Vega-Lovuden: Characteristic part of Nordic Project Group): the coast in this part of the country. A ,....... Framvaren: A small (5 square kilome- proposal for the protection of parts of ters) fjord with a very shallow thresh- this area was made in 1986. old and old, anoxic deepwater. The ,.... Ris0y-Flatvrer: Shallow, exposed coast sound at the mouth of Framvaren, with tidal currents. polls and fjords. Im- Straumen, was protected as a nature re- portant cultural and natural features, in- serve in 1978, protected area 20 hec- cluding birds and seals. A coastal park tares land and 25 hectares sea. was proposed in this area in 1986. ~ Lindespollene: One of the many poll ,..... S0r/Nor-Sandfjord: Strongly exposed (embayment or inlet) systems relatively fjords facing the open sea. High biodi- unaffected by human activity on the versity. Bird reserve with 2,000 hec- west coast. About 7 square kilometers tares land and 300 hectares ha sea area sea area. Local herring stock and other protected in 1991. marine biological properties make ,._ Indre Porsangerfjorden: Area with typi- these waters interesting to science. cal northern shore meadows, vast mud Thoroughly investigated. An islet banks, and ice-edge deltas. Stab- (6 hectares land and 31 hectares sea) bursnes nature reserve (Ramsar area) just outside the polls was protected in was protected in 1983 (2,200 hectares 1987. land and 14,000 hectares sea). ~ Utvrer-Indrevrer: The westernmost ar- ,..,... Neiden-Munkefjord: Important area for chipelago in Norway, in highly produc- wetland birds and marine ducks, shore tive, shallow water. Important as vegetation with eastern elements. nursery grounds for fish that in turn are food for breeding seabirds. Birds Russia on six islets have been protected since 1953. Existing MPAs that require management ,..... Skorpo-Nrerlands0y: A representative support: area of the west coast with rocky and Existing MPAs in Russia should be a high sandy shores, submarine caves and priority for management support. These ar- sounds. No part of the area is pro- eas are as follows: tected. ,.. Vrangel Island Zapovednik (Wrangel Is- ~ Skarnsundet: A narrow sound in the· in- land) ner part of the Trondheimsfjord. Ap- ,.. Kandalaksheskiy Zapovednik proximately 5 square kilometers. The ,.. Ust'lensky Zapovednik area is internationally known for its ,.. Great Arctic Zapovednik coral fauna, which here occurs at ex- ceptionally shallow depths. A bridge Proposed new MP As: across the sound was completed in The following areas have been recom- 1992. Local proposals for protection mended for creation in Russia in the period have been forwarded. 1994-2005, as confirmed by a decree of the ....,.. Vistenfjorden: A fjord system with var- Russian government (23 April 1994, N572-p) ied natural habitats. No roads in the in- (Amirkhan Amirkhanov, personal communi- ner part, relatively unaffected by cation). Of all the nature reserves intended human activity, important as scientific to be created, only those mentioned below reference area, well investigated .. will include marine elements. About 24 square kilometers. A pro- .,..... Pribrezhniy: Located in Chukotsky posal for the protection of certain ad- Autonomous Area and covering an joining land areas was made in 1986. area of 800,000 hectares. Includes 74 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas mountain, marine, lake and bog land- tive region shoreward of the perma- scapes in the southeastern part of nent Arctic ice cap or the zone of leads Chukotka. of open water and polynyas beyond. .,..._ Gydansky: Located in Yamalo-Nenets This environment provides critical habi- Autonomous Area and covering an tat for feeding, staging, resting, repro- area of 1,000,000 hectares. Includes arc- duction and migration of birds and tic tundra and forest-tundra of the Gy- marine mammals. The polar ice sup- dansky Peninsula, sea shore and the ports the basis of the arctic marine neighboring islands of the Car Sea. food web that are the foundation for ,..... Bolshezemelsky: Located in Nenets rich populations of fish, marine birds Autonomous Area and covering an and mammals that dwell along the ice area of 650,000 hectares. Includes na- edge. The lead system has been used ture complexes of the Bolshezemel- for thousands of years by native peo- skaya tundra, mountain ridges on the ples of the Arctic for access and as Yugorskiy peninsula and Valgach, Dol- hunting areas for essential subsistence giy and other islands. resources. The Arctic Ring of Life is par- ,,,..._ Nenetsky: Located in Nenets Autono- ticularly .vulnerable to large-scale indus- mous Area and covering an area of trial activity resulting from oil and gas 550,000 hectares. Includes nature com- development, mining, shipping, mili- plexes of the Malozemelskaya tundra, tary operations, nuC;lear-powered trans- the mouth of the Pechora river and the portation and nuclear waste disposal. islands of the Pachorskaya inlet. NGOs have proposed the estab- lishment of a biocultural marine re- NGO Proposals serve because case-by-case consideration of mitigating measures NGOs in the Arctic nations are actively pro- for development activities is falling moting the conservation of Arctic ecosys- short of the extent of protection that is tems and several organizations are warranted for the Arctic Ring of Life. cooperating in this work. The NGOs point According to the NGOs, there should out serious threats to the Arctic environment be a full exploration and consideration and put forward recommendations for ac- of the variety of tools available for pro- tion to meet these threats. They support an tecting the Arctic Ring of Life. international system of large-scale protected ,..... The Barents Sea: Norwegian NGOs ecosystems, in terrestrial as well as marine have proposed a plan for an interna- areas, and point out that marine areas are tional park in the Barents Sea to secure least protected by existing systems (Hansen the last great wilderness in Europe. 1993). The proposal comprises Bear Island, Svalbard, Novaja Semlja, Frans Jo~efs Existing MPAs that require management Land and the sea area between these is- support: lands. According to the NGOs, this No areas have been identified. area is one of the most productive in the Arctic. It is an important growing Proposed new MPAs: and feeding area for the rich stocks of The following areas have been identified fish farther south. In the summer, there as priorities: are probably 13-15 million seabirds in ,.,._ "Arctic Ring of Life" International Ma- the area. Some 55,000 whales live rine Biocultural Reserve: This proposal here, as do 1.2 million-seals and sev- encompasses the dynamic and produc- eral thousand polar bears. The park Marine Region 2: Arctic 75 should have the proposed size to en- and the suggestions should be considered as compass the whole ecosystem. The preliminary. NGOs emphasize that the protected area must include the important bio- Existing MPAs that require management logical processes taking place where support: ice meets sea. It must also cover the ,.,_ Ostrov vrangelya Zapovednik (Russia) seasonal fluctuations of the ice. Oil ,.,_ Kandalaksheskiy Zapovednik (Russia) and gas exploration and development, ,.,_ Ust'lensky Zapovednik (Russia) increased marine traffic through the ,.,_ Great Arctic Zapovednik (Russia) area, and dumping of nuclear wastes are serious threats to the environment Proposed new MPAs: in the Barents Sea. ...,.. Ellesmere Island (Canada) ....,. Beringia Heritage International Park: ._. Beringia International Heritage Park (In- Formation of an international park ternational) along the Bering Land Bridge was en- >$P- Barents Sea (International) dorsed by the presidents of the U.S. and Russia at their 1990 and 1992 Sum- mits. The existing Bering Land Bridge BIBLIOGRAPHY National Preserve, Cape Krustenstern National Monument, Noatak National Alexander, V.A. 1992. Arctic Marine Ecosystems. Preserve, and Kobuk Valley National New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University. Monument will make up the U.S. con- Biderman, J.0., and W.H. Drury. 1978. Ecological tribution, while a new ethnic park has studies in the northern Bering Sea: Studies of been proposed on the Chukotsk Penin- seabirds in the Bering Strait. In Final reports of principal investigators, Vol. 2. Boulder, Colo- sula in Russia to protect a shared cul- rado: U.S. Department of Commerce, National tural and natural heritage. The marine Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and nearshore environments of the Ber- Outer Continental Shelf ing Strait serve as an international , Environmental Assess- ment Program. crossroads for wildlife and indigenous Bramwell, M., ed. 1977. 1be atlas oftbe oceans. people as well as being the most bio- London, U.K.: Mitchell Beazley Publishers. logically productive ecosystems in the Brattegard, T.B. Gullikeen, T. Holthe, J, Rueness, region. The area is a treasure trove for J.A. Sneli, B. Christiansen, M.E. Christiansen, T. world paleoecology, anthropology, ar- H0lsseter, T.E. Lein, L.B. Mortensen, K.M. Ol- cheology, and history. Member nations sen, E. Oug, A. Pedersen, P. Pethons, O.S. Ten- of the IUCN passed a resolution in Feb- da!, W. Vader, and P.B. Wikander. 1993. ruary 1988 urging the two nations to Geografisk fordeling av bentbik marin flora og fauns tangs norskekysten. Porslag til Inndeling designate this rich and diverse environ- i biogeograflske omclder. Norske Hay- ment as a World Heritage Site. forskeros Forening Arsm0te 1993. Broad, A.C., H. Koch, D.T. Mason, G.M. Petrie, D.E. Schneider, and R.J. Taylor. 1979. Reconais- Regional Priority Areas sance, characterisation of liuoral biota, beaufort and chukchi seas. environmental as- Based on the information available for this sessment ofprincipal investigators for the year report, there are a number of areas that can ending March 1978. Boulder, Colorado: U.S. be suggested as being of regional priority Department of Commerce, National Oceanic for the conservation of marine biodiversity. and Atmospheric administration, Environ- The priority sites were selected on the basis mental Research Laboratory, Outer Continental of the criteria outlined in the introduction Shelf Environmental Assessment Program. 76 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Brown, R.G.B. 1989. Seabirds and the Arctic marine munities: A comparison of Arctic, temperate environment. In L. Rey and V. Alexander, eds., and tropical sites. ]. F.xp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. Proceedings oftbe Sixlb Conference oftbe Comite 172:157-69. An:ttque International I.eiden: E. J. Brill. I.egendre, L., S.F. Ackley, G.S. Dieckmann, B. Curtis, M.A. 1973. The marine benthos of Arctic Gulliksen, R. Horner, T. Hoshiai, I.A. Mel- and Subarctic continental shelves. Polar Re- nikov, W.S. Reeburgh, M. Spindler, and C.W. cord 17(111): 595-626. Sullivan. 1992. Ecology of sea Ice Production. Dunbar, MJ. 1982. Arctic marine ecosystems. In Polar Biology 12:439-44. L. Rey and B. Stonehouse, eds., 7be Arctic Marshall, N.B. 1982. Glimpses into deep-sea biol- Ocean: 1be bydrograpbic environment and the ogy. In L. Rey and B. Stonehouse, ed., 1be An:- fate ofpollutants. London, U.K.: Macmillan tic Ocean. 1be hydrographic environment and Press Ltd. the fate ofpollutants. London, U.K.: Macmillan Frost, KJ., and L.F. Lowry. 1988. Marine mam- Press Ltd. mals. In M.J. Hameedi and A.S. Naidu, eds, Menzies, R.J. 1975. Origin and evolution of the 1be environmental and resources of the South- Arctic marine ecosystem. In Proceedings oftbe eastern Chukchi Sea: A review of the literature. Circumpolar Conference in Northern Ecology OCSEAP. (September 15-18). Ottawa: National Research Gulliksen, B., and O.J. Lonne. 1989. Distribution, Council of Canada. abundance, and ecological importance of ma- Nordic Project Group. 1993. Marine Reseroes in rine sympagic fauna in the Arctic. Rapp. P-v. tbe Nordic Region. Preliminary Summary of a Reun. Cons. Int. F.xplor. Mer. 188: 133-8. Project within the Nordic Council of Ministers. Hansen, J.P., ed. 1993. 1be state of habitat protec- Petersen, G.H., and M.A. Curtis. 1980. Differ- tion in the Arctic. CAFF Report No. 1 (2d ences in energy flow through major compo- draft). Report prepared by the Directorate for nents of subarctic, temperate and tropical Nature Management, Trondheim, Norway. marine shelf ecosystems. Dana 1:53. Hayden, B.P., G.C. Ray, and R. Dolan. 1984. Clas- Remmert, H. 1980. Arctic animal ecology. Ber- sification of coastal and marine environments. lin/Heidelberg/New York: Springer-Verlag. Environmental Conservation 11(3). Sakshaug, E., A. Bj0rge, B. Guliksen, H. Loeng, Helms, H.J. 1991. Nature Conservation In Green- and F. Mehlum. 1992. 6kosvstem Barentsbaver land. In C. Andreason, L.A. Angantyr, C. Bay, Mesna-Trykk. D. Boertmann, E.W. Born, H. Elling, HJ. Salm, R.V., and J. Clark. 1984. Marine and Helms, F. Larsen, C.R. Olesen, and H. Siegstad, coastal protected areas: A guide for planners Nature conservation in green/and research na- and managers. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. ture and wildlife management. Schwartz, M.L. 1982. 7be encyclopedia of beaches Holthe, T. 1993. Norwegian marine habitats and and coastal environments. Philadelphia, Penn- marine reserves in Norway. Unpublished pa- sylvania: Hutchinson Ross Publishing Com- per for the Directorate for Nature Manage- pany. n:ient, Trondheim (February). 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BIOGEOGRAPHY AND MARINE 05 kilometers wide, with an average depth BIODIVERSI1Y of 290 meters and a maximum of 950 me- ters), with the Sea of Marmara by the Dar- The Mediterranean lies between Europe, danelles (between 450 meters and 7.4 Asia and Africa (about 46°N, 30°N, 6°W and kilometers wide and 55 meters deep), and 36°E) and, excluding the Black sea, covers with the Red Sea by the Suez Canal (120 me- an area of approximately 2.5 million square ters wide and 12 meters deep). The Mediter- kilometers, with an average depth of about ranean region is a transitional area 1.5 square kilometers and a volume of 3.7 climatically: rainfall throughout the region is milli~n cubic kilometers. The Marmara, irregular during the year and from one year Black and Azov Seas are included in the defi- to the next, particularly in the southern nition of the Mediterranean Marine Region parts. It is characterized by the so-called used in this report, although they have very Mediterranean climate, which is also found different characteristics and are not included in other parts of the world (California, Chile, in UNEP's Mediterranean Action Plan. South Africa and Australia), and features a The Mediterranean Sea is comprised of warm, dry summer period over all the basin, two major basins, western and eastern, that with substantial rainfall in the north and arid- are divided by the relatively shallow strait of ity in the south. In this respect, Atlantic and Sicily. These two basins are in tum divided orographic rains on the European coasts, into a series of interacting parts and adjacent particularly in the west, contrast markedly seas. The Western Mediterranean covers with minimal and irregular annual rainfalls about 0.85 million square kilometers and the of less than 100 millimeters in the southern Eastern Mediterranean about 1.65 million regions. The northern sectors of the basin square kilometers. have a moderate climate, lying within the The Mediterranean Sea is almost a closed zone of prevailing westerly winds, and are sea, but is connected with (and separated characterized by spring and autumn showers from) the Atlantic by the Strait of Gibraltar that curtail the summer drought. Rainfall in- 77 78 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas tensity and duration decrease both from dies along the way. There is no surface re- west to east and from north to south, while turn system from the east to the west, but a temperature increases from north to south return of Mediterranean water takes place and from west to east. by way of intermediate and deep water flow- Surface winds in the Mediterranean are ing from east to west and spilling over the generally from the north and west. The coin- sill of Gibraltar into the Atlantic. Such inter- bination of dry winds and sunny days, mediate and deep water results from very which occurs as often as 250 times a year, pronounced evaporation that gradually trans- produces a strong evaporative influence forms surface water with salinity slightly over the entire surface of the Mediterranean above 36°100 from the Atlantic into denser Sea, accounting for its above-average salinity. water with salinity of 38°100 or more, reach- ing 39,5°100 in the Eastern Basin. Oceanography and Water Quality The Mediterranean circulation system also includes strong vertical convection currents Except where noted the following informa- that determine the distribution of salinity tion is adapted from UNEP 0990). and provide for vertical recycling of nutri- The Mediterranean Sea has a negative hy- ents and other dissolved substances. drological balance, with loss through evapo- The Mediterranean Sea has relatively low ration exceeding the input of water through concentrations of nutrients even in deeper runoff and precipitation. This deficiency is waters. These chemicals are exported in the mainly compensated by the flow of Atlantic flow of deep water through the Strait of Gi- surface waters through the Strait of Gibraltar braltar that in tum receives nutrient poor sur- (about 35,000 cubic kilometers). 1 On the in- face Atlantic water. No deep nutrient-rich put side of the water balance are net inflows Atlantic waters take part in the Mediterra- through the Strait of Gibraltar (about 1,800 nean circulation, and the input of nutrients cubic kilometers) and the Dardanelles is mostly due to river input and agricultural (about 300 cubic kilometers), river runoff runoff or pollution (Miller 1983). (about 500 cubic kilometers; of which 92 percent originates from the northern shore), Pollution and precipitation (about 1,000 cubic kilome- ters). The main factor on the negative side The processes of water circulation and ex- of the balance is evaporation (about 3,500 change are such that almost any substance cubic kilometers), which occurs primarily introduced into the surface environment of during winter and spring due to the prevail- the Mediterranean Sea, unless it is volatile ing strong and dry continental winds and is and subject to evaporation or is miscible closely associated with a process by which within the deep water that leaves the Medi- high-salinity deepwater is formed. terranean, will remain within its boundaries. Except in very few areas, like the Gulf of The introduction of substances foreign to Gabes in Tunisia, the Mediterranean is char- Mediterranean waters is primarily, though acterized by very weak tides, with tidal am- not exclusively, from land-based sources. plitudes that are very small by world However, a large amount of airborne parti- standards; this feature has major conse- cles, including heavy metal pollutants, also quences on the characteristics for the shore- reach the sea by way of atmospheric trans- lines and their pollution. port through dust storms or fallout from pre- The major feature of the surface current cipitation. Domestic sewage, industrial system of the Mediterranean is the move- discharges and agricultural runoff are obvi- ment of water from the Atlantic toward the ous sources of pollution, mostly at the local east combined with numerous spin-off ed- scale. Marine Region 3: Mediterranean 79 The uneven distribution of runoff and pre- of high oxygen concentrations in deep- cipitation along the northern coasts of the waters. Local oxygen deficiencies are always Mediterranean Sea, combined with the con- connected with eutrophication sources, centration of population and industrial activ- mostly discharges of raw or treated urban or ity in the north, contributes a waste load of agricultural effluents. Their distribution pollutants to northern Mediterranean waters around the region is uneven, with a maxi- that may eventually spread to other areas. mum in the northwest and in the Adriatic Heavy traffic of oil tankers used to lead to Sea and a minimum on the southern shores. the spread of tar balls on the coasts but this Owing to the strong stratification of surface has been considerably reduced through im- waters, eutrophication is more acute in sum- plementation of the Barcelona Convention. mer when ambient nutrient concentrations Plastic containers and other floating residue are low and oxygen transport through the from ships and sailing boats remain a nui- thermocline is strongly reduced. Winter mix- sance in most areas of the basin. Significant ing allows for the required vertical transport progress has been achieved in the reduction of oxygen to keep the deepwaters and the of discharge of urban effluence from major sediments oxidized all over the Mediterra- cities although much remains to be done. nean Sea (Cruzado 1985). Relatively high levels of mercury occur in some parts of the basin, but appear to be Black Sea largely of natural origin and do not danger- ously affect fish consumption. The Black Sea receives an inflow of saline Mediterranean and Marmara Sea waters Eutrophication through the Bosphorus into the bottom of the Black Sea basin. The salinity of surface The Mediterranean is naturally adapted to . waters is diluted by the inflow of freshwater avoid excessive eutrophication since it loses from rivers and from the brackish Azov Sea. deep water, relatively rich in mineralized or Below 150-200 meters the Black Sea is filled recycled nutrients, and receives low nutrient with stagnant anoxic waters that contain hy- Atlantic surface water. This situation is the drogen sulphide. The stagnation is produced opposite to that in the Baltic Sea, where eco- by a permanent halocline that separates logical mechanisms tend to recycle and accu- high-density lower water layers from an up- mulate large amounts of nutrients. per layer of lower density. The surface cur- However, when nutrients are continuously rents of the Black Sea have a circular motion, discharged into coastal waters in excess of forming several eddies, one in the western their self-purification capacity the oxygen part of the sea and three (two cyclonic and balance is disrupted. The oxidation of or- one anticyclonic) in its eastern part. ganic matter then proceeds through anaero- bic pathways and coastal waters rapidly Coastal Geography and Geology become turbid and poisonous to certain forms of marine life. This process can have Except where noted the following informa- very negative effects on tourism, as experi- tion is adapted from the Blue Plan (Grenon enced in recent years on the Adriatic coasts and Batisse 1989). (UNESCO 1988). The Mediterranean basin is situated at the Mediterranean waters are oligotrophic center of a complex mosaic formed by tectonic except in the vicinity of large rivers, and plates sliding under one another and is subject sediments have in general a low organic to heavy seismic and volcanic activity. The carbon content due to the low biological young relief and the close contact and inter- productivity of the waters and the presence penetration of the sea and the mountains 80 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas have had significant consequences: few large Mountains on the northeast. The northwest plains, little good agricultural land, ports and. coast, except for the Crimea, is relatively . harbors tightly hemmed in _between sea and low. The shallow Kerch Strait connects the rock, and few broad fluvial basins. With the northern reaches of the sea with the Sea of exception of the southeast and some 3,000 Azov, while to the south the Sea of Marmara kilometers along the Libyan and Egyptian and the narrow Bosphorus Strait link the coasts where the Saharan platform directly Mediterranean to the Black Sea. meets the sea, there are mountains everywhere, sometimes virtually uninterrupted, plunging Ecosystem Diversity in numerous places directly into the sea. Thus, about 54 percerit of the Mediterra- While it exhibits a low level of biological nean coasts are rocky. However, there are a productivity, the Mediterranean Sea as well number of large alluvial plans associated as the surrounding lands is characterized by with the deltas of major rivers (Ebro, Rhone, a relatively high degree of biological diver- Po and Nile) and with those of numerous sity. The .fauna includes many endemic spe- smaller rivers of the basin, particularly in Tu- cies and is considered "richer" than that of nisia, Greece and Turkey. These rivers drain Atlantic coasts. The continental shelf is usu- soils far removed from the coastline and ally very narrow, but the coastal marine area carry very large volumes of sediment to the . of the Mediterranean, which stretches from sea. Short, often torrential rivers drain small the shore to the outer extent of this continen- areas on a highly seasonal basis. Thirty-one tal shelf, shelters rich ecosystems and the percent of the soils of the Mediterranean ba- few areas of high productivity in the sea. sin lose over 15 tons per }:iectare per year Whereas central zones of the Mediterranean through erosion, and the loss may reach 250 are low in nutrients, coastal zones benefit tons in so~e parts of Morocco, Italy and from telluric nutrients that support higher Syria. However, the effect of soil erosion on levels of productivity. Among the ecosys- the Mediterranean is not a major problem in tems that occupy coastal marine areas, the itselft the main issue is the amount of pollut- rocky intertidals, estuaries, and, above all, ants carried by these rivers, particularly th~ seagrass meadows (mainly Posidonia Ebro, Rhone and the Po, that drain regions oceanica) are of significant ecological value. with heavy industrial and agricultural activity. These and other ecosystems are also im- The case of the Nile, by far the largest . portant for endangered species. This is the riv.er of the basin, is very specific. The Nile case for the Mediterranean monk seal, which once carried an enormous load of sediments uses caves as habitat, for marine turtles, during its yearly flood, but since the build- which use sandy beaches for nesting, sea- ing of the Aswan dam, only a modest flow grasses for feeding and seagrasses or muddy (not exceeding I/15th of the former water bottoms for wintering, and for marine birds, discharge), that is quite polluted but almost which use wetlands, rocky shores or islands sediment free reaches the sea. The result has for nesting and resting (Ramade 1990). been an increase in coastal erosion around the Egyptian delta, extending ~o the Israeli Seagrass~eadows and even Lebanese coasts through local cur- rent systems, and easier access to the Medi- The Mediterranean marine vegetation ·in- terranean for Red Sea fauna and flora cludes about 1,000 macroscopic species, of entering through the Suez Canal. which about 15 to 20 percent are endemic. The Black Sea lies in a depression be- This vegetation occurs mainly in shallow wa- tween two alpine fold belts, the Pontic ters (less than 50 meters) that comprise less Mountains to the south and the Caucasus than 10 percent of the Mediterranean's sur- Marine Region 3: Mediterranean 81 face. Seagrass meadows are important habi- ment of various activities in the region, in- tat for numerous marine species (in particu- cluding those linked with urbanization and lar fish, crustaceans and marine turtles) for rapid population increases on the southern breeding, feeding and resting. and eastern shores. These activities include A narrow fringe of vegetation, in some ar- the discharge of untreated sewage (which eas less than 100 meters wide and 0-40 me- still occurs in many coastal towns in spite of ters deep, lies nearly all around the recent progress), discharge of industrial Mediterranean. There is a direct link be- wastes in rivers and at sea, construction of tween the presence of seagrass and fish pro- roads, airports and marinas, dredging of duction, and together with wetlands, sand and gravel, and anchoring of innumer- seagrass meadows produce more than 80 able pleasure boats that swarm along the percent of the annual fish yield in the Medi- coast in summer (on the French Riviera, terranean. Yet seagrass is endangered by all there is on average a port for these boats the impacts of human pressure on the sea- every 4 kilometers). However, the most de- shore. Due to their regression over the last structive factors appear to be reduction of ten years, 40 species are now considered as water transparency and the effects of trawl- endangered: 38 algae and 2 marine phanero- ing boats. gams (Posidonia oceanica and Zostera ma- Legal protection for marine vegetation is rina). Posidonia oceanica meadows generally still insufficient. In particular, the constitute the most characteristic and the creation of MPAs covering the world's wid- most important Mediterranean marine eco- est seagrass areas in the Gulf of Gabes (Tuni- system. They play a central role in stabiliz- sia) and the Gulf of Sirte (Lybia) is urgently ing the seashore and in maintaining water required. Attempts have been made to re-im- quality, particularly through oxygen produc- plant Posidonia oceanica with some suc- tion. The stability of the seashore is main- cess, but these should be conducted tained by this "submarine forest," which properly, when the causes of destruction holds sediment between its roots, reducing have been stopped and where the species currents and swell. Its vertical growth thus was actually present previously. Monitoring acts as a submerged breakwater, and the de- of the evolution of this species is important struction of seagrass can have immediate and is conducted systematically in France and irreversible effects on the position of and Spain. the shoreline. In a number of places the dis- Endemic seagrasses in the northwest Medi- appearance of sandy beaches has soon fol- terranean are currently threatened by the in- lowed the disappearance of seagrass vasion of an exotic tropical species, meadows. Posidonta oceanica meadows are Caulerpa taxtfolta, that was accidentally re- the most important fish production areas in leased in 1984 and has now spread over the Mediterranean. The sustainability of im- nearly 2000 hectares, mainly in France but portant fisheries (fish and shrimps in particu- also in Italy and the Baleric Islands (Meinesz lar) is directly connected with the presence and others 1993). of seagrasses. Cymodocea nodosa is also widely spread Wetlands and Lagoons in the Mediterranean, but is absent from ar- eas occupied by dense Posidonia. It has A significant number of Mediterranean wet- been suggested that C. nodosa is a pioneer lands have been "reclaimed" over history. species and that in time it is replaced by Important lagoon systems remain in Spain Posidonia (Schwartz 1982). (Valencia), France (Languedoc and Giens), It- Coastal marine vegetation in the Mediterra- aly (Sardenia, Toscania, Pylia, and Venice), nean is endangered by the intense develop- Central Greece, Cyprus, Morocco (Nadar), Al- 82 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas geria, in many places in Tunisia, and across from pollution and trampling by vacationers. the entire Nile delta in Egypt. Their protection is therefore particularly re- Mediterranean wetlands and lagoons are quired. of great significance to the conservation of Estuaries constitute another important biological diversity and are also highly pro- habitat since there are some 70 sizeable riv- ductive. They perform numerous· other func- ers and streams flowing into the Mediterra- tions related to flood control, recreation, nean (and major estuaries in the Black Sea). tourism, fisheries and agriculture as well as They are dominated by the deposition of chemical and physical reduction of pollu- sediments and, in most cases, by a fairly tion. They also act as breeding and winter- high level of industrial and agricultural pollu- ing areas for a great variety of birds and are tion. A number of large or medium size cit- essential stopover points on the migratory ies are located close to estuaries. routes of numerous bird species. There are no coral reefs or mangroves in Numerous programs and actions have the basin and most of the sandy beaches are been developed for the protection and con- small with the absence of significant tides. servation of wetlands, in particular through On the European side, a number of sand the implementation of the Ramsar Conven..! beaches have been established artificially tion. Wetlands and lagoons are facing direct and have contributed to the destruction of threats, such as reclamation for industrial de- seagi;ass meadows. velopment, infrastructure, agriculture and tourism and indirect threats such as the di- Species Diversity version of rivers ·and pumping from under- ground aquifers. The Venice lagoon The biota of the Mediterranean Sea consists provides a striking example of this combina- primarily of Atlanto-Mediterranean species tion of threats. (62 percent) derived from the adjacent Atlan- Mediterranean wetlands and lagoons need tic biogeographic provinces beyond the further protection to ensure their conserva- Strait of Gibraltar. Many Mediterranean spe- tion for their own value and as essential rest- cies are endemic (20 percent) while others ing places for the conservation of migratory · are cosmopolitan or circumtropical (13 per- birds moving between Europe and Africa. A cent) or Indo-Pacific (5 percent). These pro- recent step in this direction is the estab- portions differ for different major taxonomic lishment of a cooperative network; Medwet, groups and also for different parts of the by the European Community. Mediterranean Sea, but the pattern remains essentially the same (Ketchum 1983). 0th-er Habitats Within the Mediterranean there is a gradi- ent of increasing species diversity from east As indicated above, for geomorphological to west. The number of species among all reasons extensive stretches of the Mediterra- major groups of plants and animals is much nean coast are rocky. These areas usually lower in the eastern Mediterranean than in support communities dominated by algae. the western and central parts of the sea. The Characteristic biogenic constructions can be southeast comer, the Levant Basin, is the found on these coasts, including platforms most impoverished area. The benthic and lit- with Lithopbyllum licheonides on steep toral populations show a similar change in coasts and vermetid platforms on calcareous species diversity and abundance, which de- coasts. Rocky coasts appear to be less threat- crease from west to east, and from the north- ened than alluvial ones due to the difficulty ern Adriatic to the south (Ketchum 1983). of access and relatively lower urbanization, · The number of endemic species is signifi- but they are quite vulnerable and suffer cantly higher than that for the Atlantic Marine Region 3: Mediterranean 83 Ocean. The percentage of endemism is very bic conditions. Much organic matter can high for. the sessile or sedentary groups such thus be preserved in spite of ventilation of as a ascidians with 50.4 percent (Peres and the overlying waters (Cruzado 1985). Picard 1964), sponges with 42.4 percent The biological productivity of the Mediter- (Vacelet 1981), hydroids with 27.1 percent ranean Sea as a whole is among the lowest (Peres and Picard 1964), echinoderms with in the world. Primary production in the cen- i4.3 percent (Tortonese 1985), but it is also tral parts of the Mediterranean Sea, and in considerable for the other groups such as de- many of the coastal areas away from the in- capod crustaceans with 13.2 percent (Peres fluence of major rivers or urban centers, is and Picard 1964; Peres 1967) and fish with low and nutrient concentrations in the deep- 10.9 percent. waters of the Mediterranean, especially the Eastern Basin, are also very low. Plants Fauna The importance of seagrasses was noted pre- viously. The establishment of a database named Except in coastal lagoons the Mediterra- "Medifauna" has made it possible to com- nean is. relatively poor, not in variety but in pare the world's marine fauna (about the quantity of plant organisms produced. 130,000 described) with that of the Mediterra- Phytoplankton growth is limited by the low nean (about 8,000 known marine metazo- concentration of nutrients. Colder years tend ans). Included in the bank are 5,315 species, to be more productive, partly because mix- of which 1,776 are under verification. The ing in the water column may reach a greater Mediterranean Sea includes 6 percent of the depth and incorporate more nutrients and world's species for less than 1 percent of the partly because the formation of deep water world's ocean area and less than 0.003 of its may occur over a larger area. Maximum bio- volume. Naturally such comparisons must production is at about 100 meters depth in be treated with caution since the Mediterra- summer, where decreasing light levels are . nean has been comparatively well studied in balanced by the increased concentration of relation to some other parts of the world nutrients. where there are still many species to be de- Primary productivity can be unusually scribed. high at the mouths of rivers and along the The majority of Mediterranean species are coast in winter time, with the arrival of lay- of Atlantic origin (about 67 percent). Migrants ers of water produced by mixing in the through the Suez Canal represent 5 percent Golfe du Lion and in large eddies where of the total but 12 percent of the southeast- deepwater rises close to the surface. Phyto- ern part of the Mediterranean. Endemism is plankton sink and many of the cells are about 28 percent. The Western Mediterra- grazed by animals. The remainder die and nean includes 87 percent of the total num- decompose and together with faeces, ber of species recorded, 91 percent of the moults, dead animals and material from non-endemic species and 77 percent of the land, contribute to the detritus of the sea. endemic species; the Adriatic includes 49 Many marine sediments are anoxic. Natural percent, 55 percent and 35 percent, respec- conditions favorable to the formation of sedi- tively; and the Eastern Mediterranean 43 per- ments rich in organic matter are found in re- cent, 52 percent and 23 percent (Fredj 1992). gions of upwelling or near estuaries. In these ·areas high primary production results Invertebrates in accumulation of detrital material on the The oligotrophic character of the Mediterra- sea floor and in the development of anaero- nean Sea results in a low zooplankton 84 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas biomass compared with similar Atlantic ar- scheme was seen by the industry and scien- eas. The general trends of zooplankton distri- tists as one of the few realistic options for bution show an increasing abundance this ·heavily exploited resources. In the ab- toward the southwest end of the Western Ba- sence of more effective control this species sin. In the Alboran Sea the abundance of is likely to be placed on the CITES list of zooplankton contrasts with the low values species for which export of ~e organism or of biomass observed on the Atlantic side of its products is restricted or prohibitt;d. the Gibraltar Strait. The higher fertility of the Alboran Sea results more from local.up- Fish welling and the effect of the cyclonic gyre Of the 1,255 species recorded and illustrated than from the influence of the Atlantic wa.- for the Northeast Atlantic and the Mediterra- ters entering the Mediterranean (Estrada, nean (UNESCO 1984, 1985, 1986), a total of Vives, and Alcarez 1985). 540 are recorded as present in the Mediterra- Other invertebrates such as .mollusks sup- nean. Tortonese (1963) listed 362 of these as port some of the more .valuable fisheries, shore forms, 62 of which are endemic. with the explosive de~elopment of mussel The Black Sea includes 108 genera of fish, culture acting as an indication of enrichment of which 57 percent are immigrants from the in the Golfe du Lion and Adriatic. Mecha- Mediterranean and 22 percent freshwater nized clam ("vongole") harye~ting in the sp~cies (Ketchum 1983). Adriatic used to be a valuable fishery, but . The yield of Mediterranean fISheries is suffered from overexploitation in the 1980s comparatively low (compared to other, .and probably also from the effects of pollu- oceans), probably as a result of the relatively tion. Control of licenses has recently been in- low primary productivity and generally nar- troduced. Some mollusks that are endemic row continental shelves. There is some evi- to the .Mediterranean are endangered due to dence of a gradient in the yield, decreasing overcollection and habitat destruction. These from west to east and from north to south include the giant vibalue Pinna nobilis, pro- (Ketchum 1983). tected in Croatia and France, and the large Total catch for the Mediterranean seems limpet Patellaferrugina, which has no pi;o- to have reached a ceiling of around 1.1 mil- tection. · · lion tons per year (including mollusks). An Sponges constitute a tradition~l resource increase in the catch of some species is of the Mediterranean. They have also suf- sometimes indicated, probably due to im- fered from heavy collecting, particularly in provement in statistics and to increased pro- the Eastern Basin, but also recently from an ductivity of ecosystems through epidemic disease, and stronger collecting eutrophication. Aquaculture is also being de- regulations are called for. . · veloped in several countries in the basin. Co- Red coral Corallium rubrum is a valuable operation and guidance in fisheries are resource in the Mediterranean, being used provided by the General Council for Fisher- for the production of jewelry. In the past ies in the Mediterranean, which includes the this species occurred in commercially ex- Black Sea and is sponsored by PAO (Char- ploitable concentrations off Spain, Algeria bonnier 1990). and Sardinia, and at lower densities else- where. There is increasing concern about Birds the declining returns to an increasingly so- The Larus audoutnii (Audouin's gull) has phisticated harvest sector, which has ex- reached dangerously low population levels changed primitive dragging equipment for and depends on rocky islands and archipela- diving equipment capable of ope~ting at goes, free from disturbance, as breeding depths of 100 meters. A rotating harvest sites. The Audouin's gull population in the Marine Region 3: Mediterranean 85 Mediterranean is in the order of 600-800 unless immediate measures are taken for pairs. Several species of birds typical for the their conservation. The species in which this Mediterranean climatological region are is most evident is Monacbus monachus threatened in their European, and possibly (Mediterranean ·monk seal), which depends in the whole of their Mediterranean range, on rocky islands and archipelagoes free because of the loss of suitable disturbance- from disturbance as· breeding sites. The free habitat. Of particular note are the endan- pop~lation of these seals in the Mediterra- gered species Pelecanus onocrotalus (white nean is probably less than 300 individuals. pelican), P. crispus (Dalmatian pelican), Their greatest concentration occurs along Egretta alba (great white heron), Phoenicop- the Turkish and Greek coasts and around terus ruber(greater flamingo), and La:rus the Aegean islands·. Very small populations genei (slender-billed gull). The Mediterra- also still exist in Morocco, Algeria and Libya. nean is of significant importance for migra- Morocco is making efforts to consolidate the tory birds and twice a year some 150 monk seal population that occurs on its At- migratory species cross the narrow natural lantic coast near Mauritania. passages in the region-Gibraltar, Cap Bon Abou·t 20 different cetacean species has (Tunisia), Messina (Italy), Belen Pass (Tur- been reported in the Mediterranean Sea, key), Lebanese coast, and Suez Isthmus-· about half of which form part of Atlantic taking advantage of the wetlands occurring populations entering the sea only sporadi- on their way (Ramade 1990). cally. Only nine small cetacean species and three large whales sp~cies are sighted fre- Reptiles quently in the Mediterranean Sea. They are: The loggerhead (Caretta caretta), leather- • ·Balaenoptera acutorostrate (Minke whale) back (Dermochelys coriacea), and green • Balaenoptera physalus (Fin whale) ( Cbelonia mydas) are endangered species of • Delphinus _delpbis (Common dolphin) marine turtle found in the region. While the • Globicephala melas (Long-finned pilot loggerhead remains relatively abundant, it whale) seems to have deserted many parts of the · • Grampus griseus (Risso's dolphin) Western Basin where it is disturbed by fish- • · Orcinus orca (Killer whale) ing activity. The other two species are be- · • · Physeter macrocephalus (Sperm whale) coming increasingly rare. Nesting sites for • Pseudorca crassidens (False killer whale) the herbivorous and migratory green turtle· • Stene/la coeru/eoalba (Striped dolphin) can be found in Cyprus, Turkey, Egypt and • Steno· bredanensis (Rough-toothed dql- Libya. There are only a total of 2,000 nesting phin) females at these sites and this number is de~ • Tursiops tnmcatus (Bottlenose dolphin) dining rapidly. The leatherback turtle is • Ziphius cavtrostris (Cuvier's beaked rarely seen in the Mediterranean, although whale) there are some breeding records for Israel and Sicily. Important nesting sites for the log- Species d}stribution and frequency vary gerhead turtle are located on the coast from from coast to coast. For several reasons, ceta- Turkey to Israel, on a number of Mediterra- . cean fauna in the Western Basin is much nean islands, and at scattered sites along the richer than 41 the east. The Western Basin is North African coast. subject ~o ~ strong Atlantic influence, and species ·and populations from that ocean oc- Marine Mammals casionally· enter the Mediterranean Sea Several species of marine mammals have through the Straits of Gibraltar, the only natu- reached dangerously low population levels, ral route of access from the Atlantic Ocean. and their survival has become questionable This has been evidenced by isolated in- 86 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas stances of sightings of species such as the for killer whales and sperm whales that are humpback whale (Megaptera novaean- sighted more frequently, other species can- gliaea) close to the Balearic islands (Aguilar not be considered part of the Mediterranean 1989), ziphiids such as Blainville's beaked cetacean fauna. whale (Mesoplodon densirostris) or Sow- It should be noted that there is still a great erby's beaked whale (Mesoplodon bidens) lack of information concerning the biology, stranded on Spanish shores (Casinos and behavior and abundance of cetaceans in the Filella 1981; Hershkovita 1966), and dwarf Mediterranean. Data available so far serve sperm whale (Kogia simus) found in Italy only to give a general overview of the spe- (Centro Studi Cetacei 1988). The harbor por- cies distribution and frequency in the differ- poise (Pbocoena pbocoena), once abundant ent regions of the Mediterranean. Research in the Mediterranean (Graells 1889; Barcelo has been based mainly on the systematic col- 1875; Companyo 1863), is now considered lection of data on stranded animals, acciden- to have vanished from this sea, and the last tal captures by various types of fishing gear, records of its presence date back to the tum and information from privately owned vessels of the century. Only a very few exceptions of sightings on the high seas. There are very exist, such as the few individuals found off few research programs on cetaceans in the African coasts in the last few years (Ktari- Mediterranean, and they are mostly limited to Chakroun 1980; Duguy, Casinos and Vericad specific areas and populations. Most data 1983) or in southern Spain (Rey and Cen- have been obtained for the Western Basin, drero 1982). while in the east information is very scarce. The presence of upwelling areas along Much concern has been raised in the last the coast of North Africa and between the few years in relation to the catch of cetace- Ligurian Sea and the Golfe du Lion support ans, particularly dolphins, through drifting many fish and other marine organisms that nets used for tuna fishing. France, Italy and favor the presence of predators like cetaceans. Monaco have recently proposed the estab- Surface currents, which cross through the lishment of an open sea sanctuary in the Straits of Gibraltar and circulate in the west- Ligurian Sea, for which the legal basis has ern part of the Mediterranean Basin, are also still to be determined. an important factor in explaining the pres- ence of cetaceans. These currents are used Biogeographic Classification by different shoals of fish, including tuna (Tunidae) and swordfish (Xipbias gladius), There are natural divisions within the Medi- to aid them on their migration to breeding terranean region that form the basis for its or spawning areas. The migrations are fol- biogeographic subdivision. The submarine lowed by predators, including killer whales ridge between the island of Sicily and the Af- and sperm whales, that enter the Mediterra- rican coast with a depth of 360 meters di- nean mostly in pursuit of migrating prey. Ma- vides the Mediterranean into western and rine organisms have also been known to eastern sections. Further geographic divi- enter the Mediterranean Sea through the sions are usually made within this frame- Suez Canal. There have been several in- work as is outlined in Table 3.1 and Map 3. stances of warm-water species such as the The regions formed are described briefly Inda-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa below: cbinensis), which exclusively inhabits the Indo-Pacific region, entering the canal and Westem Mediterranean even reaching as far as Port Said near the delta of the Nile River. For the most part, The Alboran Basin lies east of Gibraltar, be- however, these are isolated cases and, save tween the coasts of Spain and Morocco. The Marine Region 3: Mediterranean 87 Table 3.1 Main Physical Characteristics of the Mediterranean Marine Region Btogeograpbic Subdivisions Location Area (square kilometers) Maximum depth ( meters) 1 Alboran Sea 69,000 1,375 2 Algerian Basin 700,000 2,000 3 Tyrrhenian Basin 247,000 3,000 4 Ionian Basin 938,000 5,092 5 Levantine Basin 667,000 3,000 6 Aegean Sea 214,000 3,543 7 Adriatic Sea 131,000 1,324 Total Mediterranean Sea 2,966,000 8 Marmara Sea 11,500 670 9 Black Sea 586,000 2,245 10 Azov Sea 15,000 14 Total Asia Minor 612,500 Total Area of Mediterranean Marine Region 3,578,500 Alboran Sea is under the influence of Atlan- Eastern Mediterranean tic waters and species entering through the Strait of Gibraltar. The Ionian Basin, in the area known as the The Algerian Basin (also known as the Al- Ionian Sea, lies to the south of Italy and gero-Provencal or Balearic Basin) lies east of Greece. The deepest sounding in the Medi- the Alboran Basin and west of Sardinia and terranean (5,092 meters) has been recorded Corsica, extending from off the coast of Alge- in this basin. A submarine ridge separates ria to off the coast of France. This basin re- the Ionian Basin from the Levantine Basin. ceives the waters of two major rivers, the South of the Strait of Sicily the shelf widens Rhone River in France and the Ebro River in to as much as 200 kilometers off the Gulf of Spain. The continental shelf in the region is Gabes (Tunisia) and a little less in the Sirte widest off Spain's Ebro delta where it ex- Gulf (Libya). The shallow water of these two tends to about 100 kilometers and off the areas shelter the widest seagrass beds in the Rhone delta where it extends to around 75 world (comprised mainly of Posidonia kilometers. Elsewhere, the shelf is narrow oceanica, and Cymodoocea nodosa). These with many canyons. are threatened by oil exploitation and by de- The Tyrrhenian Basin (located in that part posits of gypsum resulting from phosphate of the Mediterranean known as the Tyrrhe- production in Tunisia. nian Sea), lies between Italy and the islands The Levantine Basin covers the area bor- of Sardinia and Corsica. Its northern part, dered by Crete, south of Turkey, Syria, Leba- north of Corsica, is often called the Ligurian non, Israel, Egypt and part of Lybia, Sea. This area is marked by significant vol- including Cyprus. In front of the Nile Delta canic activity. (off Port Said at the entrance of the Suez Ca- 88 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas nal), the shelf widens to 130 kilometers. As ters. The maximum and average depth of indicated above, spedes migrate into the the Black Sea are 2,200 meters and l,240·me- Mediterranean from the Red Sea through the ters respectively. Its total area is about Suez Canal. 586,000 square kilometers. This sea receive~ The island of Crete separates the Levan- the waters of the Danube and Dnieper Riv- tine Basin from the Aegean Sea, which com- ers. prises that part of the Mediterranean Sea The Azov Sea, which receives the waters bounded on the west and north by the coast of the Don, is separated from the Black Sea of Greece and on the east by the coast of by the Kerch and Taman .Peninsulas. The Turkey. The Aegean Sea is about 700 kilome- connection is through the Kerch Strait, ters long and 340 wide (total area 214,000 . which is less than 20 meters deep. Its area is square kilometers) and contains numerous is- 15,000 square kilometers, its mean depth 8 lands. The Aegean has. an the average depth meters, and its maximum depth less than 15 of about 360 meters and a maximum depth meters. There is an extraordinary high level of 3,543 meters occurring fo the east qf of biological productivity. Crete. The Adriatic Sea is a long canal (about 780 kilometers) bounded by Italy on the AssMSMENT OF ExlSTING MPAs west and by Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Mon- tenegro and Albania on· th~ east. The Adria:. From 1982 to 1993, the total number of pro- tic has an average width of 240 kilometers tected areas along the Mediterranean coast and a total area is 131,000 square kilome- increased from 65 to 135. These protected ar- ters. The Po River enters in. the north of this eas cover terrestrial, wetland, or marine envi- sea, where the shelf extends for about 550 ronments, but in the Mediterranean region, kilometers. The Adriatic is mainly shallow . due to the very high human pressure along with an average depth of 444 meters and a the coastline, ·any form of coastal protection maximum depth of 1,324 meters occurring has positive effects on the marine environ- to the south of the central area. ment itself. For the latter, which is the sub- ject of this report, 53 marine protected areas Marmara Sea covering only or partly the sea have been es- tablished. In the period considered, there The Marmara sea is connected to the . has therefore been a significant increase in Aegean sea through the Dardanelles and to the number and value of protected areas in the Black Sea through the Bosphorus. It is the region, although the sea surface area 280 kilometers long (east to west) and 'has a that is legally protected remains compara- maximum width of nearly 90 kilometers. It tively small. This development is clearly re- covers 11,500 square kilometers and has an lated to increased awareness and average depth of 270 meters, reaching a cooperation in the region, marked by the im- maximum of 670 m.eters in the center. · plementation of the Barcelona convention, estal;>lishment of the Regional Activity Center Black Sea and Azt?V Sea for· Specially Protected Areas in Tunisia, pub- lication of the main report of the Blue Plan The Black Sea is connected to the Marmara (Grenon and Batisse 1989), and other ac- Sea through the Bosphoius, "'!hich is the . tions. In 1985, the Genoa Declaration of the world's narrowest strait, with.an average Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Conven- width of 1.6 kilometers, an average depth of tion called for the creation of 50 new pro- 36 meters, and a total length of ~1 kilome- tected areas by 1995. Marine Region 3: Mediterranean 89 Pescription of National MPAs Table 3.2 Numbers of Coastal and Marine Protected Areas in Table 3.2 describes the length of the coast- Mediterranean Marine Region line of each of the countries concerned, to- Length Coastal gether with the number of coastal protected o/Coast Protected areas and those that cover the marine envi- · Country (kilomters) Areas MPAs ronment totally or partly. Medtterranean The total area included in terrestrial and Albania· 4,018 2 0 marine protected areas along the coast is Algeria 1,200 4 2 more than 1.7 million hectares. However, Croatia 5,790 10 5 Cyprus 782 3 1 only 0.2 million hectares are included iri .Egypt 950 3 0 MPAs. France 1,703 13 5 Creation of the first coastal protected ar- Greecee 16,6oo 9 1 Israel · 190 7 3 eas in the Mediterranean marine region took Italy 8,800 15 10 place in the Black Sea in 1924 in the former Lebanon 225 1 0 Lib&a 1,770 3 0 USSR (Kavkazskiy Zapovednik), then in Mata 180 3 0 1934 in Italy (the coastal Circeo National Monaco 4 2 2 Park), followed in 1945 in the former Repub- Montenegro 280 1 1 Morroco 512 1 1 lic of Yugoslavia (Dundo-Rab Nature Re- Slovenia 46 5 2 serve). The first marine areas were Mljet · Spain 2,580 33 6 Island National Park in Yugoslavia (1960) s . 183 0 0 ~Sia 1,300 3 2 and Port Cros National Park in France (1963). Turkey 5,200 12 8 There is only one marine protected area' Black Sea without connection to the land. It is located Bulgaria 4 1 in Monaco territorial waters and is also the Romania 1 0 smallest in the Mediterranean (1 hectare), es- Ukrainia 4 3 Turkey 3 0 tablished to protect one species, the red coral ( Corallium rubrum). Total 135 53 Review of the existing system of marine protected areas in the Mediterranean marine region shows significant disparities between mation is not necessarily up to date with the the different countries and biogeographic latest developmei:,ts in each country. subregions (see Tables 3.2 and 3.3 and Map 3). A significant effort has been undertaken Mediterranean Sea by some countries in recent years, but as yet there is no real system of MPAs to ensure AU,ania the protection of all marine habitats and eco- systems. At least 50 percent of MPAs are con- No marine protected areas have yet b_een es- sidered not managed effectively because of tablished along the 418 kilometers of the Al- inadequate or unenforced legislation, weak banian coastline, only terrestrial areas (7) institutions, or lack of trained staff. including some wetlands (3). The total area The following analysis has been divided covered by these is about 30,000 hectares in two parts to consider the countries of the and all were created during the period 1960- Mediterranean and then those of the Black 70. There is no specific institution in charge and Azov Seas. The major characteristics and of protected areas and professional staff and activities of each country are briefly summa- education are needed. Steps are currently be- rized, although by its very nature this infor- ing taken, particularly under MAP and in co- 90 A Glol:>al ~epresentative System of Marine Protected Areas Table 3.3 B~phic Subdivisions The following MPAs have been recorded: of Mediterranean Marine Region , . . El Kala National Park and Biosphere and Representation in MPAs . Reserve , . . Reghaia Managed Nature Reserve Biogeograpbic Subdivision MPAs Western Mediterranean Croatia 1. Alboran Sea 1 2. Algerian Basin 15 Cro;itia has 1,778 kilometers of continental 3. Tyrrhenian Basin 9 coastline and over 4,000 kilometers of island Subtotal 25 coastline. The following MPAs have been re- Pastern Mediterranean corded: 4. Ionian Basin 1 , . . Bzijuni Island National Park (3,635 hec- 5. Levantine Basin 9 6. Aegean Sea 4 tares including 1,000 hectares terres- 7. Adriatic Sea 10· trial) 8. Marmara Sea 0 ,.. Komati Islands N~tional Park (22,375 Subtotal 24 hectares including 5,068 hectares terres- Black and Azov Seas trial) 9. Black Sea 4 ,.. Mljet National Park (4,619 hectares in- 10. Azov Sea 0 cluding 3,100 hectares terrestrial) Subtotal 4 . . - Limski Zaljev Special Marine Reserve (500 hectares) Total 53 ,.. Malostonski Zaljev Special Marine Re- serve (4,821 hectares) operation with the European Community, to In addition, the Neretva Delta (11,500 hec- address these issues. tares) is recognized as a Ramsar site. A(gerla Cyprus Along the 1,200 kilometers of seashore of Al- The two main wetlands of this island were geria, there are four existing protected areas, protected in 1974 as a permanent game re- including 59 kilometers of coastline (5 per- serve, but with no real management of other cent of the total). Two of these areas include activities. In 1990 the Lara Reserve was estab- a marine cpmponent. The most important is lished to include both marine and terrestrial El Kala National Park, covering terrestrial, areas, the objective being the protection of wetland and marine environments (about marine turtles on the beaches of Lara during 83,000 hectares). The main issue 'for this na- . their nesting period. At the national level, a tional park is a shortage of w;iter due to review of legislation and a reinforcement of natura:1 processes and human intervention, institutions are needed. There is a project be- which is endangering its wetlands. A water- ing developed within· the framework of the shed approach program incluqing _the .man- METAP for the creation of a national park in- agement of water re.sources, is presently cluding Lara at the Akamas Peninsula. being prepared with financial assi$tance from the Global Environment Facility (GEF). The following MPA was recorded: At the. national level, a reorganizatio~ of all ~ Lara-Toxeftra Management Nature Re- the institutions dealil)g with the environment serve (650 hectares including 100 hec- is foreseen. tares t~rrestrial) Marine Region 3: Mediterranean 91 Egypt ,.._ Port Cros National Park (2,400 hectares including 590 terrestrial) Between 1985 and 1988, Egypt created three ,.._ Scandola Nature Reserve, Corsica protected areas on the Mediterranean sea- (1,919 hectares including 919 terrestrial) shore, one concerning a shrubland area ,.._ Iles Finochiarola Nature Reserve and the other two concerning wetlands. There are no marine protected areas. The In addition, the Camarque area (Rhone government is considering the creation Delta) is a Ramsar site and a Biosphere Re- of new protected areas and at the same serve, and the Fango Valley in Corsica is a time a reinforcement of the relevant institu- Biosphere Reserve. tions. Greece France With 16,000 kilometers of coastline, Greece The major activities for ·the creation of pro- has the most important seashore of the Medi- tected areas on the French Mediterranean terranean, but in large part due to the com- shore took place between 1963 and 1982, plexity of its legislation and institutions with nine areas established covering 182 dealing with environmental matters at the na- kilometers of coastline (nearly 11 percent of tional level, there is no real network of the total length of 1,703 kilometers). There coastal protected areas. The eight existing ar- are now five protected areas with a marine eas along the coast cover 29,000 hectares component. Since this time a major develop- but include mainly terrestrial features. This ment has been the increasing activity of the country has begun to give responsibility for Seashore and Lakeshore Conservatory the management of protected areas to NGOs. (CELRL), an autonomous administrative struc- ture created in 1975 that is somewhat compa- The following MPA has been recorded: rable· to the British Nature Conservancy and ,.._ Alonissos (Northern Sporades) that can purchase or receive donations of coastal lands. CELRL cannot manage these ar- Israel eas directly and delegates their management to local authorities under certain protective The Ministry of Environment, the Nature Re- conditions. While this mechanism has to be serve· Authority, and the National Park adapted to national practices and laws con-· . Authority are the three main bodies dealing cerning land ownership, it could be applied with protected areas in Israel. Along the sea- as a model for other Mediterranean coun- shore, seven protected areas· have been cre- tries as recommended by the Blue Plan. At ated, covering about 1,800 hectares and 24 present, CELRL has acquired 115 areas on kilometers of coastline. Three of these in- the French Mediterranean coast, covering clude a rrta'rine component. Nature protec- 24,823 hectares along 263 kilometers of tion· is given high attention ·in this country. coastline. The following MPAs were recorded: The following MPAs were recoraea: ,... Dor-Habonim Nature Reserve (113 hec- ,.._ Cerbere Banyuls Marine Reserve (650 tares) hectares) ,.._ Ma'agan Michael Marine Nature Re- ,.._ Iles Lavezzi Nature Reserve, Corsica serve (2 hectares with islands) (5,080 hectares including 80 hectares ,.. Rosh ·Hanikra Marine Nature Reserve terrestrial) ( 40 hectares) 92 A Global' Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Italy ing only terrestrial ecosystems. There are nd MPAs. During recent years, field studies With over 8,000 kilometers of coastline, Italy have been undertaken with national and inL has the second most important seashore on temational experts in order to propose a n~t- the Mediterranean. Ten protected areas are work of coastal and marine protected areas marine and fishery reserves. Protected areas including natural and historical features. Sig- used to be mainly concentrated along the nificant parts of the seashore are not yet de- Tyrrhenian Sea. Recent and important MPAs veloped and are used as nesting beaches by have been declared in Sicily, in the Adriatic marine turtles. In addition, Libya has the sec- and Ionian Seas. ond most important seagrass meadows in the Mediterranean after Tunisia. The creation The following MPAs were recorded: of new protected areas requires a revision of ,.. Archipelago Toscano National Park the existing legislation, reinforcement of the (57,500 hectares with islands) national institutions dealing with environ- ,.. Castellabate Fishery Reserve (4,400 hec- mental matters, and training of professional tares) staff. ,_. Ciclopi Marine ·Reserve (Sicily, 35 hec- tares) · Malta ,_. Miramare Marine Reserve and Bio- sphere Reserve (Trieste, 30 hectares in- This small country composed of two main is- duding 3 hectares terrestrial) · lands with a very dense population has cre- ,.. .Portoferraio Fishery ·Reserve (160 hec- ated two terrestrial protected areas ori the tares) coast including the Filfla Island Nature Re- ,.. Tremiti Marine Reserve (Adriatic, 1550 serve and is studying other sites. Modifica- hectares) tion of the legislation could facilitate the ,_. Ustica Marine Reserve (7500 hectares) creation of future protected areas. ,_. Egadi Islands Marine Reserve (Sicily, 50,000· hectares) Monaco ,_. Torres Guaceto Marine Reserve (Adria- tic 15,500 hectares) Monaco has no possibility of creating coastal ,.. Capo Rizzuto Marine Reserve (Ionian protected areas with 4 kilometers of very ur.: Sea, 11,000 hectares) banized coast, but has created two marine ar- eas, one without connection with the land. · Lebanon Both are managed by an NGO. One of them is the smallest of the Mediterranean (1 hec- There is only one protected area along Leba- tare) established in order to protect one spe- non's 225 kilometers coastline. Some pro- cies, the red coral. Numerous activities, jects are under way, but the country is still including monitoring, artificial reef experi- faced with serious economical and social ments, and education are conducted. There problems. is no scope for creation of new protected ar- eas, except in the context of a possible inter- Libya national marine reserve for the protection of cetaceans. · There are only two protected areas on the 1,800 kilometers coastline of this country, El The following MPAs have been recorded: Kouf National Park, created in 1978, cover-· ,.. Larvotto Nature Reserve (50 hectares) ing 20 kilometers of coastline and concern- ,.. Red Coral Nature Reserve (1 hectare) Marine Region 3: Mediterranean 93 ~ontenegro ( I ~ parl of Yugoslavia) vironment from the national to the regional authority, the regions have shown a great in- 'Qle following MPA has been recorded: terest and are very active in this field. The ~ Kotor (Kotorsko Risanski Zaliv, 12,000 seashore has been_ the focus for huge tour- hectares including 9,400 hectares ter- ism development without real concern for restrial) the environment. After a reduction in the level of tourism in recent years, Spain has Morocco adopted the objective of establishing a pro- tected area every 30 kilometers along the Within the framework of the national policy coast to ensure the preservation of ecosys- for the environment, Morocco has begun the tems and the maintenance of marine and ter- creation of a network of protected areas cov- restrial fauna and flora. Numerous sites that ering all the ecosystems and habitats in the have been partly damaged could be re- country. On the Mediterranean shore, Al Ho- stored, in particular around the main areas ceima National Park has been established to of interest for tourism. cover marine as well as terrestrial areas with an important buffer zone of 42,900 hectares. The following MPAs have been recorded: ,,._ Cabo· de Gata Nature Park and Marine This park has been recorded as an MPA as Res~rve (26,000 hectares including follows: 13,000 hectares terrestrial) ,,._ Al Hoceima National Park (43,400 hec- ,,._ Archipelago de Cabrera National Park tares including 26,200 hectares terrestrial) (Baleric Islands) (10,000 hectares in- cluding 1,836 hectares terrestrial) Slovenia ,,._ Columbretes Nature Park and Marine Reserve (5,766 hectares including 43 This newly independent country has a very hectares terrestrial) short coast that nevertheless includes some ,,._ Medas Islands Marine Reserve ( 40 hec- sites of importance. tares including 20 hectares terrestrial) ,,._ S'Arenal Regional Protected Landscape The following MPAs have been recorded: ( 400 hectares) ,,._ Debeli rite National Monument (24 hec- ,,._ Tabarca Marine Resetve (1,463 hectares) tares including 2 hectares terrestrial) ,,._ Strunjan Nature Park (472 hectares in- In addition, the Island of Menorca has cluding 356 hectares terrestrial) been declared a Biosphere Reserve, with protection of the sea adjacent to the pro- In addition five other protected sites in- tected core areas. cluding brackish wetlands are located close to the sea. Syria Spain There are no specifically marine protected ar- eas along the Syrian coast. One project is be- Since 1982, Spain has created at the national ing considered at Om'Attouyour. or regional level some 25 protected areas on the Mediterranean coastline. Six of these ar- Tunisia eas include a marine component. After a pe- riod of adaptation to the transfer of Tunisia has recently reinforced its institu- competence dealing with conservation of en- tions with the creation of a Ministry for the 94 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Environment 0991). One of the priorities is ,,._ Goksu Delta Specially Protected Area effective management of the protected areas (23,600 hectares including 17,800 hec- along the coast, two of which are marine ar- tares terrestrial and wetland) eas. The UNEP Regional Activity Center for ,,._ Kekova Specially Protected Area Specially Protected Areas (UNEP/MAP) is lo- (26,000 hectares including 14,500 hec;- cated in Salambo, near Tunis. tares terrestrial) ,,._ Koycegiz Dalyan Specially Protected The following MPAs have been recorded:· Area (38,500 hectares including 28,300 ,,._ Galiton Marine Reserve ( 450 hectares) hectares terrestrial) ,,._ Zembra and Zembretta National Park ,,._ Patara Specially Protected Area (19,000 and Biosphere Reserve (4,700 hectares hectares including 14,800 hectares ter- including 391 hectares terrestrial). restrial) Turkey Black Sea and Azov Sea Since 1989 Turkey has developed a strong Only limited information is available on the policy for conservation of nature with the activities developed by the riparian countries implementation of a new law allowing the of the Black and Azov Seas. The recent co- creation of Specially Protected Areas (in operative agreement for the protection of reference to the Barcelona Convention the Black Sea along the lines previously fol- Specially Protected Areas Protocol), During lowed for the Mediterranean may improve this period, 385,000 hectares and 774 kilo- this situation. meters of coastline have been protected and the first steps for management are un- Bulgaria der way. The Turkish Mediterranean coast is of Bulgaria has a good national network of pro- high importance for the protection of the tected areas. There are four protected areas monk seal and of sea turtles as well as for on the Black Sea, one of which is an MPA. biodiversity in general. At the moment some The name of this area is not known. 1,332 kilometers, or 25 percent of the total coast length, have been declared under pro- Romania tection. Romania has one protected area on the The following MPAs have been recorded: Black Sea but no MPAs recorded. ,,._ Datcha Botzburum Specially Protected The Danube Delta, which is of major im- Area (147,400 hectares including portance, as a wetland has recently been de- 116,900 hectares terrestrial) clared a Biosphere Reserve (590,000 ,,._ Fethiye Gocek Specially Protected Area hectares). (61,300 hectares including 30,000 hec- tares terrestrial) Turkey ,,._ Foca Specially Protected Area (2,750 hectares including 1,550 hectares ter- Turkey, applying the same policy to the restrial) Mediterranean and Black Seas, has estab- ,,._ Gokova Specially Protected Area lished three coastal terrestrial protected ar- (52,100 hectares including 24,500 hec- eas and is developing numerous research tares terrestrial) programs. As yet there are no MPAs. Marine Region 3: Mediterranean 95 Ukraine Libya) and the EC. Among other activities, a directory of marine and coastal protected ar- On the Black and Azov Seas, Ukraine has eas in the Mediterranean Sea has been pre- four protected areas, three of which have a pared and contains the areas officially marine component. designated by the governments, even if they ,.. Karadagskiy Reserve have not signed the SPA Protocol. Another ,.. Chernomorskiy Biosphere Reserve Regional Activity Center, the Blue Plan, ,.. Dunaiskie Plavni Reserve based in Sophia-Antipolis (France) is en- trusted with systemic and future-oriented studies for the Mediterranean Basin and is INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL acting as an environment and development INITIATIVES RmATING TO MPAs observatory for the region, paying special at- tention to the protection of biodiversity and Numerous international organizations or in- integrated coastal management. ternational conventions have contributed to the conservation of biodiversity in the Medi- United Nations Educational, Scientific terranean marine region. The activities of the and Cultural Organization most important ones are briefly described below. UNESCO has developed two activities con- cerning the Mediterranean region. The Con- United Nations Environment Program vention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage was The United Nations Environment Program adopted by the General Conference of (UNEP) began the development of its re- UNESCO in Paris 1972. In the Mediterranean gional seas programs in 1972. In 1975, after region, the only country that is not a signa- expert meetings, representatives of the Medi- tory of this convention is Israel. There are terranean States met in Barcelona (Spain) four natural or natural/cultural sites on the and decided to cooperate for the implemen- list (including one marine area, Scandola Na- tation of the Convention for the Protection ture Reserve in Corsica, France). of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution Launched in 1971 by UNESCO, the gen- (Barcelona Convention) and its related proto- eral objective of the Man and the Biosphere cols. The fourth protocol concerning Mediter- Programme (MAB) is to provide knowledge, ranean Specially Protected Areas (SPA) was skills and human values to supporting har- adopted in Geneva in 1983. In order to im- monious relationships between people and plement the convention and the protocols, their environment. One of the central the Mediterranean States have adopted the themes of the MAB program is the Bio- Mediterranean Action Plan and created a sphere Reserve concept, where conservation Mediterranean Coordinating Unit in Athens is combined with sustainable development and Regional Activity Centers. The Center and scientific research, and the creation of for the SPA Protocol, based in Tunisia, is an international network of Biosphere Re- tasked with following and assisting the activi- serves (BR). Areas are submitted for designa- ties of the countries for the selection, crea- tion as Biosphere Reserves by countries. On tion and management of marine and coastal the coast of the Mediterranean 11 sites have protected areas. To date, this protocol has been accepted as Biosphere Reserves of been signed or ratified by 16 of the Mediter- which 1 includes both wetland and marine ranean coastal states (except Syria and areas (Chernomorskiy in Ukraine) and 2 con- 96 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas cern marine areas (Zembra-Zembretta in Tu- cially as Waterfowl Habitat, adopted in 1971 nisia and Miramare in Italy). Regional meet- and entering into force in 1975, provides the .J ings for Biosphere Reserve managers and framework for international cooperation for scientists in the Mediterranean Basin are con- the conservation of wetland habitats. The i vened from time to time to enhance coopera- broad objective of the convention is to stem tion and exchange of information and the loss of wetlands and to ensure their con- experience. servation. To meet this objective, the conven- tion places general obligations on· European Union contracting parties relating to the conserva- tion of wetlands throughout their territory The European Union promotes the conserva- and special obligations pertaining to those tion of biodiversity in the Mediterranean wetlands that have been designated in a within the framework of the Cha~er.of Ni- "List of Wetlands of International Impor- cosia (or the EuroMediterranean Coopera- tance." The Mediterranean Marine Region ri- tion concerning the Environment in the parian countries that are contracting parties Mediterranean Basin) and through the imple- to this convention are Algeria, Bulgaria, mentation of its Special Action Program for Egypt, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Morocco, the Mediterranean (MEDSAP). The European Spain, and Tunisia, as well as the former Commission has prepared directives for the USSR and Yugoslavia. Of the 102 sites listed environment. Directive 79/409/CEE deals for these countries, 61 are along the coast of with the conservation of wild birds, and the Mediterranean realm (33 for Italy, 8 for there is also a directive concerning the con- Greece, 7 for Spain, 3 for Bulgaria and . servation of natural habitats and wild flora Ukraine, 2 for Egypt and Algeria, and 1 for and fauna. To date 70 sites have been desig- France, Malta and Tunisia). nated on the Mediterranean seashore by European countries (20 for Spain, 7 for Bonn Convention France, 33 for Italy and 10 for Greece). The Bonn Convention (or Convention on Mi- Council of Europe gratory Species of Wild Animals) classifies . migratory species into four categories accord- The Council of Europe is promoting the in- ing to their migration patterns and states that clusion of Medi~erranean coastal ecosystems the contracting parties should endeavor to in a network of biogenetic reserves. Their conclude international agreements for the main purpose is to conserve representative conservation of the relevant species. Egypt, examples of European flora, fauna and natu- Israel, Italy, Spain, Tunisia and EC are par- ral areas. The Council of Europe also acts as ties to this convention. · Secretariat for the Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natu- Convention on International Trade ral Habitats. The Mediterranean countries in Endangered Species of Wild Flora concerned are Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, and Fauna Spain and Turkey. CITES regulates international trade of endan- Ramsar Convention gered species of fauna and flora. Algeria, Cy- prus, Egypt, France, Israel, Italy, Monaco, The Ramsar·convention or Convention on Morocco, Spain and Tunisia are parties to Wetlands of International Importance espe- this convention. Marine Region 3: Mediterranean 97 ~uropean Program for the Mediterranean European region that includes a section on MPAs in the Mediterranean. 'hie European Investment Bank and the World Bank developed the EPM. Its second phase, the Mediterranean Environmental AsSESSMENT OF REPRESENTATION Technical Assistance Program (METAP), was OF BIOGEOGRAPmc ZONES launched in 1990 to identify and prepare in- vestment projects a11d institutional develop- Western Mediterranean ment activities and define specific policy measures in the following priority areas: inte- The Alboran Sea includes only one marine grated water resource management, solid protected area. and h~zardous waste management, preven- The Algerian Basin, east of the Alboran tion and control of marine oil and chemical Sea, includes 15 marine protected areas (6 pollution, and coastal zone management. Spain, 3 France, 2 Monaco, 2 Algeria, 2 Tuni- The· coastal zone management priority in- sia) out of a total of 42 protected areas cludes a biodiversity component. Its objec- along the coast. There is a need for more tives include providing assistance to protected areas on the southern part and on southern and eastern Mediterranean coun- the eastern part (Sardinia, Italy). Terrestrial tries for project preparation activities promot- environment coverage is dominant (particu- ing the conservation of protected areas and larly due to the achievements of CELRL in the organization of a network of managers France); whole coverage is good for wet- of Mediterranean protected areas (MEDPAN). lands and the marine environment. There are projects that aim to extend some existing Other Organizations terrestrial areas into the marine environment. The Tyrrhenian Sea includes 9 marine pro- Other organizations that are developing ac- tected areas (7 Italy, 2 France). There is a tivities for the environment in the Mediterra- need for new areas on the east coast of Sar- nean are the Alesco and Arab Ligue dinia. (Commission on Environment), United Na- tions Development Programme (UNDP), and Eastern Mediterranean particularly for forestry and fisheries, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the The Ionian Sea includes only one marine United Nations (FAO), as well as a number protected area (Italy) in the Ionian Basin, of bilateral assistance agencies. with no areas located on the North African coast. This region needs a strong effort as it International and National NGOs includes the world's widest areas of seagrass meadows, constituting one of the most im- Numerous international and national nongov- portant Medit~rranean features, covering ernmental organizations are also very active more than 1,500 square kilometers between in the Mediterranean. For the international the Gabes Gulf (Tunisia) and the Sirte Gulf NGOs, the most active are the World Wild~ (Libya). This area is also important due to its life Fund for Nature (WWF), the World Con- location far away from the influence of the servation Union (IUCN), Greenpeace, Atlantic Ocean and of migrations from the Friends of the Earth, and the European E~vi- Red Sea through the Suez Canal. Some Medi- ronmental Bureau (EEB). IUCN has devel- terranean endemic species could find here oped a protected areas action plan for the their last possibility of survival. 98 . A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas The Levantine Basin contains 9 marine VIII (Multiple Use Management Area), par- protected areas (1 Cyprus, 3 Israel, 5 Tur- ticularly the coastal Biosphere Reserves. The key) although none are present along the value of the Biosphere Reserve concept, en- southern and eastern coast. compassing both a terrestrial and a marine The Aegean Sea includes 4 existing ma- part, for the Mediterranean where consider- rine protected areas (1 Greece, 3 Turkey) al- able human impacts and pressures have though they do not cover an important part taken and are taking place should be under- of the marine environment and the nearly lined (Batisse 1990). 20,000 kilometers of coastline, even though Turkey has developed a very active program in recent years. An important effort is PRIORI1Y AREAs AND RECOMMENDATIONS needed in Greece before further develop- ment of tourism and urbanization. This area National Priority Areas for Establishment is one of the most important places in the and Management of MPAs world for the endangered Mediterranean monk seal. A list of 55 priority sites has been developed The Adriatic Sea contains 10 existing (2 It- by the UNEP Regional Activity Center for aly, 2 Slovenia, 5 Croatia 1 Montenegro) ma- Specially Protected Areas (RAC/SPA) in the rine protected areas, primarily located on Mediterranean. This list of sites has been the eastern shore of the Adriatic with only 2 adopted for use in this report and is repro- areas located along the coast of the Italian duced as Appendix Table 3.1. These areas peninsula. are _shown on Map 3. Marmara Sea Regional Priority Areas for Establishment and Management of MPAs There are no marine protected areas in the Marmara Sea. The following four areas were selected as be- ing of highest regional priority for marine Black Sea and Azov Sea biodiversity conservation in the region by Alain Jeudy de Grissac using the criteria out- There are 4 MPAs (1 Bulgaria, 3 Ukraine) in lined in the introduction to this report. the Black Sea, and no marine protected ar- These four areas include in total more than eas in the Azov Sea. 10 of the priority sites identified by RAC/SPA (see above). The priority areas are either Categories of MPAs those for which new MPAs are proposed or areas where there are both existing MPAs re- The designation afforded to protected areas quiring management support and proposed is not the same in all the Mediterranean new MPAs. For the purposes of this report countries and does not easily fit with the in- they have been classified as proposed new ternational categories established by IUCN. MPAs. An analysis of the real correspondence be- tween the name given and the IUCN catego- Proposed new MPAs: ries would therefore not lead to useful ..,,.. Gulf of Gabes seagrass meadows: conclusions, except perhaps that mapy of Covering sites 44, 45 and 48 of the the MPAs appear to fall under IUCN cate- RAC/SPA list (Appendix Table 3.1), gory IV (Nature Conservation Reserve/Man- these seagrass meadows are located in aged Nature Reserve/Wildlife Sanctuary), · Tunisian coastal waters (33-35°N, 10- with an increasing number under category 120£) and are the widest seagrass Marine Region 3: Mediterranean 99 meadows in the Mediterranean, incor- vwicl!nSis!, leatherback turtle (Dermo- porating the endangered marine chelys coriacea) is also present, with phanerogam Posidonia oceanica. As dqlphins. Due_t() the very small num- noted previously, the Posidonia ber of fishermen in this area, many oceanica meadows constitute the most common Mediterranean species are characteristic and important Mediterra- present in great numbers. There are no nean ecosystem. The area is also an im- protected areas and the area should be portant nesting, feeding and wintering a priority for the estaqlishment of an ground for endangered species of sea MPA. Monitoring this southern part of turtles, including the Loggerhead turtle, the Mediterranean could be of interest and is an important migratory point for in order to evaluate the effects of cli- birds. Noteworthy species include sea- matic changes on fauna. grass (Posidonea oceanica and Zostera ..,... Aegean Sea: (37-40°N, 23-28°E) This marina), loggerhead turtle ( Caretta area includes RAC/SPA sites 26, 28, 51, caretta), green turtle ( Chelonia mydas) 52 and 55 (Appendix Table 3.1). The in small numbers; the leatherback tur- Aegean Sea is one of the most impor- tle (Dermocbelys coriacea) is extremely tant locations in the region for the rare. In addition, there are many spe- small remaining population of the en- cies of marine birds and some impor- dangered Mediterranean monk seal tant groups of dolphins present. There (Monacbus monachus). The area is are no protected areas and the area also the site of nesting beaches for en- should be a priority for the estab- dangered marine turtles such as the log- lishment of an MPA, particularly since gerhead ( Caretta caretta) and green the seagrass meadows are endangered (Chelonta mydas) turtles. Apart from by the discharge at sea of phospho- those mentioned above, numerous gypsum residues. Although these out- other species are present, in particular falls have been practically stopped, the species entering the Mediterranean residues are still covering large areas through the Suez Canal or from the and their transport by currents endan- Black Sea. Within this area there are ger other areas. three existing MP As in Turkey, as yet ..,. Gulf of Sirte seagrass meadows: Cover- only one area in Greece. ing RAC/SPA site 39 (Appendix Table ..,. Western Mediterranean North for pro- 3.1), this area is located in Libyan tection of international water for ceta- coastal waters (31-33°N, 23-27°E) and ceans: This area includes RAC/SPA includes the second largest Mediterra- sites 21 and 54 (Appendix Table 3.1) nean seagrass meadows. The area is an and is located off the southern coast of important nesting and feeding area for France and the northwest coast of Italy marine turtles and a nesting island for and Corsica. This is the area of highest the Sandwich tern (Sterna sandvwicer,,- concentration of whales and dolphins, sis). The seagrass meadows are signifi- with all Mediterranean species present, cant because they contain some rare · and it is also. the site of 38 percent of species that are endemic to this area or the total fish catch for the Mediterra- extinct in other areas of the Mediterra- nean. Large numbers of dolphins and nean. Noteworthy species include sea- whales are kille~ in these fishing activi- grass (Posidonea oceanica and Zostera ties. Noteworthy species include small marina), loggerhead turtle (Caretta dolphins (Stene/la cocrulcoalka, Del- caretta), green turtle (Chelonia my- phinus de/phis, Tursiops tnmcatus), das), Sandwich tern (Sterna sand- large dolphins (Globicepha/a melaena, 100 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Grampus griseus, Orcinus orca), and pie, in Turkey, protected areas include more large cetaceans (rare) (Physeter coto- than 25 percent of the Mediterranean coast- don, Balaenoptera physalus). Prelimi- line, in France more than 21 percent. A simi- nary agreement has been reached on lar effort in all the countries would the matter between France, Italy and correspond to 12,500 kilometers. However, Monaco. most of these areas include only terrestrial or wetland environments. A much stronger Existing Marine Protected Areas include: effort is required for the marine environ- ,... Port Cros (France) ment. Of the 200,000 hectares included in ,... Scandola (France,_ Corsica) MPAs, more than 50 percent is located in ,... Monaco-Latvotto Turkey. Action is required to ensure the con- ,... Red Coral (Monaco} . setvation of important species such as sea- grasses, monk seal turtles and small The project could cover only the interna- cetaceans. In some cases international ma- tional waters of this area with corridors link- rine protected areas will provide the only so- ing these MPAs. There is a potential role for lution. the General Council for Mediterranean Fish- eries. International cooperation and action Selection ofAreas for Protection by individual countries is required to estab- lish protected areas and other measure~ to The Mediterranean Task Force organized by ensure the protection of whale and dolphin the Tunis Center and IUCN (RAC/SPA/UNEP- species, particularly from the effects of IUCN/COE) has been responsible for identifi- fishing. cation of priority sites for marine protected areas in the Mediterranean region. The crite- Other Recommendations ria and process. used by the Task Force closely correspond to those used by IUCN. Generaily speaking, the coasts of the Medi- The initial step was the identification of all terranean Sea and their adjacent marine wa- the sites of interest for each country, using ters constitute one of the greatest assets. of ~ll existing kno~ledge. In France, this was the Mediterranean countries. The prospec- unqertaken within the framework of the Pro- tive studies of the Blue Plan show in particu- gram ZNlEFF, and in Tunisia, Syria, and part lar that all southern and eastern · of Libya through the UNEP/MAP/SPA pro- Mediterranean countries, with the possible grams. In other countries such a methodol- exception of Turkey, are or will soon be net ogy has been followed by different NGOs food importers and will -need increasing .· and under international conventions for spe- amounts of foreign currency for their bal- cific species or areas (birds, seals, turtles, ance of payments, a large portion of which wetlands, and seagrasses meadows). In par- will have to come from tourism. This Medi- ticular in Turkey, DHKD and WWF have terranean tourism relies primarily upon a completed a census of marine turtle nesting good management of coastal areas, includ- beaches and recommended to the govern- ing protection of landscapes and ecosystems ment 17 priority sites. For marine vegetation, and safe bathing waters. Protection. of the a req data book of Mediterranean marine coasts and of marine waters· in therefore a vege~tion and seascape generated by vege- major economic imperative in addition to an tation has been prepared by an expert environmental concern. group and sites recommended for protection. Some of the Mediterranean countries have A final regional list of priority sites was made a significant effort for the creation of prepared by the Task Force during four protected areas along the coast. For exam- meetings in 1987--88. A review of the situ- Marine Region 3: Mediterranean 101 ation was prepared by the SPA/RAC in 1993. Spain there· is a pressing need for capable Its conclusions are of a mixed character. and qualified management staff. At present there are few training opportunities for the Establishment management of marine protected areas, apart from the exchange of staff members in The creation of marine and coastal protected a few isolated examples. Training on man- areas requires new approaches to legislation agement of marine turtle nesting beaches ex- at the national level. In particular, the ists in Cyprus, with the support of the authorities competent for terrestrial, marine RAC/SPA-UNEP, on marine vegetation in and freshwater areas are very often sepa- Banyuls (France). Training on the latter is rated, and the creation of a protected area also under development in Tunisia. Projects covering these three domains can need at are under way to establish training facilities least the intervention of three ministries, if in a rescue center for the Mediterranean not more. The same problem occurs for man- monk seal in France; and a training center agement and implementation of regulations. for management of marine and coastal pro- tected areas is under examination by WWF Management (to be iocated in Miramare National Park, It- aly). All these activities are being monitored A broad overview of the existing marine pro- by the network ~f managers of Mediterra- tected areas in the Mediterranean marine re- nean protected areas (MEDPAN) within the gion shows that at least 50 percent do not framework ofMETAP. MEDPAN follows a have real management, defined as including policy of collecting and exchanging informa- permanent, capable and qualified staff, ~ tion between managers (defining priority budget, and a management plan (Batisse subjects to be tackled very quickly) and of and De Grissac 1991). A major effort is twinning and exchange of professional staff needed in this area: staffing needs and the and will support the development of train- necessary budget should be defined in the ing activities relevant to management. law establishing the protected area or in the general law covering national parks and pro- Conclusion tected areas. Some countries in the Mediter- ranean (Greece and Italy in particular) have The review of the existing system of pro- given the management of particular areas to tected areas in the Mediterranean marine re- NGOs with successful results. This could be gion shows important disparities between developed further in the future. the different·countries and ec6-geographic . In addition, managers need to have reli- subregions. In spite of the real progress that able and quick answers to technical matters has been made over the past few years, dealing with the day-to-day, medium and thanks in particular to the Mediterranean Ac- long-term management. Management-ori- tion Plan, there is still no comprehensive net- ented research must be a priority, including work of MPAs to ensure the p~otection of the definition of indicators and key species. endangered and threatened endemic species Exchanges of Mediterranean and extra-Medi- and habitats of the Mediterranean itself and terranean experience~ should also be a high of.the l'llack Sea, and it is. not likely that priority. a such network can be established in the near future iri view of the ~ilftculties facing Training a number of countries in the overall r~gion. There is no real ne.twork or system of MPAs Within the overall Mediterranean region and such a system is urgently required to en- with the exception of France, Italy and sure the survival of endemic, endangered 102 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas and threatened species of the region and the The future of marine conservation in the conservation of all marine habitats and eco- overall Mediterranean marine region is systems. uncertain. Increasing coastal populations, Although the total area protected along expanding tourism activities and other the coast is more than 1. 7 million hectares, developments are placing ever increasing the focus of existing protected areas is pressure on the marine environment. How- mainly on coastal terrestrial features. Only ever, with more intensive regional coopera- 0.2 million hectares (about 11 percent of the tion and increased international assistance, total area included in coastal protected ar- existing trends could be altered. New meth- eas) of the marine environment is included odologies for developing an MPA system within protected areas. and new ways to increase budget allocations A major issue for most. countries of the re- to conservation and protection are being ex- gion is the lack of management for at least plored by some countries in and out of the 50 percent of the existing areas, due to the Mediterranean and could be pursued in or- lack of suitable legislation, institutions and a der to accelerate this process. shortage of trained staff. Marine Region 3: Mediterranean 103 Appendix Priority Areas for the Establishment of MPAs in the Mediterranean Marine Region (RAC/SPA) Country Site (and Number on Map 3) Algeria Chenoua (3) El Kala (4) Gouray:a (5) Iles Hablibas (6) Peninsule de Callo (7) Taza (8) Croatia Estuaire de la Neretva (1 S) Cyprus Lagune d'Akrotiri, Marais de Limassoi (17) Peninsule d'Akamas (18) Egypt El Ksar (19) Lac de Manzailah (20) Ras El Hekma (21) Salum (22) Sidi Barani (23) France Archipel des Iles d'Hyeres (29) Calanques de Marseille (30) Diana-Urbino (31) Etang de Thau (32) Lagune de Bages/Sigean (33) Greece Golfe d'Amvrakikos (36) Ile de Kephalonia (37) Ile de Zakinthos (38) Iles des Sporades (39) Lac de Portolagos ( 40) International (France/Italy) Detroit de Bonifacio ( 42) International ( Greece/furkey) Delta Meric-Evros ( 43) Italy Archi~l des Pontines (57) Golfe d'Orosel (58) Peninsule de Sinis (59) Libya Garahbulli (60) Lagune de Farwah (62) Leptis magna (63) Sabratha magnum (64) Sirte ma&J!um (65) Soussa (66) Morocco Al Hoceima (67) Lagune de Nador (68) Spain Cerrillos (81) Guardamar (82) Ibiza Formentera (83) Iles Chaffarinas (84) Lagune d'Alicante (85) Mar Menor (86) Tarifa (87) Syria Om'Attouyour (88) Tunisia Archipel de la Galite (91) Iles cfes Kerkennah (93) Iles Kneiss (94) Iles Kuriates (95) Lagune d'el Biban (96) Lagune de Thyna (97) Turkey Delta du Ceyhan (106) Delta de Dalyan 007) Delta de Menderes (108) Peninsule de l'Halikamasse (109) 104 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas BIBUOGRAPHY Grenon, M., and Batisse M. 1989. 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MARINE REGION 4 Northwest Atlantic Claude Mondor, Francine Mercier, Miles Croom, and Robert Wolotira . _..... - , ; . ~~ .. f. · · - - - - - ···,··s111 BIOGEOGRAPHY AND MARINE mass dominates, becoming Subarctic in na- BIODIVERSITY ture as it encounters the Pacific water along the Beaufort Sea in the west ·and the increas- The Northwest Atlantic Marine Region ex- ing admixture of Atlantic water from the tends from Cape Hatteras along the eastern West Greenland Current as it forms the Lab- coast of the United States, northward to L~n- rador Current off Hudson Strait in the east. caster Sound at the north end of Baffin Is- By the time the cold Labrador Current meets land, and then westward to the Bering Strait the warm Gulf Stream along the continental in Alaska. It includes the Mid Atlantic Sea- margin, yery little Arctic water remains, lead- board, Chesapeake Bay, Gulf of Maine, Bay ing to a fully temperate water mass off the of Fundy, Scotian Shelf, Gulf of St. eastern US coast. Primary productivity in the Lawrence, Grand Banks, Labrador Sea, Hud- northern portion of the marine region is less son Bay, James Bay, Lancaster Sound, Vis- than one fifth that of the southern half. Tidal count Melville Sound, the Beaufort Sea, and range varies widely within the region, with a the Chukchi Sea to the. Bering Strait. maximum of 12 meters in the Bay of Fundy and Ungava Bay, decreasing to the north, south and west to a minimum of 0.3 meters Oceanography in the Beaufort Sea. Overall circulation pat- terns are tidally dominated along the Atlantic The region's oceanography is varied and coast while they are primarily ice-con- complex, with three distinct water masses: strained in the Arctic, influenced by winds, Arctic, Subarctic and Temperate, which vary estuarine currents and tides during ice-free in temperature, salinity, seasonal ice cover, periods. From Labrador south the continen- vertical stability, productivity and species di- tal shelf is very wide, typically greater than versity. Throughout most of the northern 100 kilometers in width and often greater portion of the marine region the Arctic water than 400 kilometers. To the north, the 200 105 106 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas meter isobath is generally close to shore, ex- Ecosystem and Species Diversity cept in the inland seas and the Beaufort Sea. Further information is provided in the de- Ecosystems of importance to overall marine scriptions of the individual biogeographic biodiversity that are found within the North- zones. west Atlantic Marine Region include polyn- yas, recurrent shore lead systems and ice edge habitats; tidal marshes and eelgrass Coastal Geography and Geology beds; sand and mudflats; upwelling and mix- ing areas; and intertidal, subtidal, midwater The marine region has been shaped by vari- and benthic habitats. ous episodes of volcanic activity, metamor- Information summarizing ecosystem and phism, glaciation, erosion and mountain species diversity is provided in the descrip- building, resulting in a wide range of coastal tions of the individual biogeographic zones. landforms and reliefs, from steep fjord coast- Rare and endangered species in the region lines, to cliffs and headlands, gently rolling are listed in Table 4.1 below. lowlands, rocky and sandy shorelines, wide tidal flats, estuaries, deltas and permanent ice fields. Coastal relief is highest in the Biogeographic Classification northeast, gradually decreasing to the west and south and ranging from O meters along The subdivision of the Northwest Atlantic the featureless flats of Hudson Bay and Foxe Marine Region into biogeographic zones suit- Basin to over 1,000 meters along the fjord- able for planning a global system of .marine strewn coast of eastern Baffin Island. The protected areas is problematic b,ecause it em- eastern half of the marine region has a com- braces diverse bio-oceanographic features, plex, heavily indented coastline dotted with including waters that many researchers numerous islands, becoming less complex to consider as falling within the marine Arctic the south and west. The Arctic section of the Marine Region. In order to accommodate marine region is a sheltered environment, this diversity in a systematic manner, a hier- while the Atlantic portion is predominantly a archial framework was arbitrarily devised storm-wave environment. Resistant Precam- whereby the Marine Region was subdivided brian Canadian Shield granites dominate into smaller and smaller regions based upon most of the marine region. South of the Lab- major oceanographic characteristics, for rador coast, deformed sedimentary and vol- example, water masses and seasonal vari- canic rocks of Precambrian and Lower ation in ice cover. Paleozoic age predominate, mixed with In order to extend its usefulness, the zona- younger sedimentary rock formations along tion proposed in this report is derived from the U.S. coast and in the Bay of Fundy and the frameworks in current use for planning southern Gulf of St. Lawrence. In western the network of National Marine Conserva- Hudson and James bays, the Canadian tion Areas in Canada and marine Biosphere Shield is replaced by unfolded, unresistant Reserves in the United States. It is essentially sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic age, mainly a grouping of these regions into larger subdi- limestones, while the Beaufort Sea area is visions with similar oceanographic and bio- dominated by unconsolidated Tertiary and logical characteristics that are meaningful at Quaternary sediments. a global scale. Further information is provided in the de- The Northwest Atlantic is subdivided into scriptions of the individual biogeographic three second order subdivisions based on zones. the classification scheme developed by Dun- Marine Region 4: Northwest Atlantic 107 Table 4.1 Rare, Endangered and Threatened Species in the Northwest Atlantic Marine Region · Species Canada• United Statesb Marine Mammals Beluga whale (Delphinapterns leucas) St. Lawrence ·ruver ,I Ungava Bay ,I Southeast Baffin Island ,I Cumberland Sound ,I Eastern Hudson Bay ,I Eastern High Arctic Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) ,I Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus) ,I ,I Fin whale (Balaenoptera physa/us) ,I Harbour porpoise (Phocoena pbocoena) Western Atlantic ,I Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) Atlantic ,I Polar bear ( Ursus maritimus) Right whale (Eubalaena glactalis) ,I Sei whale (Balaenoptera oorea/is) ,I Sperm whale (Physeter catodon) ,I Sowerby's Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon bidens) Marine-associated Birds Bald eagle (Haliaetus leucocephalus) Eskimo curlew (Numenius borealis) ,I Harlequin duck (Histrionicus histrionicus) Eastern ,I Ivory gull (Pagophila eburnea) Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) ,I ,I Piping plover ( Cbaradrius melodus) ,I ,I Least tern (Sterna antillarum) ,I Roseate tern (Sterna dougallt) ,I ,I Reptiles Atlantic ridley turtle (Lepidocbelys kempii) ,I Leatherback turtle (Dermocbelys coriacea) ,I ,I Loggerhead turtle ( Caretta caretta ,I Fish Acadian whitefish ( Coregonus canadensis) ,I Bering wolffish (Anarhichas orientalis) ,I Blackline prickleback (Acantholumpenus mackayh ,I Shortnose sturgeon (Acipenser brevirostrum) ,I Note: The table indicates where a species of a specific location or population is ·endangered or threatened. a. Recognized as endangered or threatened by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. b. Recognized as endangered or threatened under the Endangered Species Act of the United States. bar (1951 and 1972) that utilizes "water Second Order Subdivisions mass" (temperature, salinity, and biological indicators) as the principal criterion for re- Polar Subdivision gional differentiation. The subdivisions are This subdivision includes marine areas cov- zoned latitudinally from north to south and ered by Arctic water only, which originates include the Polar, Subpolar, and Eastern from the upper 200-300 meters of the Arctic Temperate. Basin and has flowed south through the Ca- 108 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas nadian Arctic Archipelago. Although much cept for floes and icebergs from the north; of this water is itself of Atlantic origin, it has vertical instability of the water column; oc- undergone a polar change such that its salin- currence of a second phytoplankton bloom ity and temperature has decreased, and is in the fall; and a more diverse fauna than recognizable as a distinct water mass (Dun- the Polar subdivision but less so than in the bar 1951). Many marine scientists would Temperate (Dunbar 1972). Also, as this zone likely consider this subdivision as part of the is formed by the mixing of two water Arctic Realm proper, and not the Northwest masses, it is sensitive to changes in either Atlantic. one and its boundaries may well fluctuate The Polar subdivision is the least produc- considerably over periods of a few years. tive of the second order subdivisions be- cause of the vertical stability of its water Eastern Temperate Subdivision column, and has the poorest faunal diver- For the purpose of this report, this subdivi- sity. Another principal distinguishing feature sion includes the Grand Banks of Newfound- of this zone is that it is ice covered through- land, the Scotian Shelf, the Bay of Fundy, out much of the year. Normally, open water Gulf of Maine and the waters southward to (less than 2/10 ice cover) is present for a Cape Hatteras. Also referred to as the "Bo- two to three month period during the sum- real" zone, this subdivision is dominated by mer, although an ice-dominated zone where a southwest-flowing, coastal current sup- open water is rare year-round occurs in Vis- plied with cold, low salinity water from the count Melville Sound. The southern limit of Subarctic Labrador Current, which flows the Polar subdivision is placed at the north- south from the Labrador Sea and around ern tip of Labrador along the east-facing At- Cape Race at the southeastern tip of New- lantic coasts, and at the Beaufort Sea/ foundland. This coastal current intermixes Chukchi Sea in the western part of the with the northeasterly eddies originating Realm. These boundaries approximate Dun- from the deeper offshore waters of the bar's 0972) Arctic-Subarctic water mass warm Gulf Stream. The resultant water mass boundary. Other researchers, such as Briggs determines the nature of the fauna that occu- 0977), place the southern boundary of the pies the broad continental shelf of this subdi- Arctic along the Atlantic coast at the Strait of vision. There is essentially no admixture of Belle Isle. Arctic water in this region. Subpolar or Subarctic Subdivision This is a broad area characterized by a mix- Third Order Subdivisions ture of Arctic waters (originating from the upper 200-300 meters of the Arctic Basin) The third order subdivisions are based on and non-Arctic water masses, either Pacific the identification of marginal sea areas or Atlantic. The Pacific Subarctic is restricted within the Polar, Subpolar and Eastern Tem- to a zone from the Bering Strait to the Alas- perate divisions. An additional boundary is kan north coast and the southern Beaufort also introduced to separate the Polar ice- Sea. In the Atlantic sector, the subdivision in- dominated zone from those areas with two cludes the marginal seas fronting the east- to three months of open water. A total of facing coasts of Labrador and ten marine biogeographic zones are recog- Newfoundland, as well as the Gulf of St. nized at this level of the hierarchy, including Lawrence (Dunbar 1972). four Polar subdivisions (Viscount Melville Some important features of this subdivi- Sound, Lancaster Sound, Hudson Strait, and sion are: the lack of ice cover in summer, ex- Hudson-James Bay), three Subpolar (North Marine Region 4: Northwest Atlantic 109 Slope/Beaufort Sea, Labrador Shelf, and Gulf Polar Biogeograpbic Zone 1: Viscount of St. Lawrence), and three Eastern Temper- Melville Sound ate subdivisions (Grand Banks/Scotian Shelf, The mainland is primarily comprised of Pre- Ac;adian and Virginian). These marginal sea cambrian Canadian Shield granites, whereas subdivisions are reasonably consistent with less resistant sedimentary rocks of Lower Pa- the marginal sea areas defined by Hayden, leozoic age, mainly limestones, dominate on Ray, and Dolan 0982). the islands. The coast is generally flat, with For Canadian waters, the Marine Regions a mixture of straight shorelines dominated of Canada framework (Woodward-Clyde by coarse sediment beaches and cliffs, and Consultants 1983) represents a subdivision crenulated coastlines with numerous inlets one order greater than the proposed IUCN and estuaries. Sand beaches and mudflats classification. Similarly, the North occur locally around deltas. Raised beaches Slope/Beaufort, Virginian and Acadian bio- are common, as are ice-push and ice over- geographic zones in U.S. waters have also ride features. Coastal relief is low overall, been subdivided into fourth order regions with cliffs rarely exceeding 20 meters in by the United States in the Man and the Bio- height. sphere Programme for planning their system The zone is characterized by deep chan- of marine biosphere reserves (Agardy 1988; nels along its northern margin, and shallow McCormick-Ray, Ray, and Gregg 1988). basins averaging less than 100 meters in Map 4 illustrates the suggested hierarchial depth and shoaling progressively toward the subdivision of the Northwest Atlantic Marine- Keewatin coast in the south. Depths range Region into ten biogeographic zones. This is from less than 100 meters in the Gulf of followed by a summary of the important Boothia, to 300-,.500 meters in M'Clintock oceanographic and biological features of Channel, M'Clure Strait and Viscount each of the biogeographic zones. Melville Sound. Ice cover is complete from The descriptions provided follow a stand- October to June and broken ice persists dur- ard format. The first part provides an over- ing the summer. A highly variable and unpre- view of the biogeographic zone's coastal dictable ice regime is characteristic of this characteristics. This is followed by a discus- portion of the Northwest Passage. Ice-re- sion of some of the dominant oceano- lated habitats are prevalent year-round. graphic features and processes influencing Mean tidal range is less than 1 meter. This is the regional fauna, than the fauna itself. The a very sheltered environment with little fauna} listings are limited to fish, birds and wave activity in most areas. cetaceans, the more ''visible" elements of the Arctic cod, sculpins, eelpouts and snailfish marine environment. An attempt has also are the most common fish species. Whales been made to note regional species concen- are rare. Ringed seals and polar bears are trations that are considered of national or the only common marine mammal frequent- global importance. ing the area. Thousands of tundra swans, The descriptions for the Polar and Subpo- brant, white-fronted, Ross's, snow and Can- lar marine subdivisions, which lie primarily ada geese breed, moult and stage. in the in Canadian waters, are based in large part southern part of the zone, with the largest on the excellent work of Mercier 0990). concentrations within the Queen Maud Gulf Those for the Eastern Temperate zones have Bird Sanctuary. been borrowed from the work of the Na- tional Marine Sanctuary program resource Polar Biogeograpbic Zone 2: Lancaster Sound classification (Salm and Clark 1984), Briggs Precambrian Shield rocks dominate the 0974), and Wolotira (in prep). outer Baffin Bay coast, while Lower Paleo- 110 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas zoic unfolded, relatively unresistant sedimen- 370,000 pairs of northern fulmars (95 per- tary rocks, primarily limestones, are found in cent of the Canadian population) and 82,000 the inner coastal areas of Jones and Lancas- pairs of black-legged kittiwakes (50 percent ter sounds. The region's shore is dominated of the Canadian population) as well as sev- by 30~1,000 meters high cliffs, interspersed eral thousand pairs of black guillemots, Arc- with coastal plains and lowlands. Permanent tic terns and glaucous, Sabine's and Thayer's ice fields are prominent on east Devon and gulls. Large colonies of greater snow geese Ellesmere Island, and icebergs occasionally are located on Bylot Island and in Bernier calve into the sea from the extensive tidewa- Bay, and several crucial waterfowl and ter glaciers. Spectacular fjords are found shorebird staging and moulting areas are south of Eclipse Sound and along east Elles- found in the zone. Ice edge staging areas mere and Baffin islands. are prevalent and critical to all species prior Depth of the sounds and straits increases to reaching their breeding sites. along a general NW-SE axis through the zone, averaging from 100-600 meters. Ice Polar Biogeographic Zone 3: Hudson Strait cover is nearly complete from October to Precambrian resistant Canadian Shield rocks June. The unique North Water, the largest dominate this zone. This bedrock coast is polynya in the Canadian Arctic, is located in typically indented with numerous inlets, is- northern Baffin Bay. Tidal range varies from lands, sounds, bays and a few fjords. Cliffs 1 to 3 meters. The outer coastal areas are and headlands often rise abruptly 200-300 predominantly sheltered environments as a meters from the sea along Davis and Hud- result of the complex coastline, and the in- son Straits. Ungava Bay and Foxe Basin are ner portion of the marine zone is a very shel- predominantly low-lying, with extensive tered environment. coastal marshes and tidal flats.up to 6.5 kilo- Primary and secondary productivity are meters in width. 10 times greater here than in any other Whereas the Strait is predominantly deep zone of the Canadian Arctic. Some 30 fish and undersea cliffs and canyons are com- species have been reported for this zone, mon, Foxe Basin and Ungava Bay are broad, with Arctic charr and Arctic cod being the predominantly shallow basins, generally less most abundant. This zone is of critical im- than 100-150 meters in depth. Tidal range portance to marine mammals, with most of varies from 1 to 5 meters in Foxe Basin and the world's narwhal, a third of North Amer- 3 to 9 meters in the Strait, giving this marine ica's belugas and the endangered eastern zone the greatest tides in the Arctic, with a population of the bowhead whale migrat- maximum of 12 meters in the southwest sec- ing through and summering in the zone. tor of Ungava Bay where the world's second Major narwhal and beluga summering and highest tides are recorded. The large tidal calving areas occur throughout the zone amplitudes and the restricted confines of and killer whales are frequent summer visi- most of the fjords, inlets and narrows, com- tors. Ringed and bearded seals, walrus and bine to create whirlpools, tidal rips, rapid polar bears are common residents of these currents, tidal mixing and upwelling through- waters, and several major polar bear mater- out much of the zone. The ice-free period nity denning areas are found within the lasts 2-4 months and ice cover is charac- zone. Large numbers of harp seals migrate terized by large areas of landfast ice and into the area. pack ice during the October to June period. About one-third of eastern Canada's colo- Several recurring polynyas and shore leads nial seabirds breed in this region, including are present in the zone. Icebergs are a famil- over 586,000 pairs of thick-billed murres (39 iar sight along east Baffin Island and in east- percent of the Canadian population), ern Hudson Strait. Most of the marine zone Marine Region 4: Northwest Atlantic 111 is a sheltered to very sheltered environment, area. In the remainder of the marine zone, though the eastern areas are exposed to Lab- unfolded, unresistant sedimentary rocks of rador Sea storms. Lower Paleozoic age form an extremely low Over 60 Arctic, Subarctic and Atlantic ma- lying coast characterized by a vast flat and rine fish species, 9 anadromous and 8 fresh- drowned expanse of muskeg swampland, water fish species have been recorded in the backed by marshes and fronted by extensive region. Abundant species include Arctic tidal flats reaching 9 kilometers in width. charr, sculpins, sea snails, Greenland hali- Deltas, estuaries and raised beaches are but, ogac and Arctic cod. This region is an prominent features in the zone. important summering area for bowhead This zone is a broad shallow basin, aver- whales and three endangered beluga whale aging 125 meters in depth and less than 80 populations. This is also one of two known meters deep for 20-100 kilometers from North American concentration areas for the coast. The bottom topography is pre- northern bottlenose whales. Large numbers dominantly gentle, although it is cut by sev- of beluga, bowhead and narwhal winter in eral submarine valleys, banks, troughs, the open waters of eastern Hudson Strait ridges and channels. The main water mass and the open pack ice of Davis Strait. The is Arctic in nature. Ice cover lasts from Oc- smaller polynyas in northern Foxe Basin sup- tober to June. During the winter, shore port high densities of bearded seals, ringed leads are present along the entire inner seals and the largest walrus herd in Canada, edge of the bay and are kept open by on a year-round basis. Polar bears are abun- strong prevailing winds. The annual fresh- dant, north Southampton Island constituting water discharge into Hudson Bay is over the highest density denning area in Canada. twice that of either the Mackenzie or St. Over 775,000 pairs of thick-billed murres, Lawrence River systems, lowering surface some 52 percent of the Canadian popula- salinities significantly during the summer, tion, breed in several colonies in the region. particularly in James Bay. Mean tidal ampli- Black guillemots, black-legged kittiwakes, tude ranges from 0.3 meters in the north- glaucous, Thayer's, Iceland and herring east to 2-3 meters along the southern gulls, northern fulmars, tundra swans and shore to 4 meters iQ. the northwest. common eiders are also abundant. Hudson Some fifty freshwater, anadromous, and Strait is of critical importance as a feeding Arctic and Subarctic marine fish species use and staging area for alcids, gulls and eiders, the waters of the zone. Arctic charr, Arctic while the Button Islands are a critical eider cod and ogac are abundant. Upwards of wintering area. The Great Plain of the 23,000 beluga summer along the west coast Koukdjuak along east Foxe Basin is the of the bay, with the densest concentrations world's largest goose nesting colony, with in the Nelson River and Churchill River estu- upwards of 1.5 million birds, 75 percent of aries-a smaller endangered population is which are lesser snow geese and the remain- found along the east coast. Narwhal and der Canada geese and Atlantic brant. bowhead are rarely observed. Ringed and bearded seals are common throughout the Polar Biogeographic Zone 4: Hudson-James zone, while small populations of harbor Bay seals and walrus are found in isolated locali- The eastern and northwest coasts of Hudson- ties. Polar bears are abundant throughout James Bay are predominantly Precambrian the zone and in autumn congregate in large Canadian Shield rocks· and are typically low, numbers on Cape Churchill to await the arri- rocky and indented with small islands and val of the ice. Important denning and sum- inlets. Maximum cliff heights are on the or- mer retreat areas are located along much of der of 500 meters in the Richmond Gulf the west and southwest coasts. 112 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas The Hudson-James Bay tidal flats and in- fluence is minimal. The zone is generally ice land marsh areas harbor some of the world's covered from October through June, with an largest concentrations of breeding and stag- ice-free season of 1-4 months, depending ing shorebirds and waterfowl. Over 320,000 on the year. Landfast ice extends 20.:So kil0;- pairs of lesser snow geese (half the Eastern meters from shore, with pack ice elsewhere. Arctic population) breed in the zone,· as well The Cape Bathurst polynya and shore lead' as considerable numbers of Canada geese, system along the North Slope provide large brant, oldsquaws, eiders and loons. The area areas of open water early in the year that · is also critical to moult~g waterfowl. This are critical to marine mammals and spring zone is of international importance to the staging birds. The Beaufort Sea area of the red knot and Hudsonian godwit, and is of marine zone is strongly influenced by the critical importance to several other species large freshwater output of the Mackenzie of migrating shorebirds. One of the largest River that reduces salinities over a wide area breeding concentrations of peregrine falcons due to the shallow depths. known in the world is found along the north- The North Slope/Beaufort Sea Zone has west coast. The Hudson Bay subspecies of one of the most diversified fish faunas in the the common eider breeds and winters in the Arctic, with over 85 species present from 21 area. families. Of these, about 20 percent are anadromous, and an additional 10 percent Subpolar Biogeographic Zone 1: North are freshwater species that occur in this ma- Slope/Beaufort Sea · rine zone only in waters in or near riv.er Lower Cretaceous to Tertiary unconsolidated, mouths. There are many more Pacific-associ- sediments dominate along the Beaufort Sea ated species than Atlantic forms, probably , coast, while Lower Paleozoic sedimen~ry owing to a closer proximity of this zone to rocks, mainly limestones, are found around the Pacific-subpolar Bering Sea. Many fish Amundsen Gulf. The coast along this region species are relatively abundant, including is predominantly low-lying, with a coastal re- several sculpins and whitefish, Arctic charr, lief of less than 10 meters. The Beaufort Sea Arctic and saffron cods, ninespine stickle- coast is generally a drowned coastline, arid back, polar eelpout, and the diminutive A.re- any cliffs are low and subject to rapid retreat . tic alligator fish. This zone is of c;ritical due to constant erosion. The North Slope importance to marine mammals, with ap- and Amundsen Gulf are also mostly low-ly- proximately 75 percent of the world's re- ing, with intermittent areas of high, sheer maining population of bowhead whales and coastal cliffs. Common features found locally some 11,500 belugas migrating along the throughout the region include barrier North Slope and Beaufort Sea to summer in beaches, sand and gravel spits and bars, ex- Amundsen Gulf and in the Mackenzie Delta- tensive deltas, lagoons, estuaries, tidal flats, Tuktayuktuk Peninsula area. Polar bears and . continuous narrow gravel beaches, thaw ringed and bearded seals are abundant in lakes, tundra polygons and marshes. the area, making extensive use of the Along the North Slope, a broad shallow · polynya and shore leads during the winter. continental shelf borders the· coast and ex- This zone is one of the Arctic's most im:- tends as much as 100 kilometers offshore portant staging and breeding areas for ma- with depths of 10 meters or less not uncom- rine-associated birds 0V1er than true mon up to 30 kilometers from shore. Amund- seabirds. Large numbers of lesser snow sen Gulf is a large embayment, over 600 geese, white-fronted geese, Pacific brant and meters deep in the center, with several large tundra swans breed throughout the area and bays and relatively little shallow water. Most at least 23 species of shorebirds nest in the of the matjne_zone is very sheltered. Tidal in- coastal ar~s . The only b_reeding populations Marine Region 4: Northwest Atlantic 113 of black guillemots and thick-billed murres zone. Plaice, halibut and redftsh are also ih the Western Arctic are also found in this abundant, as are shrimp and snow crab. Har- zone. Important concentrations of moulting_ bor seals are resident, while ringed and geese, swan, and sea ducks occur through- bearded seals winter in the area, and harp out the coastal area. and hooded seals stage annual migrations along the coast and whelp in large concen- Subpolar Biogeograpbic Zone 2: Labrador trations along the northern ice edge off Shelf southern Labrador, producing over 60 per- Precambrian Canadian Shield granites domi- cent of all harp seal pups in the Northwest nate the Labrador coast, whereas SW-NE Atlantic. White-sided dolphins, northern bot- trending volcanic and sedimentary rocks of tlenose, sperm, blue, fin, sei, minke, hump- Upper Proterozoic to Lower Paleozoic age back, pilot and killer whales are summer shape the Newfoundland coast. The coast is visitors to the area. Bowhead and narwhal highly irregular, characterized by resistant · winter off the northern Labrador coast. Small cliffs and headlands ranging in height from numbers of polar bears are also found in the 200-500 meters, with spectacular fjords, northern sector of the zone. deeply incised valleys, innumerable coastal This zone has the greatest concentra- islands, bays and inlets. Intertidal boulder tions of breeding seabirds in the Atlantic re-: flats and boulder barricades are abundant, gion-over 5,000,000 pairs, dominated by and small deltas, mudflats and marshes oc- Leach's storm-petrels, Atlantic puffins, com- cur locally. The highest and most rugged mon murres, black-legged kittiwakes and mountains of eastern North America are Northern gannets, with lesser numbers of found in northern coastal Labrador. razorbills, thick-billed murres, black The continental shelf area along the Labra-:- guillemots, common and Arctic terns, great dor and Newfoundland coasts is relatively black-backed, ring-billed and herring gulls, uniform, averaging 50-150 kilometers in and common eiders. The greater part of width, with depths of less than 70 meters up the Northwest Atlantic populations of to 2 kilometers from shore. Several offshore Leach's storm-petrels and common murres, banks extend to the edge of the steep conti- as well as a large portion of the North nental slope that rapidly reaches depths of American population of Atlantic puffins over 3000 meters. The open water season and razorbills breed along this coast. This lasts 2 months in the north and up to 10 zone is also a critical wintering area for months in the southern part of the zone. several species, primarily gulls, fulmars, During the winter, the fjords, bays and a nar-. shearwaters, alcids and sea ducks. row coastal zone are bound in landfast ice, while close pack ice extends 150-225 kilo- Subpolar Biogeograpbic Zone 3: Gulf of St. meters offshore. Icebergs are abundant and Lawrence occur year-round. There is a significant Arc- Along the north shore of this zone, Precam- tic water component within the main water brian Canadian Shield rocks form spectacu- mass of the zone. Mean tidal amplitude lar rocky coasts, indented by the ranges from 1-3 meters. Though the bays steep-sided Saguenay Fjord. Upper Paleo- are sheltered, the zone is mainly a very ex: zoic sedimentary rocks create the wide posed storm-wave environment. sandy beaches, barrier islands, coastal Some 90 species of Arctic and north tem- dunes, spits, narrow mixed-sediment and perate marine and anadromous fish are pocket beaches which are so plentiful in found in this zone. Important Atlantic cod, the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence. Lower Atlantic salmon, Arctic charr and capelin Paleozoic sedimentary rocks dominate the spawning areas are found throughout the rest of the zone, forming cliffs 100-150 me- 114 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas ters in height. Saltmarshes, bogs, estuaries back, pilot whales, and the only southern and tidal flats occur locally. population of beluga whales. Harbor seals Dominant features of this zone include are abundant throughout the region. One of the Laurentian Channel, a deep submarine the main whelping patches for harp and · valley of glacial origin ranging in depth from hooded seals is on the ice surrounding the 180-550 meters, and the Magdalene Shat-· Magdalen Islands, while grey seals breed in lows, a shallow enclosed sea with depths av- colonies on a number of islands throughout eraging less than 80 meters. Due to ·their the region, as well as on newly formed ice shallow depth, the Shallows contain the in Northumberland Strait and along western warmest marine waters in Canada, and sup- Cape Breton Island. port several genera of benthic marine algae Many of the zone's breeding seabird colo- that are more commonly found in the Virgin- nies are of national significance. Over 65 per- ian zone, as well as a relict population of cent of the North American Northern gannet oyster. The open water season lasts 7--8 population nests on Bonaventure Island. Ra- months on average, landfast ice being the zorbills, kittiwakes, Atlantic puffins, com- primary ice cover. The cold Labrador Cur- mon murres, black guillemots, great and rent and the large freshwater outflow of the double-crested cormorants, common, Arctic St. Lawrence River are the major factors influ- and roseate terns, storm-petrels, herring, encing the composition of the water col- great black-backed and ring-billed gulls, umn. The extensive upwelling at the mouth common eiders, ospreys and bald eagles are of the Saguenay River combines these two also abundant breeders. The Gulf is also criti- elements and leads to. the high productivity cal to the endangered piping plover, over 70 found in this zone. Mean tidal range varies percent of Atlantic Canada's population from 3-5 meters in the St. Lawrence estuary breeding here. Tens of thousands of geese, to 1-2 meters elsewhere. Most of the zone is sea ducks and shorebirds stage in coastal ar- a relatively sheltered environment, though eas during spring and fall. energy levels increase from northwest to southeast. Eastern Temperate Biogeographic Zone 1: Some 50-60 marine, freshwater and Grand Banks/Scotian Shelf anadromous fish species occur in the Gulf, Along the Scotian Shelf coast, Paleozoic forming a generally cold water fish fauna. metamorphic and igneous rocks overlain by Important stocks of capelin, cod, herring, At- a glacial till form a resistant low rocky shore' lantic salmon, halibut, redfish, plaice, had- where cliffs rarely exceed 10 meters. The dock, silver hake, pollock, flounder, and south coast of Newfoundland is dominated mackerel are found in the region. Because by volcanic and sedimentary rocks of the of its deep waters, the Laurentian Channel is same age that form rocky shores and bed- a major break separating several stocks of rock cliffs rising 150 meters and more from shallow water fish specie~. Lobster and scal- the sea and indented by fjords. Large embay- lops are abundant in the shallow coastal ar- ments and offshore islands (Sable Island be- eas, while shrimp are common in deeper ing the furthest from the coast) are common waters. Aquaculture is well established in throughout. Lagoons, tidal marshes and a the southernmost estuaries, bays and inlets few coarse sediment beaches have devel- of the region, concentrating on oysters, mus- oped in sheltered sections. sels, and clams. Over 20 species of cetace- The continental shelf extends up to 480 ans have been noted in the region, including kilometers from shore, and is less than 150 harbor porpoise, white-sided and white- meters deep over broad areas. The shelf is beaked dolphins, fin, minke, blue, hump- dominated by a series of shallow banks rang- Marine Region 4: Northwest Atlantic 115 ing in depth from 25-100 meters truncated Eastern .Temperate Biogeograpbic Zone 2: by a deep glacial. trough, the Laurentian Acadian Channel, to form the Grand Banks and the Resistant igneous and metamorphic rocks Scotian Shelf. The cold Labrador Current is ranging in age from Upper Proterozoic to the primary influence on the water column, Lower Mesozoic predominate in this zone, with the warm Gulf Str~am having an im- with sedimentary rocks at the head of the pact along the continental margin of the Sco- Bay of Fundy and along the southern por- tian Shelf. The region is generally ice free all tion of the Gulf of Maine. Low rocky shores winter, although landfast ice often forms in are the characteristic features of the marine sheltered bays and inlets between January zone throughout much of the Bay of Fundy and April. Icebergs are common in the east- and Maine coasts. Cliffs up to 200 meters in ern part of the region, mainly far offshore. height occur in the Bay of Fundy, but are Mean tidal amplitude ranges from 1-2 me- rare elsewhere. Extensive saltmarshes and in- ters. Intense storms are quite frequent, par- tertidal flats up to 5 kilometers in width oc- ticularly during the winter months, resulting cur in Minas Basin and Chignecto Bay at the in a very exposed storm-wave environment. northern end of the Bay of Fundy and south This biogeographic zone includes some of of Portland, Maine. Coastal sand dunes, bar- the most ·productive fishing grounds in the rier islands and long beaches are most com- world, with a well diversified fauna. Lobster, mon in the Cape Cod area. Much of the scallop, shrimp, snow crab, clams, squid, Maine coast is intricately carved with bays cod, haddock, hake, pollock, redfish, plaice, and inlets and numerous rocky islands, flounder, herring,· mackerel, tuna, argentine, while the Bay of Fundy and the southern swordfish and halibut are all abundant. coastline of the zone are more regular with Humpback, ·right, fin, blue, pilot, northern few indentations. bottlenose, and minke whales, harbor por- The zone is relatively shallow, generally poise and common and white-sided dol- less than 200 meters in depth and mostly be- phins are common. Harbor seals are tween 50-200 meters, with a very irregular year-round residents and grey seals breed bottom topography of shoals, banks, troughs on several islands, while hooded and harps and channels characterizing most of the seals are less frequently observed. zone, though the southern half of Georges The diversity of bird species breeding in Bank is a relatively smooth plain. The Bay the region is high, and includes herring and of Fundy is a 270 kilometers long, straight- greater black-backed gulls, Leach's storm- sided, generally funnel-shaped bay with an petrels, kittiwakes, Atlantic puffins, com- 80 kilometers wide mouth and two narrow mon: Arctic and Caspian terns, great and extensions at its head. The world's highest double-crested cormorants, common eiders, tides occur in the Bay of Fundy, with a razorbills, common and thick-billed murres, range of over 12 meters, while mean tidal black guillemots, semipalmated plovers and amplitude within the Gulf of Maine is on the least sandpipers. The largest Northern gan- order of 1-2 meters. Open water conditions net colony outside of Bonaventure Island is prevail year-round in the Gulf of Maine, at Cape St. Mary's. The largest North Ameri- while the large tidal range and intense mix- can concentration of breeding Atlantic puf- ing contribute to negligible sea ice. formation fins and Manx shearwater is found within within the Bay of Fundy. The main circula- this zone. Offshore waters are critical winter- tion pattern is a counterclockwise gyre ing areas for several species of seabirds, pri- around the Gulf of Maine, with a large marily shearwaters, gulls, sea ducks, and branch entering the Bay of Fundy along the alcids. Nova Scotia side and engendering a counter- 116 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas clockwise flow around the bay as well. The nates, and a low-lying coastal plain domi- region is affected by the cold nearshore Lab- nates to the south. Long sandy beaches, bar- rador Current and the warm offshore Gulf rier islands, pocket beaches, coastal lagoons, Stream, the former having the greatest influ- iarge and extensive estuaries (notably ence on the water column, particularly at Chesapeake Bay), mudflats and tidal depth. marshes characterize the zone. Biological productivity is exceptionally · The continental shelf is relatively broad, high. Lobster, clams, scallops and squid are narrowing substantially to the south and gen- abundant. Important stocks of herring, cod, tly sloping eastward to the outer edge where halibut, haddock, pollock, mackerel, hake it is cut by submarine canyons. Tidal ampli- and flounder occur in this zone. The highly tude is less than 1 meter and the region is endangered Atlantic right whale uses this ice-free year-round, though icing may occur zone extensively as nursery and feeding in protected areas. The warm Gulf Stream is grounds. Important concentrations of hump- a major influence in this biogeographic back, fin, minke, and pilot whales~ as well zone, with the Labrador current playing an as harbor porpoises and white-sided dol- important role. The interplay between these phins occur througho~t ·l?e zone. Harbor two currents creates a complex transition seals are resident and common, while grey zone with a cold water barrier at Cape Cod seals are found only in the outer Bay of and a warm water one at Cape Hatteras, Fundy. Leatherback turtles are common sum- both boundaries shifting north during the mer visitors to the Gulf of Maine. . . summer and south during the winter. This zone is critically important as a migra- As a result, the marine flora and fauna of tory staging area for millions of birds, par- this zone comprise both cold-water species ticularly shorebirds. The largest . · from the Acadian zone to the north and concentrations occur at the mouth of the warm-water ones originating from the Caro- Bay of Fundy and offshore into the Gulf of linian province to the south, with a higher Maine (red and red-necked phalaropes), the proportion of the latter. Of the more than mudflats at the head of the·Bay bf Fundy 250 fish species recorded from the zone, a and the Massachusetts coast (sandpipers, large majority are eurythermic tropical or plovers). The region is particularly important warm-temperate forms that have temporarily to semipalmated sandpipers, with 42-74 per- migrated into the area from the south, usu- cent of the world population staging at the ally during periods of high water tempera- head of the Bay of Fundy in the autumn in tures. Consequently, species diversity is high any given year. Sea ducks are common · with very few species being endemic to the along the coast of the Gulf of Maine. Off- zone. Productivity is moderate overall, and shore waters are important to other pelagic far less than that encountered north of Cape seabirds as well, including northern fulmars, Cod. The fish and shellfish species com- gulls, shearwaters, gannets, storm petrels monly found include oyster, blue and horse- and alcids. · · shoe crab, a variety of shark, skate and stingray species, menhaden, shad, alewife, Eastern Temperate Biogeograpbic Zone 3: cod, flounder, mackerel, herring, anchovy, Virginian · hake and tuna. · Resistant Paleozoic rocks characterize much Loggerhead, leatherback and Atlantic of the _central portion of this zone, while less ridley sea turtles are a common component resistant rocks predominate elsewhere. Late of the marine fauna and cetaceans are Pleistocene glaciation reached northern New widely distributed and occur year-round, Jersey, while the rema.inder of the region's though not in such impressive concentra- coasts were unaffected. Low relief predomi- tions as further north. Fin, sperm and pilot Marine Region 4: Northwest Atlantic 117 Table 4.2 Number of MPAs in the Table 4.3 Management Level of MPAs Northwest _Atlantic Marine R~gion in the Northwest Atlantic Marine Country Number ofMPAs Region Canada 46 Management Level Number ofMPAs United States 42 High 14 Total 88 Medium 74 Low 0 Note: All MPAs listed are 100 or more hectares in size. Total 88 whales, bottlenose, Risso's, and common and Atlantic white-sided dolphins are the Sanctuaries, Canadian National Marine more frequently observed species. The only Conservation Areas and the rµarine com- active breeding population of grey seals in ponents of Canadian Coastal National the eastern United States is located in this Parks and National Wildlife Areas are in- zone. Coastal areas such as Delaware Bay cluded in this category. and Chesapeake Bay are critical to large • Medium partially meets management ob- populations of staging and wintering water- jec_tives/purpose of e.stablishment. Area is fowl and shorebirds, and also provide impor- visited occasionally by the managing tant breeding sites for raptors and colonial agency to enforce regulations or monitor gulls and terns, including a significant por- status of wildlife· populations. Examples tion of the western Atlantic population of · of this level of management include Cana- royal terns. dian Migratory Bird Sanctuaiies and U.S. Nati~nal Wildlife Refuges and state Ocean Sanctuaries. AssESSMENT OF ExlsTING MPAs • Low generally fails to meet management objectives/purpose of establishment. The number and location of existing MPAs None of_ the manne protected areas in- are provided in Table 4.2 and Map 4, respec- cluded in this report fall within this cate- tively. gory. Management Effectiveness The· results of this asses~ment are shown in Table 4.3. The data indicate that the over- The level of management being provided at all managem~nt level of MPAs in the region each of the marine protected areas has been is moderate. A total of 74 MPAs (84 percent) assessed with respect to the protection· of were classified ~s having medium manage-: marine ecosystems and processes of the ment level, while a further 14 MPAs (16 per- Northwest Atlantic region. For the purposes cent) were classified as having high of this report, three categories of manage- management level. No MPAs were dassified ment effectiveness are distinguished, as de- as having a low· management level.. scribed below. These data should be viewed :within the • High generally meets management objec- context of the actual management objectives tives/purpose of establishment. Activities of the various designations of MPAs within permitted within the area are guided by a the region, which vary from areas aiming for management plan, which is existing or strict levels of protection to those allowing c~rrently under preparation. U.S. Marine for a variety of human uses. 118 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas The management effectiveness assigned to Marine Conservation Areas Policy by Parks a protected area assumes that all parts of it Canada. Commercial exploration, extraction have the same management level, and yet or development of nonrenewable resources this is clearly an over-simplification. Until and ocean dumping are not permitted each area can be categorized in detail, the in- within the marine conservation area. Fisher- ventory should be considered preliminary ies will continue in marine conservation ar- only. eas, subject to protecting the ecosystem, to maintaining viable fish stocks and to attain- Description of National MPA Systems ing the purpose and objectives of the conser- vation area. Indiscriminate methods of fishing and the use of gear which is destruc- tive to the sea bed will be minimized. A zon- Various levels of protection for MPAs exist ing system will provide increased protection in Canadian waters. At present, the only for sensitive areas, such as spawning agency with responsibility for the estab- grounds, breeding colonies, calving, resting, lishment and management of MPAs is Parks and feeding and wintering areas. Research Canada, through its National Marine Conser- will be permitted and aboriginal hunting and vation Areas System. The other programs fishing rights will be honored, subject to the mentioned below generally protect some ma- protection of the ecosystem and the mainte- rine waters as a means of. enhancing the pro- nance of viable populations of wildlife. A tection of a terrestrial component, rather zoning system provides for complete preser- than as a specific objective. One exception vation areas, low impact activity areas and is the National Wildlife Area program (the Is- multiple use areas. abella Bay proposal) that is beginning to delve into the protection of marine systems. National Parks with Marine Components: The main problems in establishing MPAs in IUCN Category II. Established under the Na- Canada lie in the multiplicity of jurisdictions tional Parks Act to represent the 39 natural that much be taken into consideration when regions of Canada. Several coastal National dealing with control of an.-area (federal, pro- Parks have a marine component, the vincial, aboriginal) or a particular activity boundaries of which are generally headland such as fishing or navigation (various federal · to headland. Managed by Parks Canada es- and provincial agencies). In addition the ac- sentially as in (a), although most fisheries tive cooperation of the local communities is are being or have been phased out in the an essential component and no MPA can be parks. effective without it. The heightened aware- ness of the need for MPAs, particularly by Provincial Parks: coastal communities, brought on by the col- IUCN Category II. Established under provin- lapse of a n~mber of fisheries is,one of the cial legislation. Only parks whose main man- greatest opportunities available to accelerate date involves the preservation or the establishment of various types of MPAs conservation of specific areas are included in Canadian waters. here. In general the same management prin- ciples as found in National Parks apply here National Marine Conseroation Areas: as well. IUCN Category II. Presently established un- der the National Parks Act (a National Ma- National Wildlife Area: rine Conseroation Areas Act is pending) to IUCN Category IV (Category I exception- represent one of the 29 marine regions of ally). Established under the Canada Wildlife Canada and managed as per the National Act to preserve and maintain important or Marine Region 4: Northwest Atlantic 119 unique lands for wildlife, particularly migra- tuaries protect habitat only incidentally. Hu- tory birds. Managed by the Canadian Wild- man activity is prevented in areas important life SeIVice with the emphasis placed on to breeding, nesting and moulting birds only habitat protection. National Wildlife Areas as long as the birds are present. Thus, while may be managed to increase the area's value these Sanctuaries protect sea and shorebirds, to wildlife. Many activities may be allowed they may not adequately protect habitat im- (such as grazing, hunting, fishing, research, portant to other marine species when migra- and recreation) on a case-by-case basis as tory birds are not present. long ~s these activities are deemed compat- Furthermore, while the role of provincially ible with wildlife research, conservation and protected areas is recognized as being impor- interpretation. Commercial exploration, ex- tant, environmentalists have expressed some traction or development of nonrenewable re- concerns about the type and extent of recrea- sources are generally prohibited. tional activities allowed in some sites de- voted to conservation. Migratory Bird Sanctuary: IUCN Category N. Established under the Mi- United States gratory Birds Convention Act to protect migra- tory birds. Managed by the Canadian Wildlife The designation of MPAs in the United States Service. Hunting or disturbance of migratory is a complicated matter of jurisdictional hier- birds or their nests and eggs is strictly prohib- archy (federal, state, or local), public sup- ited within these areas. Other activities (hunt- port and participation, availability of resources ing, agricultural, recreation, research, and so to implement effective management strate- forth) may be permitted as long as the birds gies, and resolution of conflicts among com- are not affected. Commercial exploration, ex- peting user interests. Typically, the federal traction or development of nonrenewable re- government designates the largest MPAs, fol- sources may be allowed under permit. lowed in order by states and then local juris- diction. However, the degree of protection Wildlife Management Areas: is not necessarily a function of size; in fact, IUCN Category N. Established under provin- often smaller MPAs, because of the vulner- cial or territorial legislation to protect impor- ability of the resources for which the MPA tant wildlife areas. Several uses may be was designated or because of the greater allowed under permit. ease in enforcement and management, have Existing MPAB in Canada include many ar- more stringent controls than do larger MPAs. eas which have both terrestrial and marine However, the practice of zoning within large components. In some cases, this marine com- MPAs is being incorporated into the manage- ponent is not the primary focus of manage- ment plans of the newer, larger MPAs. ment and the contribution of many of these sites to marine biodiversity conservation National Marine Sanctuaries: must be viewed with this in mind. There is IUCN Category II. At the federal level, the one entirely marine area, the Saguenay-St. identification, designation and management Lawrence Marine Park, which still requires of MPAs is achieved under the authority of the passage of legislation through the Cana- the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctu- dian federal and Quebec provincial govern- aries Act. This Act empowers the Secretary ments, although it currently operates as a of Commerce to designate discrete areas of marine conservation area. the marine environment for their conserva- While the Migratory Bird Sanctuaries are a tion, recreation, educational, ecological, his- powerful tool to protect nesting, breeding torical, research, and aesthetic values. The and moulting migratory species, these Sane- primary goal of designation is to protect sig- 120 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas nificant resources, although compatible and National Seashore: sustainable· uses 0f resources are allowecfin- IUCN Category IV.· Small marine buffer areas sofar as the primary goal 'of resource protec- are often part of National Seashores, a fed- tion is not compromised:: Over the twenty· eral program administered by the National year history of the National Marine Sanctu.:. Parl_tect and·. com- Ocean Sanctuaries ofMassachusetts: prehensively .manage sensitive ecosystems., IUCN Category V. Established under the All National Marine Sanctuaries have. si~~spe- Ocean Sanctuaries Act of Massachusetts, cific regulations to ensure the protectiqn of originally passed in 1970, its authority and special resources through controlled access regulatory powers were expanded in 1978, or use of renewable resources. Zoning of ar- 1984, 1989 and 1991. Designates five ocean eas for different purposes is being.imple- sanctuaries to "be protected from any· exploi- mented in the larger sanctuaries. tation, development or activity that would ~e- riously alter or otherwise endanger the · National 11stuarine Research Reseroe: ecology or the appearance of .the ocean,. the IUCN Category IV. Designated under the seabed or subsoil thereof, or the Cape Cod authority of the Coastal Zone Management National Seashore." Most of the Massachu- Act, these estuarine areas are protected ·pri- setts coastline, below mean low water and marily for: their potential as coastal research out to 4.8''kilometers, is designated as an areas. Operated as joint federal/state partner: Ocean Sanctuary except for 'that portion . ships, National Estuarine Research Reserves around Boston.' The Act is administered by are managed on a watershed basis, with in- the Massachusetts Department of Environ- formal irifltience· applied to alter human ac- mental Management which oversees all tivities in adjoining terrestrial area~ for the other state agencies' licensing, permitting improvement of habitat functioning in the and approval activities in ocean sanctuaries MPA. Human uses are controlled, and some to ensure compiiance: The Act prohibits ac- manipulation of habitat for· restoration· or en.: tivities that could be environmentally or aes- hancement purposes is allowed. Over the thetically damaging, including building on years; National Estuarine· Research Reserves the seabed, sand/gravel removal, mining, hy- have· become important for their educational drocarbon removal, dumping, as well as value and have significantly 'improved public most other activities which could adversely understanding and acceptance of the· need affect the natural ecosystem. for wise use of coastal resources .., Areas of Critical Environmental Concern: · National Wildlife Refuge: IUCN Category V. Established in 1975 by the IUCN Category 'II: Also within the Depart- legislature of the Commonwealth of Massa- ment of the Interior, the Fish and Wildlife chusetts, authority·is given to the Secretary Service sometimes protects littoral watecs· as of the Executive Office of Environmental Af- part of their National Wildlife· Refuge sites. fairs- to "preserve, restore and enhance criti- Marine Region 4: Northwest Atlantic 121 Table,4.4 Number and Area of MPAs T~le 4.S Representation of in th~ Northwest Atlantic Marine, Biqgeogi-aphic Zones in Northwest Region Atlantic Marine Region Number A~a Number A~a Category ofMPAs (hectares) Biogeograpbic Zone ofMPAs (hectares) National Marine Conserva- Viscount Melville Sound (Pl) 3 662,460 tion Area 1 113.~0 Lancaster Sound (P2) 3 231,746 National Park 3 120,243 Hudson Strait (P3) 3 107,815 Provincial Park 1 i,500 HudsRn-Ja~es Bay (P4) 7 360,664 National Wildlife Area 7 23,848 North Slope/Beaufort Sea Migratory Bird Sanctuary 33 1,170,856 (SI) 3 95,218 Wildlife Management Area 1 174,000 Labrador Sea (S2) 1 870 National Marine Sanctuary 2 221,500 Gulf of St. Lawrence (S3) 21 143,851 National Seashore 5 9,970 Grand Banks/Scotian Shelf National Estuarine Research (ETl) 3 819 Reserve 6 3,860 Acadian (ET2) 20 493,433 Natioµal WHdlife Refuge 17 47,512 Virginian (ET3) 24 257,343 Area of Critical Environmental Concern 7 16,130 Total 89 2,359,219 Ocean Sanctuary·ot Massachusetts ,5 451,000 Note. Approximate area. Total 88 2,354,219 No(e. Approximate area only. of the marine component of those MPAs, of cal environmental resources and resource ar- each of the biogeographic zones of the ma- eas of the Commonwealth." Managed by the rine· region. Department of Environmental Management. Table 4.4 provides an overview of the number and area of MPAs bv type. NATIONAL PRIORITY AREAs FOR TIIE EsTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT OFMPAS AssESSMENT OF 11IE REPRESENTATION OF BIOGEOGRAPmc ZONES Based on current. knowledge of the various bibgeographic zones; priority areas can be In general, the MPAs already established in proposed for all except the Viscount Melville the biogeographic zones of the Northwest At- Sound zone (Pl), where further studies :ire lantic Marine Region do not.adequately rep- required to get an adequate grasp of what resent the marine biodiversity ~ound within area should be considered a priority for con- these zones. At best, only the Gulf of St. servation of marine biodiversity. Priority ar- Lawrence and the Acadian zones can be eas for protection within the remaining considered even moderately represented by biogeographic zones are summarized in the the MPAs located there, tnough more ar~as following. These areas are shown in Map 4. definitely need to be added to make them Note that all of the proposals represent ar- complete eas that require the establishment of new Table 4.5 outlines the representation, in MPAs. No existing MPAs are proposed as pri- terms of the number of MPAs and the area ority areas. 122 ·A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Canada tion of deep and shallow waters, lead to ideal conditions for breeding and Proposed new MPAs: feeding eastern Arctic bowhead ,.,._ Lancaster Sound zone (P2) (74°00'N, -whales, a highly endangered popula- 81 °SO'W): Lancaster Sound area: Lo- tion. Up to one-third of the entire cated between ~e towering clift:s of population has been obs~rved here. Devon and Baffin islands,. this 'spectacu- Other species of interest include Arctic larly_ scenic site is also the most produc- charr, nesting Northern fulmars and tive in the Canadian Arctic due. to a glaucous gulls,. killer whales, ringed variety of oceanographic processes . seals and polar bears. The Canadian which resu.lt in upwelling an,d mpdng. Wildlife Service, Canadian Department Lancaster ~ound· ~corporates several of Indian and Nqrthern Affairs, and lo- types of marine habitats, including · cal aqoriginal community are working open w;lter, tidal flats, polynyas, shore together to establish Canada's first ma- leads and _ice-edge, with depths typi- rine National Wildlife Area. The pri-· cally ranging from 25Q-800 meters. Up mary g9al of the MPA is to protect the to 75 percent of the world's narwhal, local population of bowhead whales. one third of North America's beluga ,... Hudson-James Bay zone (P4) (57°50'N, arid most of the. remaining eastern Arc- 92°SO'W): Churchill River/Nelson River µc bowhead whale population can be area: Located within the extremely low- found staging, feeding and calving in lying Hudson Lowlands, this area en- this area during the summer. Large con- compasses extensive mudflats up to 6 centrations of greater snow geese, kilometers wide and numerous estuar- northern fulmars, thick-billed murres. ies which are extremely important ma- and kittiwake:5 breed in this area, while rine habitats. Tens of thousands of it also serves as a critical feeding area beluga whales summer in the Churchill for both breeding and nonbreeding· pe- and Nelson river estuaries, while nu- lagic se~birds and eiders. Important merous species of waterfowl and shore- concentrations of walrus, polar b~r birds breed and stage in the area, and ringed and bearded seals .are also in~luding the resident race of the Com- found throughout the site. The bound- mon eider (Somateria mollissima seden- ary between the CNPPA Northwest At- teria) and a large proportion of the . lantic and Arctic Marine Regions falls world's Hudsonian godwit population. through the sound, and the area has The site is also well know for the large been identified as a priority for a new numbers of polar bears which concen- MPA in the reports for both regions. trate along the shore, awaiting the arri- ..,. Hudson Strait zone (P3) (69°58'N, val of the winter ice. 67°2S'W): Isabella Bay area (now in ,... North Slope/Beaufort Sea zone (Sl) designation): Located along the central (70°50'N, 127°00'W): Cape Bathurst coast o.f eastern Baffin Island this site Polynya: The Ullfesistant sedimentary alternates between coastal lowlands rock coast of this site is generally flat and deep fjords and underwater glacial with little relief, though cliffs of 5-20 troughs. The cold Baffin current inter- meters are found in Liverpool Bay acts with bathymetric features and tidal and up to 200 meters in Franklin Bay, currents to establish localized patterns with deeply entrenched valleys. Nar- of high productivity. In Isabella Bay, row beaches, mudflats, deltas, estuar- this phenomenon, and the combina- ies, lagoons and barrier beaches are Marine Region 4: Northwest 'Atlantic 123 typical coastal features. Water depths .,.. Gulf of St. Lawrence zone (S3) average less than 10 meters in Liver- (47°SO'N, 61°SO'W): Iles-de-la-Madele- pool Bay and up to 500 meters in ine area: This 100 kilometers long archi- Franklin Bay. Landfast ice and the pelago of twelve islands and islands, Cape Bathurst polynya are the preemi- most connected by long sand bars and nent oceanographic features of this separated by shallow lagoons, rises out area, with productivity greatest along of the· shallow, relatively warm south- the numerous ice edges. The shore ern Gulf of St. Lawrence. Red sand- leads which develop in early spring stone cliffs are constantly being eroded are critical to tens of thousands of and shaped into sea stacks and marine common and king eiders and old- arches, while the more resistant bed- squaw on the": way to their nesting rock stands out as headlands. The ma- grounds further north, and they also . rine wildlife associated with the site is serve as a migration route for bowhead impressive, including a wide diversity and beluga w~ales. Other waterfowl of breeding seabirds, nesting piping and shorebirds stage and breed in the plovers, and migrant waterfowl and area, while polar bear and ringed and 'shorebirds that make use of the mud- bearded seals are present during the flats and saltmarshes. Harp and . ice-bound winters. hooded seals whelp ·on the offshore ,,_... Labrador Sea zone (S2) (49°00'N, spring pack ice, while harbor and grey · 53°SO'W): Bonavista Bay/Funk Island seals breed closer inshore. Numerous area: Lying off the eastern shore of fish and shellfish species are found off- Newfoundland, this site has a complex shore. coastline indented with narrow sounds ..,... Grand Banks/Scotian Shelf zone (ETl): a and bays and with variety of coastal Browns/Baccaro Banks and Sable Is- habitats. The cold waters of the Labra- land (43°00'N, 65°00'W)/The Gully ar- dor current are a strong contributor to eas (44°00'N, 59°00'W): Both these the high productivity of this area and sites are located offshore in areas of up- bring down the numerous icebergs welling along the continental shelf, that are seen offshore. A diverse and which are particularly important for ma- abundant subtidal fauna with numer- rine mammals and seabirds. The ous fascinating communities adds to Browns/Ba.ccaro Banks area can be the already rich seabird and marine considered of global cetacean signifi- mammal fauna. Harbor seals are com- cance, since as many as 25 percent of mon inshore, as are humpback, minke, the total number of the highly endan- fin and pilot whales, and harp and gered Northern Right Whale are be- hooded seals are regularly observed lieved to feed and mate here between in the spring. Over 400,000 pairs of June and ·october of any given year. Sa- seabirds breed in the area, most on ble Island is the only exposed portion Funk Island. In addition to signifi- of the offshore banks and has a large cant numbers of kittiwakes, thick- breeding population of grey and har- billed murres, razorbills and puffins, bor seals.· The Gully is a large subma- this island is the most important com- rine canyon which is a critical site for mon murre breeding colony in the what appears to be a· 'resident popula- Northwest Atlantic, as well as the sec- tion of the poorly known Northern bot- ond largest North American gannet tlenose whale. It is also a key site for colony. sperm whales, Atlantic white-sided dol- 124 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas phins and common dolphins .. Minke, ergy shores with high rocky cliffs to mi- fin, sei, humpback ~nd pilot whales cro-tidal, wave-dominated coastal la- are also common in both sites, as are a goons separated frqm the open ocean v:ariety of pelagic seabirds including by barrier beaches. The .site has a wide phalaropes, she~rwaters, storm-petrels, variety of habitat types that are essen- murres and dovekies. tial for hundreds of invertebrate, fish .,. Acadian zone (ET2) (44°90'N, and bird species, forming a unique as- 66°90'\V): Deer Island area: The com- semblage of botp cold and warm tem- pl~x bottom topography and high tidal perate biota. It is an important c;urrents which do~inate the island spawning and nursery area for a vari- strewn Deer Isl.and site promote high ety of fish species, as well as a signifi- producti~ity which ~n turns leads to im- cant nesting, stopover, wintering and. portant cpncentrations of a variety of feeding area for shorebirds, waterfowl .species. Harbor porpoise, fin and minke and some raptors. Seve~l species of whales, Bonaparte's gulls, Arctic and whales, dolphins and .seals visit and common te.rns, and phalaropes: among feed in the area. · others, come in to feed on the bounti- The Assateague Island site encom- ful zooplankton and herring resources passes one of the last and largest rela- of the area. Subtidally, a variety of in- tively undisturb.ed barrier island teresting benthic communities a<;ld to ecosystems in the United States. The the biodiversity of this marine area. site provid.es a wide range of habitats that are essential breeding, nursery, United States resting, and feeding areas for hundreds of species, notably fish, invertebrates Proposed n~w MPAs: and birds. The vast network of .,._. Acadian zone (ET2) (43°75'N, · marshes and tidal flats form the base 69°50'\V): The Mid-coastal Maine a~ea: of a highly productive system and pro- This site indudes a scenic fjord-like vides important maintenance areas for coastline with. a wide diversity of in.a- several endangered and threatened spe- rine habitats including estuarine, . des including the loggerhead sea tur- coastal and marine communities. High tle, piping plover and peregrine falcon. primary productivity is evidenced by al- gal and kelp populations and signifi- · cant fisheries. Seabirds and shorebirds REGIONAL PRIORilY AREAs FOR TIIE ~e.st and feed in the area, while water- ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT fowl, especially c9mmon eiders, winter OFMPAs in the area. Several islands serve as gray seal haulouts. Endangered species The marine areas considered of highest re- include bald eagles, humpback and gional. priority for the protection of marine right whales and shortnose sturgeons. biodiversity within the Northwest Atlantic ,..... Virginian zone (ET3): Narragansett Bay Marine Region are: (41°50'N, 71°42'W}arid Assateague Is- ,.... Lancaster Sound land(37067'N, 75°50'W) areas: The Nar- ,.... Cape Bathurst Polynya ragansett Bay site has a varied ,... Browns/Baccaro Banks coastline., ranging from rocky, high-en- ..-.. Mid-coastal Maine area Marine Region 4: Northwest Atlantic 125 .O~er Recommendations gion, particularly within Canadian waters where most representation gaps occur. Proposals are also being advanced for the es- • Encourage conservation agencies to de- tablishment of MPAs as a means of ensuring velop an informed and well--organized the sustainability of commercial fisheries re- public constituency for marine protected sources, including areas beyond the limits of areas as most Canadians are largely un- na~onal jurisdiction. Specific proposals have aware of the need for marine conservation. been advanced for the establishment of an • Determine how best to combine the lim- MPA along the Hague Line between Canada ited scientific knowledge of the North- and the United States to preseive the rich west Atlantic marine ecosystems and the and diverse biota of the Gulf of Maine and traditional knowledge of indigenous peo- to e~ance production of depleted commer- ple to· identify, establish and manage new cial species in the region, particularly those marine protected areas. on the Georges Bank. • Secure additional resources for identify- there is in the United States and Canada ~ng, selecting and establishing new ma- authority to establish and effectively manage rine protected areas within a specific a representative system of marine protected timeframe for those unrepresented marine areas in the Northwest Atlantic Marine Re- 'regions in the Northwest Atlantic Marine gion. Although good progress has been Region. · made in protecting representative examples • Improve interdepartmental and intergov- of ~ome of the most southerly parts of the emmenta.1 coordination in ocean use man- Marine Region, such as the Acadian and the agement to offset conflicting interests Gulf of St. Lawrence zones, marine prbtec- between government departments and tion in the other zones ,is considered "inade- agencies. quate," being limited to tidal flats, • Encourage Parks Canada to work with in- saltmarshes,· islands, seabird colonies and ad- digenous people in the Northwest Atlan- jacent nearshore open water areas of impor- tic Marine Region to develop a better tan~e to migratory birds. understanding of the role marine pro- Establishing marine protected areas for tected 'areas c,an play in conserving their each of the unrepresented biogeographic traditional way of life. zones in the Northwest Atlantic Marine «.e- gion (most of which are situated in Canadian waters) will be a challenging and long-term BIBUOGRAPHY task. Some of the reasons for this prognosis are the lack of good scientific information Agardy, T: 1988. A status report on the workings on which to base area siting decisions, the ofJoint U.S/Canada Ad Hoc Selection Panel very high cost of conducting field studies · for Acadian Biospbe-re Reseroe Nomination. Re- and consulting northern residents in the re- port to the U.S. MAB Directorate on Biosphere gion, and scarce and dwindling resources . Reserves. Washington, O.C. · for creating new marine protected areas. Briggs; John C. 1974. Marine zoogeograpby. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. The following suggestions provide a start~ Dasmann, R.F. 1972. Towards a system for class- ing point for accelerating the completion of ifying natural regions of ~e world and their a representative system of marine· protected representation by national parks and reserves. areas for the Northwest Atlantic Marine Re- Biol. Conserv. 4: 247-55. 126 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Dietrich, G. 1963. General oceanography. New Mercier, F. 1990. A characterization of Canada's York: John Wiley and Sons. marine regions. Unpublished report prepared Dunbar, M.J. 1951. Eastern Arctic Waters. Bull. for the National Parks Systems Branch, Ottawa . Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 88:131. .Owens, E.H. 1977. Coastal environments of Can- 1972. The nature and definition of the ada: 1be impact and cleanup of oil spills. marine Subarctic, with a, note on. the sea-Hf~ of Ottawa: Environment Canada. the Atlantic salmon. Trans. Roy. Soc. Can. Salm, R.V., and J.R. Clark. 1984. Marine and 10:249-57. coastal protected areas: A guide for planners Hayden, B.P., G.C. Ray, and R. Dolan. 1?84. Clas- and managers. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. sification of coastal and marine environments. Udvardy, M.D.F. 1975. A classification of the bio- Environmental Conseroationlst 11: 199-207,. . . geographic provinces of the world. IUCN Occa- McCormick-Ray, M.G., G.C. Ray and W.P. Gregg. sional Paper No. 18. Gland, Switzerland. 1988. Biosphere Reseroe Nomination Vi,gian- Wolotira, R.J. N.d. Biogeographic provinces of Mid Atlantic Biogeographical Province. Report the coastal ocean of the United States and adja- to.the U.S. MAB Directorate on Biosphere Re- cent waters. Forthcoming. serves. Washington, D'.C. · · Woodward-Clyde Consultants. 1983. Marine re- McNeely, j.A., and K.R. Miller. 1983. IUCN, na-: gions of Canada: Frameµ;orkfor Canada~ sys- tional parks, and protected areas: Priorities for tem of national marine parks. Ottawa,. Canada: action. Environmental Conservationist 10:13-21. National Parks Systems Branch. MARINE REGION 5 Northeast Atlantic Susan Gubbay ... . . 0 BIOGEOGRAPHY AND MARINE and England, along the coasts of mainland BIODIVERSITY Europe, and up the western seaboard of Sweden and the coast of Norway. There is The Northeast Atlantic Marine Region ex- also a movement of Atlantic water at depth tends from Grenen on the northern tip of toward the coast of Norway. In the Irish Sea, Denmark to the Straits of Gibralter. It in- surface water flow is generally from south to cludes the coasts of the United Kingdom, Re- north on the western side of the Isle of Man public of Ireland, the western coasts of and in a circular motion within Liverpool Denmark and Germany, the coast of the Bay. Surface waters move up the English Netherlands and Belgium, and the northern Channel from west to east and into the and western coasts of France and Spain. The North Sea. Shelf-sea fronts form in the re- Channel Islands, the Azores and Madeira are gion on a regular basis in the transitional also included. zones between stratified and mixed waters. They are another important oceanographic Oceanography feature that affects the distribution of marine organisms throughout the region. Current patterns in the region are strongly in- Parts of the region are notable for their fluenced by the North Atlantic Drift that has tidal range. The Severn Estuary has the sec- its origins on the western side of the Atlantic ond largest tidal range in the world (some as the Gulf Stream. This warmer water influ- 12 meters), and coastal areas around Jersey, ences currents and water temperatures along one of the Channel Islands, experience the the Atlantic coasts of the realm and, to a third largest tidal range in the world. lesser extent, the residual currents in the North Sea and Irish Sea. Coastal Geography and Geology In the North Sea the pattern of current movement of surface waters is in a counter- The coastal geography of the region shows clockwise direction with the general direc- great variety. The coastal fringe is charac- tion of flow down the east coast of Scotland terized by sand dunes, salt-marshes, rocky 127 128 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas shores and mi:.id and sand flats whilst seabed Straits of Gibraiter. In the northwest the sea- habitats range from bedrock through to· fine bed drops to more than l kijometer in the silty muds. Larger sca~e features 'include Rockall Trough and other significant deep many· different types of inlets-estuaries, sea areas include the Porcupine Bank and fjords, and rias-as well as brackish lagoons, the Iberian Abyssal Plan in ,the southwestern steep cliffs that continue as sheer rock walls part of the region. underwater, narrows and extensive sediment plains. The low-lying northwestern coast of Ecosystem Diversity Denmark has some of the most active dune landscapes in Europe, standing up to 30 me- The oceanographic conditions, geology, ge- ters high; the isla11ds of St. Kilda off the west ography, and range of biogeographic zones coast of Scotland are faced by the hjghest in the Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, sup- sea cliffs in Europe, more than 300 meters port an interesting dive~sity of ecosystems. A ,high and continuing v~rtic;1lly underwater great deal of information i~ available on fc;,r inore than 50 meters. . . . coastal ecosystems within the realm but A, predqminantly soft coastline of sand much work has also been carried out on sub- dunes, Saltmarsh and mudflats borders the littoral ecosystems, although this has tende~ western shores of Denmark, Germany, and to be in the northern part of the region. ,In- the Netherlands, and the Waddensea has the vestigations of the seabed, by dredging, largest stretch of uninterrupted mudflats in were carried out from the early part of tht the world. The western coasts of Scotland century, with major studies of the benthic and. Ireland provide a contrast with their communities off the coast of Denmark, Ire- mostly rocky' 'indented, coastlines of sea . land and around the United Kingdom and lochs and· nas: The northern coast of France Isle of Man. A useful overview of benthic is dominated· by rocky ~hores but further marine ecosystems in the Northeast Atlantic soiith there are extensive sandy areas and can be found in Hiscock 0991). The diver- dramatic c~astal dunes. The coastline of Por- sity of benthic communities in the region is tugai is also impo~nt for dunes and highlighted by recent work being carried out beacties but also has a number of sheltered around Great Britain by the Joint Nature Con- inlets and lagoons. One of the· most striking servation Committee (JNCC). The ]NCC are coastal features in the southern part of the developing a classification system for ben- r~gion is .the Guadalq1:1ivir delta in southern thic marine biotopes and have identified 1~0 Spain, one of the largest wetlands in Europe. different types to date in the shallow sublit- There are many island groups in the re- .toral around Great Britain. Although there is gion incluging the volcanic isla!lds of Ma- . no estimate as yet of the number of benthic deira, the Azores, the Channel Islands, the biotopes in the whole of the Northeast Atlan- low-lying arcl)ipelago· of the Isles of Scilly tic Marine Region, there are likely to be sev- off southwestern Britain, and the numerous eral hundred. islands off the western and northeastern A few of the marine habitats and commu- coast ·of scotland. . . nities that are found in the Northeast Atlantic . In the riorthern part of the region, ,;nuch Marine Region are described briefly below. of the s~bed is continental shelf, forming The greater emphasis on the distribution of the relatively sl)allow North Sea and Irish these habitats in the northern part of the Sea and including the Hebridean Shelf and realm is a reflection of the more limited in- Celtic Shelf. The shelf region narrows off the formation available on the sublittoral habi- southern coast of France and fringes the , tats and communities for the Atlantic coast. coast of Spain and Portugal down to the of France, Spain and Portugal. Marine Region 5: Northeast Atlantic 129 Intertidal Mud atul Satuljlats Extensive areas of Zostera marina can be found in the e·astern part of the Waddensea, Intertidal mud and sandflats are found but it· is' also grows in many sheltered sites throughout the region. They are present in around the U.K. and Ireland, the Channel each of the biogeographic zones but particu- coast, ~nd parts of the Atlantic coast of larly widespread in the boreal region. . France. The most extensive examples are in the Seagrass beds are important nursery areas Waddensea where the intertidal flats are of for juvenile fish, but the plants also help to international importance for wildlife. The ex- stabilize the sediment and are an important tremely productive, but species poor, tidal source of organic matter. They are vulner- flats support vast numbers of waders and able to damage from a variety of activities. wildfowl: around 10 million birds pass Threats include fishing techniques that dis- through the region each year, and they are turb the seabed, dredging, anchor damage also an important nursery ground for North and trampling.' There was a dramatic decline Sea fish stocks. Intertidal flats ·around the in the extent of seagrass in the northern part British Isles are less extensive but critically of the realm in the 1930s due to a wasting important for mariy species because the disease. Many areas have been recolonized mild winter conditions and good tidal range but recovery has been poor in the Nether- exposes large areas of flats allowing access lands. to food for waders and wildfowl during the winter months. Many of these intertidal MaerlBeds flats· are in estuarine situations and the Wad- densea and Great Britain together account Several species of calcified red seaweed oc- for more than 65 percent of the estuarine cur in the region and a number of these habitat of the region. Further south, interti- · form inaerl beds. Lithothamnium glaciate is dal flats are less extensive but important iri at its southern limit in the realm while Phy- certain localities such as the Loire and matolithon'. calcareum and Lithothamnium Gironde estuaries in France, the Tejo in corallioides are at their northern limit. There Portugal; and the Guadalquivir delta in are particularly extensive beds of maerl off southern Spain. · the coast of B'rittany ahd in parts of south- This habitat is vulnerable to damage from western Ireland. Small patches of maerl are many activities. Land reclamation has prob'.. also widespread in some of the Scottish sea ably been the most serious threat but 'there lochs and there is a large bed in the Fal estu- are also problems associated with dredging, ary in southern Britain. ·Maerl beds support a land fill, industrial pollution and other activi- rich assemblage of both plants and animals ties ..For example, more than 32,00.0 hectares and the crevices bet:V{een the twigs provide of the German Wadderisea has been re- ' shelter for many species. Beds that are no· claimed since 1963, and in the United King- longer living support communities similar to dom some areas have lost up to 90 percent those found 'on: fine shell gravel. . . of their intertidal area to land claims. There has been commercial expl~Jtation of maerl in the region since at least the 18th Seagrass a century mainly b'ecause of its value as soil conditioner. This supports an impoiµnt in- Seagrass beds are found throughout the dustry· in Brittany. Threats th~refore come . region where conditions are suitable. They as from direct extraction well as disturbance are most widespread in the Boreal, Boreal- of the s~abed and activities that increase 'the Lusitanean and Lusitanean:.Boreal regions·. sediment load. 130 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Kelp Forest Based on this and other information a number of the groups are described briefly below. Kelp forests are widespread on rocky sublit- toral areas in the northern part of the region. Seals Several species grow densely to form forests of kelp. Laminaria byperborea and L. digi- Two species of seal are found in the north- tata are widespread around the U.K:, Ireland ern part of the realm, the grey seal (Hallcho- and France but the larger, more open· grow- erus grypus) and the common or harbor seal ing L. ocbre/uca is also present from the (Pboca vitulina), The grey seal tends to fre- Channel southward. This community is a fea- quent the more wave-exposed,· rocky sites ture of infralittoral rocky areas in much of while the common seal generally uses shel- the Boreal, Boreal-Lusitanean and Lusi- tered inshore areas. Grey seals congregate tanean-Boreal zones. Kelp forests are not an into large breeding colonies and there are important sublittoral community along the major colonies in the Outer and Inner He- Waddensea coast because of the lack of brides and Shetland. The Sept Illes MPA off hard substrates. Kelp forests harbor many the coast of Brittany has one of only two species of flora and fauna that find shelter, breeding colonie~ of grey seal in France. food and surfaces for attachment on the The Waddensea coast is a particularly im- kelp and the surrounding rocky substrate. portant area for common seals that feed in Different communities develop depending the shallow waters and haul out on the ex- on factors such as exposure, turbidity, graz- tensive sandbanks. Other important sites in ing pressure and substrate type. the region for this species include the Wash Kelp is collected from some parts of the on the east coast of England and· Strangford region as a source of alginate, either from Lough in Northern Ireland. The North Sea beaches or offshore. Some species are also has around 10 percent of the world popula- cultivated. Increased levels of collection are tion; however, numbers fell significantly af- one possible tp.reat but there is a danger of . ter the viral epidemic in the late 1980s. In die-off from increased suspended matter. France the only colony is around the Picards estuary, for common seal. Soft Sediment Sea,,ed The Mediterranean monk seal is the third species and the most endangered. This spe- Soft sediment seabeds are probably the most cies is threatened with extinction. One of extensive sublittoral-habitat in the Northeast the most impo~nt remaining locali~es for Atlantic. The marine communities associated· the Mediterranean monk seal is around the with these areas are tremendously varied and islands.of ~adefra. are influenced by factors such as sediment type, exposure, and geograp~cal location. Fisheries These habitats are particularly vulnerable · to fishing techniques that disturb the seabed. The region· spans some of the most heavily Changes in community structure have also· fished seas in the world. The relat{vely shal- been noted as a result of eutrophication. low waters of the North·Sea and Irish Sea have supported fisheries for many centuries Species Diversity and although they continue to do so, the species that are the focus of the fisheries A species directory covering the area,of the have changed as landings and stocks have continental shelf around the British Isles lists declined. The most dramatic of these was some 6,500 species without looking at all the· collapse of the herring fishery in the late relevant phyla (Picton and others 1992). 1970s. Effort shifted to mackerel and, as land- Marine Region 5: Northeast Atlantic 131 ings of these fell, industrial fisheries (for lantic Bluefin Tuna may well have disap- sand eel, Norway pout, and sprat) became peared from the North Sea, and population more prominent. Two hundred and twenty numbers are estimated to have declined four species of fish have been recorded in overall by SO percent since 1970. the North Sea but it has been estimated that fewer than 20 make up more than 95 per- Cetaceans cent of the biomass. Furthermore, it has been estimated that between 30-40 percent A variety of species can be seen in the re- of the biomass of commercially exploited gion. For example, results from sightings fish species in the North Sea are caught each and stranding data record 22 species in Brit- year (North Sea Task Force 1993). Daan and ish and Irish waters since 1980. The same others 0990) have identified three different analysis notes that 13 species are seen assemblages of North, .Sea fish-a southeast- throughout the year. In decreasing order of ern group where dab and whiting are .most abundance these are; harbor porpoise, white- abundant, the central North Sea dominated beaked dolphin, bottle-nosed dolphin com- by cod, and on the slope e~ge to the north mon dolphin, long-finned pilot whale, where saithe are most abundant. Atlantic white-sided dolphin, Risso's dol- The region supports fisheries for many in- phin, killer whale, minke whale, northern vertebrate species. These include various lob- bottle nose whale, fin whale, striped dolphin sters, crabs, prawns, shrimps, scallop, and sperm whale (Evans 1992). The true mussels, cockles, whelks, sea urchins and status of many of these species ·is unknown sea cucumbers. On the Azores limpets (Pa- although there are some apparent trends. tella aspera and P. candei) and the barnacle For example harbor porpoise (Pbocoena Megabalanus tintinabulum, are collected pbocoena) are now rarely seen in the Wad- from rocky intertidal shores. desea and southern North Sea. The intensity and scale .of various fisheries There are many threats to these species is a major cause for concern in the region ranging from incidental catch by fisheries, and is illustrated by the following examples. disturbance, accumulation of pollutants in The Common Skate. (Raja batis) is now bo~y fat causing tumors and breeding fail- thought to be extinct in the Irish Sea. _Other ure, and depletjon of prey species. threatened species include the sturg~on (Acipenser s,turio) and allis _sha9 (Alosa iltrds alosa). The last few year~ have seen closure of the sand eel fishery around Shetland. This Coastal ~orie: habitats, including tidal waters, was brought to public attention through the beaches, mudflats, saltmarshes and sand massive breeding failure of seabirds in north- du_nes ar~ of major importance· for birds and ern waters. There has been no clear link of considerable conservation concern. A re- with overfishing, but due to falling catches, cent analysis of the conservation status of there is a temporary closure of the fishery. birds in Europe has shown that some SO Spe- In the southern North Sea research carried cies of European Conservation Concern out by the Netherlands Government on (SPECs) use these habitats at some point in beam trawlers has shown clear changes in their life cycle, out of a total of 227 SPECS in the structure of seabed communities in fish- Europe (Tucker and others 1994). Of these ing areas from long-lived, slow-growing spe- 42 have an unfavorable conservation status cies to communities dominated by in Europe because they are declining, rare, opportunistic species. Trawling over an area, or highly localized. These include four glob- three times, led to a fall in density of 40-60 ally threatened species; ferruginous duck percent of nontarget species. The eastern At- (Aytbya nyroca), the Spanish imperial eagle 132 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas (Aquila adalberti) and the highly threatened marine scientists such as Loven, Forbes, slender-billed curlew (Numeni'us te,:iuiros- Goochyin-Austen and Borgensen in ·the mid tris) and Audouin's Gull (Larus audouinit). to late 19th century. This led to the identifica- Six other species· with coastal habitats that · tion· of three main provinces: Arctic, Boreal have an unfavorable conservation· status in ~nd Celtic/Lusitanean. Much later these were Europe also have over half their global· popu- developed by Eckman (1953) who also rec- lation in Europe, including.the near· globally ogniZed three main provinces in the North threatened pygmy cormorant (Pha/acroco-· · Atlantic: Arctic, Boreal '(which includes an rax pygmeus). Arctic-Boreal and Mediterranean-Boreal com- Many of these species concentrate at a ponent), and a Mediterranean-Atlantic re- small number of specific sites especially :ifr gion. This was supported by Briggs 0974) the winter or on passage·like the·k~ot and . who-.divided the eastern Atlantic into three · bar-tailed godwit, or for breeding such ~s major provinces: Arctic, cold temperate Bo- the greater flamingo'. Important sites -include reaI; and Lusitanean. the Waddensea coast, the-estuarine-habitats · The more recent work of Hayden, Ray around the British Isles like the Severn estu~ and:Dolan (1984) on the Classification of · ary, and the Guadalquivir delta in southern coastal and marine environments corre- · Spain. sponds with these interpretations. They com- . .Toe region also supports large popula- bined physical and biological factors in . tions of seabirds including fulmars, petrels, developing their system and identify two . shearwaters, cormorants, shags, skuas,.gulls, main fauhal provinces (East Atlantic Boreal terns, auks, seaducks and divers. Many of and Lusitanian) overlying subpolar and tem- these birds nest on offshore islands. The is-. perate realms. The early observations of lands of St. Kilda, off the west coast of.Scot- botanists essentially confirmed those of zo- . land, for example support one of the largest ologists. Borgensen arid Jonsson (1905) pro- concentrations of breeding. seabirds_ in the posed five main groups, Arctic, Subarctic, · North Atlantic with more than 400,000 pairs; Boreal-Arctic, cold Bore~il and warm Bor~al. the island of Grassholm,·off.the south Wales The most recent summary of such work by coast supports around 11 percent of the Hoek and Breeman (1989) illustrates a cold North Atlantic population of breeding gah-·· temperate northeast Atlantic region and a nets (Pritchard and others 1992). It has been warm-temperate northeast Atlantic region .. estimated that some 10 million seabirds are ·The Azores and Madeira are dependencies present in the North Sea at most times of the of Portugal and have been included in the year and, in many cases, they make·up ma- · Northeast Atlantic partly for this reason. Bio- jor percentages of the..world population. For geographically these islands have affinities example North Sea coasts supports more with both the Northeast Atlantic and West Af- than 50 percent of the biogeographic popula- rican· flora and fauna (Wells, personal com- tions of common terns and great skuas and munication). These islands are treated as a a further 12 species are present in more than separate biogeographic zone in this report. 10 percent of their population (Dunnet and . The classification of Eckman and Briggs others 1990). Overall in Europe there are an are the most widely used interpretation and estimated 44 SPEC5 that are particularly ~ · is the· basis for Map 5 that summarizes the ' pendent on the seas (Tucker and others 1994). biogeographic zones of the Northeast Atlan- tic Marine Region. Biogeographic Classification· In common with biogeographic studies. in all ·parts of the world it is not possible to The foundations of biogeographic knowl- · identify precise boundaries between the dif- edge of this region came from the work c;,f ferent regions. There is a gradual change in Marine Region 5: Northeast Atlantic 133 species composition as the endemic species waters and shoals. International impor- in one area a.re replaced by those more typi- tance for migratory birds, some parts cal of the adjacent region. One of the clear- hav,e a rich benthic fauna (Peet and est boundaries in the Nor.theast .Atlantic others 1993). .R,ealm is between the Lusitanean and Boreal regions at the entrance to the English Chan- .Denmark nel. '.fhe southern extent of the Lusitan~n province lie~ near the entrance to the Medi- MPAs in Denmark can be designated under terranean, while the Boreal region merges the Protection of Nature Act 1992 and the into an Arctic r~gion in the vicinity of the Lo- Hunting and Wildlife Management Act 1987. foten islands in Norway and the ,west and The first of these. makes .specific reference to east coasts of Iceland. the extension of protected areas for areas of sea, both in territorial waters and the Danish fishing.zone. An Executive Order has been AssESSMENT OF ExlsTING MPAs issuec;:l py the Minister of the Environment for,the cons~rvation.of the Waddensea coast Description of National MPA Systems · of Denmark. Sites are protected as Game Re- serves, Seal Reserves, Scientific Reserves or All the countries in the Northeast Atlantic Ma- Fisherie~ prohibition zones. Two large sites rine Region have established some form of within.internal waters are the low lying ar- marine protected areas. The criteria used to· eas.near Fjand on the Jutland coast-Boving select suitable sites, and the degree of pr<>; fjord 'and Felsted Kog. These include areas tection that is given. to the marine wildlife .of sal~rsh. and reed beds important for · and habitats within these MP As, varie~ from .wildfowl and waders. Reserves on the North country to coun~. Nev:eftl'leless they:ca~ all Sea coast. include Fjordholmene, Ronland be encompassed under th~ d.efmition of Sando .and Fjander, the largest of which cov- MPAs use~ by IUCN. e~ 55 hectares, but none of these has signifi- cant. marine components. Belgium ,,._ Vadehavet (55°13'N; 8°.35'E): Inshore waters with mud and sand flats of the The designation of MPAs in Belgium ~ters Danish Waddensea coast. Extends 8-15 comes under the Nature Conserv~tion.Act , kilometers into North Sea. Ramsar wet- 1973, but unlike other aspects ·of the Act. that · land and EC Birds Directive site. Most are implemented by regional authprities, re- import.ant :nesting and feeding area for sponsibility for marine a~eas lies. with the na- waterfowl in .Denmark. tional government. There is no, specific . provision for MPAs in this legislation or in .. the Conservation of Monuments and ,Nature Sites Act, but both could be used to desig- There .is no specific legislation for MPAs in nate MPAs. Much of the coastline of Bel-. France but the National Parks.Act 1960 and gium is designated as a Wetland of Nature Conserv.ation Act 1976 allow for the. International Importance under the ,Ramsar · setting up of National Parks, Nature Rea. · convention. serves, Regional Nature Parks and Maritime ,... Vlaamse Banken (Flemish Banks) Hunting Reserves by Dec;rees. ·Al! of these (51°20'N, 3°00'E): ARamsar wetland can be applied to marine areas. Most French and EC Birds Directive site but not pro- MPAs are on the Mediterranean coast and tected through national legislation. In- there are many .coastal reserves with only a cludes inshore and offshore shelf small marine component. The following 134 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas sites on the Atlantic coast could be consid- ...... Schleswig-Holstein (53°52'N, 8°13'E): ered MPAs. National Park on the Waddensea coast ,... Archipel des Sept Iles (48°55'N, of Germany. Intertidal mudflats, sand- 3°35'W): Nature Reserve. EC Birds rn.:. flats, sandbars, saltmarsh, seagrass and rective site. Rocky archipelago with islands. Particularly important as a fish reefs. Important for seabirds and seals. nursery area and as a feeding and Prohibition on hunting and fishing. Lim- breeding area for wildfowl and wad- ited access. ers. Zoned into core and buffer areas. ,... Iroise (48°25'N, 5°W): Regional Nature ,... Hamburgisches (53°5l'N, 8°17'E): Na- Park, Biosphere Reserve and EC Birds tional Park on the Waddensea coast of Directive site. Archipelago of Molene, Germany. Biosphere Reserve and Ram- Ushant island and surrounding waters. sar site. Intertidal mudflats, sandflats, Noted for abundance of algal communi- sandbars, saltmarsh, seagrass and is- ties, large colonies of nesting seabirds, lands. Particularly important as a fish common and grey seal colonies, sea- nursery area and as a feeding and grass, sharp underwater dropoffs and breeding area for wildfowl and wad- deep channel. Seven fish species and 8 ers. Zoned into core and buffer areas. birds on the national red list (Peet and ,... Niedersaechsisches (53°21'N, 8°41'E): others 1993; World Conservation Moni- National Park on the Waddensea coast toring Centre) . of Germany. Ramsar site. Intertidal ...... Lilleau des Niges (46°18'N, 0°25'W): mudflats, sandflats, sandbars, salt- Nature Reserve and EC Birds Directive marsh, seagrass and islands. Particu- site. Saltmarsh intertidal flats, seagrass. larly important as a fish nursery area Important for migrating and overwinter- and as a feeding and breeding area for ing birds (Reille 1987). wildfowl and waders. Zoned into core ,... Moeze (45°50'N, 0°25'W): Inlet. Nature and buffer areas. Reserve ,... Helgolaend Nature Reserve (54°5'N, ,... Pres Sales d'Ares Lege, Cap Ferret 8°45'E): Waters around offshore island (44°45'N, 1°15'W): Marine component in the Waddensea. is principally the intertidal area. Mud and sand flats, seagrass beds, salt- Ireland marsh, seagrass beds. Fish nursery area (Reille 1987). Protected areas legislation in Ireland centers ,... Banc d'Arguin (44°46'N, 1°17'W): Re- on the Wildlife Act 1976 that allows for the gional Nature Park. designation of sites by the National Parks and Wildlife Service of the Office of Public Germany Works. There is no specific legislation for MPAs but Areas of Scientific Interest, Na- There is no specific legislation relating to tional Parks, Nature Reserves and Refuges MPAs but they have been set up under the for Fauna can extend to marine areas. Ire- Federal Nature Protection Act 1987. The land has declared a Whale Sanctuary in its level of protection differs depending on 200-mile Fisheries Zone. whether they are Nature Reserves or Na- A number of the coastal reserves include tional Parks. Most of the Waddensea coast areas of sea, but in most cases, these are of Germany is covered by the designation of fringing areas. Examples include the Cliffs of three areas as National Parks (see Common Moher and Home Head where the seaward Wadden Sea Secretariat). boundary of the reserves are 200 meters off- Marine Region 5: Northeast Atlantic 135 shore. Many of the coastal reserves are estu- crabs. Valuable feeding, resting and arine sites. There is one MPA: breeding area for many birds. Com- ,.. Lough Hyne (51°31'N, 9°18'W): Land- mon seals (Peet, and others 1993). locked sea lough, deep basins, tidal ,.. Milieuzone Noordzee (includes sea rapids, extreme seasonal deoxygena- area northwest of Frisian Islands): tion of deepwater in some areas. Rich More than 2,000,000 hectares of sea, algal communities--more than 50 per- some of which is outside the territorial cent of the recorded marine flora of waters of the Netherlands. Important the British Isles. Various prohibitions, fish nursery area, birds, unique charac- research only permitted under permit teristics for benthic communities in the (Myers and others 1991). Dutch sector. ,.. Oosterschelde Buitendijks (51°44'N, Netherlands 3°59'E): State Nature Monument and Protected Nature Monument (two sites) Protected Area legislation of the Netherlands in area of internal waters. Soft sedi- is covered by the 1990 Policy Plan on the . ment area with tidal flats, saltmarshes. Conservation of Nature. This includes the Extensive mussel beds and important protection of specific sites that can be imple- haul-out area for seals. mented by the Nature Protection Act 1967. ,.. Waddenzee I and II (53°15'N, 5°15'E): Marine areas can be designated State Nature Covered by Planologische Kem- Monuments or Protected Nature Monuments beslissing that states Government pol- under this legislation. In addition, the icy on the Waddenzee. Internationally Watersysteemplan Noordzee provides a important area. Shallow coastal area framework for protection o( marine sites and with rich intertidal mud and sandflats. identifies specific policies for the Milieuzone Major importance as a nursery ground Noordzee (coastal waters to 20 meters depth for fish and as a feeding, resting and and the Frisian Front-Klavarbank area) migration route for many species of where protective measures can be intro- waders and wildfowl. An estimated 6- duced with sectoral legislation. The Physical 12 million birds pass through the Wad- Planning Act can be applied to areas 1 kilo- denzee each year. Significant colonies meter from the baseline and could therefore of common seal and smaller numbers be used for inshore areas. There is no spe- of grey seal. cific legislation for the establishment of MPAs in the Netherlands (Nijkamp and oth- Portugal ers 1993). The Netherlands has six separate areas Protected areas can be set up under the designated as MPAs. Four of these are in the National Parks and other Reserves Act of Waddenzee and two in the Oosterschelde. 1970 and subsequent amendments including Apart from the Milieuzone Noordzee, all the a decree in 1976. Together they allow for sites are within internal waters. the establishment of fourteen different types ,.. The Dollard (53°18'N, 7°8'E): State Na- of protected areas. The most likely mecha- ture Monument and Protected Nature nism for MPAs would be through the desig- Monument within the Waddensea com- nation of National Parks, Nature Reserves or plex (two sites). Internal waters, interti- Partial Nature Reserves (Nijkamp and others dal mudflats, sandbanks and saltmarsh. 1993). These have been applied to many Brackish water communities. Important coastal sites in Portugal but there are few nursery area for flatfish, shrimp and MPAs. 136 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas ,,._ Berlenga (39°25'N, 9~.35'W) Nature Re- ,,._ Monte da Guia, Faial Island (38°30'N, serve, Biogenetic Reserve and pro- 28°40'W): Protected landscape .. Two posed Biosphere Reserve: Covers area caldeiras within extinct volcano, open around the islands of B~rlenga and to. the sea. Rocky and sandy seabed. Estelas to a depth of-30 meters. Protec- Recreational pressure. Need for buffer tion for all invertebrate species, some zone. fishing allowed (Peet .and others 1993). ,,._ Costa Vicentica e Sudqeste, Alentejano. Madeira (37°35.'N, 8°5S'W): No information a.vailable. Autonomous region of Portugal. Volcanic ar- chipelago with four main islands, approxi- Azores mately 600 kil()meters west of Morocco. Legislation based on that of Portugal. Autonomous region of Portugal. Volcanic ar- ,,._ Selvagem Grande .(30°9'N, 15°52'W): chipelago with nine main islands, approxi- Strict Nature Reserve, EC Birds Direc- mately 1,500 kilometers west of mainland tive site. Rocky island with one of the Europe. Legislation based on that of Portugal. most important Procellariidae colonies ,,._ Bays of Maia, South Lourenco, Anjos in the North Atlantic. . and Praia around the island of Santa·· ,... Selvagem Pequena and Ilheu de Fora Maria (36°S5'N, 25°IO'W): Nature Re- -(30°2'N, I6°2'W): Strict Nature Reserve. serve wjth seaward boundary approxi- Islands with rocky stacks, areas backed mately 1.5 kilometers from coast. . by ·sand duries. Important for breeding Representative of litt<;>ral habitats of the seabirds. region. Legislation .not strong and little ,,._ G_arajau·(16°S5'W, 32°30'N): Boundary regulation. of reserve approximately 0. 75 kilome- ,,._ . Vila Franca. Islet, Sao Miguel Island ters offshore to SO meters depth. (2S 0 30'W, 37°25'N): Small is\et close in- ,,._ Ilheu Chao and Deserta Grande shore.· Reserve. extends to 30 meters (32C?32'N, 16°31'W): Rocky islands depth. Extinct. volcanic .crater broken partly covered by reserve. Important up. Exceptional density of nesting for breeding seabirds and one of the Cory's shearwater. Regulations allow few remaining localities used by the for total protection. Mediterranean Monk Seal. ,.... Formigas Islets and Dolab~rat Bank: ,,._ Ilheu do Bugio (32°25'N, I6°26'W): Approximately SO miles form· Squth Rocky island important for breeding Miguel. Nature Reserve: Shallow.and· seabirds and one of the few remaining deep water r~cky habitats. Regulations localities used by the Mediterranean not yet defined. Artisinal fishing al- Monk Seal. Controls ori access to the lowed by boats less than 14 meters. area for. fishing. ,,._ Topo Islet, Sa.o Jorge Island (27°4S'W, 38°25'N): Nature Reserve extends to 30 Spain meters d~pth. Rocky seabed. Regula- tions .not yet defined. - Responsibility foi: MPAs -in Spain is the remit ,,._ Lagoon of Santo Cristo, Sao Jorge; Is- of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fishing and land (38°30'N, 28°W): Special Ecologi.,., Food. Five types of protected areas can be cal .Area extends to 30 meters depth. set up u~der the Conservation Act. None is Unique habitats.in the Azores for._its exclusive to,marine areas, ·but the Act does clam beds. Strict regulation on clam specify that the provisions apply to areas of fishery that is commercially exploited. sea. The establishment of sites is proposed ~rine Region 5: Northeast Atlantic 137 urider the current five year plan.' Prot~ctiqn Many spe_cies at eastern limit of distri- is implemented through the Shores: Act (Ni~ . bution: some rare species and others jkamp and ·others 1993}. There are many that are rarely seen intertidally (English coastal reserves, some of which include a · Nature 1994). small marine component; Only one· is· exclu- ,_. Helford River (50°6'N, 5°S'W): Volun- sively marine and is on the Mediterranean tary Marine Conservation Area. Consid- coast of Spain. ered to be the most unspoiled ria in ,_. Donana (36°57'N, 6~19'W):' Nation~.l the U.K. Soft sediment shores identi- Park, Ramsar site, Bio1?phere :Reserve fied as being of international marine and EC Birds Directive sit~. Extends 1 biological importance. Outer area bor- nautical mile offshore and. is a. bµffer .· dered by rocky shores, grading to zone for the terrestrial Natibn;;tl Park, a ~ud/gravel. Seagrass beds (Gubbay wetland site. 1988). ,_. Acantilado de Barbate (36°1 l!N; ,,._ Wembury (50°21'N, 4°8'W): Voluntary . 5°57'E): Natural park that extends off.:. · Marine Conservation Area. Moderately shore for 1· nautical mile. Rocky sea exposed shore, varied intertidal rocky bed with kelp forest. ·commi.mities, Rocky and sediment groul)ds offshore; Popular area for rec- United Kingdom reati9n (Gubbay 1988). ,,._ Pµrbeck (50°45'N, 2°10'W): Voluntary The -Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 in- Marine Conservation Area. Rocky shore cludes special provisions for the designation with cliffs,' l;irge area of sublittoral of Marine Nature Reserves. Potential sites wave-cut platform: Intertidal reefs and were first identified in 1981 and two re- rich rock pool areas: Significant num- serves have been established. A number of bers of.southern species at limit of areas have also been recognized as volun- range in this region. Popular recrea- tary MPAs. The U.K:.has many coastal pro- tional area. Extensively used by educa- tected areas designated as Sites of· Special · . tional parties (Gubbay 1988). Scientific Interest, National Nature Reserves ,,._ Seven Sisters (50°43'N, 0°6'E): Volun- and Local Nature.Reserves. Some of these in- tary Marine Conservation Area. Interti- clude marine components but in most cases· dal and subtidal chalk reefs backed by this is minimal and may only be for ease of cliffs-a relatively rare habitat in drawing boundaries (Gubbay 1993). · Europe. Ridge and gully formation. ,,._ · Lundy (51°1l'N, 4°40W): .Marine Na- · Abundant rock boring fauna (Gubbay ture Reserve. Offshore island exposed 1988). · to strong wave action and tidal cur- ,,._ Isles of Scilly (49°56'N, 6°18'W): Volun- rents as·well as having sheltered areas. tary MPA. Archipelago of granite is- . Good variety of marine habitats and lands off southwestern England. High species. Several warm water species diversity of marine habitats and com- that are rare or unusual in the U.K. are munities in a range of exposure condi- found in abundance. Zoning of fishing ~ions. Exte~ive seagrass beds, stable activity (NCC 1988). sedime_rit shores with rich infauna, ,_. North Devon (51°12'N, 4°6'W): .Volun- .many seabird breeding colonies (Gub- tary Marine Conservation Area. Also . bay 19~) . · identified as a sensitive marine area by ,,._. Sr:· Abb's and Eyemouth (55°55'N, English Nature: Moderately exposed 2°10'W): Voluntary Marine Reserve. rocky shore; rich·intertidal communi- ·Rocky coastline, ·~xposed shores, sublit- ties particularly on· overhanging rod{:. toral I:iabitats include bedrock, boul- 138 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas ders, gravel and sand further offshore. • Dodman Point to the LiZard Tide-swept communities off headlands. • Isles of Scilly One of the most important seabird • St. Ives Bay colonies on the east coast of Scotland • North Cornwall (Gubbay 1988). • Lundy ,,. Skomer and the Marloes Peninsula • North Devon (51°44'N, 5°5'W): Marine Nature Re- • Severn Estuary serve. Wide variety of habitats, areas • Dee Estuary and North Wirral Coast subject to strong currents and wave • Morecambe Bay and Lune Deep action. Submarine cliffs, reefs, boul- • Cumbrian Coast ders and, in deeper areas, sands and • Solway muds. Warm water species near edge of range in this locality. Most types of Marine Consultation A!eas.(Scotland only): fishing allowed in the reserve. Volun- • Loch Roag tary exclusion zones and limited • Loch Seaforth . access zones to protect breeding • The Obbe seabirds and seals (Countryside • Loch Maddy Council for Wales 1992). • Loch Eynort • Loch Obe· Two other types of area-based marine • Loch Eribol management measures in the United King- • Loch Laxford dom are Marine Consultation Areas (Scot- • Loch Torridon land only) and Sensitive Marine Areas • Loch Carron (England only). These are advisory and are • Loch Long intended to assist with conservation of ma- • Loch Duich rine wildlife and habitats in the identified ar- • Loch Sunart eas. They are listed below for completeness. • Dunvegan Head • Loch Creran Sensitive Marine Areas also known as • Loch Etive "important areas for marine wildlife" • Loch Sween (England only): • Upper Loch Fyne • Holy Island and the Fames • Cumbraes • Robin Hood's Bay and associated coast • Sound of Iona • Flamborough Head • Firth of Lome • The Wash and North Norfolk • Loch Indaal • Orfordness • Loch Ryan • Colne/Blackwater estuaries to Maplin Sands • Berwickshire • Thanet • Whiteness· Voe • Seven Sisters • Swinster Voe and Houb of Fora Ness • Solent and Isle of Wight • The Houb, Fugla Ness • Poole Bay and Isle of Purbeck • Brindister Voe and Vadills. • Portland and the Fleet • St.Kilda • Lyme Bay • Exe Estuary Isle ofMan • Torbay to Start Point • Bolt Tail to Start Point The Isle of Man is a self-governing depend- • Plymouth Sound, Tamar and Yealm ency of the United Kingdom. Its legislature, Marine Region 5: Northeast Atlantic 139 the Tynwald, is responsible for all matters to present ideal conditions for scientific re- except foreign policy and defense, which search. The Board of Administration also pre- are handled by the U.K. Government on be- pared a discussion paper on marine nature half of the Isle of Man. reserves to explore the possibilities for the Protected areas legislation in the Isle of six coastal Sites of Nature Conservation Im- Man is embodied in the Wildlife Act 1990, portance to become MPAs. Initially the area which allows for sites to be given special between Lihou island and Le Catioroc was status for conservation management and considered to be most suitable but following gives responsibility for site designation to discussions the L'Eree-Pezeries area was put the Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and forward for further consideration. This pro- Forestry. Marine Nature Reserves can be des- posal met with considerable opposition and ignated under this legislation. has been withdrawn. There are no Marine Nature Reserves in Isle of Man waters. Proposals for a reserve around the Calf of Man were put out to pub- Intematiorial and Regional Initiatives lic consultation in 1992 and were rejected that Relate to MPAs following a review by a Consultatory Com- mittee set up by the Minister for Agriculture, World Heritage Convention Fisheries and Forestry (Gubbay 1993). With the exception of Belgium all countries Channel Islands in the region are signatories of the World Heritage Convention; however, none of the The Channel Islands are dependencies of MPAs in the Northeast Atlantic Marine Re- the United Kingdom consisting of two "Baili- gion is a World Heritage Site. wicks." They have their own legislative as- semblies and systems of local administration. Biosphere Reserves The U.K. Government covers international af- fairs for the Islands. The UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Re- Protected area management falls :under serve Programme has been applied to a general planning arrangements that define number of MPAs in the region; however, all development zones and advocate general · of these cover areas that are predominantly policies of promoting and enhancing the coastal land rather than having a strong ma- quality of the environment. There are no pro- rine component. They have been estab- tected area designations specific to coastal lished in France, Germany, Ireland, habitats and no legislation for the designa- Netherlands, Portugal and Spain. tion of marine protected areas. The Sites of Scientific Interest system in Jersey can be ap- Ramsar Convention plied to marine sites but there are no statu- tory or voluntary MPAs on the islands All countries in the region have ratified the (Gubbay 1993). Ramsar Convention and have designated An early attempt to set up an MPA around wetlands of international importance. Ac- Guernsey was promoted by La Societe Guer- cording to the Convention these. sites can in- nesiaise. The Societe proposed the idea of clude sea areas to a depth of 6 meters, and defining an experimental area in the small although the habitats covered by the major- bay to the northeast of L'Eree headland as ity of coastal sites are predominantly fring- an undisturbed area to allow communities of ing coastal land or intertidal areas, some do animals and plants to develop naturally and include sublittoral habitats and communities. 140 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Blogenetlc Reserves Assessment of Representatio~ of Biogeographic Zones within A number of countries have identified Bi~ the MPA System gentle Reserves as part of the Council of · Europe's programme for a network of such Marine protected areas have been desig- sites. Examples with a marine component nated in all countries in the Northeast Atlan- can be found in France, Ireland and the tic but their extent is patchy with respect to Netherlands. their distribution across biogeographic zones in the region and the level of protection EC Birds Dl'rectlve they provide is variable. Most of the sites are iri·the southern North Sea, along the Wad- All countries in the Northeast Atlantic are densea coasts of Denmark, Germany and members of the European Community. The the Netherlands. The network of tidal chan- EC Birds Directive (79/409/EEC) calls for the nels, sand bars, mudflats and saltmarshes in creation of protected areas along with a vari- this area are covered by the riature reserve ety of other measures to preserve, maintain legislation of the individual countries. In the or re-establish a sufficient diversity and area case of Germany this extends to the limits of of habitats for all species of naturally occur- territorial waters but in the Netherlands the ring birds in the wild state in the European Waddensea nature reserves are confined to territory of the Member States. The sites are internal waters., The Waddensea has also known as Special Protection Areas, and been recognized as a wetland of interna- there are· examples that include a marine tional importance and has a Common Wad- component in all the countries in the region densea Secretariat working toward the with the exception of Portugal. cooperative protection of the wildlife and habitats of the region. This contrasts vvi_th. EC Habitats . and Species 'Directive the eastern and northern parts of the North Sea wh~re there is· only orie small voluntary Another EC Directive that is particularly rele- MPA. There are no MPAs in the central part vant to the protection of marine habitats and of the· North ' Sea, ' but it has been . declared a species is the· Directive 92/43/EEC on the Special Area under Annex V of the MARPOL Conservation of natural 'habitats and of wild Convention. fauna and flora, also known as the EC Habi- There are no examples of MPAs in the tats Directive. This was introduced on 21 Irish Sea or on the Atlantic coast of Ireland. May 1992, ·and requires all member states· of In the Channel most of the MPAs are on the the.EC to propose wildlife sites of interna- U.K.· coast and are therefore voluntary re- tional importance on their territory that will serves. Protection of marine wildlife and be· combined to form a single European se- habitats in these MPAs relies on voluntary ries to be known as Natura 2000. The Direc- codes of practice, the sites are run by ·volun- tive indudes a number of marine habitats tary committees and they depend on volun- and species and as such should result in the tary cooperati~n of users. Most of the codes establishment' of an international series of concern casual or recreational use of the re- statutory multiple use marine protected ar- serves. eas .. Member states are currently reviewing Further south, along the Atlantic seaboard existing legislation and where· necessary in- of France, Spain and the Portugal there are troducing new legislation to comply with the_ many coastal reserves but few MPAs. The ' Directive. Marine sites under this Directive Azores has the most MPAs of any country in must be established by 2004. the region but they provide limited protec- Marine Region 5: Northeast Atlantic 141 tion and, in the case of Maderia, where Table 5.1 Representation of there are several MPAs, the sites have gener- Bi~graphic Zones in MPAs in the ally been set up to protect seabirds while Northeast Atlantic Marine Region nesting on land. Blogeographtc Zone · Number ofMPAs .The patchy geographical distribution ·of MPAs is also reflected iri the presence 9f · Boreal Region 13 MPAs in the differerit biogeographic zones Boreal-Arctic 0 of the Northeast Atlantic (see Table 5.1). · Boreal-Lusitanean 7 There are MP.& in all but the Boreal-Arctic Lusitanean 8 Lusitanean-Boreal 2 zone but this zone is more extensive to the Azores-Madeira 11 north of the region. The majority of MP~ are concentrated in tpe. Boreal region,. which Total 41 has 13 MPAs ..There are 11 MPAs in the Azores and Madeira islands, 8 in the Lusi- tanean, 7 in the Boreal-Lusitanean, and 2 in ignation ot MPAs .. The situation may im- the Lusitanean-Boreal regions. To put this prove in the near.future with the implemen- intc;; cdntext, however, the area covered by tation of the EC Habitats and Species MPAs, ev<:!n in the Boreal region, is minimal Directive. (92/43/:E:EC) that applies to all the when compared to the totai area of sea. cquntries iQ. the region (see above). The. Di- of This type comparisori' can give or:ily a rective calls for the setting up of a coherent, very ge~eral, first impression of the situ- European ecological network of "special ar- ation. It is also important to consider how eas of conservation'.' (SACs) to be known as. well the exis~g network of MPAs repre- Nan.tra 2000. Ann~x 1 of the Directive in- sents the different biotopes in the region. In cludes a category of ope~ sea and tidal habi- the boreai region, for example, which has tats, and Anne?{ 2 inclu.des a number of the majority of MPAs, it cannot be said,there marine species·: These habitats a~d species is a representative system of MP As. Most of will need to be protected within SACs. The the sites are in the coastal fringe and are con- Directive may requ4"e ~at nati9nal legisla- centrated in the ·southern North Sea. MPAs tion of'some Memb~r States be strengthened have been established in only two of the six to allow for effective .designation of SACs in major seabed community types identified by the marine environment. This could mean Glenmarec 0973) for the regipn and in o!lly amendments to ~x~t~g legislation or new one of the three ·major regions or "~tages" legislation to allow for the designation of he identifie~the infra.littoral etage. Progress MPAs by Me~ber States. The Dir~ctive is clearly required in all biogeographic coµld also leaq to the designation of more . zones of the realm· to develop a truly repre- MPAs Jn the region: . sentative network of MPAs. National .Priority Areas PRIORITY AREAs AND ' . RECOMMENDATIONS The following sites are proposed as priprity areas for the establishment or impro~ed man- Many of the countries in the Northeast Atlan- ageµi~r;it of MPAs in the countries of the tic Marine Region have identified sites that · . Northeast Atlantic Marine Regi9n. The pro- they believe should be given MPA status. posals have, been identified by the' contribu- The process of identifying suitable localities tors to this repoi:( through a revi~w· process is ongoing in many of these countries, 4ow- but have not been formally endorsed by any ever not all have clear programs for the· des- government agencies. 142 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Belgium rine Environment Protection Commission- Helsinki Commission-Environment Commit- Proposed new MPAs: tee meeting in 199~. All of these are on the No areas identified. Baltic coast of Germany. Existing MPAs that require management Existing MPAs that require management support: support: ,,. Vlaamse Banken (Flemish Banks) ,,. Schleswig-Holstein: (see above for (51 °20'N, 3°00'E): A Ramsar wetland description) and EC Birds Directive site but not pro- ,,. Hamburgisches: (see above for tected through national legislation. In- description) cludes inshore and offshore shelf ,.- Niedersachsisches: (see above for waters and shoals. International impor- description) tance for migratory birds, _some parts ,,. Helgola=nd: (see above for description) have a rich benthic fauna. Hunting pro- hibited but threats from fisheries, rec- lreklnd reation sand extraction and pollution from outside the area need to be ad- Proposed new MPAs: dressed (Peet and others 1993). An EC funded smvey of marine habitats and communities around the coast of Ire- Denmark land is currently being undertaken under the auspices of the Office of Public Works. Proposed new MPAs: _ Apart from developing marine habitat classifi- A number of sites are being considered cations the survey will be identifying sites of for MPA status but these are all on the Baltic marine nature conservation importance. The coast of Denmark. survey results will assist with the selection of marin~ sites that should be given protection Existing MPAs that require management under the EC Habitats Directive. Three sites support: have been mentioned as possible MPAs to ,,. Vadehavet Major Conservation Area: date . (see section above for description). .,.. Lambay Islands (53°30'N, _6°W): Cliffs, r~cky shore, sublittoral boulder France and sand. Areas subject to stroqg cur:- rents. Lambay Deep forms spectacular Proposed new MPAs: underwater topography <;>f geological No known proposals for MPAs on the interest. Important for seabirds. Colony Channel and Atlantic coasts of France. of grey_ seals. Proposed Area of Scien- tific Interest by Meme and others Existing MPAs that require management (1990). support: ,_.,.... South Wexford coast (52°12'N, No areas identified. 6°33'W): Bays, rocky islands, soft sedi- ment shores, shingle, lagoons, under- Germany water cliffs, wave cut platform, hard and soft sediment. High concentration Proposed new MPAs: of important bird areas in the region, Three possibilities for MPA status have important nursery ground for fish. been identified at a meeting of the Baltic Ma- Maerl beds, kelp forest, seagrass. Grey Marine Region 5: Northeast Atlantic 143 seal colony. Proposed coastal park sector of the North Sea, which has a with zoning scheme (Hurley 1991). relatively undisturbed benthic fauna. ,.... Skellig Islands (51 °46'N, I0°32'W): Proposed prohibition on fisheries and Small Skellig and Skellig Michael are gravel extraction; controls on dis- offshore rocky islands with steep cliffs: charges from offshore mining installa- both above and below water. Abun- tions. dant marine life. Small Skellig supports ..... Sea area northwest of Frisian Islands: the second largest gannet colony in the Currently part of the designated Mil- world. Also important for other lieuzone Noordzee. A combination of seabirds. Grey seal colonies. benthic. communities ranging from coastal areas to Frisian Front. The area Early results from the survey suggest that is an imp.octant spawning and nursery many parts of the west coast are likely to be area for both commercial and noncom- of marine biological importance. The rich-· mercial species of fish. Seasonal migra- ness and diversity of islands, inlets, and bays tion routes to and from the Waddensea such as the Aran Islands, Blasket Islands, are concentrated in this area. Large Kenmare Bay, Kilkieren Bay and Mulroy Bay _numbers of·porpoises, dolphins and sea- are likely to be worth exploring in more de- birds. Proposal to close area for all types tail because of the variety of habi~t types, of fisheries, and additional controls. sheltered areas, tidal streams, and both rare and unusual habitats and populations. He~d- Existing MPAs that require management lands provide a contrast and some, such as support: Black Head and St. John's Point in Donegal ,.- D_ollard Natural Monument: (see above Bay, may be sites of marine biological impor- for description) tance. ,.- Waddenzee Natural Monument: (see above for description) Existing MPAs that require management support: Portugal No areas have been identified as_priorities. Proposed new MPAs: Netherlands No areas have been identified. Proposed new MPAs: Existing MPAs that require management The Directorate of Nature, Environment support: and Fauna Management of the Ministry of ,.- Berlenga: (described above) Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisher- ,.- Costa Vicentica e Sudoeste, Alentejano ies commissioned a study on the potential for marine protected areas in the North Sea . .Azores sector of the Netherlands. The report (Bergman, and others 1991) concluded that Proposed new MPAs: two areas within the Dutch sector of the The Department of Environment of the Re- North Sea qualify for protected status: the gional Government of Azores is considering Klaverbank and an area directly northwest the designation of additional MPAs. No sites of the Frisian Islands. have been proposed as yet but considera- ~ Klaverbank: Currently part of the desig- tion may be given to at least some of the nated Milieuzone Noordzee. The only following sites (Santos, personal communi- gravel area of importance in the Dutch cation). 144 A Global Representative System o( Marine Protected Areas Eastern group: ,_. Selvagem Pequena and Ilheu de Fora • San Miguel-Caloura, Mosteiros ,_. Garaja-µ ,,._ Ilheu Chao and Deserta· _Grande. Central group: . ,_. Ilheu do Bugio • Terceira-Ilheus das Cabras and Ilheus dos Fradinhos, Monte Brasil, Vila Nova-Ilheu Spain Norte • Graciosa-Ilheu da Praia, Baia do Cara- Proposed new MPAs: pacho-Ponta do Feliciano, Ponta Branca No known· proposed sites on Atlantic and Ilheu, Baia da Vitoria-Baia das Dia- coast. gaves • Sao Jorge..:Faja dos Cuberes-Faja do ·santo Existing MPAs that require management Cristo suppqrt: • Pico-Ilheus da Madalena_, I.ages do Pico, ,,. Acantilado de Barbate Natural Park north of the island ,_. Donana National Park • Faial-Capelinhos, ·Morro de Castelo Branco, 'Baia 'do Porto· Pim United King~ Western group: Proposed new MPAs: . • Flores-Porita Ruiva-Santa Cruz, Ponta ,..... Loch Sween (56°N, 5°40'W): Sea loch dos' Bi-edo-Ponta da Rocha Alta, Ilheu. da .)fl west coast of Scotland ..Fjord.with Gadelha series of basins and sills. Greatest bio- • ·Corvo logical diversity in "passes." Flora ~nd fauna typical of Scottish sea loch .. Pro- Existing MPAs that require management _posed by the government nature con- support: servation agency, now under Scottish Management support to improve the effec- Natural Heritage. Public cons{iltatlon in tiveness of the six existing MPAs in the 199Q ·resulted in rejection of site ~ a Azores is considered a high priority. s1:al1:Jtory Maripe Nature Reserve. Com- ,_. Bays of Maia, South Lourenco, Anjos munity liaison officer ~ow works. on and Praia around the island of Santa site. Maria ,.,... .Bardsey Island and Lleyn Peninsula ,_. Vila Franca Islet, Sao Miguel Island (52°46'N, 4°48'W): 9ffsho~e island with ,_. Formigas Islets and Dolabarat Bank good div~rsity of rocky shore habitats. ,_. Topo Islet, Sao· Jorge Island Tide swept areas, spe<;ies' typical of ,.. Lagoon of Santo Cristo, Sao Jorge Island both exposed and semi-exposed condi- ,,._ Monte da Gtiia, ·Faial Island tions. Proposed ·by gove~ment nature conserv~tion agency and now under Madeira Countryside Council for Wales. Propos- als likely to include inshore waters Proposed New MPAs: around the mainland Lleyn pe~insula. No known pr~posed sites. ..,. Menai Strait (53°~'N, 4°20'W): 20-kilo- metedong channel with gradation of Existing MPAs that require management substrates and communities relating tq. support:· changes in current speed. Gullies sub- 1 , _ . Selvagem Grande ject to strong·tides but sheltered from . Marine Region 5: Northeast Atlantic 145 ·wave action support rich algae and se!i- Isle of Man entary fau_na. Proposed by the govern- ment nature conserva~ion agency, nqw The rejection of proposals to designate a ma- under Countryside Cou·ncil for Wales. rine Nat,ure Reserve around the Calf of Man Two public consultations regarding des- was a major setback for marine site designa- ignation (in 1988 and 1992) the most tion around the Isle of Man. After consider- recent of which is ongoing (Country- ing the proposal, the .Calf Consultatory side Council for Wales 1992). Committee supported the idea of a voluntary ~ Strangford Lough (54°23'N, 5°32'W): code to encourage good practice in the area Large, virtually land-locked marine in- rather than statutory controls. The Commit- let. Wide range of sublittoral .habitats tee also recommended that the Isle of Man grading from fine muds at head of the Government consider introducing a volun- lough to bedrock and boulder~. Strong tary code. to be promoted for all territorial currents in narrows. More than 2.000·. waters of the Isle of Man. marine specie~. recorded from' the . Marine b~ological surveys have identified lough. One of the largest concentra- and proposed sites for both voluntary and tions of common seal iri Ireland and statutory protection around the Isle of Man one of the most important areas for (Geffen, Hawkins, and Fisher 1990). The Isle overwintering birds in Ireland. Consult- of Man Government agreed to progress the itions over designation by the Depart- protection or' such sites at a major confer- inent of E_nvironment (Northern ence on the future of the Irish Sea, which Irelanc;l) have };>~en ongoing for· more was held in 1990. In light of the more recent than five ye~rs (proposals issued in decision not to proceed with plans for a Calf ·1991 and 1994) (DoE (NI) 1994). of Man Marine Nature Reserve, and because ..,.... Rathlin Island (55°17'N, 6°15'W): Pro- the EC Habitats and Species Directive does posed Marine Nature Reserve. Island in not apply to the Isle of Man, the future of area of strong tidal streams. Deep chan- statutory MPAs for the Isle of Man is very un- nel to north of island forms vertical certain. cliffs exposed to strong wave action and tidal currentc,.-unique in the Brit- Proposed new MPAs: ish Isles. Many species near northern ...., The Ayres (54°24'N, 4°27'W): Exposed edge of range, unusual and ra.r:e spe- northwest coast of the Isle of Man. cies. Important seabird colonies. Un- Rich shingle flora ~nd unique lichen like most of the west coast of Scotland, heath. Important nearshore feeding some areas of muddy gravel have not ground for seabirds such as terns, been extensively dredged and there- shags, ganne~. Offshore a flat cobble fore have rich hydroid and bryoioan area swept by strong tidal currents. fauna (Erwin and others 1986). Identified by Geffen, Hawkins, and Fisher 0990) as a suitable site for statu- Existing MPAs that require management tory protection within a broader conser- support: yation zone. Highest priority is given to the following ..... Maughold (54°18'N, 4°23'W): Headland two areas: at the eastern most point of the Isle of ,,._ Lundy Marine Nature Reserve Man. Maritime heath, rocky cliffs, shin- ,,._ Skomer and the Marloes Peninsula Ma- gle beach. Nears_hore habitats of bed- rine Nature Reserve rock and boulders. Important nesting 146 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas locality for guillemot, kittiwake, razor- ..,.... Calf of Man (54°2'N, 4°50'W): Island bill and other seabirds. Identified by 400 meters off the southwestern tip of Geffen, Hawkins, and Fisher 0990) as the Isle of Man. Marine communities a possible voluntary conservation area representative of those found on hard or a small statutory reserve within a substrates and coarse sediments in larger voluntary conservation area . Mame waters and Irish Sea in general. ......, Derbyhaven/1..angness (54°4'N, Rich and varied flora and fauna. Possi- 4°37'W): Two bays and a narrow pen- bly one of the best tide-swept habitats insula. Encompasses the full range of in the Irish Sea. Basking Shark congre- intertidal· habitats around the Isle of gate in the area in large numbers in Man. Most significa·nt area on the Isle early summer. Rare bryozoan species of Man for wintering shorebirds. Bays reported. Seacliffs important for breed- have some of the richest fauna of the ing seabirds and chough. Failed to re- more sheltered Mame beaches. Rocky ceive statutory protection. Current shores dominated by wracks and sup- proposals likely to be limited to volun- porting dense beds of Ascophyllum no- tary code of practice. (Department of dosum. High level rock pools contain Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry interesting assemblages of brackish 1992) . water species. Identified by G~ffen, ..,... Niarbyl (54°10'N, 4°46'W): Exposed Hawkins, and Fisher (1990) as suitable shore, offshore cobble, pebble and site for statutory protection. gravel as well as bedrock and·boul- ~ Scarlett· Point: Moderately exposed ders. One of two sites in the Isle of limestone shore with ledges and brack- Man known for maerl beds. Consid- ish pools. Kelp forest. Intertidal com- ered to be a site of ecological signifi- munities and fringing habitats cance for the Isle of Man. Identified by considered to be of ecological impor- Geffen, Hawkins, and Fisher 0990) as tance in the context of.the Isle of Man. suitable site for voluntary MPA. Identified by Geffen, Hawkins, and Fisher 0990) as possible voluntary MPA. Channel Islands ......,. . Port St. Mary Ledges (54°5'N, 4°42'W): -Moderately exposed limestone shore. The extensive intertidal zone in Jersey (up Some of the richest fauna of the more to 12 meters) includes a high diversity of sheltered Mame beaches. Adjacent habitats and species. The importance of the sandy areas important flatfish nursery shoreline for birds has been highlighted by ground. Identified by Geffen, Hawkins, Pritchard and others 0992) who make par- and Fisher 0990) as suitable site for ticular reference to· its value for ringed voluntary MPA. plover,· grey plover, sanderling and turn- .,... Port Erin Bay (56°6'N, 4°45'W): Moder- stone. There are also marine species at the ately exposed sandy bay. Extensive northern edge of their range. rock outcrops of boulders and bedrock There are no proposals for MPAs around offshore. Typical soft sediment commu- Guernsey although L'Eree may be used to nities, nursery grounds for flatfish, inter- promote marine education and interpreta- tidal communities considered to be of tion. There may also be opportunities to sup- ecological significance. Long history of port some of the ideas of MPAs through scientific research. Identified by Gef- other legislation. The Fishing Ordinance fen, Hawkins, and Fisher (1990) as pos- 0988) is under review and an amendment, sible voluntary conservation area. proposing that the Island's Sea Fisheries Marine Region 5: Northeast Atlantic 147 Committee be given the power to ban fish- and Kenchington 1991). In the case of the ing in any area, at any time is being consid- U.K.,.for example, less than 50 square kilo- ered. The policy on the control of diving for meters has .statutory protection out of a po- certain species is likely to b.e liberalized, but tential one-third million square kilometers of the ban on export of sand eels from the territorial sea. The Waddensea is the only Bailiwick's territorial waters. will continue as area that is well represented with virtually will enforcement of the additional minimum the whole region covered by protected area sizes for species riot contained in the EC designations. Overall, the emphasis is on es- regulations. tablishing MPAs in coastal localities as these are the .most productive regions and also un- Proposed new MPAs: der the most immediate threat from human ...,... Portelet Bay, Jersey (49°10'N, 2°11'): activity. The EC Habitats Directive, which Proposals are currently being devel- calls for the protection of Special Areas of oped to designate this area as a Marine Conservation in both the terrestrial and ma- Nature Reserve. Includes a mixture of rine environment, should help advance the sheltered and exposed rocky shore MPA programs in the countries of the North- with sand dwelling communities be- east Atlantic Marine Region. tween rocky areas. Survey work has re- Priority action should be based on improv- corded 261 species of fauna and 187 ing protection: of existing sites and expand- species of algae (Culley and Romeril, ing the network. Several sites are worth in press). specific mention in this respect. The Waddensea is the largest unbroken stretch of intertidal mudflats in the world Regional Priority Areas and Other and, although not particularly rich in species Recommendations (some 250), it is extremely productive. In terms of biomass it has been considered The brief consideration of MPAs in this pa- equivalent to rainforests and estimated to be per suggests that a more extensive network one of the most important wetland areas in of MPAs is required. to adequately represent the world. The tidal flats are of global impor- the marine biogeographic zones and bio- tance for birds with an average of around 10 topes in the.Northeast Atlantic Marine Re- million birds passing through the region gion. However, it is also critically important each year. The Waddensea is also a very im- to ensure that those sites that are already portant nursery ground for numerous fish MPAs are giving adequate protection to the species with an estimated 80 percent of the marine wildlife and habitats within their plaice, 50 percent of the sole and 40 percent boundaries. In this regard it is relevant to of the herring caught in the North Sea. The note, for example, that none of the MPAs in sandbanks are also extensively used by com- the region has regulations or voluntary mon seals as breeding and haul-out sites; codes that give complete protection to the however, numbers fell dramatically in the wildlife within the protected areas or that late 1980s following a viral epidemic. The prohibit all potentially damaging activities area is already designated a national park un- taking place within the boundaries of the · der the legislation of the three countries MPAs. whose territories it extends over, however, Existing MPAs cover a very small area of there is a need for more stringent measures the Northeast.Atlantic even though it is both within these reserves and outside their widely recognized that a viable MPA is likely boundaries to maintain the richness of this to be many times larger than the minimum environment. Heavy metals and many other viable size of a terre~trial reserve (Kelleher toxic substances are washed into the Wad- 148 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas densea from both land and other parts qf fine muds, at· µie head of the lough, to bed- the North Sea. There is also. an increasing rock and boulders in the narrows. There are danger of eutrophication from nitrates and strong currents, up to 8 knots, whirlpools phosphates causing algal blooms and lead- and ov:erfalls in the narrows with steep sub- ing to oxygen deficiency. The Waddensea littoral cliffs marking the. entrance to the borders one of the world's busiest shipping lough. The range of sublittoral communities lanes, with continuous low-level discharge include Dublin Bay prawns (Nephrops of oil and chemicals posing a threat as well noroegicus), Horse Mussel beds (Modiolus as the ever.:present danger of larger spills. modiolus) that support a particularly rich as- Investigations into potential MPAs in the semblage of spec.ies, and current exposed Dutch sector of the North _Sea have recom- bedrock communities with sponges, soft cor- mended two sites--an area directly north- als and anemones in abundance.· The lough west of the Frisian Islands, and the was once famous for its Skate (Raja batis) Klaverbank. The first of these encompasse~ and, although these have almost disap:- a range of benthic commupities typical of · peared, Tope (Galeorbinus ga/eus) can still sandy and muddy seabed as well as gravel. be seen on occasions with females coming. and crossing the Frisian Front. The area is into the Lough to "pup." More than 2,000 an important spawning and, nursery area for marine species have been found in the. both commercial and noncommercial spe- lough that also supports one of the largest cies. of fish. Seasonal migration routes to and .concentrations of common seal (Phoca vi-· from the Waddensea are·coricentrated in this tulina) in IrelaJ?,d and holds. over two-thirds are:,i while relatively larg~ ~u~b~rs of por"'. of the west European population of Pale Bel- poises, dolphins and seabirds occur in the · lied Brent Geese (l~ranta bemicla hrota) on area. The' second site, the Klaverbank is the their arrival fl'.Om breeding grounds in Arctic· only gravel area of imp.ortance in tl)e Dµtch Canada. The lough has been u'nder consid- sector of the North Sea and ~till has a rela~ eration- for: MPA status• since the 1980s but tiyely undisturbed benthic fauna. due to disputes over how it, might be man- Vlaamse Banken is located in the North aged _it remains undesignated. The situation Sea within Belgian territorial waters between requir~s urgent attention because of continu- Dunkerque and Ostend,. The area is desig- . ing damage to seabed communities while nated as a Ramsar site: and as an EC special disc~~sions over-designation go on for many protection ~rea. The site includes the lowest years. Sul;,stantial areas of the rich Horse zone of the beach, extending up to several . Muss.el beds have.already been lost due to kilometers offshore and incluc;ling a series of trawUng for Queen Scallops. The continuing shallows, some parts of which .include a ri~h ciestructiqil of these beds has serious implica- benthic fauna. tions for both tll.e fishery and the diversity of i:wo sites that have been singled out on the.iria~ine life in the sea locQ. the North Ireland coast as potential MPAs, . In Gre~t Britain seven sites were pro- Strangford Lough and the waters around posed forMPA status in 1981 and two of Rathlin lsland, .require urgent designation. these have been established. The level of Strangford Lough· is a narrow fully marine in- protection is minimal in these areas, espe- let connected to the ~~a via a narrow chan- cially from fisheries. There is concern about nel. It extends over some 150 square damage to wildlife from -gill netting and pot- kilometers and is more' than 30 kilometers ting in the Skomer reserve, for example, and long. The western shore is. bordered by over the limitations on fisheries in the Lundy drumlins that form the many .islands of the reserve that are virtually identical to the situ- lough and the shelter. from w_av:e action has ation before designation. Protection of ma- led to a gradation of sublittoral habitats from rine wildlife and habitats in these sites must Marine Region 5: Northeast Atlantic 149 be improved. Furthermore, progress is Attempts to give the area statutory protec- needed with the statutory designation pro- tion have made little progress and protection gramme that has virtually come to a halt. At may how be limited to voluntary agree- the moment, most opportunity exists to set - ments. This site should be given priority for up an MPA in the Menai,Straits, a 20-kilome- MPA designation in the Isle of Man. ter long channel that separates the island of In· Ireland, the variety of the Wexford Anglesey from the North Wales coast. A sec- coast has long· been appreciated and an area ond series of consultations over the .designa- on the southeastern part, from Hook Head tion of this site is currently underway. to Garnsore Point, including the Saltee Is- .The MPAs that have been established lands, has been ·highlighted as a possible around the islands of Madeira have both ter- Coastal Park.: The area is of international im- restrial and marine components. Two par-· portance for its seabirds whilst the seabed in- ticularly important areas, where strong cludes muds, ·sands gravel, cobbles and safeguards are needed, are the· MPAs around wave-cut platforms ·as well as almost vertical Ilheu Chao/Deserta Grande and Ilheu do cliffs. The area is ari important nursery Bugio, which are important sites for the en- ground for some fish. dangered Mediterranean monk seal. The EC-funded BioMar survey has started In Spain the Donana National Park, al- to collate m·arine biological information for though predominantly a wetland site, is of. the coast and nearshore waters around Ire- European importance and is seriously threat-· land: Preliminary results have pinpointed is- ened, mainly by activities occurring·beyond land groups, inlets and 'bay's, headlands and the boundaries of the park. stretches of ope·n ·coast as being of particular In the case of-the Isle of Man, priority value and worth considering in any network should be given to the establishment of an of MPAs. The overview provided by this sur- MPA around the Calf of Man. The marine ·en.:. vey will be an' important context in which to vironment of the Calf is considered to be in select sites for protection and, for the next a virtually undisturbed state: Steep slate cliffs stage, detailed investigations and sugges- above sea level grade into a seabed of boul~ tions on how they should be protected will ders, ·cobbles and sandy gravel: The waters need to be prepared for a short list of sites. around the Calf support communities repre- These and the other sites listed in this sec- sentative of those found on hard substrates tion should be incorporated info MPA desig- and coarse sediments in Manx waters and nation programs but there is also a need to the Irish Sea in general. -The varying degrees improve the protection of sites that are al- of exposure to tides, currents and wind pro- ready designated. The list of suitable sites vide a variety of habitats. These allow estab- for designation should also be updated on a lishment of a large number of communities regular basis as more information becomes such as sessile filter feeders, extensive kelp available through the marine survey pro- forest, unusually extensive beds of Flustra fo- grams that are being undertaken in a num- liacea, large areas of sand dwelling commu- ber of countries within the region. nities and an abundance of Tubularia indtvisa. The Calf Sound probably repre- sents one of the best tide-swept habitats in Conclusions the Irish Sea and, during the early summer,' Basking Shark (Centorhinus maximus) con- The two main areas for future action on gregate in the area in large numbers. Rare- MPAs in the region should be to: bryozoan species that have only been re- • Improve the effectiveness of existing ported in the literature on a few occasions MPAs this century have been observed in the area.· • Expand the network of sites. 150 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas This is necessary in all countries in the re- coast of France, Madeira, Portugal and the gion; however, the following suggestions are Channel Islands. made for priority action. The establishment of no-exploitation MPAs in the region is also considered a high Existing MPAs that require management priority. In 1993, at a meeting of environ- ,.. support: Waddensea Coast (Denmark, Germany ment ministers from countries surrounding the North Sea (part of a series of Interna- and the Netherlands): tional Ministerial Conferences on the North • Vadehavat Major Conservation Area Sea) it was agreed that the idea of no-exploi- (Denmark) tation areas should be given due considera- • Hamburgisches National Park ( Ger- tion. _This approach is currently being many) considered for the Klaverbank and Frisian • Niedersaechsisches National Park (Ger- front proposals from the Netherlands but many) should also be taken forward by other coun- • Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wattenmeer tries in the realm as one of the options in National Park (Germany) their MPA programs. • Helgolaender Felssockel Nature Re- serve (Germany) • Dollard Natural Monument (Nether- lands) BIBLIOGRAPHY • Waddenzee Natural Monument (Nether- lands) Bergman, MJ.N., H.J. Lindeboom, G. Peet, Lundy Island and Skomer Island P.H.M. Nelissen, Nijkamp, and M.F. Leopold. (United Kingdom) 1991. Protected Areas in the North Sea-the ne- MPA sites in the Azores (six areas) (Por- cessity and possibilities. Amsterdam: Nether- tugal, Azores) lands Institute for Sea Research. Borgesen, F., and Jonsson, H. 1905. The distribu- Vlaamse Banken (Belgium) tion of marine algae of the Arctic Sea and the Donana National Park (Spain) northernmost part of the Atlantic. In E. Warm- Ilheu Chao/Deserta Grande and Ilheu ing, ed., Botany of the Faeroes based upon do Bugio (Madeira, Portugal) Danish investigations. Part M. Copenhagen. Briggs, J.C. 1974. Marine zoogeography. New Proposed new MPAs: York: McGraw-Hill. ~ Strangford Lough (Northern Ireland, Brown, R. 1990. Strangford Lough. 1be Wildlife of United Kingdom) an Irish Sea Lough. Belfast: Institute of Irish ....,. Rathlin Island (Northern Ireland, Studies/Queen's University of Belfast. United Kingdom) Countryside Council for Wales. 1991. Skomer Ma- ..,,. Calf of Man (Isle of Man, United King- rine Nature Reseroe. Information pack . dom) - - . 1992. Menai Strait Proposed Marine Na- .,.... Klaverbank (Netherlands) ture Reseroe. Revised Consultation Document. Daan, N., P.J. Bromley, J.R.G. Hislop, and N.A. ,..... NW of Frisian Islands (Netherlands) Nielsen. 1990. Ecology of North Sea fish. Neth- erlands journal ofSea Research 26:343-68. In some areas of the region there is insuffi- Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and For- cient information to make recommendations estry. 1992. 1be Calf ofMan. A proposed Ma- for priority action. The identification of fur- rine Nature Reserve. ther sites and the development of MPA pro- Department of the Environment (Northern Ire- grams in these areas are required. Areas of land). 1994. Strangford Lough. Proposed Ma- high priority in this regard are the Atlantic rine Nature Reseroe. Guide to Designation. coast of Spain, the Atlantic and Channel Belfast: DoE(NI) Environment Service. Marine Region 5: Northeast Atlantic 151 Eckman, S. 1953. Zoogeograpby of the Sea. Lon- (Part 1: Nature conseroation). Liverpool: Irish don: Sidgwick and Jackson:. Sea Study Group, Liverpool University Press. Etwin, D.G., B.E. Picton, D.W. Comnor, C.M. Mitchell, R.C. 1987. Conseroation of marine ben- Howson, P. Gilleece, and M.J. Bogues. 1986. tbic btocenoses in the North Sea and Baltic. Na- Tbe Northern Ireland Sublittoral Survey. Bel- ture and Environment series No. 37. Council of fast: Ulster Museum. Europe Publications. English Nature. 1994. Important areas for marine Myers, A.A., C. Little, M.J. Costello, and J.C. Par- wildlife around England. Peterborough. tridge. 1991. 1be ecology ofLough Hyne. Dub- Geffen, A.J., S.J. Hawkins, and E.M. Fisher. 1990. lin: Royal Irish Academy. 1be Isle ofMan. Section 2.5. of the Irish Sea Nature Conseivancy Council. 1988. Lundy Ma- Study Group Report (Part 1: Nature Conseiva- rine Nature Reseroe. tion). Irish Sea Study Group. Liverpool: Liver- Nijkamp, H., G. Peet, M. Bus, and A. Nollkaem- pool University Press. per. 1993. Marine protected areas in Europe: Glenmarec, M. 1973. The benthic communities of Country pro.files. Report of a study within the the european North Atlantic continental shelf. framework of the BioMar project (3 vols.). Oceanography and Marine Biology. Annual Re- LIFE92l/lRU001. vies. 11:263-89. North Sea Task Force. 1993. North Sea quality Gubbay, S. 1988. A coastal directory for marine status report 1993. London: Oslo and Paris nature conseroation. Marine Conseivation Soci- Commissions. ety. Peet, G., H. Nijkamp, J. Rossum, C. Slegtenhorst, - - - . 1993 Marine Protected Areas in Euro- M. Bus, A. Nolkaemper, and S. Gubbay, eds. pean waters. The British Isles. A report for 1993. Marine protected areas in Europe: MPA AIDEnvironment from the Marine Conseiva- descriptions. Report of a study within the tion Society. BIOMAR project (LIFE 92- framework of the BioMar project (3 vols.). l/lRUOOOl). LIFE92-l/IRUOO 1. Hayden, B.P., G.C. Ray, and R. Dolan. 1984. Clas- Picton, B.E., B.J. Ball, M. Bowler, and C.M. sification of coastal and marine environments. Howson, eds. 1994. The Marine Conseroation Environmental Conseroation 11(3): 199-207. Society and Ulster Museum Directory ofMarine Hiscock, K. 1991. Benthic marine ecosystems in Flora and Fauna. Great Britain: A review of current knowledge. Pingree, R.D., and D.K. Griffiths. 1978. Tidal Introduction and Atlantic-European Perspec- fronts on the shelf sea areas around the British tive. Nature Conseivancy Council, CSD Report Isles. Journal of Geophysical Research 83: 4615- No.1170. Peterborough: Nature Conservancy 22. Council. Pritchard, D.E., S.D. Housden, G.P. Mudge, C.A. Hurley, J. 1991. South Wexford Coast National Galbrath, and M.W. Pienkowski, eds. 1992. Im- Park. A Proposal. Irish Wildbird Conseivancy. portant Bird Areas in the U.K. including the Kingstone, P.F., and E. Rachor. 1982. North Sea Channel Islands and the Isle ofMan. Sandy: level bottom communities. C.M. 1982/L:41. ICES. Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. Lee, A.J., and J.W. Ramster. 1981. Atlas of the seas Reille, A. 1987. Cb. Bonnin Luqout, Guide des Re- around the British Isles. Lowestoft: Ministry of seroes Naturelles de France. Paris: Delachaux Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. and Niestle, Neuchatel. Mackie, A.S.Y. 1990. Offshore benthic communi- Salzwedel H., E. Rachor, and D. Gerdes. 1985. ties of the Irish Sea. In 1be Irish Sea: An envi- Benthic macrofauna communities in the Ger- ronmental review (Part 1: Nature man Bight. Veroffent/ichungen des Institutsfur conseroation). Liverpool: Irish Sea Study Meeresforscbung in Bremerbaven 20:199-267. Group, Liverpool University Press. Tucker, G.H., M.F. Heath, L. Tomialojc, and Meme, OJ., M.J. Costello, and R.M. Allen. 1990. R.F.A. Grimmett. 1994. Birds in Europe: 1beir The Irish Sea Coast of the Republic of Ireland. conseroation status. BirdLife Conseivation Se- In 1be Irish Sea: An environmental review ries 3. Cambridge, U.K. MARINE REGION 6 Baltic Lars-Erik Esping and Gurli Gronqvist BIOGEOGRAPHY AND MARINE the outflow of brackish water from the Bal- BIODIVERSITY tic. To the north of the Kattegat is the Skagerrak, which is usually regarded as part The Baltic Marine Region includes the Baltic of the North Sea. There is no clear boundary Sea area and the Skagerrak Sea. Coastal between the Kattegat and the Skagerrak. areas of the following countries are in- cluded: Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Ger- Oceanography many, Latvia, Lithuania, ~orway, Poland, Russia and Sweden. Much of the following introductory informa- The Baltic Sea is one of the world's small- tion is based on Voipio 0981). est seas. In many respects it is similar to an The Baltic Sea has an area of approxi- inland sea or an estuary, being almost en- mately ~74,000 square kilometers and an av- tirely cut off from the open ocean. Its only erage depth of 57 meters, although there are links with more open sea areas are the a number of basins where the sea reaches Sound (6resund) and the Danish Belts-the depths of 200-450 meters. Great and Little Belts. Of these straits, the Over the last 12,000 years the Baltic has al- Great Belt is the widest, and about two- ternated several times from being a large thirds of the water flowing to or from the freshwater lake to becoming a marine sea, Baltic Sea passes through it. The Little Belt is before becoming the brackish marine area very narrow, and the majority of the remain- of today. Although there are periodic and ing flow occurs through the Sound. ecologically significant inflows of saline The Belts, together with adjacent sea areas water through the Kattegat, the majority of to the north and south, including the Kiel the Baltic's water comes from the many riv- and Mecklenburg Bights (Germany), are usu- ers of bordering countries. ally referred to collectively as the Belt Sea. The drainage basin of the Baltic Sea is The Baltic Sea area includes the whole of more than four times the area of the sea it- the Kattegat, which is greatly influenced by self. River inflow totals about 430-470 cubic 153 154 A Global Repre~en~tlye System of Marine Protected Areas kilometers, with the ridrthem: areas,contribut- ity may reach 20°100 in the Bornholm Basin ing the greatest 'proportion of the 'total.in- and 1lo/oo in the western Gotl;md Basin.· flow: some 32 percent into the Gulf of . straiification of the water column forms Bothnia and 24 percent. into the Gulf of Fin- barriers that prevent oxygenated surface land. Inflow is subject to considerable long- :water from mixing downward in the water term varja~ility. There is. also marked c;olumn. The variations in salinity and the seasonality in river runoff, with maximum stratification of the water masses profoundly discharge occurring in April-June as a result influence the distribution of plant and ani- of thawing, and the minimum in January- mal species: throughout the Baltic Sea. February. It appears that annual precipita- The surface water temperature in the Bal- tion over the whole Baltic Sea roughly tic proper ranges from about 1-2°C in Febru- equals evaporation so that freshwater input ary-Marc:h to about 16-17°C inJuly-August. can be equated to river runoff (although In the Bothnian Bay the range is about from there are regional and seasonal departures 0°C to 14-15°C. In the central Baltic proper from this pattern). the annual range at 30 meters depth is about The input of freshwater to the J3altic Sea from 1-10°C and, at 60 meters, from 2-5°C. generates an outgoing, low-salinity (mean of Over most of the Baltic_ Sea, a spring and 8.7°100) surface current into the Kattegat and summer thermocline forms at depths be- North Sea. There is an incoming bottom cur- tween 15 and 20 meters. The Bothnian Bay rent of higher salinity (mean of 17.4°100). Per- usually becomes completely ic;e-covered in sistent westerly winds can generate January. Complete ice cover normally also voluminous short-term inflows of higher sa- occurs in the coas~l zone down to the linity. The interval between such episodes Aland Sea and. along the inner parts of the may be several years, but their ecological im- Gulf of Finland and Gulf of Riga. plications can be very significant. Long-term variation in the inflow of Between the low-salinity outflow and higher salinity water from the Kattegat ap- higher salinity inflow is a permanent pycno- pears to have resulted in an overall increase cline..(a layer 9f water exhibiting a i:eiatively in the temperature and salinity of the deep- rapid increase in density with increasing · water of the Baltic proper, at least since the depth) comprising a primary halocline (a beginning of the century. There are differ- layer exhibiting a relatively rapid increase in ences according to area, but the increases salinity with increasing depth) usually rein-. are about 0.6-2.7°G and O.S-1.7°100. During forced by a thermocline (a layer exhibiting a this period there has also been a decrease in relatively rapid decrease in temperature with the oxygen concentration of the deepwater increasing depth). The pycnocline occurs at in the Baltic proper, from about 3 ml 0/1 to a depth of about 10-20 meters in the Belt zero, producing stagnant or semi-stagnant Sea and Oresund, 35--40 meters in the Ark- conditions in the deep basins for long peri- ona Basin, and 65-70 meters in the C(!ntral ods. This condition has probably been Baltic proper. Surface salinity varies from, caused by an increase in the frequency of in- for example, 1-3°100 in the Bothnian Bay, 4- flows from the North Sea, combined with in- 60100 in the Bothnian Sea, and 6--80100 in the creased oxygen consumption of the Baltic proper. Bottom salinities are around sediment possibly induced by increased or- 4°100 in the Bothnian Bay and 10-18°100 in ganic pollution. the Baltic proper. Occasionally, as a result of One of the main characteristics of the Bal- a major inflow from the Kattegat,.a secon- tic is the salinity gradient running from north dary halocline develops at 110-130 meters to south, with low salinity in the Bothnian depth. In such instances bottom water salin- Bay and high salinity in the Skagerrak. The Marine Region 6: Baltic 155 distribution of marine flora and fauna fol- predominate in the deeper central and west- lows this salinity gradient. The Baltic Sea is ern areas. unique in that there are areas where freshwa- Another very characteristic feature of the ter, brackish water and marine species are geomorphology are the archipelagos along all present. Many of the marine species are the Swedish and Finnish Baltic Coasts. They at the inner limit of their distributions. are mostly formed as a peneplain sloping gently toward the open sea, which is Coastal Geography and Geology crossed by fissure valleys with sediment bot- toms separated by ridges of rock. In the Brief descriptions of terrestrial coastal geog- larger archipelagoes, such as those outside raphy are provided for each of the bio- Stockholm and Turku (Abo), there are a mul- geographic zones in the section dealing with titude· of islets, rocks and skerries and some biogeographic classification. bigger islands (for example, about 30,000 in A characteristic feature of the geomorphol- the ·Stockholm archipelago). These archipela- ogy of the Baltic Sea is the presence of ba- gos have a rich flora and fauna; in particular sins (in most cases filled with Quaternary a great numb~r of ducks and waders breed sediments) separated by shallow sills. the there. deepest is the Landsort Depth north of Got- . Also specific for the region is the phenom- land ( 459 meters). On average, however, the ena of crustal- uplift and submergence. In Baltic Sea is shallow, with a mean depth of - the Bothnian Bay crustal uplift is 9 millime- only 57 meters. ters per year, in the south of the Baltic In the region of the Danish Straits and the proper the uplift is zero, while in the Belt Sound (the 6resund) bottom sediments con- Sea there is crustal submergence. sist mainly of sand and moraine, but with some mud in the deeper areas, and bedrock Ecosystem Diversity exposed in areas subject to high-velocity cur- rents. In the southern and central parts of Descriptions of each of the biogeographic the Baltic Sea muds generally dominate the zones are provided in the section on bio- deeper parts, while sandy sediments occur geographic classification. A list of the spe- along the southern and eastern coastal cies fouria is provided in Appendix 6.1. zones. In the northern Baltic Sea, sand and silt deposits occur around Gotland, Hiiumaa, .Benthic Fauna Saaremaa and Aland, whereas in deeper ar- eas, below 80 meters depth, soft bottoms oc- The main soft-bottom macro benthic commu- cur. The northern part of the Baltic proper is nities are Abra alba, C)Prina-Astarie, Ma- composed largely of a complex mosaic of coma and Pontoporeia affinis. hard and soft bottom areas. The Gulf of Fin- The Abra alba community is mostly con- land is also characterized by an extremely fined to areas of the Belt Sea. ln muddy sedi- varied distribution of bottom types. Along ments deeper than around 15 meters it has the coast of Sweden and Finland, hard bot- been described in Kiel Bay and in Lubeck toms separated by minor soft-bottom areas Bay. Sp~cies such as Hydrobia ulvae, are present. Along the Finnish coast, hard- Mysella bidentatd, Abra alba, Hannonthoe bottom areas also predominate. Extensive· impar, Peloscolex benederii and Diastylis glacial drift deposits occur in the northwest- ratbkei are the most abundant. ern part of the Bothnian Sea. In the Both- The C)Prina-Astrate·community occurs in nian Bay sand predominates in the the western areas of the Baltic where the northeastern part, while muddy sediments biomass can be dominated by C)Prina is- 156 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas /andica and Astarte borealis. This commu- found. These are dominated by polychaetes nity can be considered a ,modification of the such as Harmothoe sarsi, Scoloplos armiger Abra alba community or Macoma calcarea and Capitella capitata. · C(?mmUQ.ity. Macoma communities (M. baltica and M. Bentbic Vegetation calcerea) inhabit a range. of sediments inde- pendently of depth and are common in the Southern Baltic Baltic. They have different tolerances to sa- The southern Baltic has a variety of hard linity and temperature variations. The M. cal- and soft-bottom vegetation ·types. Along carea community is found in parts of the southern and southeastern coasts that are Belt Sea at depths of more than 15 meters less sheltered, the vegetation is more impov- and associated with sandy and muddy sedi- erished than that in southwestern areas. The ments. It is also found further east in the southwestern Baltic forms a transitional area Borriholni Basin together with Astarte spp. between the North Sea and the Baltic and Cyprina islandica. proper. In this area many algal species occur The M. · baltica community is found in at or near their distributional limit. In areas much of the remaining areas of the Baltic .with suitable substrata, benthic vegetation (Arkona Sea, Bornholm Sea, Northern Baltic can be found to depths of approximately 30 proper, Gulf of Riga, Gulf of Finland, Archi- meters. pelago Sea, Aland Sea). In the northwest On a hard substratum a typical vegetation Bornholm Sea at 5-79 meter depths the profile includes blue-green algae, Ulotbrix or fauna is characterized by, for example, M. Barigia, Enteromo,pha, Po,phyra, Urospora, baltica, Diastylis ratbkei, Harmontboe sarsi Fucus vesiculosus, Dumontia, Scytosipbon, and Halicryptus spinulosus. Pontoporeia af- Ceramium, Polysipbonia and La.maria. finis and P. fermorata are abundant at 40-50 The presence of Zostera marina is charac- meter depths·. The M. baltica community in teristic on soft sediments in the southwest- the southern Bothnian Sea also contains Po- ern Baltic at depths of about 2.5-6.5 meters. taniopyrgus jenkinsi and Tbeodoxus fluvia- tilis as conspicuous species. Northern Baltic Proper and Archipelago Sea The Pontoporeia affinis community occurs Substrata in the northern Baltic proper and mainly in the Gulf of Bothnia where good the Archipelago Sea include a complex mo- oxygen-conditions are present. The domi- · saic of bedrock and boulder shores in the nant spedes is P. affinis but Macoma baltica more exposed localities and sheltered and Mesidothea entomon also occur. In the muddy bottoms. In the northern Baltic northwest Baltic proper, parts of the Gulf of proper, the benthic vegetation reaches Finland, the Gulf of Riga, and northern half depths of about 18-25 meters. of the Central Basin, the community also The vegetation on a typical semi-exposed contains Harmothoe sarsi, Halicryptus spinu- rocky shore includes species in the geolit- losus and Pontoporeia femorata. At shal- · toral zone: Verrucaria maura, Calotbrix lower depths on predominantly sandy scopulorurri, Ulotbrix subflaccida and bottoms; P. affinis and M: entomon are most Urospora penicilliformis. The hydorlittoral common, while on the siltier, deeper bot- · zone largely corresponds with a belt of fila- toms P. femorata predominates .. mentous algae including Enteromo,pba, In the deepest parts of the Bornholm Ba- Cladophora glomerata and Dictyiphon foeni- sin, Danzig Basin, Central Basin, Kiel Bay; cu/aceus. In the sublittoral zone there is an and Gulf of Finland, long periods of unfavor- upper belt with Fucus vesiculosus and also able oxygen conditions occur. In these parts · Pi/aye/la littoralis, Ectoca,pus siliculosus, impoverished low-diversity communities are Ceramium tenuicorne and Stictyosiphon and Marine Region 6: Baltic 157 a lower red algal belt including Pbyllopbora, Table 6.1 Distribution of Macroscopic Furqellaria fatigiata, Sphacelaria arctica, Bottom-living Marine Animal Species Polysipbonia nigrescens and Rbodomela con- in the Baltic Sea ferooides. Btogeographtc Region Number ofSpeC'ies In the northern Baltic proper OQ semi-ex- posed sandy bottoms, Zostera marina oc- Kattegat 840 curs in sparse stands as it reaches the lower Baltic proper-south Scania 145 limit of its range of salinity tolerance. At a Baltic proper-south Gotland 80 depth of 0.2-2 meters Potamogeton pecti- Baltic proper-north part 70 The Bothnian Sea 50 natus, Ruppia maritima, R. spiralis and Zos- The Bothnian Bay 5 tera marina occur on sandy shores. Chara meadows are typical on muddy bottoms to 4-5 meters as well as Maja marina, P. pecti- natus, P. filiformis and Myrophyllum spica- though there are often numerous individuals tum. of each species. The distri~ution of the soft bottom com- Gulf ofBotbnia munitie~ of benthic rp.acrofauna of the Baltic Low salinity in the Gulf of Bothnia causes a Sea is shown in Table 6.1. Many algal spe- reduction in the number of species of ma- cies recorded from the southwestern Baltic rine ~lgae together _with an increase in the are at or near their distributional limit. The abundance of freshwater species. Both ex- number of marine plant and animal species posed shores comprised_ of boulders and diminishes drastically from. the marine areas stones and sheltered shores of sand and silt in Skagerrak and Kattegat to the very brack- are present. . ish water .in the Bothnian Bay. This discus- On moderately to fully exposed hard bot- sion deals with the Baltic Sea only. For the toms in. the northeastern Bothnian Bay there- Skagerrak (and partly for the Kattegat), the is a hydrolittoral belt with Calotbrix scopu- situation is more or less the same as in the lorum, Ulotbrix spp. and Cladophora glom- Northeast Atlantic Marine Region. erata. After that, at 3-8 meters the sublittoral contains C. aegagropila. Species found on Plants shelter:ed sand and silt bottoms are Eleo- charis acicularis, Potamogeton spp., Zan- Different species of Diatoms, Dino-flagel- nicbellia palustria and Chara aspera. lates and Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) The littoral zone in the northwestern Both- are common in the Baltic Sea. Cyanobacteria nian Sea consists of soft sediment with are very common and regularly form huge stones and pebbles. Species found in muddy blooms. areas include Isoetes lacustris, Potamogeton Most of the, macroalgae in. the Baltic Sea gramineus, P. perfoliatus and Vaucheria dt- are of marine origin, but a smaller number choto_ma and in sandy areas Cladophora of fres};iwater species have migrated out into glomerata, C. aegagropila and Nitella flexilis. the Baltic sea; mainly into the Bothnian Bay. The marine algae survive the changes in sa- linity to different extents, with the number Species Diversity of species decreasing closer to the Bothnian Bay. The Baltic Sea has comparatively few plant Some species of brown algae such as Fu- and animal species, considerably fewer than cus and Laminaria as well as some red and are pre~_ent in more saline waters. Many spe- green, algae are common (for further infor- cies are at the periphery of their range, al- mation see:: Wast~nson 1992). In many areas 158 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas of the Baltic Sea areas, bladderwrack has dis- great black-backed gull, common tern, arctic appeared and has been replaced by filam~n- tern and waders such as oyster-catcher, red- tous algae due to poorer light conditions, an shank and turnstone. The small islands and effect of eutrophication. skerries contain an estimated 600,000 pairs of eiders, and southern areas of the Baltic Invertebrates are very important wintering areas for spe- cies such as the long-tailed duck. Among the A few marine species of zooplankton and birds of prey the white-tailed eagle is now benthos live in the Baltic Sea together with slowly recovering from serious pollution brackish water species. In addition there are damage in the 1960s and 1970s. The osprey a number of freshwater species that can sur- has strong populations along the Swedish vive in brackish water. and Finnish coasts. In the Baltic proper, mussels frequently make up 90 percent of the biomass on shal- Mammals low bottoms, but in the Bothnian Bay they are entirely absent. Freshwater mussels are The archipelagos are the main habitat for found in the inner part of the Bothnian Bay. the three species of seal present in the Bal- There are no starfish and sea urchins in tic: the grey seal (3,500--4,000 individuals), the Baltic Sea, and Aurelia aurita is the only the harbor seal (a few hundred animals in jellyfish present. the southern Baltic), and the ringed seal (about 10,000 animals in the Bothnian Sea). Fish A very large number of female grey seals are sterile, probably due to PCB poisoning. The There are still plenty of salmon in the Baltic ringed seal shows the same kind of symp- Sea, but the wild salmon have a precarious toms. Until recently there was a fairly large existence. In the 1940s all salmon in the Bal- population of harbor porpoise in the south- tic were wild, but currently 85 percent are ern Baltic. The number is estimated to have bred. Because most rivers flowing into the decreased tenfold since the 1950s, probably Baltic have been dammed to provide hydro- due in part to toxic pollutants. Otters inhab- power, impeding the migration of Salmon to ited the archipelagos but have decreased dra- their spawning grounds, salmon hatcheries matically in number in the last few decades, now provide most of the stock. also probably due to PCB poisoning. Other fish in the Baltic of economic value are cod, herring, flatfish, and others such as Biogeographic Classification pike and perch that were originally freshwa- ter species. For this report the Baltic Sea Marine Region has been divided into nine biogeographic Birds zones of which the Skagerrak (part of the North Sea) is Zone I and the Kattegat is The Baltic is an important area for birds, par- Zone II. The rest of the Baltic Sea Area is di- ticularly in the shallow coastal lakes and la- vided into seven zones (III-IX) and some goons in the south, and further north, in the sub-areas (Map 6), as listed below: thousands of islands of the archipelagos on I: The Skagerrak the Finnish and Swedish coasts. Typical bird II: The Kattegat species include cormorant, mute swan, grey III: The Sound (Oresund) and the Belt Sea lag goose, goosander, red-breasted mergan- IV: The Baltic proper ser, shellduck, mallard, tufted duck, eider, V: The Gulf of Finland velvet scoter, common gull, herring gull, VI: The Aland Sea and the Archipelago Sea Marine Region 6: Baltic 159 VII: The Bothinian Sea ters and a depth in the southern part of VIII: The Bothnian Threshold around 50 meters, otherwise the waters in IX: The Bothnian Bay the region are relatively shallow. Surplus freshwater from the Baltic forms a Although all the zones and sub-areas are northward current along the Swedish coast rather small, most have at least one existing while southward currents bring an input of MPA. The regional breakdown has been more saline water from the Skagerrak. Very based on hydrographical, geomorphological strong currents have been observed in the and biological conditions. Other factors have Kattegat. There is a pronounced halocline; included salinity, rising land areas, and the ice may form in February-March; salinity in number of plant and animal species. the surface water is lS-30°100 and 30-34°100 in the bottom water. The highest salinity is Zone I: The Skagerrak in the north of the region. The coast is comprised of low sand dunes Tongues of the Norwegian Channel create a and ridges alternating with moraine coast depth off the Swedish coast of 100-200 me- and marine wetlands; frequent stony reefs, ters and relatively deepwaters even up to shallows and sandbanks occur (abrasion the shoreline. Currents move counterclock- shallows or remains of eroded islands). wise, even in deeper waters; the northward Low oxygen levels may occur in the later Baltic current·pushes water out of the Kat- summer in deeper waters. The influence of tegat/Skagerrak, which is then replaced by the Baltic is significant; the area may be re- water from deeper strata in the North Sea, al- garded as a brackish water area. However, though mostly by surface current via the higher salinity than in the Sound (Oresund) Skagen (the Skaw)-the so-called ''.Jutland and the Baltic creates suitable conditions for Current." Great variations in salinity in the a comparatively higher number of plant and surface water may occur (20-30°100). Maxi- animal species. mum surface water temperature occurs in August; in cold winters cold, heavy water Zone Ill: The Sound (6resund) and tbe sinks to the bottom of the Skagerrak. Other- Be'ltSea wise the temperature is relatively constant at greater depths. The region forms a transitional area between The major part of the North Sea floor is the Skagerrak and the Baltic. The threshold covered by sand, but there are also patches depth between the Baltic and the Sound is of gravel, muddy sand and, in the Norwe- about 8 meters. In the north of the Sound gian Trench, mud. In the nearshore zone the depth is around 20 meters, while its sand, gravel and rock predominate, and maximum depth of around 50 meters occurs there are areas of mud off most of the major in the central part of the region. estuaries. Freshwater from the Baltic is carried out The region is influenced by both Baltic through the Sound as a northward surface and oceanic water and has the greatest num- current, while more saline water from the ber of plant and animal species along the Kattegat travels as a southward bottom cur- Swedish coast. Macroscopic animal species rent to the threshold at Limhamn-Drag0r. number some 1,100. The shallow depth of the threshold usually prevents the more saline bottom current Zone II: The Kattegat from progressing into the Baltic. In deeper areas north of the threshold there is usually Tongues of the Norwegian Trench create a a characteristic halocline: the surface Baltic depth in the northern part of around 100 me- water (S-10°100), an intermediate layer of sur- 160 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas face water from the Kattegat (18-24°100), The shore zone is largely made up of mo- and the· bottom layer of water from deeper raine coasts with wetlands, sand-dune sys- layers in the i<,attegat (30--34°100). Tempera- tems and sandy beaches. Rocky granite · ture conditions may periodically vary signifi- coastal stretches also occur as well as large cantly. Ice may form in February-March. archipelagos. The complexity of the ecosystem and the Salinity is higher in the south of the area, number of bottom-dwelling macroscopic in- and there are around 145 macroscopic ani- vertebrates declines from the north to the mal species, of which some 30 are benthic south of the Sound (from around 175· to 70 species. In the north of the region there are species). some 40 species of marine plants, 70 or so marine invertebrates, and around 15 marine Zone IV: Tbe Baltk proper ( with fish species. The common sea mussel (Myti- sub-areas ofArkona Sea, Bomholm Sea, lus edulis) predominates in hard-bottom ar- Westem Got'land Sea, Eastem Gotland eas, and in soft bottoms there are around 10 Sea and Gulf of Riga) animal species including significant numbers of the Baltic mussel (Macoma baltica). The· Baltic proper is divided into a number of deep basins and thresholds. The maxi- Zone V.- Tbe Gulf of Finland mum depth occurs in the Landsort Depth (around 460 meters). Input of deepwater oc- Hydrographically, the Gulf ofFinland be- curs via the Danish Sounds and the reten- longs to the northern part of the Baltic tion time·in the ·deepwater areas may be proper. There are no threshold-forming several years. boundaries between these marine areas. There is a southward current along the Water flows into the Gulf of Finland from Swedish coast that is caused by counter- the Baltic proper, both as a surface water clockwise circulation in the surface water. current and as a deepwater current. This 'in- Heavy saltwater flows in through the sounds put takes place mainly along the southern from the Kattegat. The difference between coastal areas of the Gulf of Finland. Water is the salinity of the surface water and the carried from the Gulf of Finland partly deepwater is considerably greater in the Bal- through the Finnish-Abo Archipelago into tic· than in the Bothnian Bay. In practice, ver- the Bothnian Sea. tical water exchange in the Baltic is The salinity of the surface water is 4.5- prevented by the halocline. The oxygen con- 6.50100. Ice cover in the inner Gulf of Fin- tent of the deepwater is therefore not re- land is comparable to that in the Bothnian newed to any great extent. Bay while ice cover in other parts of the Continuous input and oxidation -of organic Gulf of Finland is comparable with coastal matter results in water completely devoid of areas of the Bothnian Sea. oxygen and consequential formation of hy- The Finnish coastal area has many archi- drogen sulphide. pelagos. Primary production is comparable The salinity of the surface water is 6-8°100 with that iri the Baltic proper. and that of the bottom water is 10--18°/00 The summer temperature of the water is Zone VI: Tbe Aland Sea and the 16°C at the surface and 4°C at the bottom. Archipelago Sea Co,rresponding winter temperatures are l.S- 20C and l.S-5°C. The area may be ice-cov- The Aland Sea and the (Finnish-Abo) Archi:.. ered in January:..March. pelago Sea represent the border between Marine Region 6: Baltic 161 the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic proper. above. The deepwater and bottom water are The area is an extensive, shallow threshold a~ost completely replac~d every year. area with a threshold depth of 40 meters, but with a narrow channel between the Zone VIII: The Botbnian Threshold Aland Sea and the Baltic proper with a (The Quark) depth of 70 meters. The depth of the Aland Sea is 200-300 meters in some places. The Bothnian Threshold represents the bor- Surface water flows into the deepest parts der between the Bothnian Bay and the Both- of the Aland Sea from the northern parts of nian Sea and has a depth of around 25 the Baltic proper during autumn and early meters. Hard bottoms predominate. winter, which results in greater temperature More saline surface water from the Both- variations than those occurring at a corre- nian Sea is carried into the northern part of sponding depth in the Bothnian Sea. Most of tpe Bothnian Threshold as a northward bot- the water from the Baltic proper entering tom current. The surface current moves pri- the Bothnian Sea does so via the Archipel- marily southward. This produces major ago Sea. The northward currents are usually hydrographic changes from one season to uniform from the surface to the bottom. Sur- another. face salinity is around 6°1°0 • About 50 species of marine macroscopic Zone IX: The Botbnian &y animals and 15-20 species of marine macro- scopic algae have been recorded. The maximum rate of land rise is 9 millime- ters per year and the lowest salinity is 0- Zone Vil: The Botbnian Sea 40100. The area is covered by ice for six months of the year. The north of the region has extensive areas The surface current is primarily southward around 100 meters deep. The maximum along the Swedish coast and northwards depth is around 300 meters. The bedrock is along the Finnish coast. from the Jotnium period, and is predomi- The northern parts of the region are char- nantly sandstone/mudstone, with benthic. acterized by extensive shallows, with sker- and sedimentary bottoms. Surface salinity in ries and a wide variety of sea bed types. the north is 4-5°100 . The south of the region Shallow areas are particularly extensive on has bedrock from the Ordovician (or Lower the Finnish side, with sandy bottoms and Silurian) era and is primarily composed of soft bottoms. limestone. The land is rising 8.5 millimeters WitJ:i the decrease in salinity the nqmber per year in the north and 7.5 millimeters per of marine species is much reduced and . year in the south. Surface salinity in the there is an increase in the abundance of south is ~ 0100 . Counterclockwise circula- freshwater species. The number of species tion produces northward currents in both and the biomass of the meiofauna do no~ de- surface and bottom water. The Bothnian Sea cline to the same degree at lower salin~ty as deepwater originates from surface water do the macrofauna. The inner parts of the from the northern Baltic and the Aland Sea. Bothnian Bay have extremely low primary The water column has three vertical layers production. in summer time: (a) surface layer with Freshwater species, brackish-water species warmer·water; (b) intermediate iayer ~ith and se~water species are all pre~ent in the colder water; and (c). deepwater with year- inner parts of the Bothnian Bay..There are round higher salinity. than the water colµmn just a few species in the Baltic but they are 162 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Table 6.2 Gttegori7.ation of EC-NATIJRE Priority Sites According to Existing Degree of Protection Category Description Number ofSites All or most of the site is included in an MPA. 19 A proportion of the site is included in an MPA, or the site 24 is mcfuded in a protected area with a marine component but without specific management of the marine environment. 3 (*) The land adjacent to the site has adequate protection; the 15 marine area is proposed for protection. 4 (-) 1Jiere is no protection in or adjacent to the site. 7 Total 65 often present in a large numbers. Specimens sites receive partial protection. The land area of the species living in the Baltic are mostly adjacent to 15 sites is protected while 7 sites smaller in size and live at greater depths· have no protection. than with the same species living in areas For the purposes of this report areas in with higher salinity. categories 1 and 2 are considered "existing MPAs" while those in categories 3 and 4 are "proposed MPAs." Thus there are 43 existing ASsESSMENT OF ExlSTING MPAs MPAs and 22 proposed MPAs in the Baltic Marine Region. The location of the existing The identification and assessment of existing MPAs is shown in Map 6. MPAs in the Baltic Sea Marine Region is a, complex exercise. A large number of sites re- Management Level ceive partial protection, such as protection of the land that extends to cover part of the Management level· of the existing MPAs has marine environment but without any particu- been classified as high, moderate or low ac- lar ~les concerning activities in the sea. cording to the extent to which the area has There are also many areas where the area been assessed as meeting its conservation covered is very small and therefore might objectives or achieving the purpose for. be too small to be considered as a marine which it was established. This classification reserve. Despite these difficulties it has been possi- ble to carry out an assessment of the main sites in the region. The methodology used is Table 6.3 Management Level of Existing MPAs in the Baltic Sea described below. Region Those sites proposed by EC-NATURE (1993) as national priorities for the network Management Level Number of Sites of marine protected areas for the Baltic Sea were classified into four categories that de- Low (L) 25 Moderate (M) 3 scribe the extent to which the sites are pro- High (H) 15 tected as MPAs. The results are shown in Table 6.2. Total 43 Toes~ figures show that 19 sites have Note: Where there is no management in or adjacent to been established as MPAs, and a further 24 the site, it.is noted in the rating as "na"· (not appliqible). Marine Region 6: Baltic 163 shows that management level of MPAs in servation Bqard is established for each of the Baltic Sea Marine Region is relatively the 26 counties with responsibility for plac- low. Of the 43 existing MPAs, 58 percent are ing specific conservation orders, and for ad- classified as having a low management ministering the Conservation of Nature Act. level. Approximately 35 percent 05) are clas- Large marine areas (over 400 square kilo- sified as having a high level of management meters, or 20 percent of the original marine and 7 percent (3) as having moderate man- environment up to a depth of 2 meters) in agement level (Table 6.3). Denmark have been drained for agriculture with corresponding destruction of coastal Description of National MPA Systems habitat and associated leaching and runoff causing eutrophication. Conflicts of interest Descriptions of national MPA systems have between agriculture and nature conservation been obtained from IUCN 0992), WWF in coastal areas are common. Inadequately 0993) and EC-NATURE 0993). These de- treated sewage, sand and gravel extraction scriptions are reflected in the following dis- and bottom trawling have also been identi- cussion of MPAs by country. For example, fied as threats to marine biodiversity. using the symbols and descriptions provided in Tables 6.2 and 6.3, an MPA notation of Existing MPAs: (W ...) would indicate a Category 1 protec- ,,._ Bornholm (W••and..•)• tion level and a high management level. ,....Adler Grund (HJ••) ,,._ Smalandsfarvandet (HJ••) Denmark ,,._ Waters around Saltholm (W••) ,,._ Stavns Fjord (HJ•••) In Denmark the primary basis for nature con- ,,._ Waters around Hessel0 (W•••) servation is perceived threat to natural, cul- ,,._ Store Middlegrund (W••) tural or historic values. Under the 1969 ,,._ Randers Fjord (HJ••) Conservation of Nature Act, nature conserva- ,,._ Waters around Laes0 (H/..) tion in Denmark follows two broad ap- ,,._ Waters around Hirsholmene (HJ••) proaches: the application of individual ,,._ Laes0 Trindel/Tonnerberg Banke/Kum- conservation orders to specific sites for pro- melbanke cw••) tection against often quite specific activities; ,,._ Herthas· Flak (HJ••) and the establishment of gene~! q:>nsetva- tion measures around certain features or bio- .Estonia types. Although protected areas exist, large areas are also CO\'."er~c;l by legislatiop relating Nature conservation authorities in Estonia in- to protection of specifi~d biotypes. S:ilt ' clude the Ministry of the Environment and marshes and salt meadows are two marine its subdivisions (such as the Depa~ent of biotypes presently listed for protection. Nati.Ire Conservation and the Nature Manage- There are several thousand individual conser- ment Inform~tion Centre)· and 19 semi-inde- vation orders, each prepared on a case.:.by- pendent District Environmental Departments case basis. (4at ~re part df,local government. The De- At the national level, the National Forest partmer:it:s ~f .Fores~ and F~heries also have Agency is responsible to the Ministry of the sectoral responsibilities related to nature con- Environment for nature conservation in both servation. terrestrial and marine areas, including moni- The Estonian .J>arliament is expected to toring and management of wildlife reserves pass the "Act on Protected Objects of Na- and areas of national biological importance. ture" late in i993 to replace the previous leg- At the regional and local levels a Nature Con- islation on nature conservation. The Act will ,164 A <;;lobal ~epresen~tive System of Marine Protected Areas include p~ovisions for the establis~enJ,a~~ in µie Finish Arc,hipelago, which have the managemen~ of protec;ted areas: New legisla- ..potential to impa_ct on the adjacent marine tio~ on the pr9tection of coastal and o(f- epvironment, and lack of cpntrol over coastal shore matjne areas is. als9 ~~ing p,r~pared. . qevelopment. Eutrophication caused by agri- Management plans for protecied ar~as ~r~ culWral. runoff, airborne pollutants .and in- . gene11tlly inadequat~ or c9mpletely lackJng, adtquately treated sewage is .a· problem in . and there is a shortage of financial resources archipelagos and other shallow enclosed ar- and personnel. There is also a ne~9 ,for .train- eas along the Finish coast. The rapid in- ing and. public e.ducatio~ and awar~ness. pro- crease in fish farming activities in the Aland grams. arc;hipelago and. in the Quark Straits is also contributil).g up to 50 percent of:the total input Existing MPAs: of nitrogen and··phosphorus in the$e areas.· ,,._ Lahemaa National Park (LI...) ,,._ ' Matsalu Nature Reserve (U* ..) • • ' I • ~ ~ Existing MPAs: ,,._. Kopu Penin~ula- (U••) .. ,,._ Bothnian· Bay Natiop.al Park .(U•••) ~. .. Vilsandi '' . . ' .CUf••) . National Park . . ,,._ Outer Bothni;m Threshold Archipelago ,,._ Hiiuma,a Islets Reserv~ JIJ·~·), cu••) ,,._ Southern Archipelago Sea (U••) Finland ,,._ Tammisaari Archipelago/Hank- ,oniern.L1'ojo Bay Cl)••) The MiJ:iistry of the. Enyironment is th~;hig~- ..... ~astern Gulf of Finland (U••) est autqority with respo,nsiqility for. pro- .~ected ~rea~. in .J:inland, _,anc\ ~s 9irec~y responsible for the two ,0ffices µ-iat h9ld prc:r tected areas: ~e Finnish _Fores~ Re~earch ,n- In Germany the responsibility for nature con- sti~te and the, F~ish Forest and Park: . servation legislatiop aqd administration is · · Service. The Ministry of .Agricult:ure and. For- shared betw~en the federal government, the ·estry. aJso piays ·~ roie in overs~eing.~nd . federa.l states;. the counties or districts and funding som~ of the individ~ai p~otecte'd large, towns outside the districts. ·Authorities area management organizations, whi,\e. the. of the federal s.tates are primarily responsi- Min,ist.ry .of the Interior helps coorcJ4l,ate ble, f9r t;he designa~on and management of work with provincial governments. .,, . ,,Finland . protected areas. In. addition there are gen- has a total of. three national pa_rks tha,t in-:: eral leg~sl~t!ye provisic;ms for conservation at elude large marine ar~as,,.as.well as somef ' the federal level anµ the federal government privately owned nature rese~es 'that also c~n p~ss..legislatiqn as a framework within have marine components. However, n~tur~·-. which th~ states must.develop their own. conservation in Finland has been primarily At the Federal leyel the Ministry of Envi- foc~ssed on. terrestrial areas (Nordic Pr9ject ronmei:it,: Nature Protection and Nuclear G~oup 1993). . . . Safety has i:esponsibility for administration · A Ministry of Agriculture . . and ~ . For.estry ' ~ . of n~,tu_re ~onservation. For the Baltic Sea, working group in the 1970s identified impor- the, Departtp.ent of Envir0nment and Nature tant marine sites requiring prote~9n, incluq.- Prote~tion .of Schlesweig Holstein and. the ing eight marine sites. A project established , Qepartment for En,vironment and Nature,of under the auspices of the Nordic Council of Mec.klenqurg-V,orpommern are the responsi- Ministers has identified 10 marine areas.for ... ' . ble sta,te· goven)ffient authopties. conservation. Conflicts betweeq nature conservation and Significant issue~ in J:inlaqd include the agric~~ture, to~rism .and other sectors .are a SJ?t:ead of forestry. activities to small isiaJ}ds threat to marine areas along the Baltic coast, Marine Region 6: Baltic 165 as is pollution from industrial and agricul- market economy, there is a scarcity of re- tural development. In Mecklenburg-Vorpom• sources for conservation, a lack of trained mem rapid commercial development along maruigeinerit personnel at all levels, and lack the coast is an increasing threat as the area · of awareness of ,environmental issues among is seen as providing opportunities for invest- the general public and on· the pan of some ment from other parts of Germany and the respo~ible regional and local authorities. rest of Europe. ~gMPA: Existing MPAs: ~ Northern Vidzeme Region Nature Pro- ,.._ Jasmund National Park (Hf•••) tection Complex (V") , _ Vorpommem Lagoon (H/-) , _ Wismar Bight/Salzhaff (Ml") , _ Graswarder/Westcoast of Fehmar (V") , _ Hochwater Bay (V") The Environment Protection Depanment, , _ Oehe Schleimunde (V") which is responsible to Parliament, is the , _ Gellinger Birk (V") highest national authority for nature conser- vation: There are eight regional agencies with responsibility for the implementation of nature conservation legislation and provi- The Environment Protection Committee, sions. -Responsibility for protected areas is which is responsible directly to Parliament, distributed across a range of different minis- has responsibility for environmental protec- tries (including the Ministry of Forestry and tion at the national level in Latvia (the Chait- the Department of Monument Conservation) man has in effect the function of a minister arid local authorities. for environment). At the regional level there · The present network of protected areas are nine regional committees responsible.for ~ been developed in accordance with the the implementation· of conservation initiatives. Complex Nature Conservation Scheme, which A 300-meter belt on either side of the coast- includes five categories of protected areas. line has been designated for conservation: For the marine component·the objective is Existing:MPAs: to conserve the ecological properties and ..- Kursh.t Nerija (Curonian Spit) National processes of the underwater slope. Prohib- Park (HI-) ited activities include excavation, blasting, ~ Pajuris' Regional Park (IJ••) mineral extraction as well as various fonns · ..-, Nemunas ·oelta Regional Park (U-) of construction. This regime is to be taken into account in planning and design of all ac- Norway tivities in the coastal zone, including town planning· and urban development. The level N~ description is available. Funher informa- of enforcement of this regime is not clear. tion on MP~ in Norway is provided in· the Many protected areas exist in name only, Arctic Maririe ·Region· repon. with no management plan, agency· or staff re- sponsible for supervising and undertaking ~gMPAs: management. Securing local suppon will be ..- NOne..oy TjO_me· (V") essential for development of effective MPAs. Problems have arisen through the·different priority given to conservation and develop- ment at the local and national levels. In com- The Minister of Environment Protection, mon with other states in transition to· a Natural Resources and Forestry is the highest 166 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas national authority for nature conservation. At tween recreational/tourism interests and na- the regional level provincial governments im- ture conservation resulting from the in- plement this responsibility, while for each creased pressure of recreational activities national park there is a director with direct along the coast. Shore erosion caused by the management responsibility for that area. A passage of large, high-speed ferry traffic be- new Nature Conservation Law was passed tween Sweden and neighboring countries in by the Polish Parliament in 1991 that pro- sensitive archipelagic waters is also an issue vides more authority for these directors and to which attention has been drawn. improved procedures for planning and man- agement at the landscape level. Existing MPAs: ,,.. Haparanda Archipelago (U••) Existing MPAs: ,,.. Holmo Islands (U•••) ,,.. Slowinsky National Park (MJ•••) ,,.. Kopparstenama/Gotska Sandon/Salvo Rev (U•••) Russia ,,.. Falsterbo Peninsula with Maklappen cu•••) A new Nature Conservation Law has been ,,.. Kullaberg (U...) passed by the Russian Federal Parliament, ,,.. Gullmar Fjord (tt/•••) but as yet the law has not been widely publi- cized or implemented. Usually protected ar- International and Regional Initiatives eas are established at the initiative of local Relating to MPAs within the Baltic Sea or regional government, with confirmation from the central government in Moscow. HELCOM and the Baltic Monitoring Programme Existing MPAs: ,,.. Curonian Spit State Environmental Na- The establishment of a system of nature con- tional Park (U•••) servation areas is an important component ,,.. Vistula Spit Landscape Park (U•••) of the work programme of the Environment Committee and its working group (EC-NA- Sweden TURE) of the Baltic Marine Environment Pro- tection Commission, which is established to The Swedish Environmental Protection implement the Convention on the Protection Agency (SNV) under the Minister of the Envi- of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea ronment and Natural Resources is the central Area (usually referred to as the Helsinki Con- administrative agency responsible for nature vention, or HELCOM). The latest version of conservation, including the administration the Convention, signed in April 1992, sets and management of protected areas. SNV ad- out obligations for all Baltic states to work ministers a fund that provides it with overall individually and jointly to protect biodiver- responsibility for management of protected sity within the region. The need for regional areas, National Parks and Nature Reserves in- international cooperation to protect biotopes cluding MPAs in close consultation with the and species in the Baltic has been formally 24 regional county authorities. recognized by the inclusion of the new Arti- Eutrophication in shallow water areas, par- cle 15 of the Convention. ticularly enclosed bays and archipelagos is a The Baltic Monitoring Program (BMP) has major problem. This has been caused by ag- been implemented by the Helsinki Commis- ricultural runoff, inadequate sewage treat- sion. The objective of the programme is to ment, heavy deposition of airborne nitrogen monitor the environment of the Baltic Sea. and fish farming. There is some conflict be- HELCOM compiles and collects data con- Marine Region 6: Baltic 167 ceming factors such as pollution levels, and Table 6.4 Representation of MPAs the abundance of plankton and benthic or- in Biogeographic Zones ganisms. The BMP therefore provides a Number ofMPAs Biogeographic Zone good basis for establishing a common view of environmental conditions in the Baltic I. The Skagerrak 2 and ways of improving them. II. The Kattegat 8 In addition to the BMP, bilateral agree- III. The Sound and the Belt Sea 8 ments have been signed concerning environ- mental monitoring of parts of the Baltic Sea, IV. The Baltic proper 17 V. The Gulf of Finland 3 such as the Gulf of Bothnia between Finland VI. The Aland Sea and the and Sweden and the Sound between Den- Archipelago Sea 1 mark and Sweden. There is further coopera- VII. The Bothnian Sea 0 tion by Denmark, Norway and Sweden in VIII. The Bothnian Threshold 2 the Kattegat and the Skagerrak. IX. The Bothnian Bay 2 These programs provide some temporary Total 43 compensation for the lack of monitoring pro- grams in the MPAs themselves. Ramsar Convention As outlined above, there are 43 existing MPAs in the Baltic Marine Region. Their dis- Four of the nine Baltic States are parties to tribution across biogeographic zones is indi- the Ramsar Convention, in addition to Nor- cated in Table 6.4; their location is shown way, which borders the Skagerrak. Russia by Map 6. Although they provide a degree has deposited a declaration of Succession to of representation to some of the bio- the USSR while Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania geographic zones of the region, a number of are not yet parties to the Convention. regions are not well represented. Principally There are about 60 Ramsar Sites in the Bal- these are the Bothnian Sea, the Aland tic Sea Marine Region, many of which all Sea/Archipelago Sea and the Western Got- parts of the marine environment. land Sea. The Baltic proper is the largest zone and World Heritage Convention has the most MPAs with 17. All of its subdivi- sions have at least one MPA with the excep- Most of the Baltic states are parties to the tion of the Western Gotland Sea, which is Convention but still no areas are included in not represented. Most of the other zones the list. have two or more MPAs, apart from the Aland Sea, which has one, and the Bothnian MARPOL Sea, which is not represented. An IMO Particularly Sensitive Sea Area along the Danish, Swedish, Finnish and Estonian PRIORl1Y AREAs AND RECOMMENDATIONS coasts is under consideration. The priority areas outlined in this report are Assessment of Representation those identified by the working group EC- of Biogeographic Zones within MPAs NATURE, whose activities are complimen- tary with the purpose of this report. All countries in the region have taken signifi- EC-NATURE has the task of identifying candi- cant steps toward the protection of impor- date sites for the establishment of a repre- tant marine areas in the Baltic Sea. sentative system of marine protected areas 168 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas in the Baltic Sea for the parties to ilie Hel- Table ·6;5 Number of National sinki Convention. The process followed in Priority Sites by Country in the Baltic identifying these areas is described briefly Marine Region below. F.xisting and Proposed Representatives from all nine Baltic States, G_ountry MPAs other European· countries and from outside the region met at a Seminar on the Estab- Denmark 12 lishment, Protection and Effective Manage- Estonia 5 ment of Coastal. and Marine· Areas in the Finland 8 Germany 8 Baltic Sea Region, held in Nykoping," Swe- Latvia 4 den, in June 1993, where they prepared a Lithuania 3 first list of priority sites for the ·establishment Norway 1 of a system of MPAs for the Baltic Sea. The Poland 6 seminar was· organized in conjunction with Russia 3 IUCN-CNPPA. Sweden 15 The areas were selected using "the criteria Total 65 outlined· in·the beginning of this rep.ort and with the foHowing 'objectives in mind: • Representation of the major marine bio- geographic zones of the Baltic for the Baltic Marine Region. The location of • Protection of ·ecosystems, habitats and these sites is shown in Map 6. species identified as being of particular ecological significance · National Priority Areas for Marine • The ensuring of sustainable use of natural Biodiversity Conservation ecosystems and maintenance of marine biodiversity. The following ·section provides a brief de- scription of the 65 areas identified for the After the seminar the EC-NATURE work- representative system of MPAs for the Baltic ing group prepared a final list ·of sites for rec- Region (BSPA, see above). ommendation to·the Contracting parties to Areas are listed as being either proposed the Helsinki Convention for adoption to riew MPAs, existing MPAs that require sup- form the basis of a representative system of port for management or existing sites that al- coastal and marine protected areas for the ready have a high management level. The Baltic Sea. At the HELCOM ministerial confer- latter (15 sites) have been included to main- ence in March 1994 the list was accepted as tain consistency with the priority site listing a first step for the development of a system developed.by EC-NATURE (the BSPA) and of coastal and marine Baltic Sea Protected accepted by HELCOM (see section 3.iii). Areas (BSPA). There are 50 sites that are of priority for Because the EC-NATURE group does not management support for existing MPAs (27) include the Skagerrak in the scope of its ac- or for the establishment of new MPAs (23). tivities· three additional areas have been iden- The management level and management tified: by the authors to cover this category of each area is shown in brackets, biogeographic zone for this report, ·making a according to the descriptions in Tables 6.2 total of 65 priority areas for ·the Baltic Sea and 6.3. Where the management level is Marine Region as defined by IUCN-CNPPA given for a proposed new MPA, it refers to Table 6.S shows the number of sites in the management of existing protected areas each countty that are proposed to become associated with that site (where the area is part of the system of marine protected areas adjacent to a terrestrial· reserve or is partly in- Marine Region 6: Baltic 169 eluded in an existing reserve with a marine nity. Area of declared marine botanical coi:nponent): interest 0992). ,.. Smalandsfarvandet-selected areas (HJ..): Denmark • Northwestern Smalandsfarvandet stony, sandy and silty to muddy bottom with Dates given in brackets refer to the date of Macoma baltica and Abra alba commu- establishment of the particular measures con- ni~ie.s. Area of international importance cerned. ' for marine birds. Includes Basnaes Nor ' game reserve 0918), areas of declared ,.,. Existing MP with High Level Management: As Bomholm/open coast/offshore bank in marihe bptanical interest 0974), shal- low coastal are~s declared of impor- southern Baltic proper: tance to birds (1974) and is a high • Davids Banke (Bank) (HJ••): Ham~ priority in cou.rity w~ter quality man- meren coast, Bomholm: Rocky shal- agement. Part of Dai;iish Ramsar Site lows with Mytilus edulis and sand, silt no. 19 and part of EEC bird protection and mud at greater depth with a jfa- site no. 96. coma baltica community. Spawning ar- • Northeastern Smalandsfarvandet: eas for herring. Shallow stony, sandy and silty bottom • Eretholmene (islands) east of Born- with a Macoma baltica infauna commu- holm (HJ•••): Rocky bottom with algae nity. Includes nursery areas for flatfish and Mytilus edulis and sand and ~ud and spawning areas for herring. Num- with a Macoma baltica infauna COfJlffiU- bers of international importance of ma- nity. Important breeding .and nesting. rine birds have been noted. A high area for marine birds. Includes scien- priority area for county water quality tific reserve and nature reserve 0984), management and includes Gavn0 larger national marine area 0978), area Game Reserve 0940), fishery restric- of biological interest 0983), area of de- tion zones, areas of declared marine clared marine botanical interest (1974) biological interest 0974) and shallow and shallow coastal areas declared of ' ' coastal areas declared of importance importance to birds 0974). Also ·Ram- to birds 0974). Ramsar site no. 20 in sar site no. 26 and EEC. bird .p~otection D,enmark and EEC bird protection site site no. 79. no .. 81. . Dueodde (coast)-Salthammer Rev • .southern Smalandsfarvandet:. Shallow (reeO, Bornholm CH/**): Rocky bottom sto~y, sandy and silty bottom with a .with macro-algae and Mytilus edulis Macoma baltica infauna community. and sandy to silty and muddy bottom Includes nursery areas for flatf1Sh. Num- with a Macoma baltica infauna commu- bers .of international significance of .nity. Spawning areas for herring. In breeding, moulting and stagu;ig birds . part larger nature area 0978), area of A high priority area for cou~ty water declared marine biological interest ' management and includes fishery re- (1974), shallow coastal area declared striction zone~. shallow coastal areas of importance to birds and 1 high prior- declared of importance.to birds 0974) ity area in county water qu~lity man- and the game reserves Fladet 0941) agement. . and Vigso 0983). • Adler Grund (bank) (HJ••): Shallow ,.. Waters around Saltholm Island (HJ••): rocky bottom with macro-algae and. Shallow sandy bottom with seagrasses, Mytilis edulis and sandy to muddy bot- a Macoma baltica community and tom with a Macoma baltica commu- some stones with macro-algae and 170 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas mussels; nursery area for flatfish. Har- baltica and Venus communities. In- bor seals and grey seals are present. cludes nursery areas for flatfish and Numbers of international significance spawning areas for herring. Numbers for breeding, moulting and staging ma- of international significance of breed- rine birds have been noted. Includes a ing and staging marine birds are pre- large national nature area 0978), area sent. The area is incorpo~ted within a of national biological interest 0983), large national nature area O 97~) and is high priority areas for county water a high priority area in county w~ter quality management, areas of declared quality management with a number of marine biological interest 0974), shal- state and county reference localiti~s for low coastal area declared of impor- monitoring of benthic flora and fauna. tance to birds (i974), fishery Includes area of national biological in- prohibition zone, area planned to in- terest 0983), area of declared marine clude enlargement of game and seal re- zoological interest 0974), shallow serve Saltholm 0983). EEC Bird coastal area of declared importance to protection site no. 110. birds 0974), fishery restriction zone ,.- Stavns Fjord and adjacent waters and game reserve Trekelbakkehol (H/*..): Shallow sheltered bay and 0976). Danish Ramsar Site no. 11 and rocky to sandy and muddy bottoms EEC bird protection site no. 15. with seagrasses and macro-algae, di- ,_. Laes0 (Hf••): verse Macoma ba/tica and the Abra • Waters around Nordre Ronner (is- alba communities. Includes herring lands): Sandy bottom with rocks, spawning areas and nursery areas for stones, bubbling reefs and some flatfish. Internationally significant num- spawning areas for herring. Marine bers of breeding birds have been birds, harbor seals and grey seals are noted, Harbor seals are present. The present. This site is part of a large na- area is also a high priority area in tional nature area 0978), a high prior- county water quality management and ity area in county water quality includes reference localities for state management, area of national biologi- monitoring of benthic flora and fauna. cal interest 0983), area of declared ma- Included are also the game reserves rine biological interest 0974), shallow Stavns Fjord 0926) and Bosserne/Lind- coastal area of declared importance to holm 0983), the seal reserve Bosserne, birds. Danish Ramsar site no. 9 and areas of declared botanical and zoologi- EEC bird protection site no. 9. cal marine biological interest 0974 • Waters around Laeso (island): Sandy 1985), shallow coastal areas of de- (often hard) to gravelly bottoms with clared importance to birds 0974) and sea grasses and rocks and Macoma bal- fishery restriction zones. Danish Ram- ticci and Venus infauna communities. sar Site no. 14 and EEC bird protection Herring spawn in the area. Harbor seal site no. 31. and grey seal are present. Numbers of ,.- Store Middelgrund (bank) (H/**): international significance of breeding, Rocky to gravelly bottom with sand moulting and staging marine birds and silt and macro-algae. Includes an have been noted. The site is part of a area of declared marine biological inter- larger national nature area 0978), and est 0992) and state monitoring locality is a high priority area in county water for benthic flora. quality management. The area includes ,_. Randers Fjord and neighboring wa- shallow coastal areas declared of im- ters(H/**): Sandy bottom with Macoma portance to birds 0974), in _part area Marine Region 6: Baltic 171 .of national biological interest (1983) rine biological interest and a reference and area of declared marine biologi- area for.. state monitoring of benthic cal interest (1974) .. Danish Ramsar site vegetation. no. 10, EEC bird protection site no. 10. ,_. Hirsholmene (Hf••): Existing MPAs that require management • Waters around Hirsholmene (islands): support: Sandy to rocky bottom with banks and ,_. Waters around Hessel0 (island) reefs with macro-algae and Macoma (MJ•••): Rocky to sandy and muddy baltica and Venus communities. Her- bottom with macroalgae, mussels and ring spawning areas and nursery areas Macoma baltica, Venus and Amphiura for flatfish adjacent to the area. Bub- communities. Harbor seals are present. bling reefs adjacent to and perhaps in- Includes nature reserve (1982), area of side the area. Internationally significant national biological interest (1983), high numbers of breeding, staging and feed- priority area in county water quality ing birds have been noted. The site is management, and an area of declared an area of national biological interest marine biological interest. (1983), high priority area in county water quality management, area of de- Proposed new MPAs: clared biological interest (1974), shal- No new areas are proposed. low coastal area of declared · importai:ice to birds (1974) and in part Estonia fishery restriction zone. In part Danish Ramsar site no. 8, EEC bird protection Existing MPAs with high level management: site no. 8. None. • Bubbling reefs at Hirsholmene: Concre- tions of sand and limestone found as Existing MPAs that require management pillars and hard layers in and above a support:. sandy bottom and inhabited by a large ,_. Lahemaa National Park (U•••): Typical variety of plants and animals. Large lob- . habitats of coastal marine areas of the sters. Fishery restriction zone. Gulf of Finland. Includes a great diver- ,_. Laes0 Trindel (HI..): sity of water depths, including some • Laes0 Trindel of the deepest areas (91 meters) in • Tonneberg Banke the Gulf of Finland. Established as a • Kummelbanke: Stone reefs in sandy to national park in 1976. Small rivers silty and muddy areas with Venus and within the park are important Sa/moni- Amphiura communities, spawning ar- dae spawning grounds. One of the eas for herring, bubbling reefs. Laes0 cleanest and better survived marine Trindel and Tosnneberg Banke are ar- areas on the Estonian coast of the Gulf eas of declared zoological marine bio- of. Finland. logical interest and reference localities ,_. Matsalu Nature Reserve (U•••): In- for state monitoring of benthic vegeta- cludes a shallow-water, eutrophic, estu- tion, and as such are of declared bo- arine bay together with part of the tanical marine biological interest. adjoining shallow sea and islands. ,_. Hertha's Flak (HI..): Stone reefs in Grey and ringed seals are present, as sandy to silty and muddy areas with Ve- are migrating and nesting birds. Estab- nus and Amphilera communities, bub- lished as a nature reserve in 1957. bling reefs. The site includes botanical ,_. Kopu Peninsula Biosphere Reserve and zoological areas of declared ma- (U••): Sandy bottom marine areas up 172 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas to a depth of 35 meters. Noteworthy phases of this process, including hun- species include seals, birds, migratory dreds of fladas and glo-lakes formed and local f1Sh. by the elevation, are in evidence. Wa-. ,_. Vilsandi National Park (U*..): Includes ters are shallow and very productive shallow and deepwater island ecosys- biologically. Seals and marine birds are tems .. Over 161 separate islands (10 present, with this site forming the percent of the total number in Estonia) northernmost limit of many species. Na- are included. Established as a scien- ture reserve (partly), Ramsar site tific reserve in 1910. This site also in- (partly). cludes: Harilaid Zoological-Botanical ,_. Southern Archipelago Sea (U••): The Reserve (U..•~oastal and marine ar- area has low salinity (6 °1"°); ice cover eas that are important habitat for seals varies yearly. The outer part of the ar- and birds. Established as a reserve in chipelago is comprised of numerous 19i4. small islands and skerries, underwater ,_. Hiiumaa Islets Reserve (U•••): Impor- eskers, and. a unique mosaic of islands tant breeding 11rea for fish, birds and and water, including many different seals. Established as an Islets Reserve biotopes with representative marine in 1971. species. Marine birds and grey seal oc- cur. Archipelago Sea National Park in- Proposed new MPAs: terest area, partly national park or No new areas are proposed. nature reserve (1983). · ,_. Tammisaari Archlipelago-Hankoniemi- Finland Pojo Bay (U**): Salinity varies mark- edly from the end of Pojo Bay (0 °1"°) Existing MPAs with.high level management: to the open sea (6 °1"°). Ice cover var- None. ies yearly. The area includes different coastal zones typical of the southern Existing MPAs that require management coast of Finland: outer and inner archi- support: pelago and mainland. Marine birds are ,_. Bothnian Bay National Park (U•••): present. National park (partly) nature The park includes shallow shoals and reserve (partly) (1989). numerous small islands. The area is ,_. Eastern Gulf of Finland National Park subject to land elevation. Marine areas (U**): Salinity in western part is 4 o!oo have low salinity (2°1"°), with few ma- and in the eastern part 3 °100 . Ice-cov- rine species and a greater number of ered in winter. Outer archipelago and brackish water and freshwater species large open sea areas; eastern limit in comprising the flora and fauna. The the Baltic for Mytilus Edu/is and Spi- area is mostly ice-covered for about six nachia vulgaris, important area for months of the year. Ringed seals are common seal and grey seal as well as present. All islands and the majority of arctic birds during the spring migra- the marine area are included in the Na- tion. Established (1982) as a national tional Park 0991). park (most islands) and nature reserve ,_. Outer Bothnian Threshold Archipelago (some islands) although the marine (The Quark) cu••): The area forms a area is mostlf not yet protected: threshold between the Bothnian Sea · and the Bothnian Bay. Intense land ele- Proposed new MPAs: vation (9 millimeters per year) makes ,.,... Oura Archipelago (na/-): Low salinity the area unique internationally. All the (5 °1"°); ice cover varies yearly; s~ll is- Marine Region 6: Baltic 173 lands-and skerries. Shore Conservation reeds, coastal lakes. The site is an im- Programme. portant resting· site of waterfowl; breed- ,..... Uusikaupunki Archipelago (na/-): Low ing area of waders; main distribution salinity (6 °10<); ice cover varies yearly; area of the baltic endemic mussel . ·outer archipelago with many small is- Cerastobyssum hauniense and Ciona lands and skerries; dean water. Marine infestina/is (tunicata) at the German birds are present. coast. EC Bird Protection Area 0992); ,.,. Aland Sea (Ii*): No description avail- Wetland area· of national importance able. (1980); 5 nature res~rves. Wismar bight and Salzhaff as a whole are covered by Gennany legal biotope protection ("Bodden"). The submarine stony grounds at Klutz Existing MPAs with high level management: Hoved and Kilhlungsbom, the salt ,.- Jasmund National Park (H/***): Stony meadows, cliffs, dunes and other typi- · grounds with erratic blocks and· cal coastal biotopes of Wismar bight macroalgae stands. Established as a na- and Salzhaff are also subject of legal . tional park 0990). biotope protection. The outer parts of ,.- Vorpommem lagoon area/waters the area proposed to be included into around Westrugen (H/•••): Shallow la- the BSPA are not yet protected. goons ("Bodden") with wind generated ,.- Graswarder-west coast of Fehmam in- "wadden" areas, sandy bottoms at the cluding Flugger Sand (U••): Sandy, outer coast of Darss-Zingst peninsula, stony bottom with macro-algae and Ma- stony grounds with erratic blocks at coma ba/tica community. Numbers of the· coast of the north part of Hidden- international importance for marine ·see and Wittow/Rugen. Part of the area birds. Great variety of breeding and mi- · is a Ramsar site since 1980 (lagoon wa- grating waders and waterfowl. In- ters between the east coast of Zingst cludes three nature rese1ves (1968 ·peninsula, Hiddensee and the west 1977 1980); proposed Ramsar site. coast of Rilgen); EC Bird Protection ,.- Hohwacht Bay (part of) and lagoons Area; National Park "Vorpommersche (U..): Sandy bottom with Myti/us Boddenlandschaft" 0990); wetland of edulis, shallow brackish lagoons, salt national importance (1980); several Na- meadows. Numbers of international im- ture Reserves; legal biotope protection portance of marine birds. Great variety {all lagoons, salt meadows, dunes, of feeding and migrating waders and cliffs,' boulder beaches, submarine waterfowl. Includes three nature re- stony grounds, wet forests, reeds). The serves '(1957 1980 1990); proposed site is an important area for marine IDtmsar 1site. · birds. ,... Oehe Schleimunde with shallpw wa- ters (U••): Sandy and muddy bottom Existing MPAs that require management with 'rnacro-algae and Macoma ba/tica support: community. Numbers of international ,.- Wismar Bight/Salzhaff area (W••): Shal- importance of marine birds. Partly na- low water with seagrass meadows, soft ture· reserve 0987), proposed Ramsar bottom areas with high biodiversity Site. (mollusks, polychaets, and so on), lo- ,... Geltinger Birk and Noor including Kalk- cally stony bottoms with erratic blocks · grund (IJ••): Sandy, stony bottom with and fucus stands. Coastal' habitats in- macro-algae and Macoma baltica in- clude salt meadows, cliffs, dunes, fauna community. Numbers of marine 174 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas birds of international importance. for ducks (including Bucepbala clan- Partly included within nature reserve gula and Melanitta fusca). · (1987); proposed Ramsar Site. ..,. Coastal section Lielirbe-Kolka (I/*): In- cludes marine areas with fine sand or Proposed new MPAs: stone bottoms. Included on the list of ....,. Strelasund Sound/Greifswald La- important bird areas for Europe. Ma- goon/Isle Greifswalder (I/*): Shallow rine areas are important nursery lagoons with muddy, sandy and stony ground for flatfish and other fish spe- bottoms, seagrass meadows and other cies. Nature reserve 0921). macrophytobenthos stands, temporary ~ Coastal section Pape-Perkone (na/-): wind generated ''wadden" areas; estu- Bottom consists of coarse gravel, stone ary with distinct salinity gradient; In- arid'stone piles. Blue mussel-Furcel- cludes breeding sites of threatened laria communities, favorable herring marine birds. Otters are also present. spawning sites. Wintering area and rest- EC Bird Protection Area 0992); wet- ing place for waterfowl during spring land of national importance Cl9eO); migration. South East Rugen Biosphere reserve 0990). Lithuania Latvia Existing MPAs with high level management: ,_. Kursiu Nerija (Curonian Spit) National Existing MPAs with high level management: Park (HJ•••): Sandy bottom, accumu- None. lated sea shore with wide sandy beaches and dunes, coastal forests and Existing MPAs that require management freshwater lagoon. Established as a Na- support: tional Park in 1991. ..,. Northern Vidzeme Region Nature Protection Complex-coastal section Existing MPAs ·that require management "Dzeni-Ainazi" (11••): Area of sandy support: and stony bottoms, sandy beaches, ..,. Pajuris Regional Park (Ij••): Areas of coastal meadows and shallow brackish sandy bottom with stones, sandy lagoons. Spawning area for herring beaches and dunes. Moraine cliff and and moulting area for ducks (mainly coastal forests. Declared a Regional Bucepbala clangula). Includes the : Park in 1992, management plan under river Salaca, the most important spawn- development. ing area for salmon· in the eastern Bal- ..,. Nemunas Delta Regional Park (Ij•••): tic. Declared a protected area in 1990, Includes the delta of the Nemunas management plan currently under River as it flows into the Kursiu Marios development. Lagoon. Natural flooded meadows are extremely rich in plant species. A great Proposed new MPAs: variety of habitats create favorable con- ...... Coastal section Kaltene-Engure (na/-): ditions for waterfowl and other fauna. Bottom consisting mainly of fi,ne sand The main breeding and migratory area or stones, with some areas of .g~vel. in Lithuania for waterfowl and migra- Includes important herring spawning tory birds.· Declared a Regional park in sites, moulting and-wintering areas· 1992. Marine Region 6: Baltic 175 Proposed new MPAs: so~e. freshwater species, and a breed- No new sites are proposed .. ing ground for birds. ,... Redlowo Reserve (V•): Proposed exten- Norway sion to existing terrestrial park to in- clude adjacent marine areas. Seabed Existing MPAs with high level management: comprised of sand, gravel and stones. None. Salinity approximately 7 °100 . Freezes in severe winter, with hummocked ice Existing MPAs that require management acting on the bottom of shallow areas. support: Habitat of numerous mollusks and crus- ,.,_ Notteroy-Tjome CV..): An archipelago taceans; seagrass meadows (Zostera area on the Norwegian south coas~. Ex- marina); wintering area for marine posed bottoms with mainly oceanic · birds. species. Reproduction area for. fish, ,... Nadmorski Landscape Park (U•): Pro- seals and seabirds. posed extension to existing terrestrial park to include adjacent marine areas Proposed new MPAs: (Puck Bay) and Puck Lagoon. Puck la- No new sites are proposed. goon is a shallow estuarine basin sepa- rated from the bay by Ryf Mew, a Poland raised sandy shoal. Nesting birds (gulls, cormorants and swans) are pre- Existing MP As with high level management: sent. In the lagoon meadows of Zos- None. tera marina, Zannichellia palustris and Entberomorpba potamogeton oc- Existing MPA~ that require management cur, while Pylaiella litoralis predomi- support: nates in summer. These are inhabited ,.,_ Slowinski National Park (U•••): Sea by numerous crustaceans. The area is a bed comprised of fine sand with some spawning ground for fish. Sandy gravel areas. Numerous mollusks from beaches line the shore of Puck Bay the genera Macoma, Mya and with numerous mollusks present (in- Cardium dominate the zoobenthos. cluding Macoma baltica, .Mya arenaria, Cardium glaucum and Myti- Proposed new MPAs: . lus edulis) in adjacent marine areas. Ma- ,..... Vistula Spit Landscape Park (V•): Pro- rine mammals such as Ha/iborew; posed extension to existing terrest,rial gryppus and Phocena phocena occur, park to include adjacent marine areas and the area is a wintering and stop- to a depth of 2 meters and the Vistula over for birds. lagoon. Marine areas are inhabited by ...,. Slupsk Bank-proposed National numerous mollusks, crustaceans, fish Park (na/-): Marine areas located about and lamprey. The lagoon has sand and 25 Nm offshore with depth ranging mud bottoms. Salinity varies from 2-6 · from 8 to 90 meters. Sea bed com- 0100 , with reed and bullrush occurring prised of coarse sand with numerous in the least saline areas in the south- fields of stones; Tballophytae and west. More saline-tolerant species pre- Rbodopbytae are present; numerous dominate on the northeast shore. aggregations of blue mussels and con- Spawning ground for herring and centrations of flatfish including 176 A Global ReP.resentative System of Marine Protected Areas Scopbtalmus maximum, and habitat of Sweden fish species Mysoceplialus scoapius and Zoarces viviparus. The area is a spawn- Existing MPAs with high level management: ing ground for herring, and sprat, and ,.. Gullmar Fjord (Ii/***): Threshold fiord lies on the migratory route for herring with a depth of 124 meters inside a and salmon . threshold of 35-45 meters. In the great- ..,.... Wolinski National Park (U*): Pro- est depths interesting and some very . posed extension to the existing terres- rare animal species are found. A vari- trial National Park to include adjacent ety of marine habitats are present with. marine areas and part of Szczecin la- salinity ranging from 19-33°100. The goon. Inshore the seabed is .stony with fiord is a breeding area for fish .spe- patches of clay and shoreline com- cies. In the rivers flowing the fiord prised of unstable abraded cliffs;. Nu- there are good salmon populations. Ma- . merous aggregations of mussels are rine reserve since 1983. present; common seals occur (Phoca vi- tulina). Offshore the seabed is sand Existing MP As that require management with Macoma baltica predominant; support: Batbyporeia piliosa and numerous flat- ,.. Haparanda archipelago (U**): Shallow fish are present in the east. Inshore ar- archipelagic area outside Tomea alv eas are a wintering area for birds. The river mouth with a large-number of lagoon is eutrophied and the shores shallows, islands and skerries with flat, overgrown with vegetation; water and bouldery sand/gravel beaches. Solid swamp birds breed as do many fish ice cover; ice freeze-up in November- species. December with breakup in early June. Benthic fauna includes some 20 spe- Russia. cies of macrofauna, only 3 of which are purely marine species. Of 25 fish Existing MPAs with high level n;ianagement: species in the Bothnian -Bay, only-5 are None. marine. The area is a spawning and nursery ground for species such as Existing MPAs that require management pike, roach, nuffe, perch, Baltic herring support:. .and armed bullhead. Important breed- ,.,._ Curonian Spit (southern component) ing·and resting sites for migratory. (U***): State Environmental National birds. The coastal grayling is unique Park. See Curonian Spit National Park for the northern Bothnian Sea and described under Lithuania above. Bothnian Bay. Grey Seal and Ringed ,.,._ Vistula Spit (U•••): Marine areas adja- Seal occur regularly around Sandskar. cent to forest and sand bar. Established Most of the area is without protection, as a Landscape Park in 1962, manage- small terrestrial nature reserve. ment status unknown (see alsc;> Poland). ,.. Holmo Islands (U***): The coast is of a moraine type and includes develop- Proposed new MPAs:. . ment sequences from bay to lake. Shal- ~ l<'inskiy Zaliy.and associated islands low areas are exposed to waves and (U*): Proposed nature reserve- (in the subjected to ice pressing. The Macoma Gulf of Finland). baltica community dominates on soft Marine Region 6: Baltic 177 bottoms. M. baltica here is just south search/reference area of marine biologi- of its innermost range boundary in the cal, ornithological and geoscientific in- Bothnian Bay. Cod are also at the terest. boundary of their range in these wa- ..- Kullaberg (U...): The coast is com- ters. The area is a valuable bird area prised of a horst formation with dra- and a. spawning and nursery ground matic and varying topography and for whitefish and Baltic herring. Ringed irregular coastline with steep cliffs, seal are present. caves, islands and stone pillars. Shingle ..- Kopparstenarna/Gotska Sandon/ beaches slope rapidly downward be- Salvorev-NR, NP CU...): The area in- low the surface of the water to depths cludes complex formations of sand of 2~25 meters where the bottom con- and gravel that have resulted from the sists of boulders; further out the bot- movements of the continental ice tom levels out and becomes sandy. cover, land elevation and currents that The area is a transition zone between are continuously building up and Oresund (the Sound) and the Kattegat, changing the formation of the sand- where surface water with a relatively banks and reef. Salinity is 6-7°100• low salinity (about 11°100) meets water Flora and fauna is influenced by the masses with a higher salinity (up to special hydrographic dynamics with ex- 33°100 at depths of 12-15 meters). The tremely exposed bottoms, soft bottoms area is a southern outpost for numer- occur only at depths greater than 50 ous more marine species. The whole meters. ·Extremely clear water that per- area is protected within a nature re- mits Fucus vesiculosus to live even serve. deeper than 10 meters. Important breeding and feeding areas for flatfish. Proposed new MPAs: The area is the inner border or limit for ..,._. Bjuroklubb Area (U•): The coast is the distribution of Pleuronectes open moraine, with radial moraines platessa. Noteworthy species include that are partially above the sea surface. Eider, Long-tailed Duck, and Grey The area is subject to uplifting. Salinity Seal. Established as a marine reserve is 2-4°100. The bottom is comprised of 0987) and partly a Ramsar site. sand, stone and rocks. The area is rich ..- The Falsterbo Peninsula with Maklap- in bird life, and is also a spawning and pen (U•••): Flat sand areas with large nursery ground for pike, eel and white- movements in the bottom sediment fish. This area is representative of the and with submarine peat bogs and Bothnian Bay. The terrestrial area is a shallow areas. The fauna on the ex- nature reserve, but most of the marine posed bottoms includes both marine area has no protection. and brackish water species. Surface ......,. Trysunda/Ulvoama/Ullanger/Ulvo water salinity is about 10°100• The area Deep (U•): This section of coast .is is a breeding site for harbor and grey . characterized by high, steep cliffs and seals. Internationally important resting, islands with high elevations. The Ulvo breeding and staging area for a large Deep is a continuation of the eastern number of bird species; important mi- Baltic's deep region, and a 100 meters gratory bird site; spawning and nursery deep channel connects it to the Aland ground for herring. This site is a re- Sea. The salinity in the surface water is 178 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas about 5 °100 , and in the deepwater sent in large numbers. Zostera marina about 6 °100 . The inner range boundary meadows are encountered on sandy for Mytilus edulis. The dominant ben- bottoms. Pontopopeia affinis domi- thic community is· the Macoma commu- nates in the deep hole that exhibits an nity. In the deep area, the soft bottom extreme sedimentation environment. is dominated by the Pontoporeia com- Reference area for international survey munity. The area has a large number of hydrography, a research area, and of bird species and there are small bird part of the national environmental sanctuaries. monitoring programme. There are a ,..._ Graso/Singo-Archipelago (U•): This is number of nature reserves within the a shallow archipelagic area with a salin- area including island, bird and seal ity in the surface water of about 5.5°100 sanctuaries. (58°40'N, 17°40'£) and in the bottom water of about ...., St. Anna/Missjo Archipelago (U•): Ex- 7.5°100• The area forms a transition be- tremely finely chiselled, characteristic tween the Bothnian Sea and the Baltic outer archipelago with a large number proper. Spawning and nursery ground of tightly clustered small islands and for eel, pike, whitefish and Baltic her- skerries. Shallow areas with Zostera ring. The Macoma baltica (Baltic mus- meadows. The area supports many spe- sel) community dominates the bottom cies of birds and seal colonies, as well dwelling fauna. Bordering on the as spawning and nursery grounds for Aland Sea, the moon jellyfish (Aurelia eel, whitefish and pike. There are seal aunta) and bladderwrack (Fucus and bird sanctuaries within the area. vesiculosus) reach their inner range lim- St. Anna Archipelago is proposed as a its in the Baltic Sea area. Seal and otter national park. occur. Bird and seal sanctuaries have ..,,. Torhamn Archipelago (Ml*): The inner been established. part of the archipelago consists of ,..._ St. Bocko/St. Nassa/Sv. Hogarna/Sv. large and small islands and skerries, Bjorn (U•): Intermediate, outer and ex- while the outer part is without i.slands treme outer archipelagos are repre- with the exception of the highly ex- sented in this area. Below the surface posed Utklippan. This area includes there are shoal-filled plateaus with in- waterlogged shore meadows, nutrient- tervening deeper channels and basins rich shallow bottoms, many bird spe- at 30-40 meters and down to 90-100 cies and shallow areas important as meters. The mussel-rich banks at Sv. herring spawning grounds. Upwelling Hogarna are habitat to bird species. occurs at Utklippan. Macoma baltica Thousands of auks ·winter in the area communities dominate; Zostera mead- during.ice-free winters. Sv. Bjorn is··an ows are also present. This is Sweden's important moulting site and has a large southernmost archipelago and is a re- seal population. Some of the islands search and reference area. The site is are protected as nature reserves, seal one of Sweden's most important obser- and bird sanctuaries . vation sites for migratory birds and in- ...... · Landsort/Hartso/Asko/Landsort Deep cludes a number of bird sanctuaries CU*): Representative archipelago with and a bird station with bird counting wide variation in shores and bottoms. and ringing. Rich vertebrate fauna, rich bird life, ~ Nidingen/Sonnerbergen/Monster (U*): spawning and nursery ground for Small island surrounded by shallow whitefish, pike, cod and eel. Macoma water and stony bottoms. Salinity in baltica and Hydrobia species are pre- the surface is about 25°100 and in the Marine Region 6: Baltic 179 bottom layer up to 33°100• The current Proposed new MPAs: is mainly northgoing and upwelling ..,.. Bothnian Sea (biogeographic zone}- may occur. The area is a breeding, Trysunda/Ulvoama/Ullanger/Ulvo feeding and resting place for many Deep (Sweden) bird species and is an important obser- ,...,. Aland Sea (biogeographic zone}- vation place for migratory birds. There Graso/Singo (Sweden) is a large seal population. About 1,000 ~ Western Gotland Sea (biogeographic macroscopic species have been re- zone}-Landsort/Hartso/Asko/Landsort corded; some of those living under the Depth and St. Annas/Missjo halocline belong to the North Sea Archipelago (Sweden) fauna. Algal zonation is typical of that for the inner part of the Skagerrak/Kat- Work is under way in Finland and Swe- tegat. The area contains mainly west- den to establish these sites. ern elements in the flora and fauna; Considering just those countries that might some of the species are high salinity or- be eligible for assistance from the GEF and ganisms. Nidingen was established as a the World Bank, and the criteria outlined in nature reserve 0980). the introduction, the following three areas ,..... Koster Archipelago/Koster Chan- should be considered as being of highest pri- neVTjarno ArchipelagoNaderoarna ority. These areas are however not to be con- (na/-): An area including marine habi- sidered as gaps as they are all situated in the tats and a very large number of small Eastern Gotland Sea biogeographic zone, islands and skerries. The deepest part which already has a number of existing in the Koster channel is about 270 me- MPAs. ters. A large variety of bottom types oc- cur including exposed bottom with Existing MPAs of highest priority that require oceanic species, some of which are uni?cue for Sweden. The salinity is 25- 340 00 • The area includes reproduction .... management support: Curonian Spit including the Nemunas Delta (Russia and Lithuania, 3 sites): areas for fish, feeding, breeding· and • Curonian Spit State National Park resting areas for many species of sea (Russia) birds and for seal. There are some • Curonian Spit National Park (Lithuania) birds and seal sanctuaries. • Nemunas Delta Regional Park (Lithu- ania) Vilsandi National Park (Estonia) AREAs OF HIGHEST REGIONAL PRIORITY Proposed new MPAs of highest priority: FOR.MPAs .,.. Coastal Section Pape-Perkone (Latvia) The main gaps in'the representation of the biogeographic zones of the region could be Other Recommendations filled by the establishment and effective man- agement of the following areas. At the 5th meeting of HELCOM in Helsinki on ~11 March 1994, recommendation 15/5 Existing MPAs that require ma!lagement pertaining to the establishment of a system support: of Coastal and Marine Baltic Sea Protected ,... Archipelago Sea (biogeographic Areas (BSPA) was made. This recommenda- zone)-Southern Archipelago Sea tion has been adopted on March 10 1994, (Finland) having regard to article 13, para. (b) of the 180 A Global Representative System_ of Marine Protected Areas Helsinki Co_nvention. A copy '.of recommen- Salt Lichen: Verrucaria maura. dation 15/5 is provided in Appenqix 6.2. The areas identified ·for the formation of Water Plants: Eleocharts acicularts, /soetes the BSPA ar~ those areas listed in this report. lacustrts, Maja marina, Myropbyllum spica- tum, Potamogeton spp., Ruppia spp., Zan- nicbellia palustria, Zostera marina. APPENDIX 6.1 f4AIUNE SPECIF.s FOUND IN THE BALTIC SEA REGION· APPENDIX 6.2 IIELCoM REroMMENDATION Marine Mussels:· Abra Alga, Astarte borealts, 15/5 .REGARDING SYSTEM OF COASTAL Cyprina tslandica (the Iceland-cyprina), Ma- AND MARINE BALTIC SEA PROI'ECTED .AREAs coma baltica (the Baltic mussel), Macoma calcarea, Montacuta (Mysella) bidentata. Recommendation 15/5 was made to the 5th meeting of HELCOM, held in Helsinki, Fin- Marine Snails: Potamopyrgus jenkensi. land, S-11 March 1994. HELCOM Recommendation 15/5 (adopted Topshells: Tbeodoxus fluviatilts. 10 Match 1994, having regard to article 13, Paragraph· b of the Helsinki Convention). Small Crustaceans: Diastylus ratbkei, Pon- toporeia a/finis, Pontoporeia /ern:zorata. THE COMMISSION, RECALLING Article 13 g of the Conven.:. Marine Wood Louse: Mesidotbea entomon. tion on the Protection of the Marine Environ- ment of the Baltic Sea 1974 Helsinki Birstle Worms: Capitella capitata, Har- Convention, montboe irrJ,par, Harmonthoe sarsi. NOTING Article 15 of the 1992 Helsinki Convention- . Girdle' Worm: Peloscolex ·benedeni. BEARING IN MIND the Baltic Sea Declara- tion (paragraph 14) given in Ronneby 1990 Prfapuloid: _Halicryptus _spinulosus. in which the Heads of Governments and High Political Representatives of the Baltic Red Alg~e: Bangia, Ceramium tenuic.orne, Sea States declared their firm determination · Dumontia, Furcellaria fatigiata, Pbyllo,- to develop a comprehensive programme in phora, Polysiphonia nigrescens, Po-rphyra, Nature Conservation, inter alia, through the Rbodomela·confervoides. establishment of protected areas repre- senting the various Baltic ecosystems and Green Algae: Char aspera, Cladopbora glom- their flora and fauna and the emphasis given erata, Cladopbora aegagropila, Enteromor- to Nature Conservation by the 14th Meeting pha, Nitella flexilis, Ulotbrix subjlaccuia, of the Helsinki Commission and its request Urospora peniciliformts, Vaucberia di- to speed up the work (HELCOM 14, para- cbotoma. graph 5.38), RECALLING ALSO the Recommendations Brown Algae: Dictyipbon foeniculaceus, Ecto- by the International Seminar on the Protec- ca-rpus siliculosus, Fucus vesiculosus, Lami- tion of Sensitive Sea Areas, Malmo, Sweden, naria, Sphacelaria arctica, Pilayella 25-28 September 1990, the International littoralis, Stictysipbon. Seminar on Nature Conservation and Biodi- versity in the Baltic Sea Region, Runo, Swe- Bluegreen Algae: Calotbrix scopulorum. den, May 1991, the decisions taken at the· Marine Region 6: Baltic 181 UNCED conference in Rio de Janeiro 1993, That the Contracting Parties take all appro- particularly the convention concerning the priate measures to establish a system of conseivation of biological diversity, signed Coastal and Marine Baltic Sea Protected Ar- by all Contracting Parties of the Helsinki eas (BSPA). The areas listed in the Attach- Convention, and the Recommendations in . ment, and preliminarily described in Annex "Agenda 21" for coastal nations, 17 to the report of EC 4, are recommended TAKING INTO ACCOUNT the conclusions as a first step in ·establishing such a· system. and Recommendations from the Baltic Sea The definite borderlines of the areas will be Regioi:ial Seminar, Nykoping, Sweden, -7-11 defined by ·the countries concerned as soon June 1993 concerning the protection and ef- as possible ..The size of such areas shall pref- fective management of coastal and marine erably be more than 1000 hectares, protected areas, That this system. of BSPAs be gradually de- BEING AWARE of the fact that the Baltic veloped as new· knowledge and information Sea contains a large number of unique eco- becomes available. Special attention shall be systems, biotypes and species of great natu,. paid to including aqditional coastal terres- ral value, trial areas and to including marine areas out- BEING DEEPLY CONCERNED about the side the territorial waters. To reach this aim deterioration of the coastal and marine areas the Contracting Parties shall jointly and indi- and the very poor water quality in some ar- vidually take all necessary steps. Appropri- eas brought about by different kinds of hu- ate guidelines for the selection of further man activities which in several respects are areas shall be elaborated by the expert work- increasing due to the. political changes in ing. group EC NATURE incorporating IM O's Eastern Europe, guidelines for the designation of Particularly APPRECIATING the measure already been Sensitive Areas; taken by several Baltic Sea countries in or- That before any decisions are made which der to protect coastal and marine areas, could lead to major reductions in size, man- RECOGNIZING that the establishment of agement quality- or protection status of a protected marine and coastal areas is seri- · BSPA that is already notified to HELCOM, ously lagging ,behind similar efforts in the· the Commission. shall be notified and be in- terrestrial environment, that existing pro- vited within 6 months to express its opinion tected areas are generally few and small, in the proposed changes; and that their degree of protection is mostly That mariagement plans be established for not very high according to the IUCN each BSPA to ensure nature protection and categories, sustainable use of natural resources. These ALSO RECOGNIZING the need of a· sys- management plans shall consider all possi- tem of selected reference areas throughout ble negatively affecting activities, such as ex- the Baltic Sea where integrated biological traction of sand, stone, and gravel, oil and monitoring can be carried out, gas exploration and exploitation, dumping DESIRING to protect representative ecosys- of solid waste and·dredged spoils, construc- tems of the Baltic as well as to guarantee tions; waste water from industry, municipali- sustainable use of natural resources as an im- ties and households; intensive agriculture portant. contribution to ensure ample provi- and intensive forestry; aquaculture; harmful dent protection ·of environment and of fishing practices; tourism; transport of haz- biodiversity, ardous substances by ship through these ar- RECOMMENDS to the Governments of the eas; military activities. In some areas a Contracting Parties to the Helsinki Conven- zoning system will be an appropriate means tion: to facilitate the achievement of satisfactory 182 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas protection. Appropriate guidelines for mak- • For confirmation of already established ar- ing such management plans shall be elabo- eas and identification of new areas the cri- rated by the working group EC NATURE teria listed in the IUCN guidelines for the incorporating corresponding guidelines of establishment and protection of MPAs IUCN; should be used. Site selection should That a monitoring programme be. incorpo- (where possible) be made in accordance rated into the management plans in an ap- with the objectives for Special Areas of propriate number of these areas including at Conservation to be established under the least monitoring of biological, physical and EC Habitat Directive; chemical parameters. The monitoring pro- • In order to achieve a balanced and repre- gramme shall be incorporated within the Bal- sentative set of areas, large scale geomor- tic Monitoring Programme of HELCOM, phological features should be taken into RECOMMENDS ALSO that the Contracting account and the list of structural sub-units Parties report to the Commission on the (BMB-WWF report on the Protection of state of establishment and management of the Coastal and Offshore Marine Areas in BSPAs in 1996 and thereafter every 3 years, the Baltic Sea Region) be used; FURTHER RECOMMENDS that the work- • Recognizing the need to optimism the use ing group EC NATURE stays in contact with of available resources the development the Contracting Parties for information and and implementation of a Baltic System of cooperating in this matter. MPAs should follow a step-by-step ap- A Baltic International System of Marine proach; Protected Areas (MPAs) should be devel- • Bearing in mind the above considerations oped and adopted by the appropriate inter- concerning site selection the listed sites governmental body (HELCOM) in should be designated as MPAs under a cooperation with national and international phased protection strategy, allowing fur- governmental and nongovernmental organi- ther sites to be included in the future as zations. A list of proposed sites for such a knowledge of the resource base is ad- system of protected areas in enclosed (see vanced and priorities reviewed; section 3.0. • The MPAs should as far as possible be • This system should be representative for combined with corresponding terrestrial the Baltic and its ecosystems and desig- areas situated along the coast. Similar ar- nated and coordinated in international co- eas on both sides of a border between operation with relevant national and two countries can be merged into transna- international governmental and nongov- tional protected areas. Management of ernmental organizations and managed by such combined areas should be carried responsible national authorities; out in a streamlined way. • As a basis for monitoring and gradual re- finement of the Baltic International Sys- tem of MPAs a marine classification BIBLIOGRAPHY system, including an identified bio- geographic classification system, should Baltic Marine Biologists (BMB) and World Wild- be established; life Fund for Nature (WWF). 1993. Report on • In the continuous selection of MPAs physi- the Protection and Management of Coastal and cal attributes and major community char- Offshore Marine Areas in the Baltic Sea Region acteristics should be used in the absence (Revised Second Draft). Report submitted by of a detailed inventory of the Baltic Sea the Joint Working Group (BMB/WWF). Wash- ington, D.C. Region; Marine Region 6: Baltic 183 Dybem, B-E, and B. Hagerhall. 1992. Expert for the Council of Europe, Strasbourg. No. 37 Group Identifies 32 Coastal and Marine Areas Nature and Environmental Series. Amsterdam: to be Protected. WWF Baltic Bulletin (3-4). Elsevier. Esping, L-E., and G. Gronqvist. 1992. The CNPPA- Waterson, L. 1992. Sea and Coast. Rome: SNA World Bank Marine Biodiversity Project, Re- Publishing. port prepared for CNPPA. World Conservation Union (IUCN). 1992. Pro- EC-NATURE. 1993. System of Coastal and Marine tected Areas of the World: A ret.Jiew of national Baltic Sea Protected Areas. Draft report to the systems. Volume 2: Palearctic. Gland, Switzer- Helsinki Commission. land and Cambridge, U.K. Nordic Project Group. 1993. Marine Reseroes in World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF). 1993. the Nordic Region. Preliminary Summary pre- Coastal and Marine Protected Areas in the pared for a project within the Nordic Council Baltic Sea Region. Background report to the of Ministers. Seminar on the Establishment, Protection Voipio, A. 1987. The Baltic Sea. In R. Mitchell, and Effective Management of Coastal and Conservation of marine benthic biocenoses in Marine Protected Areas in the Baltic Sea the North Sea and the Baltic. Report prepared Region. Contributors Many people and organizations contributed pheric Administration, Rune Frisen (Environ- directly to these reports. The major authors mental Protection Agency, Sweden), United or editors of each regional report in Volume States); Bill Henwood (Parks Canada), I have prepared the following highlights of Anikina Marina (Moscow State University), these contributions. Francine Mercier (Parks Canada), Vadim Mokievsky (Academy of Sciences, Russia), Marine Region 1: Antarctic Alexander Nikolskii (Academy of Sciences, Russia), Cheri Recchia (WWF Canada), Peter This report was compiled from information Johan Schei (Directorate for Nature Manage- provided by the Antarctic Division, Austra- ment, Norway), Gudridur Thorvardardottir lian Department of Environment, Sport and (Nature Conservation Council, Iceland), and Territories, and Paul Dingwall of the New Aleksey Zemenko (Moscow State University). Zealand Department of Conservation. Other The biogeographic classification presented individuals who contributed information are: in this report is based on that developed by Bruce Davis (Antarctic Cooperative Research Vera Alexander for CNPPA. Lists of MPAs Centre, Australia), Lome Krikowen (Poles have been obtained from Hansen 0993), Apart, Australia), and Kathy Walls (Depart- with further information from WCMC 0992). ment of Conservation, New Zealand). Priority areas are those outlined in Hansen 0993), Nordic Project Group 0993), with ar- Marine Region 2: Arctic eas in Russia identified by Amirkhan Amirk- hanov and areas in Canada proposed by This section was compiled from a report pre- Vera Alexander in consultation with Cana- pared for CNPPA by Vera Alexander of Fair- dian representatives. banks University, Alaska, with further information from reports prepared by the Di- Marine Region 3: Mediterranean rectorate for Nature Management in Norway (Hansen 1993) and by the Nordic Project This section has been prepared by Michel Group for the Nordic Council of Ministers Batisse (UNESCO, Paris) and Alain Jeudy de (Nordic Project Group 1993), and from qther Grissac (IUCN Marine and Coastal Areas Pro- sources as noted. Editing was undertaken by gramme) with editorial assistance provided Chris Bleakley (GBRMPA). by Chris Bleakley. It is based on a report the The draft report was reviewed by national two authors prepared for IUCN-CNPPA (Ba- contact points for the Conservation of Arctic tisse and de Grissac 1991) in which also cov- Flora and Fauna (CAPP) group, with coordi- ers protected land areas bordering the sea. nation provided by Jeanne Pagnan ·(CAFF The biogeographic classification system Secretariat, Canada). Individuals who have adopted for the this report is that presented contributed comments or other information by Michel Batisse and Alain Jeudy de Gris- are: David Allen (Fish and Wildlife Service, sac 0991). Existing MPAs and priority areas United States), Amirkhan Amirkhanov '(Minis- were identified by Alain Jeudy de Grissac on try for the Ecology and Natural Resources, the basis of the work carried out under Russia), Leslie Beckmann (Arctic Resources UNEP's Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) by Committee/Canadian Nature Federation), the Regional Activity Centre for Specially Pro- Miles Croom (National Oceanic and Atmos- tected Areas, located in Salambo (Tunisia). 185 186 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Marine Region 4: Northwest Atlantic: tected areas in European waters: The British Isles (report for AIDEnvirorunent from the This report was prepared by Claude Mondor Marine Conservation Society, BioMar project, and Francine Mercier (Parks Canada) and 1993). Miles Croom and Robert Wolotira (NOAA). Other comments were provided by: Cheri Marine Region 6: Baltic Recchia (WWF Canada), Leslie Beckmann (Arctic Resources Committee/Canadian Na- This report has been prepared by Lars-Erik ture Federation), and Jon Lien (University of Esping and Gurli Grosnqvist of the Swedish Newfoundland). Environmental Protection Agency, and is The biogeographic classification, existing based on an initial report prepared in 1992 MPAs and priorities areas in this report have for IUCN-CNPPA by these authors. Editorial been identified by the authors. assistance was provided by Chris Bleakley (GBRMPA). Additional information has been Marine Region 5: Northeast. Atlantic: derived from the following sources: Baltic Marine Biologists (BMB) and WWF-Sweden, This report was compiled .by Susan Gubbay "Report on the protection and management (U.K.) from contributions and comments of coastal and offshore marine areas in the made by the following people: Henri Augier Baltic Sea Region" (revised second draft, (Universite D'Aix Marseille, France), Nuno 1993); World Wildlife Fund, "Coastal and Ma- Gomes (Geota, Portugal), Keith Hiscock rine Areas in the Baltic Sea Region" (back- Qoint Nature Conservation Committee, ground report to the Seminar on the U.K.), Dan Laffoley (English Nature, U.K.), Establishment, Protection and Effective Man- Oscar Meme (National Parks and Wildlife agement of Coastal and Marine Protected Ar- Service, Ireland), Gerard Peet (SEA Founda- eas in the Baltic Sea Region, held in tion, Netherlands), Ricardo Santos (Universi- Nyksping, Sweden, June, 1993); Nordic Pro- dade dos Azores, Portugal), Mark Spalding ject Group, "Marine reserves in the Nordic (WCMC, P~tecte4 Areas pata Unit), Dan Laf- Region" (preliminary summary of a report foley (English Nature, U.K.), and Juan prepared for a project within the Nordic Suarez (University of Seville, Spain). Council of Ministers, 1993); and EC-NA- Much of the information on existing and TURE, "System of coastal and marine Baltic proposed Marine Prot~ed Areas in the Re- Sea Protected Areas (BSPA)" (draft report to gion came from three key references: Peet the Helsinki Commission, 1993). and others,. Marine·protected a.re~ ·iri A biogeographic classification system is Europe: MPA descriptions (report of a study proposed by the authors. The list of priority within the framework.of the BioMar project, · areas for marine protected areas is that pro- 1993); Nijkamp and others, Marine protected posed by EC-NATIJRE (1993). The existing areas in Europe: Country profiles ·(report of a levels of protection and management of these study within the framework of the BioMar 'lfeas have been evaluated and areas of high- project, 1993); and Gubbay, Marine pro-. ~st regional 'ptjority have been identifie<;l. Index Page numbers printed in italic type refer to tables or figures. Passim indicates that the topic is disawed in- termittently within the given range of pages. Proposed MPAs of regional conservation priority are indexed by name. Other existing and proposed MPAs are grouped under given nations and marine regions. Adriatic Sea, 88, 98 f1Sheries and f1Shing, 65 Aegean Sea, 88, 98, 99 geography and geology (coastal), 63-64 land Sea, 160-61, 179 High Arctic Coastal zone, 66-67 Albania, marine protected areas, 89 High Arctic Oceanic zone, 66 Algae marine protected areas, 6S-71 in Arctic Marine Region, 64 marine protected areas proposed, 71-75 in Baltic Marine Region, 156-57, 180 Norwegian Coast zone, 68 in Northwest Atlantic Marine Region, 114 oceanography,62-63 Algeria, marine protected areas, 90, 97 polynyas, 65-66 Antarctic Marine Region priority conservation sites, 71-75 Antarctic Specially Managed Areas, 52 · species diversity, 64-66 Antarctic Specially Protected Areas, 51, 52 vegetation, 64 biogeographic zones, 49-50 Arctic _Oce_an, 6~, 63, 64 ·.boundaries, 45-46 Arctic Ring of Life International Biocultural conservation initiatives, 52-55 Reserve, 74 ecosystems, 47-49 Azores fisheries and fishing, 49, 53, 56 marine protected areas, 136, 144 geology (coastal), 47 . marine protected areas proposed, 143-44 marine protected areas, 50-53, 55, 57-58 Azov Sea, 88 marine protected areas proposed, 57-58 . . marine' protected areas, 9+:95~ 98 oceanography,46-47 priority conservation sites, 55-56 Baltic Marine Region recommendations for, 56-57 land Sea and Archipelago Sea zone, 160-61, seal reserves, 52 · 179 Sites of Special Scientific Interest, 51-52, 57 Baltic proper zone, 160, 167 Southern Ocean, 49-50 biogeographic zones, 158-62, ·167 Antarctic Treaty, 45-46, 54 Bothnian Sea, 157, 161, 179 Protocol on Environmental Protection Bothnian Threshold region (The Quark), 161 (Madrid Protocol), 45, 54-55 boundaries, 153 Antarctic Treaty System, SO, 52-53, 56-57 Coastal and Marine Baltic Sea Protected Areas Arctic Marine Region (HELCOM), 179, 180-82 Arctic Coastal zone, 67, 67 conservation initiatives, 166,.:67, 179-82 Arctic Maritime zone, 67-68 EC~NATURE priority sites. 162, 167-68 Arctic Ring of Life International Biocultural ecosystems, 155-57 Reserve, 74 geography and geology (coastal), 155 Barents Sea, 62, 74-75 Gulf of Bothnia, 157 Beringia Heritage International Park, 75 Gulf of Finland, 160 biogeographic zones, 66-68, 72 Helsinki Convention (HELCOM), 166, 179-82 boundaries, 61-62 Kattegat, 154, 159 conservation initiatives, 71 marine protected areas, 162, 163-66, 167 ecosystems, 64-66 management levels, 162, 162-63 Ellesmere Island National Park, 69, 72, 75 187 188 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Baltic Marine Region (conttnued) Calf of Man (Isle of Man), 146, 149, 150 marine protected areas proposed, 172-73, Canada 174, 175-76, 177-79 Arctic Marine Region of, 61 marine species, 180 Bay of Fundy, 115-16 oceanography, 153'-55 Ellesmere Island National Park, 69, 72, 75 resund (The Sound), 159-60 Lancaster Sound, 109-10, 124 priority conservation sites, 167-69, 168, 179 marine protected areas, 68-69, 118-19 Skagerrak, 159 marine protected areas proposed, 72, 121-22 soft sediment habitats, 156 Northwest Atlantic Marine Region of, 107-16 species diversity, 157-58 Ungava Bay, 110 vegetation, ·157-58 CCAMLR (Convention for the Conservation of Baltic Monitoring Programme, 166 Antarctic Marine Living Resources), 45, 49, 53, S6 Baltic sea; 79, 15~55 Cetaceans. See Dolphins; Whales. Barcelona Convention, 79, 95 Channel Islands Barents Sea, 62, 74-75 See also United Kingdom Bay of Fundy (canada), 115-16 marine protected areas, 139 Bea.ufort Sea, i12-13' · marine protected areas proposed, 146-47 Belgium Chukchi Sea, 61, 67 conservation priority sites, 142 CITES ( Convention on International Trade in En- marine protected areas, 133, 142 dangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna), 96 Beringia Heritage International Park, 75 Convention concerning the Protection of the Bern Convention on the Conservation of Euro- World Cultural and National Heritage, 95 pean Wildlife and Natural Habitats, 96 Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic. Biodiversity Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), 45, 49, ecosystems, 5, 7, 30-32 53, 56 genetic, 6 Convention for the ~onservation of Antarctic species, 5-6, 8-9, 33-35 Seals, 45, 52, 55 Biodiversity conservation, 1, 5-6 Convention for the Protection of the Mediterra- information gaps, 16-17, 17 nean Sea against Pollution (Barcelona Conven- Biodiversity convention, 1 tion), 79, 95 BioMar survey, 149 · Convention on Biodiversity, 1 Biosphere Reserves; 11, 38-39 Convention on International Trade in Endangered in Arctic Marine Region, 71 Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), 96 in Mediterranean·Marine Region, 93, 94, 95, 98 Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Ani- in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, 139 mals (Bonn Convention), 96 Birds Convention on the Protection of the Marine Envi- See also Penguins ronment of the Baltic Sea Area (Helsinki Con- in-Antarctic Marine Region, 48· vention; HELCOM), 166, 179-80 in Arctic Marine Region, 66, 67 Convention on Wetlands of International Impor- in Baltic Marine Region, 158 tance. See Ramsar Convention endangered species, 85, 114, 124· Coral communities, in Mediterranean Marine European Community Birds Directive, 140 Region; 84, 89, 92 in Mediterranean Marine Region, 84-85 Coral reefs, marine protected areas with, 40 in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, 131-32 Council of Europe, 96 in Northwest Atlantic Marine Region, 107, Biogenetic Reserves, 140 109-17passiln, 122,123,124 Croatia, marine protected areas, 90, 98 Black Sea, 79, 88 Crustaceans marine protected areas, 89, 94-95, 98 in Baltic Marine Region, 156, 180 Bonn Convention, 96 in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, 131, 148 Bothnian Sea, 179 in Northwest Atlantic Marine Region, 114, Browns/Baccaro Banks (Canada), 12~24 115, 116, 123 Bulgaria, marine protected areas, 94, 98 Cyprus, marine protected areas, 90-91, 98 Index 189 Denmark France See also Greenland marine protected areas, 89, 91, 97, 133-34, conservation priority sites, 142 142 marine protected areas, 133, 142, 163, 169-71 priority conservation sites, 100 Dolphins Seashore and Lakeshore Conservatory in Baltic Marine Region, 158 (CELRL), 91 in Mediterranean Marine Region, 84-85, 86, 99-100· General Council for Mediterranean Fisheries, 100 in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, 131 Germany in Northwest Atlantic Marine Region, eastern conservation priority sites, 142 temperate zones, 113-17 passim, 123, 124 marine protected areas, 134, 142, 164-65, 173-74 Ecosystems, large marine, 7, 36 marine protected areas proposed, 174 Egypt, marine protected areas, 91 Greece, marine protected areas, 91, 98 Ellesmere Island National Park (Canada), 69, 72, Greenland 75 Arctic Marine Region of, 61 Endangered species marine protected areas, 69, 72 birds, 85, 114, 124 Gulf of Gabes seagrass meadows, 98-99 . tµrtles, 124 Gulf of Sirte seagrass meadows, 99 whales, 122, 123 England Habitats. See Ecosystems See also United Kingdom HELCOM (Helsinki.Conventjon), 166, 179-80 Sensitive Marine Areas, 138 Helsinki Convention (HELCOM), 166, 179-80 Estonia, marine protected areas, 163-64, 171-72 Coastal and Marine Baltic Sea Protected Estuarine environments, in Mediterranean Marine Areas, 179, 180-82 Region, 82 European Community Birds Directive, 140 Icebergs. See Sea ice European Community Habitats and Species Direc- Iceland tive, 140, 147 Arctic Marine Region of, 68 European Program for the Mediterranean, 97 marine protected areas, 69, 71, 72 European Union, 96 marine protected areas proposed, 72 Nature Conservation Council, .70 Finland International Convention for the Prevention ol marine protected areas, 164, 172 Pollution ,from Ships. See MARPOL marine protected areas proposed, 172-73 International Whaling Commission, 50 Fish Intertidal flats. See Soft sediment habitats in Antarctic Marin~ Region, 47-48, 49 Invertebrates in Arctic Marine Region, 65 See also Crustaceans; Mollusks; Sponges; fn Baltic ~rine Region, 158 Worms in Mediterranean Marine Region, 84, 86, 99 in Baltic Marine Region, .t,~ in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, 131 in Mediterranean Marine Region, 83-84 in Northwest Atlantic Marine Region, 107, Ioni;m Se.a, 87, 97 W9-16 passim, 1~3 Ireland Fisheries and fishing . marine protected areas, 134-35 in Antarctic Marine Region, 49, 53, 56 priority,conse.rvation sites, 142-43, 148, 149 in Arctic Marine Region, 65 Isle of Man in Mediterranean Marine Region, 84, 99 See also United Kingdom in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, 130-31, Calf of Man, 146, 149, 150. 142, 148 marine protected areas, 138-39 in. Northwest Atlantic Mflrine Region, 115, marine protected areas proposed, 145-46, 150 116, 118 priority conservation sites, 149 190 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Israel, marine protected areas, 91, 98 sizes of, 13, 14 Italy, marine protected areas, 89, 92, 97, 98 study objectives and methods, 2-3 subtidal, 14 Kelp, in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, 130 Marmara Sea, 77, 88 Klaverbank (Netherlands), 143, 150 · MARPOL (International Convention for the Pre- Krill, in Antarctic Marine Region, 47-48, 49, 56 vention of Pollution from Ships), 10, 38 Antarctic Marine Region and, 53, 55 Lagoons, in Mediterranean Marine Region, 81-82 Baltic Marine Region and, 167 Lancaster Sound (Canada), 109-10, 124 McMurdo Sound, 57 Latvia Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assis- marine protected areas, 165, 174 tance Program (METAP), 97 marine protected areas proposed, 174, 179 Gulf of Gabes seagrass meadows, 98 Pape-Perkone coastal area, 179 Mediterranean Marine Region Lebanon, marine protected areas, 92 Aegean Sea, 88, 98, 99 Levantine Basin, 87-88, 98 biogeographic zones, 86-88, 87, 97-98 Libya, marine protected areas, 92 Black Sea and Azov Sea zone, 88, 98 Lithuania, 165, 174-75 boundaries, 77 climate, 77-78 Madeira, marine protected areas, 136, 144, 148 conservation initiatives, 95-97 Madrid Protocol (Protocol on Environmental Pro- Eastern Mediterranean zone, 88-89, 97-98 tection), 45, 54-55 ecosystems, 80-82 Maerl, in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, 129 estuarine environments, 82, 83 Malta, marine protected areas, 92 geography and geology (coastal), 79-80, 82 Man and the Biosphere Programme, 10, 95-96 Gulf of Sirte seagrass meadows, 99 See also Biosphere Reserves lagoons, 81-82 Mangroves, marine protected areas with, 40 management recommendations, 101-2 Marine mammals. See specific types of mammals management training, 101 byname marine protected areas, 88-89, 89, 90, 97-98, Marine protected areas (MPAs) 101-2 See also under specific countries or marine marine protected areas proposed, 98-100, 103 regions, under specific marine regions and marine regions, 87 nations Marmara Sea zone, 88, 98 actions for establishment of, 28 Nile River influence on, 80 biogeographic zones in, 11-13, 15 oceanography, 78 categories, 98 organizations involved in, 95-97 community support for, 2C>-21 priority conservation sites, 98, lOC>-101, 103 conservation initiatives, 9-11, 13-14 recommendations for, lOC>-102 coral reefs in, 40 · seagrass beds, 80-81, 82, 87, 98-99 funding for, 22-23 species diversity, 82-83 management, 14-16, 15, 19, 21-22 tourism, 93, 100, 102 management effectiveness categories, 117-18 vegetation, 83 mangroves in, 40 Western Mediterranean North area, 99-100 numbers of, 13, 14, 16 Western Mediterranean zone, 86-87, 97 priority conservation sites by region, 16, 23, wetlands, 81-82,90 24-26 Mediterranean Sea, 77 priority conservation sites criteria, 3-5, 4, eutrophication, 79 16-17 marine protected areas, 89, 89-94 biodiversity, s-6 oceanography, 78 biological factors, 7-9 pollution, 78-79,80 social factors, 6-7 water quality, 78 proposed, 24-26 Western Mediterranean North Area, 99-100 recommendations for, 17-20, 23-27 Index 191 METAP (Mediterranean Environmental Technical Browns/Baccaro Banks, 123-24 Assistance Program), 97 Eastern Temperate subdivision, 108 Mollusks eastern temperate zones, 114-17 in Baltic Marine Region, 80, 155-56, 180 ecosystems, 106 in Mediterranean Marine Region, 84 endangered species, 107 in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, 131, 148 fisheries and fishing, 115 in Northwest Atlantic Marine Region, 114, geography and geology (coastal), 106 115, 116, 123 Grand Banks/Scotian Shelf zone, 114-15 Monaco, marine protected areas, 89, 92, 97 Gulf of St. Lawrence zone, 113-14 Montenegro, marine protected areas, 93, 98 Hudson-James Bay zone, 111-12 Morocco, marine protected areas, 93 Hudson Strait zone, 110-11 MPAs. See Marine protected areas Labrador Shelf zone, 113 Lancaster Sound zone, 109-10, 124 Netherlands marine protected areas, 117, 121 Klaverbank, 143,150 marine protected areas' management effective- marine protected areas, 135, 143 ness, 117-18 marine protected areas proposed, 143, 150 marine protected areas' management levels, Sea area northwest of Frisian Islands, 143, 150 117 Nile River, 80 marine protected areas proposed, 121-25 Northeast Atlantic Marine Region Mid-coastal Maine area, 124 Biogenetic Reserves, 140 North Slope/Beaufort Sea zone, 112-13 biogeographical zones, 132-33, 140-41, 141 oceanography, 105-6 boundaries, 127 Polar subdivision, 107-8 ecosystems, 128-30 polar zones, 109-12 fisheries and fishing, 130-31 priority conservation sites, 121-25 geography and geology (coastal), 127-28 recommendations for, 125 geology (coastal), 127-28 species diversity, 106, 107 kelp forests, 130 Subpolar (Subarctic) subdivision, 108 maerl beds, 129 subpolar zones, 112-14 marine protected areas, 133-39, 140-41, 141, Virginian zone, 116-17 142-45 Viscount Melville Sound zone, 109 marine protected areas proposed, 142-47, 150 Norway North Sea, 131, 143, 148 Arctic Marine Region of, 61, 68 oceanography, 127 marine habitats, 68 priority conservation sites, 141-50 marine protected areas, 69-70, 71, 165, 175 recommendations for, 149-50 marine protected areas proposed, 73 seagrass beds, 129 Spitzbergen Fjord, 65 soft sediment habitats, 128, 129, 130, 147 Norwegian Sea, 62-63 species diversity, 130-32 Waddensea, 128,129,134,140, 147-48 Otter, in Baltic Marine Region, 158 Northern Ireland See also United Kingdom Penguins marine protected areas proposed, 145, 150 See also Birds Rathlin Island, 145, 150 in Antarctic Marine Region, 48 Strangford Lough, 145, 150 Plankton, in Mediterranean Marine Region, 83 North Sea, 131, 143, 148 Plants North Water polynya, 110 in Baltic Marine Region, 157-58 Northwest Atlantic Marine Region in Mediterranean Marine Region, 83 Acadian zone, 115-16 Poland biogeographic zones, 106-17, 121, 121 marine protected areas, 165-66, 175 boundaries, 105 marine protected areas proposed, 175-76 192 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Polar bear Siberia, Arctic Marine Region of, 61, 64·. in Arctic Marine Region, 65, 66,' '67 Skagerrak Sea, 68 in Northwest Atlantic Marine Region, ·107, Slovenia, marine protected areas, 93, 98 109,110,112,113,122 Soft sediment habitats Polynyas, 65--66 in Arctic Marine Region, 65 Cape Bathurst Polynya, 122-23, 124 in Baltic Marine Region, 156, 157 North Water polynya, 110 in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, 128, 129, Porpoises: See Dolphins . 130,147 Portugal, marine protected areas, 135-36, 143 Southern Ocean; 49-50 Protocol on Environmental Protection (Madrid Spain P~tocol), 45, 54-55 marine protected areas, 93, 97, 13€r37, 144' priority conservation sites, 149 Ramsar Convention (Convention on Wetlands of Spitzbergen Fjord, Norway, 65 International Importance), 9 Sponges See also Wetlands in Antarctic Marine Region, 57-58 Arctic Marine Region and, 71 in Mediterranean Marine Region, 84 Baltic Marine Region and, 167 in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, 148 Mediterranean Marine Region and, 96 Strangford Lough (Northern Ireland), 145, 150 Northeast Atlantic Marine Region and, ·139, Sweden 142 Aaland Sea, 179 Rathlin Island (Northern Ireland), 145, 150 Bothnian Sea, 179 Reptiles marine protected areas, 166, 17€r77 See also Turtles marine protected areas proposed, 177-79 in Mediterranean Marine Region, 85 Western Gotland Sea area, 179 Romania, marine protected areas, 94 Syria, marine protected area proposed, 93 Russia Arctic Marine Region of, 61 Tourism, in Mediterranean Marine Region, 93, marine protected areai, 70-71, 73, 166, 176 100,102 marine protected areas proposed, 73-74, 176 Tunisia, marine protected areas, 93-94, 97 Turkey, 100 Scotland marine protected areas, 94, 98 See also United Kingdom Turtles Marine Consultation Areas, 138 See also Reptiles Seagrass beds endangered species, 124 in Mediterranean Marine Region, 80-81, 82, in Mediterranean Marine Region, 85, 90, 94, 99 87, 98-99 in Northwest Atlantic Marine Region, 107, in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, 129 116, 124 Sea ice in Antarctic Marine Region, 46-47 Ukraine, marine protected areas, 96, 98 in Arctic Marine Region, 61, 62, 63 UNESCO. See United Nations Educational, Scien- in Northwest Atlantic Marine Region, 108, tific and Cultural Organization 109, 113 Ungava Bay (Canada), 110 Seals United Kingdom in Antarctic Marine Region, 48-49, 52, 55 Channel Islands, 139, 14€r47 in Arctic Marine Region, 65, 66, 67 England, Sensitive Marine Areas, 138 in Mediterranean Marine Region, 85, 94, 99 Isle of Man, 138-39, 145-46, 149 in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, 130 Marine Nature Reserves, 137-38 in Northwest Atlantic Marine Region, 109-17 marine protected areas, 137-38, 145, 148-49 passim, 122, 123 marine protected areas proposed, 144--47, Shellfish. See Crustaceans; Fisheries and ftShing; 148, 150 Mollusks Northern Ireland, 145, 150 Ships, pollution from, 79 Scotland, Marine Consultation Areas, 138 Index 193 United Nations Conference on Environment an~ Vegetation Development (UNCED), 1 . in Baltic Marine Region, 157-58 United Nations Educational, Sciei;itific and Cul- . in ?ylediterranean Marine Region, 83 tural Organization (UNESCO) See also Biosphere Reserves; World Heritage Waddensea, 128,129,132,134,140, 147-48 Convention Walrus Convention concerning the Protection of the in Arctic Marine Region, 65, 66 World Cultural and National Heritage, 9, 95 in Northwest Atlantic Marine Region, polar Man and the Biosphere Programme, 10, 11,. zone, 110,111,122 95-96 Wetlands United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), 95 See also Ramsar Convention Mediterranean Marine Region and, 95 in Mediterranean Marine Region, 81-82, 90, 94 United States in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, 139, 142 Arctic Marine Region of, 61 Whales Areas of Critical Environmental Concern . in Antarctic Marine Region, 49 (Massachusetts), 120 in Arctic Marine Region, 65, 67 marine protected areas, 119-21 endangered species, 122, 123 marine protected areas proposed, 124-25 in Mediterranean Marine Region, 85--86, Mid-coastal Maine area, 124 99-100 National Estuarine Research Reserves, 120 in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, 131 National Marine Sanctuaries, 119-20 in Northwest Atlantic Marine Region, 107, National Seashores, 120 , 110-17 passim, 122, 123, 124 National Wildlife Refuges, 120 World Heritage Convention, 9 Northwest Atlantic Marine Region of, 112-13, Arctic Marine Region and, 71 115-17 Baltic Marine Region and, 167 Ocean Sanctuaries of Massachusetts, 120 ma_rine and/or coastal sites, 37 Virginian zone, 116-17, 124 Northeast Atlantic Marine Region and, 139 Worms, in Baltic Marine Region, 156, 180 Yugoslavia, marine protected areas, 89 Cumulative Index Page numbers printed in ttalic type refer to tables or figures.~assini. indicates that the topic is discussed in- termittently within the given range of pages. Proposed MPAs of .regional_ conservation priority are indexed by name. Other existing and proposed MPAs are grouped under given nations and marine regions. A geology (coastal), 1:47 Adriatic Sea, 1:88, 1:98 marine protected areas, 1:50-53, 1:55, 1:57-58 Aegean Sea, 1:88, 1:98, 1:99 marine protected areas proposed, 1:57-58 Aland Sea, 1:160-61, 1:179 oceanography, 1:46-47 Albania, marine protected areas, 1:89 priority conservation sites, 1:55-56 Algae recommendations for, 1:56-57 in Arabian Seas Marine Region, m:42, m:45- seal reserves, 1:52 46 Sites of Special Scientific Interest, 1:51-52, 1:57 in Arctic Marine Region, 1:64 Southern Ocean, 1:49-50 in Australia, IV:157, IV:159, IV:193, IV:194, Antarctic Treaty, 1:45--46, 1:54 IV:195 Protocol on Environmental Protection (Ma- in Baltic Marine Region, 1:156-57, 1:173, 1:180 drid Protocol), 1:45, 1:54-55 in Central Indian Ocean Marine Region, Antarctic Treaty System, 1:50, 1:52-53, 1:56-57 m:17-18, m:27, m:32 Antigua and Barbuda in East Africa Marine Region, m:88, m: 100 Barbuda, D:28, D:29 in East Asian Seas Marine Region, m:123 marine protected areas, D: 19, D:26 in New Zealand, IV:175, IV:177, IV:179 marine protected areas proposed, D:28, D:29 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, IV:62, Apia Convention (Convention on the Conserva- IV:84, IV:88, IV:90, IV:96, IV:98, IV: 100, tion of Nature in the South Pacific), IV:30 IV:103 Arabian Gulf, m:58, m:59, m:61 in Northwest Atlantic Marine Region, I: 114 Arabian Sea, m:20 in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, IV:123 Arabian Seas Marine Region in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, IV:147 Arabian Gulf Basin, m:58 in South Pacific Marine Region, IV:19 beaches and dunes, m:43 Algeria, marine protected areas, 1:90, 1:97 biogeographic zones, m:49-51, m:56--58 American Samoa, marine protected areas, IV:24, boundaries, m:39 IV:32-33 Central Red Sea zone, m:57 Andaman and Nicobar Isl.ands, m:21 conservation initiatives, m:55-56 marine protected areas, m:22-23 coral reefs, m:44-45, m:53, m:59, m:60 marine protected areas proposed, m:27-28 ecosystems, m:42-45 Andros Barrier Reef (The Bahamas), D:29 environmental degradation, m:39-40, m:53, Angola . m:57 marine protected areas, D:49 Farasan-Gizan area, m:59 marine protected areas proposed, D:56 fisheries and fishing, m:54, m:57, m:59 Antarctic Marine Region geography and geology (coastal), m:41-42 Antarctic Specially Managed Areas, 1:52 Gulf of Aden, m:56, m:61 Antarctic Specially Protected Areas, 1:51, 1:52 Gulf of Aqaba, m:57 biogeographic zones, 1:49-50 Gulf of Salwa, m:58 boundaries, 1:45--46 Gulf of Suez, m:57 conservation initiatives, 1:52-55 Indo-Pacific zone, W:57-58 ecosystems, 1:47-49 mangroves, m:43-44, m:54, m:59, m:60 fisheries and fishing, 1:49, 1:53, 1:56 marine protected areas, m:51-55, W:56-58 195 196 A_ Glob_al Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Arabian Seas Marine Region (continued) oceaqography, 1:62-63 marine protected areas proposed, W:59-61 polynyas, 1:65-66 Marshes of the Tigris and Euphrates, m:60 priority conseivation sites, 1:71-75 Mersa Alam-Sudanese Border proposed ma- species diversity, 1:64-66 rine park, m:60 vegetation, 1:64 Northern Red Sea zone, W:57 Arctic Ocean, 1:62, 1:63, 1:64 9Ceanography, W:40-41, µI:45 Arctic Ring· of Life International Biocultural oil spills, W:53 . Resetve, 1:74 . Outer Indus Delta area, 54, m:60 Argentina, D:73 . Persian 'Gulf-Gulf of Salwa area, W:45, ID:59 marine protected. areas, D: 76-77, D:82-83 priority conseivation sites, ID:5~59 marine protected areas proposed, D:81-82 Qatar-UAE Coastal zone, W:58 Ascension Island, D:45, D:54 Qishran Islands-Ras al Askar area, W:60 marine protected areas proposed, D:66 Ras Suwahil, ]ll:60 ASEAN Convention, W:119 recommendations for, m:61 Audubon Society, Wider Caribbean Marine rocky shores and cliffs, W:43 Region and, D:26 Sabkha, W:42 Australia, IV:154 seagrass beds, m:45, W:59, m:60 See also.Australia/New Zealand Marine Region Shatt al Arab zone, W:58 archaeological shipwreck sites, IV: 188 Socotra Island, W:60 beaches and dunes, IV:157, IV:194, IV:195 soft sediment habitats, W:59 Beagle Gulf, IV:166, IV:188 Southern Coastal Arabian Gulf zone, W:58. biogeographic zones, IV:162-63, IV:165-66, Southern Oman zone, W:57 IV:167 Southern Red Sea zone, W:56-57 caves, IV:190, IV:192 species diversity, ID:45-49 consetvation priority sites, IV: 166-68 Straits pf Gubal, m:60 continental shelf and slope, IV:15~59 · Tirin Isands area, W:59-60 · coral reefs, IV:158, IV:188, IV:189, IV:192, tourism, ID:57 IV:194, IV:195 vegetation, W:45-46 ecosystems, IV:155-59 Wejh Bank, W:60 endangered species, IV: 190 wetlands, W:42-43, ]ll:60 . endemism in, IV:160 Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific environmental threats, IV:157, IV:158, IV:159, Organization (ALESCO), W:55 IV:196 Arctic Marine Region estuarine environments, IV:155-56, IV:189 Arctic Coastar zone, 1:67, 1:67 fisheries and fishing, IV:156-57, IV:158, Arctic ~ritime zone, 1:67-68 IV:159, IV:162, IV:1~96 passim Arctic Ring of Life International Biocultural geography and geology (coastal), IV:155 Resetve, 1:74 ' · Great Australian Bight Marine Park, IV:166, Barents Sea, 1:62, 1:74-75 IV:190-91 Beringia Heritage International Park, I: 75 Gulf of Carpentaria, IV:166, IV:189-90 biogeographic zones, 1:66-68, I: 72 Hetvey Bay/Sandy Straits, IV:166, IV:190 boundaries, 1:61-62 islands, IV:189, IV:194 conseivation initiatives, I: 71 Kent Group, IV:166, IV:191 ecosystems, 1:64-66 . lagoons, IV: 189 Ellesmere Island National Park, 1:69, tn, 1:75 Lord Howe Island Marine Reseive, IV:166, fisheries and fishing, 1:65 IV:192 geography and geology (coastal), 1:63-64 Macquarie Island, IV:166, IV:191 High Arctic Coastal zone, 1:66-67 mangroves, IV:155, IV:156, IV:188, IV:190, High Arctic Oceanic zone, 1:66 IV:193, IV:194 marine protected areas, l:~71 Maria Island National Park, IV:166, IV:191-92 marine protected areas proposed, 1:71-75 marine protected areas, IV:164-65, IV:166-67, Noiwegian Coast zone, 1:68 · IV:167, IV:192-96 . Cumulative Index 197 marine protected areas proposed, IV:166, Gulf of Bothnia, 1:157 IV:188-92 Gulf of Finland, 'I: 160 marine protected areas system, IV:163-64 Helsinki Convention (HELCOM), 1:166, 1:179-82 oceanography, IV:154-55 islands, I: 172 recommendations for, IV:168-69 Kattegat, 1:154, 1:159 reefs (temperate), IV:157-58, IV:192 lagoons, 1:173, 1:174 Rocky Cape, IV:166, IV:191 marine protected areas, 1:162, 1:163-66, 1:167 rocky shores and cliffs, IV:157, IV:188, management levels, I: 162, I: 162-63 IV:194, IV:195 _marine protected areas proposed, 1:172-73, seagrass beds, IV:155, IV:188-95 passim 1:174, 1:175-76, 1:177-79 soft sediment habitats, IV:157, IV:188 marine species, I: 180 species diversity, IV:159-62 oceanography, 1:153-55 Torres Strait, IV:166, IV:189 Oresund (The Sound), 1:159--60 tourism, IV:188, IV:_195 priority conservation sites, 1:167-69, 1:168, vegetation, IV:191 1:179 wetlands, IV:156, IV:157, IV:188, IV:189, seagrass beds, 1:173, 1:175, 1:178 IV:190, IV:193 Skagerrak, 1:159 'Australia/New Zealand Marine Region soft sediment habitats, 1:156, 1:173 See also Australia; New Zealand species diversity, 1:157-58 conservation initiatives, IV:165, IV:184 vegetation, 1:157-58 marine protected areas proposed, IV: 166, wetlands, 1:173, 1:174 IV:185, IV:186, IV:1~92, IV:196-98 Baltic Monitoring Programme, 1:166 recommendations for, IV:168-69, IV:185-87 Baltic Sea, 1:79, 1:153-55 Azores, 11:45 Bangladesh, ill: 16 marine protected areas, I: 136, I: 144 marine protected areas, m:20-21 marine protected areas proposed; I: 143-44 marine protected areas proposed, ill:26, ill:31 Azov Sea, 1:88 Sundarbans, ill:16, ill:19, ill:24, ill:31 marine protected areas, 1:94-95, 1:98 Barbados, marine protected areas, II: 19, 11:26 Barbados Declaration, 11:22 B Barbuda (Antigua and Barbuda), D:28, 11:29 The Bahamas Barcelona Convent~on; I: 79, 1:95 Andros Barrier Reef, 11:29 Barents Sea, 1:62, 1:74-75 marine protected areas, II: 19, 11:26 Bay of Bengal, m:i6, m;1s,· m:20 marine protected areas proposed, 11:28, ll:29 Bay of Fundy (Canada), 1:115-16 Bahrain, ill:52 Beaches and dunes Persian Gulf-Gulf of Salwa area, m:59 in Arabian Seas Marine Region, m:43 Baltic Marine Region in Australia, IV:157, IV:194, IV:195 Aland Sea and Archipelago Sea zone, 1:160- in Baltic Marine Region, 1:174, 1:175 61, 1:179 . in Central Indian· Ocean Marine Region, Baltic proper ~one, 1:160, 1:167 m:17, m:23, m:24 beaches and dunes, 1:174, 1:175 in East Africa Marine Region, ill:77, ill:84, biogeographic zones, 1:158-62, 1:167 m:87, m:95, m:97. m:99 Bothnian Sea, 1:157, 1:161, 1:179 in East Asian Seas Marine Region, m: 110 Bothnian Threshold region (The Quark), 1:161 in New Zealand, IV: 176 boundaries, 1:153 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, IV:91 Coastal and Marine Baltic Sea Protected Areas in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, IV:111, IV:123. (HELCOM), 1:179, 1:180-82 conservation initiatives, I: 166-67, I: 179-82 in South Atlantic Marine Region, 11:74 EC-NATURE priority sites, 1:162, 1:167~ in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, IV: 132, ecosystems, 1:155-57 IV:134 geography and geology (coastal), 1:155 in West Africa Marine Region, 11:46 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, II: 19, 11:29 198 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Beagle Gulf (Australia), IV:166, IV:188 in Arabian Seas Marine Region, ffl:54, m:58, Beaufort Sea, 1:112-13 m:60-61 Belgium in Arctic Marine Region, 1:66, 1:67 conservation priority sites, 1:142 in Australia, IV:156, IV:157, IV:160-61, marine protected areas, 1:133, 1:142 IV:191, IV:192, IV:193, IV:195 Belize in Baltic Marine Region, 1:158, 1:170, 1:171, marine protected areas, D: 14 1:172, 1:173-78 passim marine protected areas proposed, D:28, D:29, in Central Indian Ocean Marine Region, D:30 m:1s-19, m:21, m:22, m:24, m:26, m:27, Belize Barrier Reef (Belize), D:29, D:30 fil:29, fil:31, ID:32 Benin, D:49 in East Africa Marine Region, ID:80-81, ID:82- marine protected areas proposed, Il:56 88 passim, ffl:92-100 passim Beringia Heritage International Park, I: 75 in East Asian Seas Marine Region, ffl:110, Bering Strait (United States), IV:94-95, IV:97 ID: 123, ID: 124 Bern Convention on the Conservation of Euro- endangered species, 1:85, I: 114, I: 124 pean Wildlife and Natural Habitats, 1:96 European Community Birds Directive, 1:140 Biodiversity in Mediterranean Marine Region, 1:84-85 ecosystems, 1:5, 1:7, 1:30-32 in New Zealand, IV:177, IV:181, IV:196, IV:197 genetic, 1:6 in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, 1:131-32 species, 1:5-6, 1:8-9, 1:33-35 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, IV:58, Biodiversity conservation, 1:1, 1:5-6, Il:1, Il:8, IV:61-69 passim, IV:77, IV:86--92 passim, fil:1, fil:8, IV:1, IV:8 IV:95-103 passim information gaps, 1:16-17, 1:17 in Northwest Atlantic Marine Region, 1:107, Biodiversity convention, I: 1 1:109-17 passim, 1:122, 1:123, 1:124 Biodiversity Convention, Wider Caribbean in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, IV:112- Marine Region and, D:22, D:38 13, IV:125 BioMar survey, 1:149 in South Atlantic Marine Region, D: 75-76 Biosphere Reserves, 1:11, 1:38-39, D:8, fil:8, IV:8 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, IV:134, in Arabian Seas Marine Region, fil:56 IV:145, IV:146, IV:147 in Arctic Marine Region, I: 71 in South Pacific Marine Region, IV:22, IV:26, in Australia/New Zealand Marine Region, IV:36, IV:43 IV:165, IV:191 in West Africa Marine Region, D:47-48, D:49- in Central Indian Ocean Marine Region, 52 passim, D:57-66 passim fil:24-25 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, D:16-17, in East Africa Marine Region, m:84, m:85, D:26, D:29, D:31 fil:90, ffl:93, ffl:98, ffl:99, ffl:100 Blackfish Archipelago (Canada), IV:84-86, IV:92 in East Asian Seas Marine Region, ffl:119 Black Sea, 1:79, 1:88 in Mediterranean Marine Region, 1:93, 1:94, marine protected areas, 1:89, 1:94-95, 1:98 1:95, 1:98 Bohai Bay (China), IV:125 in Northeast Atlantic Marine Region, I: 139 Bonn Convention, 1:96 in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, IV:65, Bothnian Sea, I: 179 IV:71, IV:81, IV:92 Brazil, D: 72 in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, IV:121, marine protected areas, D:77-78, D:83-84 IV:125 marine protected areas proposed, D:83 in South Atlantic Marine Region, D:79 British Indian Ocean Territory (Chagos Archipel- in Southeast Pacific Mapne Region, IV:141-42 ago), W:15, ID:21, ID:24, ID:26 in South Pacific Marine Region, IV:30 marine protected areas proposed, fil:32 in West Africa Marine Region, D:55 Browns/Baccaro Banks (Canada), 1:123-24 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, D:21, D:38 Brunei Birds marine protected areas, fil:113-14 See also Penguins priority conservation sites, fil:121 in Antarctic Marine Region, 1:48 Bulgaria, marine protected areas, 1:94, 1:98 Cumulative Index 199 C estuarine environments, ID:27 Calf of Man (Isle of Man), 1:146, 1:149, 1:150 fisheries and fishing, ill:18, ID:21, m:24, Cambodia, ill:114, ill:122 ill:27, ill:30, ill:31, ill:33 Cameroon, 11:45 flora, ill:16 marine protected areas, 11:49, 11:56 geography and geology (coastal), ill:13-14, marine protected areas proposed, Il:56-57 ill:17 Canada islands, ill:17, m:22, ill:32 Arctic Marine Region of, 1:61 lagoons, ill:21, ID:22, ID:24, Ill:27 Bay of Fundy, 1:llS-16 mangroves, ill:15-16, ill:21-24 passim, Blackfish Archipelago, IV:~6, IV:92 ill:26-32 passim Ellesmere Island National Park, 1:69, 1:72, 1:75 marine protected areas, ill:20-24, ID:25-26 Lancaster Sound, 1:109-10, 1:124 marine protected areas proposed, ill:26-33 marine protected areas, 1:68-69, 1:118-19, oceanography, ill:13, ill:17 IV:65 recommendations for, ill:26, ID:33-35 marine protected areas proposed, 1:72, 1:121- rocky shores and cliffs, ill: 17 22, IV:84-88, IV:87 seagrass beds, ID:16 marine protected areas system, IV:75-77 species diversity, ill:17-19 Northwest Atlantic Marine Region of, 1:107-16 tourism, ill:24, ill:27, ill:33 Ungava Bay, 1:110 wetlands, ill:16-17, ill:21, ill:29, ID:30 Canadian International Development Agency, Cephalopods Wider Caribbean Marine Region and, Il:23, 11:25 See also Mollusks CANARI (Caribbean Natural Resources Institute), in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, IV:84, 11:25 IV:87, IV:92, IV:100 Canary Islands, Il:45, Il:54 in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, IV:112 -marine protected areas proposed, Il:66 in South Atlantic Marine Region, 11:77 Cape Verde Islands, 11:45, 11:54 in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, II: 16 marine protected areas proposed, Il:66-67 Cetaceans. See Dolphins; Whales. Cargados Carajos Shoals (Mauritius), ill:100-101 Chagos Archipelago, ill:15, ill:21, ID:24, ID:26 Caribbean Conservation Association, marine marine protected areas proposed, ill:32 parks program, 11:25 Channel Islands Caribbean Environment Program, 11:21, 11:25 See also United Kingdom Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (CANARI), marine protected areas, I: 139 11:25 marine protected areas proposed, I: 146--47 Cartagena Convention, 11:21, 11:38 Chile Caves, in Wider Caribbean Marine Region, 11:30 coastal protected areas, IV:137-38 CCAMLR (Convention for the Conservation of marine protected areas proposed, IV:144-45 Antarctic Marine Living Resources), 1:45, 1:49, Parque Nacional Chiloe, IV:147 1:53, 1:56 Reserva Nacional Pinguinos de Humbolt, Central American Commission for Environment IV:147 and Development, 11:25 China Central Indian Ocean Marine Region Bohai Bay, IV:125 beaches and dunes, ill:17, ill:23, ill:24 Hainan Island, IV:122, IV:125 biogeogeographic zones, ill:19-20, ill:25, marine protected areas, IV:115 ill:25-26 marine protected areas proposed, IV:122-24 boundaries, m:13 marine protected areas system, IV: 114-15 conservation initiatives, ill:24-26 Zhujian Delta, IV:123, IV:125 coral mining in, ill:27, ill:30 Chukchi Sea, 1:61, 1:67 coral reefs, ill:14-15, m:21, ill:22, ill:23, CITES (Convention on International Trade in En- ill:24, ill:26-33 passim dangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna), 1:96 ecosystems, ni: 14-17 Cliffs. See Rocky shores and cliffs environmental degradation, ill:27 Colombia, marine protected areas, II: 19, 11:26 200 A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Columbia Coral communities marine protected areas, IV:138, IV:145 in Australia, IV: 193, IV: 194 marine protected areas proposed, IV)45 in Central Indian Ocean Marine Region, Comoros m:15, m:23, m:"30, m:31. conservation measures, ~:83 in East Africa Marine Region, m: 78 . marine protected areas proposed, m:9~ in East Asian Seas Marine Region, ID:125 South coast of Moheli and Nioumach.oua. in Mediterranean. Marine Region, 1:84, 1:89, Islets area, ID: 100 1:92 Conference on Na~ional Parks and Pr:otected in Ne':",Zealand, IV:177-78, J.\:1:180, IV:196, Areas of East Asia_ (l~t), IV: 125-26 IV:197 Congo in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, IV:90 coastal area, Il:49 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, IV:145 marine prote~ted areas proposed, ,Il:57 in West Africa Marine Region, Il:45, Il:67 Conservation International,. Wider Caribbean. Coral mining, in Central Indian Ocean Marine Marine Region ~nci, Il:2+:2s." Region, ID:27, ID:30 Convention concerning the Protection of the Coral reefs . Worl~ Cultural and National Heritage, 1;95 in Arabian Seas Marine Region,. m:44-45, Convention for Cooperation in the Protection m:53, m:59, m:60 and Development of the Marine and <:;oastal in Australia, IV:158, IV:188, IV:189, IV:192, Enviro~ent of the West aqd Central Africa IV:194, IV:195 Region, 11:55 in Central Indian Ocean Marine Region, Convention for the Conservation of Amarcuc m:14-15, m:21-24 passim, m:26-33 passim Marine Living Reso~rces (CCA¥LR), 1:45, 1:49, in East Africa Marine Region, ID:73-75, ID:82, 1:53, 1:56 W:84--89 passim, W:92-100 passim Conv~ntion for the Conservation of Antarctic in East Asian Seas Marine Region, W:109, Seals, 1:45, 1:52, 1:55 · m:117, W:118, W:121-25 passim, ID:128 Convention for the Protection of the Mediterra- marine protected areas with, I: 40 nean Sea against Pollution (Barcelona Conven- in Northeast Pacific Marine Region, IV:90 tion), 1:79, 1:95 in Northwest Pacific Marine Region, IV: 110, Convention for the Protection of the Natural IV:122 Resources and Environment of the S<;>Uth Pacific in South Atlantic Marine Region, Il: 73 Region (SPREP Convention), IV:30 in Southeast Pacific Marine Region, IV: 133, Convention on Biodiversity., 1:1 IV:145, IV:146 Convention on Biodiversity, Wider Caribbean in South Pacific Marine Region,. 4.2, 4.5, 4.5- Marine Regio~ and, Il:22, Il:38 6, 4.15, 4.21,.31 passim Convention on International Trade in ,Endangered in.Wider Caribbean Marine Region, Il:15,. Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), 1:96 Il: 19, Il:29, Il:30 Convention on Intervention on Nature Protection Costa Ric;i and Wildlife Preservation.in the Western Hemi- conservation measures, IV: 138 sphere (Western Hemisph~re Convention), Il;21 marine protected areas, Il:27, IV:138-39, Convention on Migratoiy Species of Wild Ani- · IV:145-46 mals (Bonn Convention), 1:96 marine protected areas proposed, Il:28, Il:29, Convention on the Conservation of Nature in the. Il:30 South Pacific (Apia Convention), IV:30 Tortuguero/Miskito Marine System, Il:29, Il:30 Convention on the Protection of the ¥arine Envi- Cote d'Ivoire · ronment of the Baltic Sea Area (Helsinki Con- coastal areas, Il:49-50 vention; HELCOM), i:166, 1:179-80 marine protected areas proposed, Il:57 Convention on Wetlands of International Impor- Counci~ of Eur Ile de Kephalonia p y 3-37 Ile de Zakinthos p y 3-38 Iles des Sporades p y 3-39 Lac de Portolagos p y 3-40 Northern Sporades Marine Park E 3-35 Greece/furkey Aegean Sea p y y 3-41 International (France/Italy) Detroit de Bonifacio p y 3-42 International ( Greece/furkey) Delta Meric-Evros p y 3-43 Israel Dor-Habonim Sea Nature Reserve E 3-44 Ma'agan Michael Sea and Shore Nature Reserve E 3-45 Rosh Hanikra Sea and Shore Nature Reserve E 3-46 Italy Archipel des Pontines p y 3-57 Archipelago Toscano Marine Nature Reserve E 3-47 Capo Rizzuto Marine Nature Reserve E 3-48 Castellabate Fishery Reserve (Zona di Tutela) FiR Fishing Reserve E 3-49 Golfe d'Orosel p y 3-58 !sole Ciclopi Marine Reserve E 3-50 !sole Egadi Marine Reserve E 3-51 !sole Trerniti Marine Reserve E 3-52 Mirarnare Marine Nature Reserve E 3-53 Peninsule de Sinis p y 3-59 Exi:-ting or Regional National Country or Region Name proposed priority priority ,\lap rdi.-renn· Italy Portoferraio Fishing Reserve E 3-54 Torre Guaceto Marine Nature Reserve E 3-55 Ustica Marine Reserve E 3-56 Libya Garahbulli p y 3-60 Gulf of Sirte p y y 3-61 Lagune de Farwah p y 3-62 Leptis Magna p y 3-63 Sabratha Magnum p y 3-64 Sirte Magnum p y 3-65 Soussa p y 3-66 Marocco Al Hoceima p y 3-67 Lagune de Nador p y 3-68 Monaco Reserve Corail Marine Reserve E 3-69 Reserve sous-marine de Monaco (Larvotto) Marine Reserve E 3-70 Montenegro Kotorsko Risanski Zaliv (Montenegro) Nature Reserve E 3-71 Morocco Al Hoceima National Park E 3-72 Slovenia Debell rite National Monument E 3-73 Strunjan Nature Reserve E 3-74 Spain Archipielago de Cabrera National Park E 3-75 C/) I Cabo de Gata Reserve E 3-76 "" Cerrillos p y 3-81 Columbrete Islands National Sanctuary E 3-77 Guardamar p y 3-82 Ibiza Formentera p y 3-83 Iles Chaffarinas p y 3-84 Lagune d'Alicante p y 3-85 Mar Menor p y 3-86 Merles Islands (Medas) Fish Habitat Reserve E 3-78 S'Arenal Submarine Protected Seascape (Regional) E 3-79 Tabarca Marine Reserve E 3-80 Tarifa p y 3-87 Syria Om'Attouyour p y 3-88 Tunisia Archipel de la Galite p y 3-91 Galiton Marine Reserve E 3-89 Gulf of Gabes p y y 3-92 Iles des Kerkennah p y 3-93 Iles Kneiss p y 3-94 Iles Kuriates p y 3-95 Lagune d'el Biban p y 3-96 Lagune de Thyna p y 3-97 Zembra and Zembretta National Park E 3-90 Turkey Datca Botzburum Specially Protected Area E 3-98 Countq or lkgim Turkey Delta du Ceyhan Nan1c.: Existing or proposed p Rc.:gion:il priority National priority y JIIII 3-106 Delta de Dalyan p y 3-107 Delta de Menderes p y 3-108 Fethiye Gocek Specially Protected Area E 3-99 Poca Specially Protected Area E 3-100 Gokova Specially Protected Area E 3-101 Goksu Delta Other area E 3-102 Kekova Specially Protected Area E 3-103 Koycegiz Dalyan Specially Protected Area E 3-104 Patara Specially Protected Area E 3-105 Pen. de l'Halikamasse p y 3-109 Ukraine Chemomorskiy Zapovednik E 3-110 Dunaiskie Plavni Reserve E 3-111 Karadagskiy Reserve E 3-112 Canada Bonavista Bay/Funk Island p y 4-2 Browns/Baccaro Banks p y y 4-3 Cape Bathurst Polynya p y y 4-4 Churchill River/Nelson River p y 4-5 Deer Island p y 4-6 u, Isabella Bay p y 4-7 I Vl Lancaster Sound p y y 4-8 Iles-de-la-Madeleine area p y 4-9 Prince Leopold Island Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-1 Sable Island/The Gully p y 4-10 Canada/Manitoba Cape Tatnum Wildlife Management Area E 4-11 Canada/New Brunswick Cape Jourimain National Wildlife Area E 4-12 Kouchibouguac National Park E 4-13 Canada/Nova Scotia Boot Island National Wildlife Area E 4-14 Chignecto National Wildlife Area E 4-15 Port Hebert Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-16 Port Joli Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-17 Sable River Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-18 Wallace Bay National Wildlife Area E 4-19 Canada/NW Territories Akimiski Island Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-20 Anderson River Delta Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-21 Auyuinuq National Park Reserve E 4-22 Banks Island No. 1 Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-23 Banks Island No. 2 Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-24 Boatswain Bay Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-25 Bylot Island Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-26 Cape Dorset Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-27 Cape Parry Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-28 Existing or Regional National Countq or Region Name proposnl priority priority .\lap rd,.:n·tKl' Canada/NW Tenitories Dewey Soper Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-29 East Bay Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-30 Hannah Bay Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-31 Harry Gibbons Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-32 McConnell River Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-33 Polar Bear Pass National Wildlife Area E 4-34 Queen Maud Gulf Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-35 Terra Nova Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-36 Canada/Ontario Moose River Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-37 Canada/Quebec Baie de l'Isle-Verte National Wildlife Area E 4-38 Baie des Loups Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-39 Betchouane Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-40 Cap-Tourmente National Wildlife Area E 4-41 Forillon National Park E 4-42 L'Isle Verte Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-43 Ile aux Basques Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-44 Ile Bonaventure/Rocher PercA Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-45 Ile de la Brume Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-46 Ile du Corosol Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-47 en Iles Sainte-Marie Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-48 0\ Pare du Bic Provincial Park E 4-49 Rochers aux Oiseaux Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-50 Saguenay St. Lawrence Marine Parle E 4-51 Saint-Augustin Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-52 Saint-Vallier Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-53 Trois-Saumons Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-54 Watshishou Migratory Bird Sanctuary E 4-55 U.S./Maryland Assateague Island p y 4-56 U.S./Rhode Island Narragansett Bay p y 4-57 U.S./Main Mid-coastal Maine p y y 4-58 U.S./Delaware Bombay Hook National Wildlife Refuge E 4-59 Prime Hook National Wildlife Refuge E 4-60 U.S./Maine Moosehom National Wildlife Refuge E 4-61 Petit Manan National Wildlife Refuge E 4-62 Rachel Carson National Wildlife Refuge E 4-63 U.S./Maryland Assateague Island National Seashore E 4-64 Chesapeake Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve E 4-65 Susquehanna National Wildlife Refuge E 4-66 U.S./Massachusetts Cape and Islands Ocean Sanctuary of Mass. E 4-67 Cape Cod Bay Ocean Sanctuary of Mass. E 4-70 Cape Cod National Seashore E 4-69 Cape Cod Ocean Sanctuary of Mass. E 4-68 l:xi~ti11g o-,iald 'ti.fonds (Au:;j n BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES \ ~~rd ldand !A'-ls) i BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONE BOUNDARIES \. ) '\ INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES South East Pac~fic· \ I ,, ANTARCTIC CONVERGENCE 90''-------,-------1 I. ' 90' C=:J CCAMLR BOUNDARY•• SUBTROPICAL CONVERGENCE SHELF ICE • Sites within the Anlorctic Marine Region receiving strict levels of protection by their designation os 'Sites of Special Scientific lntennt' I or "Specially Protected Areas." Additionally, the entire Region is considered an MPA because of the protective meosureJ of the Antarctic Treaty System. •• As adapted by treaty parties, rhe boundary is the approximate location ol the Antarctic Convergence Azimuthal Equidistant Projection. I / I .... 120" ·(· ,1ustralia I New Zealand - Compb~II. lsland(NZ) , : G) Avcklond f ~- - ·· 11 /slonds (NZ) /,.,,{~, /J;u tr · I //~ I :,. 150" "" . ~/ 0 // ill....__/"'------· if;~iond 150' 180' /( ~:i, 0 ~ f!fo:~~i~,;.'J~~:e n"ts~~:r~~~n~:~j":»::n~~bo~st would bt most welcome. 0 05/18/1995 II wf ml cfg 11 p!p2!p31'!Qcx!bxlldpu! f35! Tf RfufF I IBRD 26244 150" Nurth 150° East Pacific MARINE REGION 2 ~;, ' . ....-- ........ .~::--· . ~,\.:..~~ _/'!'-- .61 / ARCTIC ~~;f>r,. , United --... C'!ina 120" \ States 120° MARINE PROTECTED AREAS {MPAs): ", ..... ..... REGIONAL NATIONAL -- ~ .......... , " ' '-. "\ PR/OR/TY •' PR/OR/TY o' EXISTING MPAs REQUIRING MANAGEMENT SUPPORT Canada ~ "\ \ \ \ \ ff61Ciiil 1 ,~ e' PROPOSED MPAs \ \ \ \ \ o1 OTHER EXISTING MPAs \ \ \ y 'i \ \ \ \ Russian II I \ Fede1ation CNPPA MARINE REGION BOUNDARIES I I ~ I +~::"._, ~ I - ,>' ~tr 0 II BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES 90" / Propo~Arctic I / Ring of life , _,., · I BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONE BOUNDARIES I I. ~; , II wl ~: - i- • I r _; INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES I I PERMANENT PACK ICE 16. ProposN /_j LIMIT OF DRIFTING WINTER PACK ICE - 4 r oc.,J'" . "' . ~"; .~~:i!:,~ \ ,•o Par~ ~ ~ > MAIN WARM SEA CURRENTS -..1,··rr; -~· . ;:,, r·J' ,~ ---J> MAIN COLD SEA CURRENTS : ( Kazakhstan ( Azimuthal Equidistant Projection. Nortlz East Atlantic ~:,~0 6~ ~~fo~~r~~1~inJ~~:e t:/:!,::~n~~:~je:,;:::?:~b:'ckst 0 would be most welcome. o• 05/23/1995 aw Iml CI g11 plp2lp3fflcxlbx1Dii] 1351 TI R ~ml FI IBRD 26245 I nited ~-0~_/-- 20' 30' ·- 100 ·'------. 40• / ... ·,.J··,·· c::i cio!ond 500 <:'~___) \...-.,.__ so· Ukraine North East r· / Switzerland / France Atlantic 1 ATLANTIC OCEAN • (') .) \ Block Seo Bulgaria -~-" / rtugalj f Spain 400 Cm~ II 40' \ o..,s Turkey ~ ( Algeria :u:v MEDITERRANEAN SEA I MARINE REGION 3 MEDITERRANEAN ) MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPAs): \ REGIONAL PRIORITY NATIONAL PRIORITY Libya i i •' EXISTING MPAs REQUIRING MANAGEMENT SUPPORT PROPOSED MPAs CNPPA MARINE REGION BOUNDARIES BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES i Arab Rep. !iii' BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONE BOUNDARIES i of Egypt 01 OTHER EXISTING MPAs OCCUPIED TERRITORIES i i Mauritania \ y- _________ )\ fl.-·- - -· Sudan 10' 30' 05/24/1995 llwlmlclg! ~!35!T!AijmlF) IBRD 26246 180" 160' 150" 140° Arctic 60" 70" United States 150" Canada 60" MARINE REGION 4 NORTHWEST ATLANTIC North East Pacific 50" (9 MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPAs): REGIONAL PRIORITY •' I.ill NATIONAL PRIORITY •' r.' EXISTING MPAs REQUIRING MANAGEMENT SUPPORT PROPOSED MPAs \ I SO" I I \ \ PACIFIC o I OTHER EXISTING MPAs --~---! OCEAN 130" CNPPAMARINE REGION BOUNDARIES I BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONE BOUNDARIES INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES 40" 40" Robinson Projection. United :~~~~~d:;~e~;1 States d~-n~f?~;1;,~~ ~he°;t,t;rr°i:~~~{d'Ba~k G,oup, 0 0 ATLANTIC ~~~t:i:~:~nf ~~~heeiii~°c:ri!:' any territory. or any endorsement OCEAN ~:,~t: ~:ro:~71~:nt~::i:::::ts~~:,~~~nc;::~~e:th::"~b!ckst would be most welcome. Bermuda (UK) 120· 100' 90" " 60' 50" 6/2/1995 d wl ml cIg 11 p lp2!!D11.4lcx!bxdipul lasl T! R~ml FI IBRD 26247 I 40" 30° 20· 60" Arctic MARINE REGION 5 NORTH EAST ATLANTIC MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPAs): REGIONAL NATIONAL PRIORITY PRIORITY Germany EXISTING MPAs REQUIRING MANAGEMENT SUPPORT 50° PROPOSED MPAs 50" o' OTHER EXISTING MPAs CNPPA MARINE REGION BOUNDARIES j BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONE BOUNDARIES INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES Robinson Proiection. ATLANTIC OCEAN I 40" 40• Azores (Porl) ··'28 Mediterranean Sea .31 •23 \ Algeria Madeira ) (Perl), Morocco :=;1a°6~ ftfur~~~i~~nJ~~=,f,/=~~n~;~j':h:t"fe~ba~kt woufd be most welcome. c-.21 \ 30" 20" «)· ~29 26 .r-.J o· 06/05/1995 nwiml CI g i ip fflp3lc4lcxlbJclldjiUJ !351 TI R~ml FI IBRD 26248 10"' 20" Arctic C) Norwegian Sea '"/' MARINE REGION 6 \ Finland \ BALTIC 'i j I MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPAs): / REGIONAL PRIORITY NATIONAL PRIORITY / o' EXISTING MPAs REQUIRING / e' MANAGEMENT SUPPORT PROPOSED MPAs 60" / /,. 1 0 OTHER EXISTING MPAs JI Macoma ..Q!1J!!!!9. CNPPA MARINE REGION BOUNDARIES BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONE BOUNDARIES BENTHIC MACROFAUNAL COMMUNITIES INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES 40" I Lambert Conformal Conic Projedion. I ~--·--):I .•.•. J 1· Lithuania Russian Federation . .. I ·-·-·---·--'·, Belarus Germany Poland 10" j 20" 30" 6/15/1995 R wl ml cI g 11 p lo2lo3!!9cxlbxlllffpiij 1351 T!R ijml FI GPO Box 791, Canberra,' ACT 260 I; Australia Telephone: (06) 247-0211, NH {61}(6) 250-5597 International: (61) (6) 247~021 l,AH'(6li (6) 251-5597GMT+ IOhrs. Facsimile: (06) 247-576'1. International 161) 161. 247-5761' Land, Water & Natural Habitats Division Environment Department 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 2043\JJ.S..A Telephone: (202) 458-2715 Fax: (202) 4?7-0568 Rue Mauverney· 28 , , . CH-1195 Gland, Switzerl~nd: Telephone: 41:-~2°?99--0i73· ,, Fax: 41-22-999-0025 · Telex: 419624 inch- ch Toward Environmentally Sustainable Developmen.t Cover photographs ,by Mr. Jan C..Posi except "Walruses,, by Dr. G .. Carleton Ray