THE KENYA NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT ACTION PLAN (NEAP) REPORT I.ˇ..,,,,... ......:.:.. ~ I THE KENYA NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT ACTION PLAN (NEAP) MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES P.O. BOX 30126, NAIROBI, KENYA Telephone Nairobi, Kenya 229261, fax 338272 June 1994 4~~~I,,,,i GgS,Rt 's J~~~~.Z- ...,. R CONTENTS - Acronyms (iv) - Foreword (vii) - The NEAP Process in Kenya (viii) f CHAPTER ONE: CHALLENGES OF CHANGE: POLICY, STRATEGIES AND ECONOMIC INCENTIVES - Policy objectives 1 - Major strategies to realise objectives I - Economic challenges 2 - Economic incentives 3 - Plan of action 6 CHAPTER TWO: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT - Geography 7 - Land use 11 - Culture, development and environment 13 - Energy and the environment 14 - Plan of Action 16 CHAPTER THREE: BIODIVERSITY (INCLUDING FORESTRY, WILDLIFE, BIOTECHNOLOGY AND INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE) - Overview 19 - Issues and recommendations 19 - Capacity building: Human and institutional resources and public awareness 32 - Policy and legislation 36 - Plan of action 39 CHAPTER FOUR: WATER RESOURCES (INLAND -WATER RESOURCES COASTAL AND MARINE ENVIRONMENT) - Current status 43 - Groundwater 44 - Wetlands 47 - Irrigation and hydro-elecric power development 52 - Water resources management 53 - Plan of action 58 CHAPTER FIVE: SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY - Overview 63 - Agricultural resources 64 - Agricultural resources utilisation 75 - Plan of action 80 CHAPTER SIX: DESERTIFICATION AND DROUGHT - Current status 81 - Assessment and mapping of desertification 81 - Drought monitoring and early warning systems 82 - Land tenure and property regimes 83 - Range resource management 84 - Socio-economic characteristics and population dynamics 85 - community participation 86 - Institutional arrangements 87 - Plan of action 88 CHAPTER SEVEN: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND WASTE MANAGEMENT - Introduction 93 - Gaseous emmissions 93 - Liquid wastes 97 - Solid wastes 100 - Chemicals 105 - Hazardous wastes 107 - Noise pollution 109 - Plan of action 110 CHAPTER EIGHT: HUMAN SETTLEMENTS AND URBANISATION - Introduction 115 - Populaton and environment 115 - Land use 116 - Rural settlement 117 - Urbanisation and urban settlements 118 - Management of human settlements 119 - Housing 120 - Building materials and construction industry 121 - Energy 122 - Infrastructive and services 123 - Transport 125 - Disasters 127 - Resources (capacities) 128 - Plan of action 130 CHAPTER NINE: PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION - Community involvement 137 - Environmental education 140 - Public awareness 144 - Plan of action 145 CHAPTER TEN: ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS - Introduction 147 - Status of environmental information in Kenya 148 - Information management 157 - Capacity building 162 - Plan of action 163 CHAPTER ELEVEN: LEGAL INSTRUMENTS, LAND USE, EIA, AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK - Introduction 165 - Legal framework 166 - Land law, land use and the environment 167 - Environment impact assessment 174 - Institutional framework 175 - Plan of action 177. ANNEXI: PROPOSED INSTITUTONAL FRAMEWORK - Coordinating institution 179 - Environment tribunal 180 - National environment information service (NEIS) 10 - Environmental impact assessment 1IS ANNEX 2: ENVIRONMETAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT - Overview 186 - The scope of EIA 186 - Proposal EIA procedure for district-based projects 186 - Proposed EIA procedure for inter-district, regional and national projects 189 - - Proposed EIA procedure for national projects 189 ANNEX 3: STATUTES RELATING TO THE ENVIRONMENT 194 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 197 ANNEX 4: KENYA SERVICES CENTRES ACRONYMS AA - Automobile Association of Kenya AFC - Agricultural Finance Corporation AIC - Agricultural Information Centre AIS - Anthropogenic Information System AMREF - African Medical and Research Foundation Arc/Info - A GIS vector data software ASALs - Arid and Semi-Arid Lands ASK - Agricultural Society of Kenya AT & H - African Tours and Hotels AVHRR - A Very High Resolution Radiorneter AWF - African Wildlife Fund CBKI - Central Bank of Kenya CBK2 - Coffee Board of Kenya CBS - Central Bureau of Statistics CITES - Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species CNA - Climate Network Africa DANIDA - Danish International Development Agency DAOs - District Agricultural Officers DDC - District Development Committee DDC - District Development Committee DDOs - District Development Officers DIDCs - District Information and Documentation Centres DLPOs - District Livestock Production Officers DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid DRSRS - Department of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing EATEC - East African Tanning and Extract Company EAWLS - East African Wild Life Society El - Environmental Information EIS - Environmental Information System FAO - Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations FP - Family Planning GEF - Global Environmental Facility GEMS-PAC - Global Environment Monitoring System GIS - Geographical information system GMO - Genetically Modified Organism GOK - Govemment of Kenya G1Z - German Agency for Technical Cooperation HPA - High Potential Areas IAS - Institute of African Studies (University of Nairobi) IATA - Intemational Air Transport Association ICIPE - Intemational Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology ICRAF - Intemational Centre for Research in Agro-Forestry IDS - Institute of Development Studies (University of Nairobi) IFAD - Intemational Fund for Agricultural Development IGADD - Inter-Governmental Authority on Drought and Development IIED - Intemational Institute for Environment and Development IK - Indigenous Knowledge ILCA - International Livestock Centre for Africa ILRAD - Intemational Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases IPAL - Integrated Project on Arid Lands IPR - Institute for Primate Research (iv) IS - Information Systems ISNAR - International Service for National Agricultural Research IUCN - International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources JICA - Japanese International Cooperation Agency JKUCAT - Jorno Kenyatta University of Agriculture and KADOC - Kenya Agricultural Documentation Centre KARI - Kenya Agricultural Research Institute KATO - Kenya Association of Tour Operators KBC - Kenya Broadcasting Corporation KEFRI - Kenya Forestry Research Institute KEMFRI - Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute KEMRI - Kenya Medical Research Institute KENGO - Kenya Energy Non Governmental Organization KENRIK - Kenya Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge KETRI - Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute KEVEVAPI - Kenya Veterinary Vaccine Production Institute KFFHC - Kenya Freedom From Hunger Council KIFCON - Kenya Indigenous Forest Conservation Project KIPO - Kenya Industrial Property Office KIRDI - Kenya Industrial Research and Development Institute KMAl - Kenya Manufacturers Association KMA2 - Kenya Medical Association KMC - Kenya Meat Commission KMD - Kenya Meteorological Department KNLS - Kenya National Library Services K-NUT - Kenya National Union of Teachers KPC - Kenya Power Company KSS - Kenya Soil Survey KTDA - Kenya Tea Development Authority KTDC - Kenya Tourist development Corporation KTN - Kenya Television Network KWS - Kenya Wildlife Service KWWG - Kenya Wetlands Working Group LBDA - Lake Basin Development Authority LIS - Land Information Systems LONRHO - London Rhodesia Company MALDM - Ministry of Agriculture Livestock Development and Marketing MENR - Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources MIRCEN - Microbiological Resource Centres MLRRWD - Ministry of Land Reclamation, Regional and Water Development MOE - Ministry of Energy MRM - Ministry of Research, Technical Training and Technology MTW - Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife NACBAA - National Advisory Committee on Biotechnology Advances and their Applications NCPD - National Council for Population and Development NCST - National Council for Science & Technology NDVI - Normalised Differential Vegetation Index NEAP - National Environmental Action Plan NEIS - National Environmental Information Service NES - National Environment Secretariat NGOs - Non-governmental Organisations NMK - National Museums of Kenya (v) NOAA - National Oceanographic and Aeronautic Administration NOCK - National Oil Corporation of Kenya ODI - Overseas Development Institute PPCSCA - Permanent Presidential Commission on Soil Conservation and Afforestation RCSSMRS - Regional Centre for Services in Surveying Mapping and Remote Sensing RPD - Rural Planning Department RTPC - Rural Trade and Production Centre SIDA - Swedish International Development Agency SOK - Survey of Kenya SRF - Systematic Reconnaissance Flights TARDA - Tana and Athi Rivers Development Authority TSC - Teachers' Service Commission TV - Television UNCED - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNDP - United Nations Development Programme UNEP - United Nations Envirorunent Programme UNESCO - United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNICEF - United Nation's Children Emergency Fund UNSO - United Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office wCI - Wildlife Conservation International WCMC - World Conservation Monitoring Centre WFP - World Food Programme WHO - World Health Organisation WLIS - Wildlife Livestock Information Systems WMO - World Meteorological Organisation WRI - World Resources Institute WWF - World Wide Fund for Nature (vi) FOREWORD In Kenya, and elsewhere in the world, there is a growing public concem that many forms of economic development activities damage the natural resources upon which the economies are based. A major environmental and developmental challenge today is how to maintain theequilibrium between population, ecosystems and development. Current development efforts emphasise production with little regard for environmental conservation, while conventional environmental conservation advocates resource protection without human use. Environmental damage, which is evidently widespread, undermines future development efforts. It is now time to meet human needs in ways that do not destroy the environment. Kenya has physical and biological resources that are of considerable domestic and international economic and intrinsic value. The country possesses an estimated total of 35,000 known species of animals, plants and micro-organisms. This wealth is fundamental to Kenya's economic prosperity in many ways, including as a source of income for subsistence, source of employment and source of foreign exchange earnings. Life, and the economy, are based on natural resources such as water, air, rocks, minerals and soils. These resources are increasingly under pressure from unsustainable use, resulting in pollution, soil erosion, and depletion. Biological resources which are sources of food, fuel, medicine, wood, shelter and income, are ondy renewable if they are used sustainably. The challenges presented by the conflicting demands of economic growth, sustainability and quality of life are formidable, both in their rate and geographical extent. The Government of Kenya, being very concerned with the impact of these conflicts, has decided to put in motion this dynamic National Environmental Action Plan which provides coherent instruments for integrating environmental considerations into economic planning and programmes for sustainable development. Hon. J. K Sambu, EGH, MP Minister for Environment and Natural Resources (vii) THE NEAP PROCESS IN KENYA THE NECESSITY AND SCOPE FOR THE NEAP Environment and development issues have been at the top of national and international agenda in the recent past. These issues will continue being at the top of the agenda for many years to come. Nearly all countries have been deliberating and developing strategies on approaches of conserving, protecting, using, and mnanaging the limited resources and the environment. In Kenya, substantial work on selected environmental issues such as soil erosion, deforestation, desertification, biological diversity and others have been carried out. Many of these initiatives have been started without much consultation and a coordinated planning; thus generating a wide body of information that is scattered and not harmonised. The NEAP aims at providing a broad framework for the co-ordination of environmental activities by all actors: private sector and government to guide the course of development activities. It is a step towards integrating environment and development for a better management of resources. The Kenya NEAP Report addresses environmental issues in a cross-sectoral and in an integrated fashion. The NEAP provides not only a strategy for achieving sustainable development in Kenya, but also a basis for translating Agenda 21 - the Global Programme of Action on Environment and Development, which is one of the outcomes of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). MAJOR ELEMENTS OF NEAP The main feature of the NEAP process is its participatory nature. The preparation of the plan was carried out by nine task forces whose membership included a broad representation of institutions and sectors including public, private, NGOs and local communities. The preparation of the Report went through several drafts in an active participatory process. At the same time the Report was presented and thoroughly debated in an interactive process by all partners at all levels in the Kenyan society. All these took place at five regional workshops throughout the Republic of Kenya; the comments, criticisms, and recommendations from these workshops were incorporated into the final Report. These efforts contributed to the Report that can be positively used by all. Consultations were also carried out at the district-field level. This approach established a holistic way of thinking into the management of the limited natural resources through the inter-disciplinary and inter-working groups at all levels. To steer and guide the Kenya NEAP process the following institutional structure was adopted: theMinisterial Level Policy Steering Committee, the NEAP Co-ordinating Committee, the Secretariat headed by the Co-ordinator, task forces that addressed the key environmental issues contained in the Report and the NEAP Advisory Committee comprising of donors, government representatives, private sector, NGOs and international organisations. STRUCTURE OF THE NEAP REPORT The Report begins with the challenges of change for Kenya and underscores the sustainability of Kenya's economic and socialdevelopment which depend ultimately on properand responsible management of the natural resource base and the environment in general. Chapter two of the Report describes the physical environment and basically follows the thematic areas of the nine task forces. These task forces were constituted along the following environrmental issues: (viii) - Water Resources (Inland Water Resources, Coastal and Marine) - Biodiversity (Including Forestry, Wildlife Biotechnology, and Indigenous Knowledge) - Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security - Desertification and Drought - Environmental Pollution and Waste Management - Human Settlements and Urbanisation - Public Participation and Environmental Education - Environmental Informnation System - Policy, Institutional, Legislative Framework and Economic Incentives The Report is further supplemented by background documents including detailed individual task forces reports. All these documents are available at the NEAP Secretariat. These reports can be of immense value to government and other institutions involved in implementing environmental projects and programmes. In addition, the five Regional Workshops Reports which contain the views of the local communities are also available and should be consulted by all implementors. The NEAP Report has made some concrete recommendations including the need for a new institutional framework, reviewand harmonisation of environmental legislation, implementation of environmental impact assessment for all investment programmes and development of environmental programmes to mitigate/reduce environmental degradation. The approval of the Report by the Govemment of Kenya represents a major commitment by the Government to the implementation of the action plan in partnership with stakeholders outside the Government. The challenge is for the sectors to incorporate the recommended actions within their existing programmes including planning and budgetary activities in order tv achieve sustainable development. INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE OF NEAP Ministerial Level Policy Steering Committee NEAP Co-ordinating Committee A i NEDAP Secretariat NEAP Coordinator TASK IFORCES 1 112 13 -4 15 16 1 7 18 9- (X) 0 A L ~ ~ - ....... - ft . .-.-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...... IL0-' .. .- 0. ....~~~E ~~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~. LLI~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t. .......... .Y........'5 ..~~~~~~~~~~~..... eV~~~~i '2 ***'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1ftj ~~~~~~~~~~~~~.~- *m-; ....... .....p The Kenya National Envwionent Anon Plan CHALLENGES OF CHANGE: POLICG STRTEGES AND ECONOMICICNIE 1.1 POLICY OBJECTIVES 1.2 MAJOR STRATEGIES TO REALISE OBJECTIVES The Government's commitment to conservation and sustainable use of 1.2.1 Enhance the harmonisation, resources has been stated in all national implementation and enforcement development plans since independence. of laws for the management, Sessional papers and presidential sustainable use and protection of directives have frequently emphasised the environment. proper management of the national resource base. The 1994-96 National 1.2.2 Provide economic incentives and Development Plan details Government penalties toencouragesustainable commitment to integrate environmental use of natural resources and to considerations in development minimise pollution. programmes and projects. The plan calls for increased efforts towards 1.2.3 Assess and evaluate in economic management and conservation of the terms the value of standing, environment. unexploited natural resources and ecological functions. For example, A national environmental policy will a standing tree should be worth provide guidance for actions in all sectors. more than a cut one. Some of the broad objectives of Kenya's environmental policy include: 1.2.4 Institutionalise the process of environment impact assessment a) Facilitating optimal use of the and monitoring for public and national land base and water private projects and programmes. resources in improving the quality of the human environment. 1.2.5 Provide strong and effective environmental co-ordination and b) Promoting sustainable use of monitoring, by creating a single natural resources to meet the needs autonomous organisation. of present generations while preserving theirability to meet the 1.2.6 Enhance the involvement of local needs of future generations. communities in the management of natural resources and their c) Treating environmental conserva- living environment. In addition, tion and economic development promote the participation of all as integral aspects of the same parties - local communities, process of sustainable develop- district committees, business, ment. industry and NGOs - in projects and programmes for conservation d) Generating income and meeting and development. national goals and international obligations by conserving 1.2.7 Enhance environment manage- biodiversity, reversing desertifica- ment capacities by training tion, mitigating effects of disasters, professionals and raising and maintaining the ecological awareness at all levels. balance of the earth. Challenges of Change: Policy. Strategies and Economic Incentives The Kenya National Environment Action Plan 1.2.8 Conduct research in a wide range industrial activity have grown of disciplines, including tremendously and tourism has become biodiversity, biotechnology, the single largest source of foreign indigenous knowledge, waste exchange, while horticulture has rapidly management, gaseous emissions, become a major export earner. disaster management, human settlements development and The population increase together with alternative forms of energy. economic and industrial development have had considerable impact on- the 1.2.9 Maintain the system of protected country's environment and natural areas and create others to conserve resource base. biodiversity, generate income and provide recreation. 1.3.2 Economic Performance 1.2.10 Address underlying causes of Kenya's economy, in the early years of desertification, including socio- independence, grew at an impressive economic factors, and establish -annual-average rate of 6.6% in real GDP. mechanisms to mitigate the effects The impressive growth in agriculture and of drought. manufacturing sectors in the 1960s in particular was stimulated by an 1.2.11 Formulate a comprehensive land expansion in smallholder cultivation, use and settlements policy to adoption of high-yielding agricultural regulate human activities in order technologies, an import substitution to minimise theirnegative impacts strategy, local industrial development, a on the environment. liberal foreign investment policy, government investments in industry, and 1.2.12 Improve decision-making a wider East African Community market. processes by developing an efficient national environment Then in 1973-1974, the country's real education and information system growth in GDP dropped from 4.4% to - within easy reach of users in all 0.2%. Performance in the manufacturing parts of the country. sector dropped from 14.4% to 5.9% during the same period. Similar trends were 1.2.13 Enhance co-operation with observed in 1979/80, 1984 and 1992/93. regional and international The deterioration in the level of economic environment programmes, and performance in earlier years was mainly treaties and agreements. a response to petroleum price shocks, while the latter ones were due mainly to drought conditions. The result was low 1.3 ECONOMIC CHALLENGES to very low levels of growth in real GDP as for example, 0.8% in 1979/80, 0.4% in 1.3.1 Current Status 1984 and 0.4% in 1992. Kenya is in the midst of rapid changes: Recently, Kenyans have been going changes in the size of the population and through a very trying period. Drought in their quality of life; changes in traditions, many areas of the country led to a decline literacy levels, family structures; changes in agricultural output; and since many in political systems; and changes in the industries are agro-based, industrial foundations of its economy. output also declined. A world recession further weakened the country's economic Kenya is largely a rural society. Its performance. Prices of Kenya's people have been surviving on a agricultural produce fell drastically, subsistence economy, and its cash fewer tourists visited, and earnings were economy has been small and dependent not sufficient to sustain imports required on the export of a small number of crops. for industrial and agricultural Over the last three decades, Kenya's development. population has tripled, commercial and 2 Challenges of Change: Policy, Strategies and Economic Incentives The Kenya National Environnent Action Plan 1.3.3 Resource Base positive or negative way. 'Economic incentives are usually more cost-effective Kenya's natural resources such as water, than regulatory measures. Yet current rocks, minerals, soils, plants, animals, development policies have few incentives micro-organisms and ecosystems are for environmental protection, and retain increasingly under pressure from some negative provisions. unsustainable use. This can result in pollution, soil erosion, resource depletion A new system of valuation of natural and extinctions. resources has to be developed. At present, Kenya faces a major challenge in planning a tree's worth is usually measured in for sustainable natural resource terms of its timbervalue-when-it is cut. A management in the face of limited arable source of water begins to be measured in land, water and mineral resources, rapid monetary terms when it becomes polluted population growth, poverty, and limited and needs to be cleaned up. The real financecapital. Allthesearecompounded value of the standing tree, however, by degradation of the environment on includes its worth in improving soil which development depends. - fertility and texture, trapping rain water, preventing soil erosion from rain and 1.3.4 Technology wind, absorbing carbon dioxide and therefore mitigating climate change, Kenya has been enhancing its scientific releasing oxygen, providing shade, food, and technological capacity through fodder, and ornaments for people and education and training, aimed at being animals, creating a habitat for other wholly responsive to technological species of living things, and also a scarcity change and environmental management. value as offset against all the trees that However, some advances in technology, have already been cut elsewhere. A maythreatentheenvironmentandhuman healthy natural wetland has enormous life. Weak bargaining power and lack of actual and potential value in a world understanding of the complex terms and where water is scarce, salty or polluted, conditions of technology agreements is a as well as value in protecting biodiversity, major disabling factor in making cleaning and storing runoff water, decisions and acting on transfer of creating new soil and maintaining the technology. hydrological balance of the area and the water cycle of the planet. To encourage Currently, the country lacks a strong legal sustainability, a standing tree should be environment to protect intellectural worth as much, or more, to its owner than properties; venture capital; and a cut one. comprehensive technology transfer guidelines. There is therefore a tendency In the, long run, public education and to use inappropriate and often improved standards of living will environmentally unfriendly technologies influence the behaviour patterns of the in many production processes. Similarly, Kenyan population in as far as technologies that allow recycling of environmental conservation and resource wastes are not widely used. utilisation are concerned. But in the short term, there is need for a 'system of To achieve sustainable development, the economic and financial incentives and planning and decision-making process sanctions (dis-incentives), aimed at must carefully consider alternative directing the behaviour of individuals as strategies. well as public and private institutions towards sustainable resource utilisation. 1.4 ECONOMIC INCENTIVES In the Finance Bill 1994 the Government has initiated some action to integrate 1.4.1 Issues environment concerns into the planning and management of the economy by Economic and financial incentives have making changes in taxation on machinery the potential to influence human used in generation, transformation and behaviour towards the environment in a distribution of electricity; clean-up and Challenges of Change: Policy, Strategies and Economic Incentives 3 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan disposal of effluents and other waste assessors. products; reduction of environmental damage; and water supply or disposal. b) Include environmental perform- ance as a criterion in tender 1.4.2 Recommendations evaluation in the government tendering system. 1.4.2.1 General Guidelines c) Share benefits accruing from a) Use markets, prices, and proper use of natural resources government fiscal and other with the local communities. economic instruments, including tax-based incentives and sanctions d) Coordinate and harmonise to protect the environment and economic planning and influence attitudes and behaviour instruments to support sustainable towards sustainability. Initiate the development. proposed incentives package in cooperation with the private e) Continue to build capacity within sector. the public and private sectors for integrating environmental b) Re-orient the national budget to concerns, and calculations of prioritise sustainable projects. benefits and costs, into project design, implementation, c) Use pricing policy to reflect actual evaluation and monitoring. worth of natural resources, and the cost of utilisation, taking into f) Strengthen the financial base of account their long term scarcity. local authorities and increase expenditure on environmental d) Treat biological resources as management. capital resources and invest accordingly to prevent their g) Introduce environmental research depletion. and/or environmental protection awards. e) Increase government expenditure on environmental management. 1.4.2.3 Economic and Financial Incentives f) Analyse the effects of structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) on a) Make adjustments in taxation to the environment, and take encourage sustainable use, remedial measures, if necessary. management and protection of natural resources. For example, g) Formulate ways in which the provide tax relief and other world can contribute to maintain benefits to encourage business and healthy tropical ecosystems. industry to use environmentally friendly technologies, while h) Change the behaviour of people imposing penalties/fees on and institutions so that they polluters; and reduce or waive become conservers of natural duty for chemicals and equipment resources and not overusers. used in effluent treatment. In addition, identify and remove/ i) Recognise and affirm the role of reduce those subsidies/incentives culture as part of conservition£ that work against sustainable -onserv~tioiil development objectives. 1.4.2.2 Institution Related Incentives b) Develop and apply a system of a) Create an enabling environment, valuation of natural resources to including an information bank for reflect their true value to the use by environmental managers country and to local communities. and enviro-nmental impact 4 Challenges of Change: Policy, Strategies and Economic Incenives The Kenya National Envronment Action Plan c) Make adjustments in prices to 1) Estimate, and include in national reflectnotonlytherelativescarcity accounting, the cost to the of resources, butalso tocontribute economy of environmental towards the prevention of pollution and degradation caused environmental degradation. by such sectors as agriculture, Avoid commodity pricing that fishing, tourism, forestry, industry aggravates environmental and mining. damage. m) Emphasise user rights and d) Reviewenergypolicyand evaluate economic returns to the local costs and benefits of electri- communities to promote sustain- fication, paraffin subsidy, and able resource utilisation. development of alternative energy Accordingly, allow access to sources such as wind and solar biological resources on which power to reduce heavy reliance on people's livelihood depend for wood fuel. food, fuel, medicine, housing materials and economic security; e) Give concessionary charges on and develop regulations to electricity used in effluent promote sustainable use. treatment and disposal. n) Identify and adopt modes of f) Adjust budgetary allocations to resource management that take reflect overall national account of the people's local environment issues and enhance knowledge and long term social budgetary allocations to and economic aspirations. undertakings geared towards environmental management and o) Establish a system to compensate protection. This will support local communities living on Trust preventive rather than curative or State land when the land or measures. other resources are alienated for pubelic use. g) Charge economic rates for water use and effluent treatment. p) Promote the use of indigenous species in food production, h) Establish and apply standards to medicine, biotechnology, land- estimate the quality and quantity scaping etc. and establish markets of emissions for which a charge is for these products. levied. Impose pollutant emission charges on the basis of the q) Establish standards of perform- "polluter pays principle." ance and enact realistic penalties for environmental crimes, i) Provide soft loans for those including fines, sanctions and purchasing and installing equip- custodial sentences that are ment for pollution prevention or sufficiently heavy to act as abatement. deterrents. j) Provide social and economic r) Make use of international incentives to the private sector to agreements to promote sharing of decentralise and relocate in benefits from Kenya's genetic economically and resources and transfer of tech- environmentally depressed nology from industrialised nations regions. to the country. k) Provide basic infrastructure s) Encourage and support devel- necessary for efficient disposal of opment of environmentally sound effluents and pollutants (sewerage technology, and/or improve the systems, etc.). transfer of such technology. Challenges of Change: Policy, Strategies and Economic Incentives 5 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan t) Review and adjust economic h) Increase government expenditure incentives and policies to keep up on environmental protection and with technological and environ- management. mental changes. i) Measure the true value of biological resources and 1.5 PLAN OF ACTION incorporate in the national accounts. 1.5.1 Actions Which Can Be Taken Immediately j) Make use of international agreements to promote sharing of a) Use markets, prices, and benefits from Kenya's genetic government. fiscal and other resources and transfer of economic instruments, including technology from industrialised tax-based incentives and nations to the country. sanctions, to protect the environment and influence 1.5.2 Selected Priority Activities attitudes and behaviour towards Requiring Funding sustainability. Initiate the proposed incentives package in co- a) Support the Social Dimensions operation with the private sector. study analysis of the effects of structural adjustments b) Use pricing policy to reflect actual programmes (SAPs) on the cost of natural resources, taking environment. into account their long term scarcity. b) Analyse ways in which the world can contribute to maintain healthy c) Include environmental perform- tropical ecosystems. ance as a criterion in tender evaluation in the government c) Introduce environmental awards tendering system. which carry financial benefits. d) Create an enabling environment, d) Provide basic infrastructure and including an information bank for soft credit lines to targeted sectors. use by environmental managers. e) Build capacity within the public e) Share benefits accruing from and private sectors for integrating proper use of natural resources environmental concerns, and with local communities. calculations of benefits and costs, into project design, implemen- f) Provide social and economic tation,evaluationandmonitoring. incentives to the private sector to decentralise and relocate in 1.5.3 Some Long-Term Priorities economically and environ- mentally depressed regions. a) Change the behaviour of people and institutions so that they g) Review and update fines and become conservers of biological penalties for environmental resources and not overusers. crimes, in order to make them more effective deterrent to b) Recognise and affirm the role of environmental abuse. culture in conservation. 6 Challenges of Change: Policy, Strategies and Economic Incentives The Kenya National Environment Action Plan, CHPTERTW. .... :,; ......... .. g --- ... .- -. , ...-,- -:... :::-- .-:--:.- 2.1 GEOGRAPHY Rift Valley drain westwards into Lake Victoria, while those north of Mount 2.1.1 Location Elgon and from the highlands along the Sudan-Ethiopia borderdrain mainly into The Republic of Kenya lies on the Lake Turkana. eastern side of--the African continent; between latitudes 50° 40' north and 40 2.1.4 Rivers, Lakes and Wetlands 4' south and between longitudes 330 50' and 410 45' east. The equator bisects Although Kenya has numerous rivers, a the country in almost two equal parts. comparatively small number are The country has an area of 590,000 km2 permanent, among them the Tana, Athi, and a coastline 608 km long. Nzoia, Yala, Sondu, Nyando and Mara. Administratively, Kenya is divided into Of these rivers, River Tana is the longest, eight provinces including Nairobi (Fig. draining the slopes of Mount Kenya and 2.1). All provinces except Nairobi are the Aberdares Range into the Indian divided into districts. Nairobi is the Ocean. Several of the rivers have been capital city, Mombasa the main sea port dammed upstream to provide hydro- and Kisumu the lake port. electric power, irrigation water or for domestic water use. This has caused various environmental problems which 2.1.2 Physiography include: lack of natural flooding downstream; increased incidences of Kenya has diverse landforms ranging pollution and water borne diseases; from the coastal plains through the dry changed river courses; and natural Nyika Plateau to the savanna grasslands habitat destruction. and the highlands on both sides of the Rift Valley. The highlands which are Kenya's lakes include part of Lake traversed by the Rift Valley are Victoria, Africa's largest fresh water dominated by Mount Kenya, the Mau lake. Most other lakes are within the Ranges, Mount Elgon, and the Aberdare Rift Valley, and many of these lakes are or Nyandarua Range. The vast expanse small and/or alkaline to some extent, of the North-Eastern Province varies and unsuitable for use in agriculture or from flat semi-desert in the east to the for domestic water supplies. The levels more rugged country west of Lake and volume of these lakes fluctuate Turkana. periodically. The Rift Valley lakes including Nakuru, Naivasha, Baringo, 2.1.3 Drainage and Water Resources Bogoria etc. - are valuable tourist attractions, some have fishery resources, The major drainage basins in Kenya and Lake Naivasha's fresh water is used include the Lake Victoria Basin, Rift for intensive horticulture. Lake Magadi Valley Basin, Athi (and coastal areas isalmostsolidsodiumsesqui-carbonate, south of the Sabaki River) Basin, Tana which is mined for soda ash, an River Basin and the Ewaso Nyiro and important export. North-Eastern Basin. The pattern of drainage is influenced by the country's Wetlands include swamps, small lakes, topography. The main rivers drain seasonal ponds, floodplains and inter- radially from the central highlands into tidal marine wetlands. They provide the Rift Valley and eastwards into the groundwater recharge and discharge, Indian Ocean. Rivers to the west of the water purification, water storage and Physical Environment 7 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan shoreline stabilisation. They also act as Precambrian basic/ultrabasic intrusive breeding grounds for fish and birds, rocks are found in the central parts of dry season grazing grounds for Kenya, associated with the livestock and wildlife, sources of Mozambique Belt rocks, while more building materials and ceremonial sites recent intermediate intrusive rocks are and are very rich in biodiversity. found along the coast and northern Kenya. The acidic igneous rocks There is insufficient information on the include the granites of western Kenya volume of groundwater, the extent of and those associated with the the aquifers, and their structure. Mozambique Belt rocks, both Generally, groundwater in the country Precambrian in age. These intrusives is extremely variable in chemical often contain economically important composition and quantities. This minerals. severely limits full exploitation of groundwater resources. The volcanic igneous rocks are of more recent Nyanzian, Tertiary and 2.1.5 Geological Resources Quarternary ages. The Tertiary! Quarternary volcanics which are Metamorphic rocks of the Mozambique mainly associated with the Rift Valley Belt are found in a zone extending from have a wide spectrum of chemical theKenya-Sudan-Ethiopiaborderinthe composition. Most of the building north to Kenya-Tanzania border in the materials in Kenya are tuffs, compacted south. Thesearerichingemstoneslike volcanic ash. Geothermal power ruby, topaz, aquamarine, garnets, etc., production and carbon dioxide mining which are mined in many areas. There are associated with the Tertiary is also quarrying of marble used for the volcanics. manufacture of cement and as decoration. The sedimentary rocks also vary in age Table 2.1 A summary of the broad soil groups in Kenya Soil group Area'in hectares Natural fertility FAO, 1974 classification status Weakly developed soils 3,638,235 Low Xerosols and Yermosols Shallow/juvenile soils 6,697,809 Moderate to high lithosols, Regosols, Rankers and rendzinas Sodic and/or saline soils 13,489,985 Low Solonetz, Solonchaks and Solodic Planosols Alluvial sois 1,936,582 High Fluvisols Deep to very deep soils 3,796,669 Moderate Nitisols and Andosols Sandy soils 436,683 Very low Arenosols Poorly drained soils 5,604,302 Moderate Vertisols, Cleysols, other Planosols, Greyzems, Chernozems & Vertolumic Phaeozemns Moderately deep to deep soils 7,408,426 High Luvisols, Cambisols, Phaeozems and Chernozems Deep red, strongly weathered 6,839,464 Low Ferralols. Acrisols and Ironstone soils acid soils Shaii to moderately deep soils 7,688,796 High Shallow Cambisols, Luvisols and Phaeozems Source: Kenya Soil Survey 8 Physical Environment The Kenya National Enviromnent Action Plan Table 2 s2: lribution of Rainfall in Kenya for the lowlands, sugar cane and cotton for the lower midlands, Arabica coffee Mean Annual Land S Total for the upper midlands, tea for the lower highlands, pyrethrum for the upper >1000 64,070 il highlands. The zones are roughly 800-1000 32,960 5.8 parallel with precipitation/evaporation 71X)800 24,260 43. climatic zones. 500-700 73,140 12.8 300-500 270,410 47A <300 105,730 18A Population increase over the years and Total 570,570 9.9 the need for more food and cash crops has exerted immense pressure on the Sowwx: IGADD (19W) resources of these areas. Unfortunately, the technologies currently used do not 2.1.7.2 Temperature allow sustainable exploitation of the resources. Continued use of these Altitude exerts the greatest influence on technologies and strategies continue to temperature in Kenya. There is a wide cause environmental degradation which range between the maximum and include: soil erosion; pollution from minimum temperatures; frombelow the excessive use of fertilisers and freezing point on the snow-capped Mount pesticides; deteriorating soil conditions; Kenya to over 40°C in some of the north surface and groundwater pollution; and north-eastern parts of the country. deforestation; loss of indigenous plant Generally, the-low-lying northern plains and animal species; and destruction of are the hottest areas. Here maximum water catchment areas. temperatures commonly exceed 350C. Some of the specific problems which The temperature regimes determine the have been experienced include: falling major crop production zones. Maize h a l pr ityc due tolling varieties are for example temperature agricultural productivity due to over dependent and hence there are highland exploitation of the soil resources; land maize and lowland maize. sub-division to unsustainable sizes; land degradation due to inappropriate soil conservation technologies and soil 2.2 LAND USE _ erosion; land use conflicts caused by urban and industrial expansion; and Land use in Kenya is controlled by prolonged unpredictable droughts. several factors which include climate, soils, labour, technology and markets. 2.2.2 Land Use in ASALs The land cover/land use types can broadly be grouped into two main The arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) categories, namely: those occurring in occupy about 80% of the total land area the medium to high rainfall and high of Kenya and support up to 20% of the potential areas and those occurring in country's population, and 50% of the the ASALs. national livestock herd. A major portion of the nation's wildlife resources also 2.2.2 Land Use in Medium to High occur in the ASALs. The ASALs Potential Lands constitute a last frontier to take in population spilling from high potential The medium and high rainfall areas areas, a factor threatening sustainable (zones I-IV) cover approximately 165,243 land use in the ecosystem. km2- Land use is primarily agriculture, including dairy farming. The same lands ASALs contribute more than 3% of the also support forests, lakes, urban centres annual agricultural output and 7% and-industry. Cash crops follow an commercial production. The ASALs ecological pattern defined by consistoftwodistinctsub-units. Zones temperature limits: cashew and coconuts IV and V are characterised by agro- Physical Environment 11 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan WATER EROSION HAZARD MAP OF KENYA 1990 N Fiue2.2 Wae rsonHzr a o eyl9 Peaain wg ndPF k '2 Phsia Environmento LEGEND 4 -s t' 6 - goCam I - Very sJ hazar i Ck 3 - Moderate hazard 1400 C:lass 4 - Severe hazard \°4 ars- Cls 5' - Very severe haxwd -Non - hazard a.roa s 34-E 3 e E 38oos 4000E Figure 2.2 Water Erosion Hazard Map of Kenyal1990 Preparation M.G. Mwago and P.F. Okoth 12 Physical Environment The Kenya National Environment Action Plan pastoralism, while zone VI and VII (the increasing productivity, most arid) are primarily pastoral areas. protecting water catchments and fragile ecosystems, and reducing The provision of additional water land use conflicts. without comparable increase in the availability of biomass (food for stock) b) Place greater emphasis on is counter productive, particularly in conservation of undamaged zones VI and VII. Access to dry season resources (such as indigenous forage and grazing is the ultimate critical forests and functioning wetlands) constraint in these driest areas. than on rehabilitation. Upland water resources utilisation strategies determine water resdurces 2.3 CULTURE, DEVELOPMENT AND availability in ASALs. Expansion and ENVIRONMENT intensification of agriculture in the highland catchments is reducing volume The population of Kenya is estimated at and quality of water received in the about 25 million. Only about 20% live in ASAL; thus affecting the prosperity and urban areas, one of the lowest viability of downstream communities. percentages in the world. The The lower communities cannot grow population has been growing at a rapid crops anymore because there is no flood rate of over 3.5 per year. Kenya's people water due to hydropower dams include a wide variety of ethnic groups, upstream. Tourism remains languages and lifestyles. underdeveloped in the ASALs. Although Kenya has a very diverse 2.2.3 Land Use Planning and Policy cultural heritage, each community developed land use systems which In order to achieve sustainable integrated environmental conservation management of the land resources, the strategies. Agricultural farming land use policy must provide a system communities practiced shifting of laws, rules, regulations and practices cultivation which allowed resource that govern the rights and obligations of regeneration, and communal control of land ownefs together with appropriate resources including sacred forests and guidelines on optimal utilisation of special (cultural) species. Among the available land. There are good reasons pastrolists, communal grazing systems for land use planning. First, it is needed e.g transhumance, designed to conserve to identify changes required in land use land resources in which livestock and practices which will increase wildlife coexisted were practiced. These productivity and opportunities. Second, traditional conservation strategies were it is used to decide where the changes passed frorn generation to generation. should be; and third, to avoid misuse of land resources. 2.3.1 Development and Environmental Conflicts Some of the issues that require attention include: harmonising utilisation types Development has caused certain within a given area; allocating land for conflicts with the environment. Pressure use according to suitability; reducing on land resources due to population land use conflicts; harmonising land use growth coupled with the introduction technologies according to their of exotic production technologies is appropriateness; and encouraging and causing erosion of traditional educating the public to support safe and conservation strategies. sustainable land utilisation. Commercialisation of production systems has also encouraged 2.2.4 Recommendations unsustainable use of land resources. a) Review land use legislation and Local communities, including those planning with a view to living adjacent to national parks, are Physical Environment 13 The Kenya National Eivironment Action Plan often excluded from the use and The breakdown of energy consumption management of resources which they is as follows: wood fuel (firewood and have traditionally considered "theirs." charcoal) 63%, petroleum products 24%, Besides fencing of individual land electricity 12%,and coall%. Thecountry parcels has interfered with the seasonal has been spending over 60% of total migration of livestock and wildlife. foreign exchange earnings on petroleum Provision of infrastructure, for example, imports. Other sources of energy, though permanent watering points following not contributing significantly to the total sedentarisation and subsequent change energy balance, include wind, -solar, in life styles of pastoral communities, biogas and ethanol. has also caused degradation of natural resources around the settlement 2.4.1 Wood Fuel through over-grazing and tree cutting for construction and wood fuel around Wood fuel provides about 65% of the the settlement. nation's energy requirements and 95% of rural energy requirements, and is With increasing western influence, expected to maintain this position well resource exploitation strategies have into the next century. The current put survival first. Thus, development consumption stands at about 5.4 tonnes and environment have been treated in of oil-equivalent, mainly in form of isolation rather than as integral parts. firewood and charcoal. The demand for Our forestry and aquatic resources are wood fuel is estimated to continue to being exploited without due grow steadily, posing a major threat to consideration to theirbiodiversity, their existing forest resources and ecological functions and developments biodiversity. The main constraints to in biotechnology. Lack of an sustainable wood fuel supply include environmental impact assessment (EIA)- depletion of forest resources, inefficient policy on development projects has also utilisation technologies and poor forest led to degradation of natural resources manage-ment. and poverty, and has heightened the country's debt crisis. Firewood is the dominant source of energy. The rural poor tend to use 2.3.2 Recommendations firewood directly, and therefore efforts to improve the availability of energy to a) Involve local communities in the rural poor must involve planting resource management and trees in their localities. incorporate indigenous manage- ment whenever appropriate. Kenya is facing a charcoal/wood fuel crisis, since most forest land is being b) Integrate conservation in cleared and settled for agriculture and development planning. urbanisation. The harvesting of trees for charcoal has therefore moved to more c) Plan for the long-term as well as ecologically fragile areas, impacting the short-term considerations, negatively on soil and water resources. especially environmental impacts. 2.4.2. Petroleum Kenya is dependent on oil and coal 2.4 ENERGY AND THE imports fora large share of the country's ENVIRONMENT commercial energy requirements. Petroleum fuels provide over 80% of Energy isa vital input in sustaining and commercial energy used in the country fostering Kenya's economic activities, and are the main source of energy used including agricultural production, by transport, industrial, commercial and industrial processing and transport. agricultural sectors. The bulk of this 14 Physical Environment The Kenya National Environment Action Plan energy is consumed by the transport constraints include high initial capital sector. Increased use of petroleum costs, import duties, lack of local products coupled with improper manufacturing facilities of some handling and management leads to materials and absence of adequate greenhouse gas emissions in addition research. Besides, there is limited to land, air and water pollution which testing and development facilities; there are all environmental hazards. is a general lack of effective promotional campaigns and economic incentives; 2.4.3 Electricity and existing legislation does not require the building industry to incorporate Electrical energy accounts forabout 12% solar systems in new buildings. of the total national energy supply. The installed electrical capacity is 804MW Wind energy is used primarily for water distributedasfollows:hydro,603.5MW; pumping. There is potential for its thermal, 156.3 MW; and geothermal, 45 utilisation to generate electricity, MW. Imports from Uganda amount to particularly in wind prone areas. Its about 240 MW per year. The demand development is, however, constrained for thermal power in the country is by high installation costs; lack of occasional and depends on incidences adequate wind energy data and lack of of drought when it is used to research, testing and development supplement hydro-power. Under the facilities for quality control, Rural Electrification programme demonstration and training; and lack established in 1974, the government, of after sales maintenance of windpower through the Kenya Power and Lighting machines. Company, has supplied some rural trz.ding centres with electric power to Biogas is used for cooking and lighting stimulate development. Considering while producer gas provides mechanical that Kenya is bracing itself for an or electric power to a stationary internal industrial takeoff, there is need to find combustion engine. The dissemination means and ways to avail cheap and of biogas technology is hampered affordable electrical energy to facilitate mainly by lack of economic incentives the country's industrialisation. and research and development of - standards. Biogas technology is one of Hlydro-electric power generation is the overall strategies which seeks to renewable and generally clean. address both the country's energy and However, negative impacts include the environmental needs. displacement of local communities and interruption of their socio-economic Power alcohol from molasses, or activities, loss of biodiversity when ethanol, was introduced in the country valleys are dammed, breeding grounds in 1983. It has effectively been used in for disease vectors, and disruption of combination with petrol to run petrol hydrological systems. The negative engines. However, it has since been environmental impacts of geothermal discontinued due to pricing problems. energy development include carbon The country has the potential of dioxide and hydrogen sulphide developing vegetable oils for blending discharge to the atmosphere. with diesel oil though adoption has been hindered by lack of conversion technology and sufficient vegetable oil 2.4.4 Other Energy Sources supplies. Solar energy is increasingly being used. 2.4.5 Energy Conservation However, this technology has not been widely adopted yet despite the fact that Energy conservation is an important it is -a- clean and environmentally way of reducing pressure on energy friendly energy source. The major supplies in the industrial, commercial, Physical Environment 15 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan domestic and transport sectors. Its protection of water catchments potential is high, especially in large and fragile ecosystems; and industrial establishments where it is reduction of land use conflicts. estimated that efficiency can be improved by about 20-25% through b) Integrate conservation into all refitting of existing equipment. development programmes and Similarly, 15% efficiency is said to be plans. easily attainable in electrical use through simple housekeeping measures. Energy c) Involve local communities in conservation thus contributes resource management and significantly to environment incorporate indigenous management, especially in utilisation of knowledge systems in all petroleum based fuels. planning and management efforts. 2.4.6 Recommendations d) Give priority to conservation of a) Increase wood fuel supplies by undamaged resources especially encouraging: on-farm forestry; forests, wetlands, biodiversity improved forest management; and soils. improved wood utilisation; and improved stoves and fireplaces. e) Institutionalise the process of environment impact assessment b) Reduce petroleum imports by and monitoring for public and encouraging efficient utilisation private projects and programmes. and minimising on wastages. f) Provide social and economic c) Assess the benefits and costs of incentives to the private sector to hydro-power,geothermalpower, decentralise and relocate in and electricity imports. economically and environmentally depressed d) Promote solar power, wind regions. power, and biogas through economic incentives, research g) Initiate incentives for individuals and development; marketing and business and industry to increase service and building regulations. woodfuel by encouraging on- farm forestry, improved wood e) Study and develop other utilisation, and improved stores alternative energy sources to and fireplaces. broaden the national energy mix. h) Review and update fines and f) Promote energy conservation by penalties for environmental households, transport, industrial, crimes, in order to make them agricultural, and service sectors. more effective deterrent to environmental abuse. i) Increase government expenditure PLAN OF ACTION on environmental management. 2.5.1 Actions Which Can Be Taken j) Make use of international Immediately agreements to promote sharing of benefits from Kenya's genetic a) Review land use legislation to resources and transfer of provide for land use zones; technology from industrialised 16 Physical Environment The Kenya National Environenwt Acdon Plan nations to the country. the public and private sectors for integrating environmental 2.5.2 Selected Priority Activities concerns, and calculations of Requiring Funding benefits and costs, into project design, implementation, a) Promote research into more evaluation and monitoring. economic, and environmentally friendly sources of energy. 2.5.3 Some Long-Term Priorities b) Assess the benefits and costs of a) Change the behaviour of people the various sources of energy and and institutions so that they promote the least expensive both become conservers of biological monetarily and ecologically. resources and not overusers. c) Promote efficient utilisation of b) Recognise and affirm the role of petroleum and minimise culture in conservation. wastages by providing incentives and penalties. c) Broaden the national sources of d) Continue to build capacity within energy supplies. Physical Environment 17 The Kenya Natonal Enviromen Action PAi 3.1 OVERVIEW nowhere else in the world and therefore require special protection. Since much of Kenya's biodiversity is all of its plants, Kenya's biodiversity exists outside animals and micro-organisms, the genes protected areas, conservation should not they contain and the ecosystems of which be limited to them. they are part. It includes variations within species and interactions among them. Plants, animals and microbes help 3.2 ISSUES AND RECOMEIENDATIONS maintain the chemical balance of the earth, stabilise climate, protect 3.2.1 Genes, Species and Ecosystems watersheds and renew soils. All societies, urban and rural, industrial and non- 3.2.1.1 Current Status industrial, draw on a wide array of ecosystems, species and genes to meet Economic development in Kenya, which their ever-changing needs. is and will continue to be largely dependent on exploitation of biological Kenya has biological resources that are resources, is presently unsustainable, of considerable domestic and precisely, because many of the biological international economic-and intrinsic resources are being mismanaged and value. The country has about 35,000 cannot sustain their present rates of use. known species of animals, plants and Natural ecosystems that store water, micro-organisms. Theseare fundamental protect the soil, or shelter unique plants to human well-being. Agriculture, and animals have been degraded or livestock, fisheries and forests, for convertedtootheruses. Someplantsand example, account for most subsistence animals are over-harvested, and a few survival, economic output, employment have actually become extinct. and export earnings. Tourism in Kenya Conversely, some introduced species is a key foreign exchange earner which is have proliferated and become a threat to largely based on the presence of wildlife indigenous biodiversity. Conservation and seashores. Kenya will continue to be is therefore vital to sustainable growth. dependent on its biological resources for food, fuel, medicine, shelter and income. Currently, several species of plants and animals are threatened because of over- Biological resources are renewable if used exploitation or loss of habitat (Table 3.1). sustainably and exhaustible if not. Most conventional conservation efforts have advocated resource protection without Tablel Speciesof(tee,birdsandmammals(1993estimates) human use; conversely modern agricultural and industrial systems have Thratened Species emphasised production with little regard for conservation. The move must now be National Total Foret species2 National Forest to meet human needs sustainably while Trees 2000+ 1045+ 159 104 preserving the integrity of-- the environment. Birds 1079 299 71 35 Kenya's biodiversity is of value not only Mamnal 130 57 30 21 to the nation but to the world. Its Il onlys wgove0 remarkable variety is mainly due to the 2 -indudingforestspeciesthatalsooccurinother habitats great range of habitats, from coral reefs below sea level to the glaciated top of Source: A Na P of Yznya's Indigenow Mount Kenya. In some of these habitats Forests - rJFCON. live certain plants and animals that occur Biodiversity 19 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan 3.2.1.2 Issues stimulate local and private sector participation in biodiversity conser- Conservation should not preclude human vation, and for development programmes use. The present task is to measure the to give realistic value to the nation's true value of biological resources; widen resources. the use of indigenous species: establish sustainable harvest levels; develop 3.2.1.3 Recommendations microbial resources; protect threatened ecosystems; and integrate the a) Include representative, viable conservation of biodiversity with other samples of all habitat types resource use. Development needs to be within protected areas, with people-centred and conservation-based. particular attention to habitats high in biodiversity and Economic returns on conservation of endemism. Priority areas for biodiversity to the local community are conservation include wetlands, important. Those who successfully especially seasonal wetlands, conserve, for example, wildlife, should forests, highland grasslands and be enabled to trade the surplus. natural areas near large urban Combinations of incentives and penalties centres. can promote conservation. Incentives could include shares of entrance fees to b) Devise a system to measure in protected areas and the proceeds of fines economic terms the value of for illegal use of wild resources. Indirect standing, unexploited natural incentives may include exemptions from resources and ecological functions taxes, food security and assistance for and processes, especially community development. Social biodiversity. incentives include measures to maintain strong communal organisations for c) Provide technical and financial resources management, and supporting support to compile inventories of projects that combine rural development plants and animals, especially and the conservation and sustainable use those with social, spiritual, of natural ecosystems and wild species. cultural, aesthetic, economic and scientific values, and including Incentive to use natural resources indigenous crop diversity, sustainably often depends on the through ecological and ethno- property rights of users. Where rights to biological surveys. graze livestock extend into the future there is an incentive to manage the d) Create conditions and incentives rangelandforcontinuedproductivity;but for effective conservation of where these rights are limited to one biodiversity by local communities. season there is no such incentive. Thus Recognise and affirm the value of the exclusivity, duration and other local knowledge and local characteristics of property rights communities' rights to genetic influence the incentives of users to resources and benefits from conserve resources. tourism in their areas. Business, industry and government e) Estimate sustainable levels of departments are more likely to choose production for economic benefits development options that conserve from biological resources biodiversity if they are encouraged by a including fish, timber, wildlife, system of incentives and penalties. medicinal plants and other goods Polluters should pay the cost of cleaning and serVices, and place limits on up pollution; but equally, individuals, harvests, including regulatory communities and companies which mechanisms. manage resources sustainably should derive benefits such as tax relief or f) Support projects which provide concessions. There is therefore need to immediate and sustainable develop appropriate incentives to economic returns to the 20 Biodiversity The Kenya National Environment Action Plan communities concerned. 3.2.2 Forestry g) Encourage users to grow species 3.2.2.1 Current Status which are under intense pressure ex situ to provide an alternative The government forests in Kenya cover source of supply. 2,359,767 ha (1,662,472 ha gazetted and 697,295 ha ungazetted) and the total h) Encourage local communities to woody biomass in the country is develop a larger market share for 433,330,000 ha (DRSRS 1989). Closed wild products harvested canopy indigenous forests account for sustainably and so develop the role some 1.2 million hectares. Woodlands of traditional medicines and cover over 2 million hectares, and the ensure their appropriate and bulk of the country is arid and semi-arid sustainable use. bushland and scrubland. About 30% of the nation's wood supply is in i) Promote the establishment of indigenous forests and industrial botanical gardens in every plantations, combined. Afurther40%is province and ecological zone, in the ASAL areas. The Forest stocked with indigenous plant Department manages the country's species, in consultation with forests (see map 3.1). institutions which already have botanical gardens or arboreta. Protected forests include: j) Promote the use of indigenous a) Forest reserves managed by the species of plants and animals, Forest Department. Forest applying the knowledge of local reserves have been managed to communities to select them. produce wood and other forest products, and as water k) Expand ex situ conservation catchments. Nearly 40% of forest efforts, gene banks, zoos, aquaria reserve land does not have and captive breeding of indigenous forest cover. endangered species. This is particularly important for wild b) Nature reserves, usually within plants harvested for food, forest reserves, in which no medicines, cosmetics, building extraction of forest products is materials, ornaments, etc., and allowed. where a plant or animal species is only represented by small, inviable c) Forest areas within national parks populations. and national reserves. I) Promote recycling wherever d) National monuments, including possible to reduce the rate of use thesmall Kaya forestsatthecoast, of natural resources. protected for their cultural and m) Carry out research into the biological values. management of alien species e) County Council ferests, mainly which threaten biodiversity, and in ASAL areas. control the import and use of exotic aquarium fish. At present an average of 5,000 ha of forest reserve land are being lost annually through excision. Forest n) Establish a biodiversity degradation through over-exploitation information database as a central has led to a 40-60% loss of standing repository of data generated by wood volume from most forest reserves inventories and surveys. in the last 30 years. Biodiversity 21 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan Non-wood products from indigenous Bamboo forests at high altitudes and forests include honey; fruits; medicines mangroves along the coast are fragile and (58 tree species have been identified as threatened ecosystems. Bamboo forests supplying medicinal bark); weaving and support some of Kenya's rarest large basketry materials; thatch; and others. In mammals, but are easily cleared and general these are low impact activities, converted to agriculture. Mangroves are but repeated and intensive extraction may cut for high quality poles and cleared to cause loss of the resource. Forests also make room for tourist and industrial have important cultural, ceremonial and developments. recreational value. One area that deserves immed-ate Forest plantations have approximately attention is the coastal forests. Coast declined from 170,000 ha to 164,000 ha as Province forests constitute less than 10% per 1994 inventory reports. Yet the of the nation's forests, but they contain demand for all wood products is nearly half of the country's rare trees. increasing at three to five per cent per There are animals and plants found in annum. Wood fuel consumption amounts remnant coastal forests that occur to about 20 million cubic metres per nowhere else. Kaya forests are sacred annum and industrial roundwood and places to the local communities, and other polewood utilisation to about 2.3 million sites have cultural or ceremonial cubic metres. importance. Many forest.areas have been destroyed for crop and livestock Substantial areas of woodland and production, mining, wood fuel, human bushland can be found in the County settlements, tourist developments, etc. Council areas in the drier parts of the country. These supply considerable 3.2.2.3 Recommendations volumes of wood products, and require careful management to ensure long term a) Integrate forest management supplies. systems to conserve plant and animal species, and provide forest 3.2.2.2 Indigenous Forest Issues produce for subsistence and commercial needs on a sustainable Over-exploitation and illegal cutting of basis. Seven forests are indigenous forests is a matter of great particularly important to concern. The lack of appropriate biodiversity conservation: technology for maximum utilisation of Kakamega, South West Maul the raw materials, low recovery, poor Trans Mara, Aberdares/Kikuyu silvicultural practices, and low budgetary Escarpment, Mt Kenya, Shimba provision for recurrent forest operations Hills, Arabuko-Sokoke and Tana have all hampered effective management. River riverine forests. As a result, timber, wood fuel, polewood and carving wood are-being exploited at b) Manage the bamboo and unsustainable levels. mangrove ecosystems for conservation and sustainable use. Over 80% of all households use wood fuel or other biomass fuels for their c) Identify and manage important domestic needs. Roughly one third of forest areas for watershed biomass fuel consumption is in the form protection. of charcoal. A considerable portion of woodfuel, including charcoal, still comes d) Stop further degazettement and from indigenous forests, especially from excision of forest land. arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL). Without intervention, a deficit between e) Inventory Kenya's indigenous supply and demand for woodfuel is forests. Then develop silvicultural projected to increase, and the imbalance systems and draw up management is estimated to lead to a severe loss of plans for each forest area. These savannah woodlands and closed canopy plans to include conservation high forest. measures. 22 Biodiversiry The Kenya National Enironmaet Action Plan KENYA - FOREST RESERVES /~~~~~ i, ~~~~~~~~~~3 t.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~c Figure 3 Keya-orstRea Biodivesity 2 Sore oet reev bonai s fo1:000tpgrap sheet Fiur 3.1 Keny - orstReere Biodiveas',y.23 The Kenya Natonal Environment Action Plan f) Expand forestry planning to o) Take into account the global include sustainable management agreements to which Kenya is a in ASAL areas. Conduct a study party, especially those relating to of the standing volume of wood forests, biodiversity or climatic and the rates of offtake of wood influences, in forestry planning products from the ASAL areas, and and management. draw up management plans. 3.2.2.4 Forest Plantation Issues g) Strengthen forestry planning to include ecological protection, Plantation forests, established to provide biodiversity conservation, wood and wood products, are not well subsistence collection of forest maintained. New plantation produce, high impact commercial establishment is failing (up to 90% of all use, watershed protection, seedlings die). Timber does not reach ecotourism, and community wood processors in time, and outdated participation. equipment wastes upto 60% of wood during processing. h) Involve herbalists more fully in the management of areas which The Forest Department, through the supply medicines, and encourage Kenya Forestry Master Plan, anticipates agronomic and silvicultural that the demand for roundwood will practices in growing indigenous exceed supply by the year 2025 if the herbs and trees of medicinal value. management of industrial plantations is not improved. Sustainable woodfuel i) Encourage the development of production from forests is estimated to solar power and other alternative be only about one quarter of national forms of energy. requirements. To meet needs for wood and woodfuel, trees will have to be grown j) Encourage major industries using on-farm. indigenous trees to establish their own plantations to ensure Pricing and marketing are very powerful sustainability. tools in implementation of government policies, and taxation is also an important k) Encourage use of top bar, non-log part of an intervention package. hives in the forest. Intervention in the market place must be done with concern about poorer sections 1) Start immediate research of the society. programmes on indigenous tree germination and growth rates; 3.2.2.5 Recommendations suitable silvicultural systems for managing indigenous forests; and a) Develop plantation forestry that species trials for industrial is financially self-supporting or plantations. profit-making. This requires realistic royalty rates, and m) Continue the biodiversity and reinvestment of revenues. socio-economic studies around indigenous forests that have b) Establish incentives and already begun. regulatory mechanisms to support n) Devise ways to involve people sustainable utilisation of forest who live within 2 km of forest resources outside gazetted areas. boundaries to participate in and support forest management. A fair c) Conduct feasibility studies before and lasting solution must also be issuing new licences in the timber found for the problem of forest industry. dwellers (over 3,500) and forest squatters. 24 Biodiversity The Kenya National Enironment Action Plan d) Enhance plantation management documents, the objective of the wildlife efficiency by gradually separating sector is to optimise returns from wildlife the commercially managed in terms of aesthetic, scientific, cultural forestry enterprise functions from and economic gains, subject to the various the forestry authority as proposed sectoral constraints. The government, in the Kenya Forestry Master Plan. through the Kenya Wildlife Service, is Specific forest operations such as responsible for the survival, conservation harvesting, transport or replanting and sustainable use of wildlife and could be handled by specialised, contributes to the economic development financially independent sub-units. of the country by encouraging tourism. It is essential to achieve better integration of wood use. Kenya has a well established system of parks and reserves. National parks vary e) Expand the pulp and paper in size from the smallest, Saiwa National industry by incorporating Park, covering only 2 km2, to the largest, alternative raw materials and Tsavo National Park, which accounts for improving management of over 70% of the total park area and 47% of existing forest plantations. the total protected area system (Map 3.2). Some of Kenya's protected areas are f) Expand the area under industrial internationally recognised as Biosphere plantations and conduct research Reserves, World Heritage or Ramsar sites into new tree species for in accordance with the lUCN criteria for plantations. classifying protected areas. g) Review and adopt the most Kenya was one of the first countries in suitable methods of establishing the world to establish marine national forest plantations. parks in 1968 when Malindi and Watamu national parks and reserves were h) M Improve the integrated processing established, setting a world standard in of timber, with better recovery designation of protected area status to its rates of processed wood products marinesystem. There arenow fourmarine from roundwood inputs, to cut national parks and five national reserves, down on wastage. covering 76,009 ha. ) Increase support for, empower- The major inland water ecosystems ment of, and incentives to farmers include lakes, rivers and permanent and and local communities for planting seasonal wetlands. Lake Bogoria, Lake trees on-farm and in community Nakuru, islands of Lake Turkana, and woodlots. mountain river ecosystems are among the protected areas. 3.2.3 Wildlife and Fisheries In unprotected fresh water ecosystems, 3.2.3.1 Current Status fishing is allowed for economic gains and for sport. Nearly a million people depend Wildlife and fisheries constitute directly or indirectly on fishing for their important resources with substantial livelihood. Fish is a major source of socio-economic, cultural, scientific and protein intake in Kenya, and an important environmental values. About 8% of export. Kenya's land area is set aside for wildlife conservation. In addition, the country has 3.2.3.2 Wildlife and National Parks and rich aquatic biological resources in both Reserves Issues inland and marine waters. Inland and marine fisheries provide food, Conflicts occur when wild animals employment, recreation and foreign destroy crops and even kill people. In exchange. addition, a number of important habitats are not yet protected. Some protected As outlined in the 7th and earlier National areas do not encompass complete natural Development Plans and policy ecosystems, and are highly dependent on Biodiversity 25 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan land beyond their boundaries. Such land therefore a major concern. The use of is under pressure for conversion to other unauthorised fishing gear is another uses.Itisthereforeimportanttopromote threat to conservation of aquatic environrhentally sound and sustainable resources. Over-harvesting of resources development in areas adjacent to through uncontrolled licensing of protected areas, with a view of furthering fishermen and fishing vessels exert protection of these areas. It is equally pressure on sustainability of the important to involve local communities resources. in conservation of wildlife as already demonstrated by the Kenya Wildlife Currently, fish species like Oreochromis Service which has established a esculentus, Labeo victorianus, Barbus Community Wildlife section with projects altianalis and haplochromines are that are chiefly to benefit residents in the endangered. Other species which could neighbourhood of protected areas. A be threatened include lung fish, mud fish tourism master plan that will address and river eels. Kenya needs to some of these issues is under preparation. continuously update the inventory of aquatic wildlife stock. In addition, the 3.2.3.3 Recommendations introduction of alien species of fish and plants threaten the variety and a) Assess the status of all vital productivity of the nation's fisheries (see habitats in the country and prepare Table 3.2). plans for cqnservation and management. Table 2 Spedes of fish, reptiles and amphibians in b) Enhance involvement of local Kenya,1"I (approximte knownnumbers) communities in wildlife conser- Categoy Fish Amphibians Reptiles vation and ensure that wildlife Towlspeces 683 101 211 contributes to their welfare. Natonal endemk 54 13 17 Known extinctions 7 - - Endangered 60 2 11 c) Establish zones, such as buffer Vulnerable 7 - 2 zones, protection zones, grazing Rare 16 1 3 zones, etc., to permit multiple-use Introduced 13 management of protected areas. Sougrce: The Costs, Beaiefts and Unmd Needs of BidogkAl Dwrrsity Comservation in Ka - ,l 992 d) Strengthen programmes to C Ke prevent transmission of diseases between wildlife and livestock, Marnefisheriesforsportandcommerce including research. also contribute significantly to national development, including employment, e) Harmonise different wildlife protein sources, and foreign exchange development and conservation earnings. Lack of appropriate technology activities in protected and has limited the local ability to exploit this dispersal areas and determine resource, especially offshore. There is optimal land use with a view to need to maximise the sustainable ensuring sustainable land use exploitation of the fisheries. planning and management. The coastal marine ecosystems, which f) Undertake research aimed at include mangroves, coral reefs, creeks enhancing conservation and and estuaries, are important in the management of wildlife popula- production of marine fisheries. These tions. ecosystPms are breeding grounds for lobsters, prawns, crabs, oysters, squids, 3.2.3.4 Aquatic Resources Issues octopus and a variety of coral related fish species. They include habitats for the At present, Lake Victoria produces over endangered dugong. The open waters, 90% of Kenya's fish catch. Pollution and both territorial and high seas, ecological disruption of the lake is accommodatemanyspeciesoffish,shark, 26 Biodiversity The Kenya National Environment Action Plan National Parks and National Reserves 2 $ Clintral~~~ Island/ PMarsabit Nasolo?t4 S Turkana Lo ai Saiwa abmp Mt Elgorr, N Kerno Valley NR Maralal Kamnarok 0 a i Sambu9 Shaba (? O~~~~~~~ Banngo Laikipia 8ulaopng Bisanadi Kakamega a L Bogoria Buffalo Sprngs Meru Rahole Nder Iand Mt KenyaT , Kisumu L NakuruO 3 A; dr North litu|6i Kora P.- F::,ma Hell's Gate Z g Longonot 0 Mwea 01 Ooinyo Sabuk % M asaiM ara N airobi A raw a le4 > Bo n Massi Mara Narb Southi Kitui:i Tana River e Dodori- Kiunga MNR \Ch ulu Amboseli Tsavo East Arabuko L Sokoke J National Parks '/ . Malindi MNR, MNP & , ., Tsavo M4,, \ \ | / Watamu MNR, MNP National Reserves Sanctuaries Shimba HilSp, Mombasa MNR & MNP _ Sanctuaries jf 7 \ Mpungutini MR & Marine National Parks & Reserves Kisite MP Source: Compiled by KIFCON from KWS Planning Unit maps Figure 3.2. National Parks and National Reserves - Biodisversity 27 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan and threatened marine turtles. 3.2.4 Biotechnology Mangroves, however, are cleared for developments such as salt pans, tourism, Biotechnology is the use of molecular agriculture and large-scale prawn genetics, biochemistry, microbiology, and farming, thus threatening marine life of processes using micro-organisms or breeding grounds. Agricultural activities the cells and tissue of living things, to up-country resulting in washing down of produce goods and services. Advances in agro-based pollutants and soil, threaten biotechnology have fevolutionised the survival of estuarine and coral fish developments in agriculture, human species. Oil spills and domestic waste health, forestry, and industry. Although discharge are also of concern. Major oil Kenya is rich in genetic resources, spills have destroyed mangroves and biotechnology is undeveloped. This is marine organisms in the past. Threats to due to insufficient finances, lack of conservation also include use of un- enoughtrained scientistsand technicians, authorised and inappropriate fishing lack of well equipped facilities and poor gears, incorrect baits, overfishing by linkages between research organisations vessels outside national control, pollution and end users. Kenya's people and from commercial and sporting vessels and environment also need protection against waste dumping. some technology imported from abroad, which may be hazardous. 3.2.3.5 Recommendations 3.2.4.1 Current Status a) Develop strategies for conserva- tion of endangered fish species, The following are biotechnological with special attention to Lake research programmes which have been Victoria. carried out in Kenya, among others. b) Promote implementation of In-vitro propagation has been used for integrated coastal management, rapid multiplication -of plants such as including protection of more pyrethrum,ornamentalflowersandcitrus mangrove and coral reef areas. fruits. It is now possible to produce 200 plantlets in two months. At the Plant c) Use incentives and education to Quarantine Station the technology is empowerfishing communities use being applied to clean plant material and manage local fishery resources which is infected with virus and bacteria. more sustainably. At KEFRI, tissue culture is used for multiplication of recalcitrant seed plants, d) Monitorand control the operation such as Ocotea usambarensis and and movement of fishing vessels, Podocarpus milanjianus. including international vessels. The University of Nairobi has been e) Strengthen the National Oil Spill producing rhizobium inoculant to ResponseCommittee'scapacityto improve nitrogen fixation in legumes control emergency oil spills. through the MIRCEN Project. About 216 bacterial strains have so far been collated f) Develop fish ladders or other locally and from other centres for means to enable fish to move up preservation. and down rivers with hydro- electric dams. Kenya's 12 million cattle, 19 million sheep and goats, 875,000 camels, 18 million g) Encourage establishment of poultry and 113,000 pigs require sustainable prawn, oyster and protection against diseases. Research on - seaweed farming, especially by tick-borne diseases, viral diseases, local communities. helminth and bacterial diseases is being carried out in several organisations, e.g., h) Expand research on aquatic Veterinary Research Laboratory, KARI, species and ecosystems. ILRAD, ICIPE, etc. Already at KARI 13 28 Biodiversity The Kenya National Environmnt Action Pla bio-engineered vaccines have been institutions, the private sector, and users produced. of biotechnology. This has hindered commercialisation of research results. Another type of research involves the Biotechnological activities have largely cloning of populations of Theileria parva, been developed on a sectoral basis and and identification of parasites through there has been little inter-institutional the use of DNA probes. At ILRAD and at coordination and collaboration. KETRI, diagnosis of trypanosomiasis is Biotechnological data already exists in being done through diagnostic methods the country but to a large extent it is not based on recombinant DNA and co-ordinated, having been gathered by monoclonal antibody techniques. different organisations and institutions for specific purposes. Through artificial insemination the production of livestock animals has been Genetic resources that have been improved greatly. However, 93% of the conserved by local communities as well semen produced at the Artificial as indigenous knowledge that is later Insemination Centre is from only four utilised for biotechnological development cattle breeds. As a result, the genetic base has rarely benefitted the original of most of the animal species of economic custodians of those resources. importance is very narrow. With regard to industrial applications, The Kenya Medical Research Institute genetically modified organisms (GMOs) (KEMRI) has been involved with the could cause potential risks in the production of monoclonal antibodies laboratory and during industrial which are used in kidney tissue matching processes and handling of the products between donor and recipient. The obtained. Still, it is easier to handle such institute is also carrying out work on CMOs in the laboratory than in the field. production of genetic markers and The field situation is completely different research on traditional medicines, drug because genetically engineered resistances, contraceptives and screening organisms are expected to survive there of hepatitis B virus in donated blood. and as a result they could cause adverse environmental or public health impacts In Kenya much of the production of such as: ecological disruption due to lack industrial products is in the private of natural enemies; exchange of genetic sector. For instance, products for the material with other organisms; disruption livestock industry are manufactured of the ecosystem; or infectivity, mnainly by Kenya Veterinary Vaccine pathogenicity or toxicity to non-target Production Institute (KEVEVAPI) and organisms (plants, animals, microbes). Wellcome Kenya Ltd.; and private companies manufacture pharmaceutical 3.2.4.3 Recommendations products for human use, and household products. Kenya Breweries is involved a) Develop a comprehensive policy in the production of beer through the on research and development in fermentation process. biotechnology. The report from National Advisory Committee on 3.2.4.2 Issues Biotechnology Advances and their Applications (NACBAA) should Biotechnology in Kenyan public research form a base for the development institutions has not been developed to of such a policy. sufficiently high levels to ensure self sufficiency in sectors such as agriculture, b) Establish a national commission health and industry. Research and on biotechnology and biosafety. development has faced various constraints including lack of finances, c) Prepare a register of existing lack of well trained cadres of scientists resources for biotechnology, and lack of up to date equipment and including a directory of facilities.- professionals. There are poor linkages between research d) Create a biotechnology enhance- Biodiversity 29 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan ment fund to provide venture k) Review intellectual property capital. rights as they relate to bio- technology in Kenya. Harmonise e) Create an enabling environment theBreeder'sRightsandIndustrial for biotechnology that would Property Rights to enable the involve data bases, extension protection of inventions arising services, improvement of from biotechnological activities.at communication, networking and both primary and secondary level. marketing. l) Develop regulatory mechanisms f) Formulatescientificcriteriaforthe and guidelines to minimise safe use of genetically modified biotechnology risks. organisms (GMOs), including methods of hazard identification m) Support research and and exposure assessment before development of biotechnology in GMOs are released into the agriculture, animal production, environment; measures to provide health and industry, including biological containment and tissue culture; new diagnostic physical containment of CMOs; techniques and genetically and mechanisms to monitor the engineered vaccines; crops and organisms, genetic material and animals resistant to environmental environmental processes exposed stress; and microbial treatment of to GMOs. environmental pollutants. g) Encourage research and o) Develop policies and institutional development institutions dealing frameworks to enhance the with CMOs to establish an applicationandcommercialisation institutional committee to oversee of biotechnology research. the activities related to research, development and field releases of p) Support research and CMOs. development of: genetic markers for use in tissue typing; mapping h) Consider the ethical-aspects of of genetic diversity in wildlife biotechnological application species; rapid propagation of regarding people and animals, and disease free crops; molecular put into place measures for dealing marker assisted plant breeding; in with possible default. Litigation vitro conservation of germplasm costs should be clearly articulated of indigenous and commercial in policy and the investor should vegetatively grown crops; and carry the burden of litigation. genetic conservation and improvement, especially for fish, i) Make prior informed consent a and local varieties of domestic pre-requisite for all field testing animals. of genetically engineered organisms. 3.2.5 Indigenous Knowledge and Local Communities j) Develop strong linkages between various organisations, including 3.2.5.1 Current Status international organisations, research institutes, universities, Indigenous knowledge is a knowledge private industry, NGOs, extension base that local communities have services and consumers of developed over time. Its role in the biotechnological products. Kenya conservation and utilisation of biological should become a member of the diversity is immense. It includes International Centre for Genetic knowledge of food and medicinal plants, Engineering and Biotechnology animal movements, cyclical climate (ICGEB). patterns, and many others. For example, 30 Biodiversity The Kenya National Environment Action Plan farmers have developed and sustained c) Empower local people in rural local varieties of plants and animals, thus areas to participate in the maintaining genetic variability in crops management of biological and domestic animals. resources. Different cultures have lived with, d) Encourage alternative income- sustained themselves from, and generating activities or livelihoods conserved and managed biodiversity, that do not over-exploit natural with respect for nature. Unders'anding resources, to reduce overdepend- cultures and indigenous knowledge may ence on declining resources; and therefore offer the needed options for develop alternative sources of fuel future biodiversity conservation and and power. development. Yet too often local communities have not been consulted or e) Protect sacred places and areas of involved in development or conservation cultural importance under present projects and programmes. legislation or new types of protected areas. 3.2.5.2 Issues f) Collect and record indigenous While the country has an extensive knowledge throughout the network of protected areas, conservation country. of biodiversity outside these areas depends on the good will of the local g) Carry out research to identify communities. With increased pressures examples of biodiversity conserva- on land and resources, communities need tion and management techniques to be sensitised to the importance of among rural communities, and maintaining resource sustainability. This incorporate it into conservation can only be done through dialogue and programmes. finding alternative solutions to their resource needs. - h) Document cultural and religious beliefs and other ideologies that Although communities are usually relate to conservation. depicted to be the cause of habitat destruction, protected areas have had i) Work out mechanisms to assist negative impacts on those who are communities to benefit from the marginalised, having lost access to land knowledge that they provide. and natural resources. Finding acceptable alternatives can, therefore, only be j) Facilitate research in community possible with their full participation in related programmes, including problem solving and decision making. research and development of indigenous food crops, dyes and Other community issues are discussed in medicines. Chapter 9, Public Participation and, Environmental Education. k) Plant indigenous species in afforestation, landscaping, soil 3.2.5.3 Recommendations conservation and urban parks programmes, and identify a) Provide incentives to farmers to indigenous plants that can be maintain local varieties of plants planted to satisfy local needs such and animals. as hedges, shade and wood for fuel, using indigenous knowledge. b) Promote utilisation, marketing and conservation of indigenous 1) Extend and increase public food crops and use indigenous demonstration gardens of food plants to fight poverty, indigenous plants used for food, disease and malnutrition and medicine, timber, carving wood, improve food security at the wood- fuel, shade and ornament. household level. Biodiversity 31 The Kenya National Enviionment Action Plan 3.2.6 International Cooperation equitable sharing of benefits 3.2.6.1 Issues derived at international level from the use of genetic resources. Kenya has been acknowledged as a rich pool of germplasm. As a result many d) Implement internationally reco- scientists and commercial entrepreneurs gnised conservation obliga-tions have collected germplasm with potential such as the Convention on for economic value. This biodiversity InternationalTradeinEndangered prospecting has been done without much Species (CITES), Biosphere economic return to the country. Kenya Reserves, World Heritage sites, has to address properly the issue of Ramsar, and Convention on conservation and sustainable use of its Biological Diversity. biological diversity for biotechnology innovations. 3.3 CAPACITY BUILDING: HUMAN Developing countries provide genetic AND INSTITUTIONAL resources for research to developed RESOURCES AND PUBLIC countries while they themselves lack the AWARENESS expertise and investments needed to develop biotechnology. They are 3.3.1 Genes, Species and Ecosystems therefore not likely to benefit greatly from the results and benefits of such research 3.3.1.2 Current Status carried out in developed countries. As a result the Convention on Biological Institutions currently involved in Diversity, to which Kenya is a signatory, biodiversity conservation and utilisation calls for legislative, administrative or include, among others, National policy measures that would take into Environment Secretariat, National consideration the question of sharing of Museums of Kenya, Centre for benefits from genetic resources and the Biodiversity, Kenya Wildlife Service, transfer of technology. Forest Department, Fisheries Department, Kenya Agricultural Many of Kenya's biological resources are Research Institute, Kenya Marine and considered to be internationally Fisheries Research Institute and the important. These include coral reefs, Department of Resource Surveys and wetlands, forests, and areas rich in Remote Sensing. Many NGOs, such as biodiversity and high in endemism. It is the East African Wild Life Society, therefore important that some of the KENGO and the East African Natural resources needed for conservation, History Society, are also involved. management and sustainable utilisation of biodiversity should be contributed by 3.3.1.2 Issues the international community. Although Kenya has produced a good 3.2.6.2 Recommendations number of scientists and wildlife managers, many more are needed to a) Implement international conven- assess, manage, utilise and conserve the tions and protocols dealing with country's biodiversity. Strengthening conservation of biodiversity, and training and institutional frameworks champion the need to integrate will assist decision and policy makers, biodiversity conservation into and those involved in economic and international economic policy. environmental analysis, to use information in an appropriate manner to b) Strictly regulate the transfer of support sustainable development. In species and genes and theirrelease most cases, it is the existing personnel into the wild. who will implement new technologies and policies; hence they will require re- c) Support efforts to bring about training. 32 Biodiversiuy The Kenya National Environment Action Plan 3.3.1.3 Recommendations implementation, evaluation and monitoring, as well as assessing a) Increase the number and/or make the impact of proposed projects more efficient use of trained on biological diversity. Donor personnel in scientific and agencies should be encouraged to technological fields. In particular, do the same. invest in education of microbiologists and related areas h) Enhance cooperation between of study. institutions responsible for protected areas and other b) Maintain or develop programmes governmental institutions, NGOs, for scientific and technical indigenous people, local education and training of communities, youth and women. managers and professionals, especially in the fields of i) Strengthen the national taxonomy, conservation of institutional capacity to collect, biological diversity and store,organise,assessandusedata sustainable use of biological and information for planning and resources. Develop training decision making, through materials that are appropriate to government, local non- the Kenyan situation. governmental organisations and private institutions, with the c) Promote understanding of the support of the international importance of biodiversity community. conservation and sustainable use of biological resources at all policy j) Encourage partnership among the and decision-making levels in the public, private and community government, business enterprises sectors in managing biodiversity and lending / donor institutions, resources for human development. and encourage inclusion of the topic of biodiversity in training 3.3.2 Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries programmes. 3.3.2.1 Current Status d) Recruit social scientists to help institutions operate more Many foresters are being produced by sensitively and effectively by the Forestry College and Moi University, putting people's needs first. This but most are not employed. This is partly calls for a dramatic change in the due to the fact that training is not in line methods of planning, designing with the manpower requirements in the and implementing biodiversity private sector. programmes. The Kenya Forestry Research Institute e) Strengthen existing institutions (KEFRI) undertakes research in many and if necessary create new ones fields of indigenous, plantation, on-farm responsible for conservation of and social forestry. Other institutions biological diversity. involved in research include Moi and Egerton Universities, Londiani Forestry f) Enhance legal and institutional College, and the National Museums of capacities for effective law making Kenya, and inter-governmental agencies and enforcement, policy analysis, such as the International Centre for resource economics and related Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF). fields. The management of Kenya's indigenous g) Buildcapacitywithingovernment forests falls under various institutions and the private sector for andindividuals. TheForestDepartment integrating biodiversity concerns, has responsibility for the largest portion and calculations of benefits and of the country's forests. The Forest costs, into project design, Department and Kenya Wildlife Service Biodiversity 33 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan manage selected forest reserves under a financial resources. Memorandum of Understanding. Some forests occur in national parks, on county 3.3.3.2 Issues council land, and on private farms and ranches. Local communities may also At the moment there are several post exercise traditional management of local graduate programmes in the areas of forests through community regulated agriculture, veterinary sciences and prohibitions or controls on extraction. medicine. Although molecular biology, gene-cloning, cytogenetics, chemical Training in wildlife and fisheries engineeringand advanced biotechnology resources is available at Moi University, are covered slightly in these programmes, and Naivasha Wildlife and Fisheries they have yet to receive adequate Institute. The Kenya Wildlife Service attention. manages the country's wildlife, and the Fisheries Department manages fish There are not enough trained technicians resources. and technologists to satisfy demand. Several institutions which have been 3.3.2.2 Recommendations training this category of cadre nationally have been upgraded to degree a) Rationalise manpower institutions. It is to be noted that the developmentintheforestrysector, National Council of Science and taking into account all aspects of Technology (NCST) has recommended a management and utilisation. ratio of 5 technicians for one scientist. However, training of this necessary b) Strengthen forestry institutions to category of manpower, especially in enable them conduct forest biotechnologyisseriouslyconstrainedby research and monitoring. the lack of funds. c) Increase institutional cooperation, With adequately trained manpower in liaison and linkages. biotechnology, it will be possible to assess any new biotechnology and determine if d) Develop management frameworks it is appropriate for Kenya. Trained for individual forests, involving a personnel would also determinepriorities broad spectrum of interested and design research projects which have parties. biosafety considerations. e) Expand human resource 3.3.3.3 Recommendations development in the management and conservation of aquatic a) Train a biotechnologically based resources. cadre to facilitate adoption, application and development of f) Enhance cooperation and biotechnological advances for harmonisation in the management agriculture, medicine, industry, of fish and wildlife resources. veterinary and environmental use. g) Strengthen the national capacity b) Evaluate regularly the manpower to monitor marine and coastal needs in biotechnology, and areas. monitor availability and development of necessary 3.3.3 Biotechnology equipment and instruments for biotechnology programmes. 3.3.3.1 Cuzrent Status Biotechnology research and development c) Consider using externally avail- in Kenyan institutions is at a rudimentary able training programmes in areas stage except in a few cases. The reason where the public universities have for this is the lack of qualified scientific a shortage, such as tissue culture, manpower, institutional capacity and cytogenetics, fermentation 3.4 Biodiversity The Kenya National Environment Action Plan technology, embryo transfer, 3.3.4.2 Recommendations immunology, recombinant DNA technology, etc. a) Establish and expand a network of people and organisations d) Expand the training of technicians dealing with indigenous and technologists. knowledge systems. e) Develop a monitoring and b) Enhance the ability of local evaluation capacity in institutions communities to participate in dealing with biotechnology project development and research. management. f) Strengthen the capacity of c) Educate development agencies to biotechnology research and appreciate the communities' point management institutions to of view. adequately enforce legislation. d) Coordinate research in utilisation g) Strengthen institutional capacities of biodiversity at the community to collect, store and disseminate level. information. e) Involve women and youth at all h) Encourage relevant institutions levels of resource management. to promote public awareness, especially in the area of biosafety. f) Train mass media and other communicators to understand, i) Intensify coordination and colla- explain and report on biodiversity boration in biotechnology research conservation issues. and development. g) Integrate conservation of j) Provide facilities, equipment and biological resources into the funds for biotechnology develop- curricula of educational ment. institutions at all levels. k) Promote and undertake research h) Increase the participation of local in risk assessment and manage- authorities and the public in ment. conserving terrestrial and aquatic wildlife resources. 1) Establish a biotechnology education centre, to act as a data i) Inform the media on conservation centre and to facilitate dissemi- issues. nation of information and awareness materials. j) Inform the public, the media and decision-makers/policy-makers at 3.3.4 Indigenous Knowledge, Local all levels about the benefits, costs Communities, and Public and risks of biotechnological Awareness innovations and the possible dangers that genetically 3.3.4.1 Issues engineered organisms may pose to humans and other living things. Capacity building for community involvement in biodiversity issues is a k) Encourage the public, especially necessity for enhancing the management at the grassroots level to become and sustainable use of natural resources. educated on all biotechnological Decision makers also need to understand innovations, to be able to and appreciate the role of indigenous participate in decision making knowledge. concerning their adoption. Biodiversity 35 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan 1) Preserve indigenous knowledge b) Formulate a biodiversity strategy and teach it at all educational to maintain, use and preserve levels. Kenya's remarkable biological diversity. m) Inform local communities about conservation issues, especially the c) Review agricultural, energy, land status of rare and endangered use and population policy to species. Radio programmes, incorporate biodiversity conser- leaders' barazas (meetings), plays vation; and strengthen environ- and workshops can be used. mental planning in the ministry responsible for planning and n) Produce educational materials development. targeted at different audiences of different literacy levels, written in d) Involve local communities and a language understandable by the local authorities in formulating target groups. As far as possible, policy for renewable resource use pictures and local names. management. o) Develop standard names for the e) Require environmental impact most common species of plant and assessment and monitoring for all animals species. Where the development projects, including English name is lacking, the agriculture, irrigation, land Swahili name should be used. If allocation and tourism. this too is lacking, use the commonest local name. Scientific f) Factor the value of standing, names should be used alongside unexploited resources, in terms of these standard names for watershed protection, influences specificity. on climate, cultural and aesthetic value, as well as actual and p) Establish education centres inside potential genetic value, into or near the boundaries of national development planning. parks and national reserves. g) Recognise and quantify the local economic value of wild products 3.4 POLICY AND LEGISLATION in development and land use planning. 3.4.1 Genes, Species and Ecosystems h) Treat biological resources as 3.4.1.1 Current Status capital resources and invest accordingly to prevent their Kenya's environment policy aims at depletion. integrating various facets of environment into the national development plan. i) Review tax laws to incorporate Existing legislation on environmental biodiversity conservation. For management is being reviewed. Those example, give tax breaks to environmental conservation whose industries that clean up their waste implementation have often been products and preserve their conflicting, are therefore expected to be natural surroundings, and impose harmonised. heavy fines and sanctions (including possible closure) on 3.4.1.2 Recommendations industries that pollute or destroy natural resources, particularly a) Formulateanationalenvironment biodiversity. Review these policy based on the interdepend- measures frequently to keep pace ence of environment and with changes in knowledge and sustainable economic develop- technology. ment. 36 Biodiversity The Kenya National Environment Action Plan j) Provide a mechanism to on forest management. These need to be compensate local communities for reviewed with a view to removing water, land or resources set aside conflicts and correcting the deficiencies for public use. in the current legislation, especially relating to use of forest and wood k) Review and enforce regulations products. More trained and motivated concerning land use and personnel are needed to implement them. allocation, and drainage and The penalties for infringement in most of pollution of wetlands. these Acts are very low compared to the potential gains from illegal activities, and 1) Enact realistic penalties for hence do not act as effective deterrents. environmental crimes, including indexing fines to inflation. 3.4.2.3 Recommendations 3.4.2 Forestry a) Adopt and implement the forest - policy revised in 1994. 3.4.2.1 Current Status b) Review, revise and enforce The Kenya Forest Policy was published regulations to support the national in 1994. It replaces the policy formulated forest policy. in 1957 and revised in 1968. 3.4.3 Wildlife and Fisheries The policy proposes to increase the forest and tree cover of the country in order to 3.4.3.1 Current Status ensure an increasing supply of forest products and services and thus enhance The rangelands of Kenya occupy about the role of forestry in socio-economic 80% of the total national land area. development. Forestry is also expected Rangeland resources are enormous and to alleviate poverty and promote rural include livestock, wildlife and plant development by providing employment, communities. Livestock production and by promoting equity and through pastoralism has been the main participation by local communities. form of land use. The associated ecosystems are fragile requiring The policy expects forests to contribute appropriate management strategies to significantly to the conservation of the ensure sustainable productivity. remaining natural habitats and the wildlife therein, rehabilitate them and Land use policies in the marginal lands conserve their biodiversity. In addition, need to support comprehensive and forestry will contribute to sustainable integrated land use planning based on agriculture by conserving soil. Forestry the value and status of representative will also support efforts to fulfil national and unique ecosystems. Different areas obligations under international need specific land use plans addressing environmental and forest-related human population growth and changes conventions and principles. in land use patterns. Management of forestry should be Conservation and development need to efficiently undertaken, taking into be integrated in the management of the account all direct and indirect economic nation's inland, coastal and marine and environmental impacts. The main resources. considerations of management is to review the ways in which forests and 3.4.3.2 Recommendations trees are valued, in order to facilitate management decisions; and to maximise a) Conserve and manage protected benefits from the forest industry. areas, and establish others where 3.4.2.2 Issues necessary. b) Develop wildlife conservation and Currently, several sectoral policies exist management strategies in Biodiversity 37 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan unprotected areas that are c) Formulate a biosafety policy and compatible with other forms of regulations. land use, such as tourism, to provide economic justification for d) Improve and strengthen the conservation and sufficient existing legal and administrative revenue to pay for the machinery to ensure that management of the resource. biotechnology-related processes and products are relatively safe c) Formulate a wildlife utilisation with regard to both human health policy. and the environment, in particular genetically modified organisms. d) Develop a policy for integrated coastal and wetland management. 3.4.5 Indigenous Knowledge and Local Communities e) Develop the necessary subsidiary legislation under the Fisheries Act 3.4.5.1 Issues and the Maritime Zones Act and the Wildlife Act in order to Local communities have used, managed implement the provisions of these and conserved natural resources over the laws to regulate the management centuries. They have developed of terrestrial and aquatic cultivated plants, domestic animals, resources. medicines, perfumes, dyes, building materials, etc from the biodiversity f) Review land legislation provisions surrounding them. Once the land or its relating to wildlife conservation products are used by other cultures, in multiple land use areas. however, the local commrunities rarely get any recognition or remuneration. In g) Review policies and legislation on fact, many traditional communities are provision of compensation for pushed away from the land resources damages and deaths caused by they nurtured in the name of development wildlife. or conservation. 3.4.4 Biotechnology 3.4.5.2 Recommendations 3.4.4.1 Issues a) Involve local communities in Biotechnology is rapidly gaining management and useof biological importance in all spheres of development. resources. Kenya is involved both as a rich genetic resource base and future recipient of b) Respect and incorporate the biotechnological inovations. Yet policies values, knowledge systems and on biotechnology development have not priorities of local communities in been well articulated, particularly the biodiversity conservation and biosafety policy. Legislation in the area management. of biotechnology is inadequate. c) Protect and incorporate 3.4.4.2 Recommendations indigenous intellectual property rights of local communities within a) Formulateacomprehensivepolicy the law as a step towards pertaining to the development of - sustainable development through biotechnology, including the the involvement and strengthening of institutions and empowerment of local human resource development. communities. b) Share results and benefits arising d) Protect sacred places and areas of from biotechnologies based upon cultural importance as communal genetic resources from the land or village parks, as national country. monuments under the Antiquities 38 Biodiversiry The Kenya National Environment Action Plan and Monuments Acts, or other f) Incorporate traditional values and long-term protection. knowledge systems into biodiversity conservation e) Devise a new category of protected programmes. areas, where local communities are the managers of their environ- 3.5.1.2 Selected Priority Activities ment. These areas will become Requiring Funding resource centres for genetic material and for information on a) Survey and document the how to manage the ecosystem. composition, distribution, structure, functions, use and value of biodiversity. 3.5 PLAN OF ACTION b) Assess causes of threats to 3.5.1 Genes, Species and Ecosystems biodiversity, including population pressures, food production 3.5.1.1 Actions Which Can Be Taken methods such as irrigation in arid Immediately and semi arid lands, foreign debt servicing, commercial land use a) Formulate a biodiversity strategy practices, over-harvesting, to maintain, use and preserve vulnerability of populations of Kenya's remarkable biodiversity. certain species, climatic changes and the introduction of alien b) Treat biodiversity conservation species. and economic development as integral aspects of the same c) Control and reverse loss of process of sustainable biodiversity, and take measures development. to protect genes, species, habitats and ecosystems, on site whenever c) Measure the value of standing, possible, and off site where unexploited resources, and necessary. especially biodiversity, in economic terms. d) Expand ex situ conservation efforts, such as gene banks and d) Establish a system of incentives botanical gardens. and dis-incentives so that resource conservers are rewarded and e) Promote the use of native species, resource abusers are penalised. establish realistic harvest levels of wild species, including ex situ e) Take urgent action to conserve plantations and regulatory areas of outstanding biodiversity mechanisms, and explore new value. Place critical and fragile markets for wild products. unprotected forests, including coastal forests, under some form 3.5.1.3 Some Long-Term Priorities of protection, with provision for sustainable use by neighbouring a) Change the behaviour of people communities. Coastalsitesinneed and institutions, so that they of immediate protection include become biodiversity conservers some Kaya forests, Mwangea Hill and not overusers. and Kilibasi Hill, and sites with unique plants (especially the rock b) Review agricultural and energy outcrops of Chasimba, policy to take biodiversity Mwarakaya, Pangani and Kambe, conservation concerns into and river gorges of the Rare, Njora, consideration. Ndzovuni, Lwandani and Kombeni rivers). Biodiversity 39 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan 3.5.2 Forestry wood production on private land. 3.5.2.1 Actions Which Can Be Taken g) Improve management of large- Immediately scale subsistence and commercial use of forest produce through a) Use the guidelines set out in the appropriate marketing, licensing Kenya Forestry Master Plan, and policing. Maximise revenue Kenya Indigenous Forest Conser- collection for sustainable vation Project, Kenya Forestry management. Development Project, etc. to determine the future management h) Encourage more efficient use of strategies of the forest sector. wood through integrated industrial use. b) Conserve unique ecosystems and control excisions of forest reserves. 3.5.2.3 Some Long Term Priorities Strictly enforce the policy on protection of forests important for a) Strengthen institutional collabo- biodiversity, soil and water, and ration for forest management; support low impact eco-tourism particularly planning in all aspects in the same areas. of the forestry sector at local, district and national levels; to c) Involve industry and the private incorporate recommendations of sector in policy development, different parties, including rural planning, management, etc. communities; and to develop strategies for multiple-use 3.5.2.2 Selected Priority Activities combining conservation with Requiring Funding utilisation. a) Encourage theuse ofothersources b) Develop methods for involving of bioenergy other than woodfuels, forest-adjacent communities in and more efficient use of energy. forest management; and find lasting and fair solutions to the b) Encourage local authorities, problems of the landless forest- government departments, and dwellers and forest squatters. industries, etc., to conserve indigenous forests. c) Political commitment and adequate budgetary provisions are c) Encourage use of non-wood forest essential for the implementation products such as honey and eco- of this action plan. tourism. 3.5.3 Wildlife and Fisheries d) Improve forest management to maximise production, including 3.5.3.1 Actions Which Can Be Taken better use of non-forested land (no Immediately more indigenous forest should be cleared for plantations), and a) Encourage local communities' multiple use of planted areas. participation in wildlife conser- Allow recovery of over-exploited vation and ensure that wildlife areas. contributes to their welfare. e) Review plantation establishment b) Formulate a national wildlife methods, to reverse the current utilisation policy. decline in areas under production. c) Develop strategies for conser- f) Provide incentives for on-farm tree vation of endangered fish species, planting; for development of with special attention to Lake industrial plantations; and for Victoria. 40 Biodiversity The Kenya National Environment Action Plan 3.5.3.2 Selected Priority Activities 3.5.4 Biotechnology Requiring Funding 3.5.4.1 Actions Which Can Be Taken a) Assess the status of all vital Immediately habitats in the country and prepare plans for conservation and a) Develop and strengthen linkages management. Include viable, between research institutions and representative samples of all the private sector. habitat types within protected areas. b) Review existing and proposed intellectual property rights b) Compile inventories of plants, systems to provide access to animal and microbial species with biotechnology. special emphasis on identification of species that are vulnerable, c) Formulate scientific criteria for the threatened and endangered. safe use of genetically modified -- organisms (GMOs); and make c) Protect local communities and prior informed consent a pre- their properties from injury and requisite for all field testing of damage from wildlife. CMOs. d) Undertake a cost benefit study on d) Promote public education and wildlife conservation with a view awareness at all levels on the to equitably sharing wildlife, fish relative benefits and risks of and marine life benefits with local biotechnology. communities. 3.5.4.2 Selected Priority Activities e) Undertake research into wildlife Requiring Funding diseases and their impact on livestock, and research on a) Enhance research and develop- conservation and management of ment and monitoring in wildlife populations. biotechnology and biosafety. f) Strengthen the National Oil Spill b) Train more scientists . and Response Committee and the technicians in biotechnology. national offshore monitoring capacity. c) Create a biotechnology enhance- ment fund to provide venture g) Develop fish ladders or other capital for biotechnology research means to enable fish to move up and innovation. and down rivers with hydro- electric dams. d) Create institutions or committees to manage biosafety issues 3.5.3.3 Some Long-Term Priorities including implementing provi- sions of the Convention on a) Harmonise the different wildlife Biological Diversity while at the conservation and development same time ensuring the safety of activities, and programmes in both humans and the environment. protected and dispersal areas and determine optimal land use. e) Develop inexpensive biofertilizers Harmonise the contributions by for common food crops various institutions to minimise incorporating known rhizobia and conflict and increase efficiency. mycorrhiza strains, increase animal resistance to pests, disease b) Promote the development, and drought conditions; and diversification, conservation and develop other practical appli- management of the nation's cations of biotechnology. fisheries resources. Biodiversity 41 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan 3.4.5.3 Some Long-Term Priorities workers, targeted at different audiences of different literacy a) Use Kenya's microbial resources levels, written in a language to develop an industrial base. understandable by the target groups and using their local 3.5.5 Indigenous Knowledge and Local species and names. Communities d) Encourage local communities to 3.5.5.1 Actions Which Can Be Taken develop projects that promote Immediately conservation work; such as tree nurseries for medicinal and food a) Protect sacred places and areas of plants, kitchen gardens for local cultural importance as communal vegetables, seed gathering for sale. land, village parks or as national monuments under the Antiquities e) Reduce degradation by livestock and Monuments Act. and charcoal burning in marginal areas by encouraging alternative b) Involve communities, especially forms of livelihood. women, in decision-making and in management of local f) Establish a system for breeders to conservation and development buy seed and stock from farmers issues and projects. for breeding programmes. Farmers should be given c) Encourage dialogue between incentives to maintain varieties of conservation agencies and seeds of indigenous plants and communities. local varieties of crops for planting. d) Sensitise Kenyans on the value of biological resources, indigenous g) Document traditional knowledge knowledge and cultural practices. in the use and management of biological resources. 3.5.5.2 Selected Priority Activities Requiring Funding h) Establish mechanisms to reward communities for useful a) Devise a new category of protected indigenous knowledge imparted. areas, where local communities are the managers of their 3.5.5.3 Some Long-Term Priorities environment. These areas will be resource centres for genetic a) Develop standard names for most material and for information on species of plants and animals. how to manage the ecosystem. Where the English name is lacking, the Swahili name should be taken, b) Re-organise community training or failing that the commonest local programmes to cover all aspects name. of biodiversity conservation, including indigenous knowledge, and management using the participatory approach. Other recommendations affecting communities can be found in Chapter 5, Chapter 6, and c) Produce educational materials for Chapter 9. communities and extension 42 Biodiversity The Kexya Ntonal Enviroonnst Acion Plan 4.1 CURRENT STATUS Underground water exists in most parts of the country. However, there are 4.1.1 Water Availability constraints in tapping this resource, wide variations in water quality, and Water is a scarce resource, yet it is vital uncertainty over the rate of recharge. for the sustenance of all life. The estimated total annual water potential in Poor distribution and unreliability of Kenya far exceeds the total annual rainfall coupled with lack of planning for demand. However, in reality access to the rising water demand results in water water is restricted in space, time and shortages. quality. Generally, the quality of river water in The mean annual rainfall over Kenya is Kenya is good. However, there has been estimated at 621mm while the mean cases of local pollution, particularly annual volume of rainwater is estimated where there are intensive industrial, as 360,000 million cubic metres. The agricultural or human settlement amount of rainfall that contributes to the activities. River water is generally neutral surface and groundwater resources-is__t-o slightly alkaline with some rivers estimated to range from 250mm to 750mm having slightly acidic headwaters. The in arid and semi-arid areas, and from concentration of metal ions in most rivers 1000mm to 1690mm in the coastal belt, is low. the highlands and the Lake Victoria basin. However, the actual contribution is less Soil erosion is a major problem in many due to evapo-transpiration. river catchment areas. In fact the total sediment load transported by many rivers The surface water potential from the is very high in the middle and lower perennial rivers has been estimated as reaches, particularly during the rainy 19,590 million cubic metres, which season. This has direct impact on the represents about 18% of the national water quality and the life of reservoirs annual rainfall. Its availability for socio- and irrigation channels, and the life of economic and ecological demands is aquatic ecosystems in general. primarily influenced by its quantitive distribution in space and time, and its The information available on quality. The distribution countrywide bacteriological quality of most river varies from one drainage basin to another. waters is scanty. However, with the The surface runoff and groundwater increased use of river water by people, recharge rate are influenced by variation livestock and wildlife, the total coliform in rainfall intensity, soil types, vegetation counts is expected to be high. cover, and presence or absence of wetlands. The fresh water Lake Victoria supports a large population, farming activities, The annual groundwater potential has fishing for subsistence, sale and export, been estimated as 619 million cubic metres and light industries. The fresh water of 31% of which is in deep seated aquifers, Lake Naivasha is used for intensive exploitable through boreholes and 69% horticulture. Water quality in most other located in shallow aquifers exploitable Kenyan lakes ranges from moderately to through shallow wells. Supply and highly alkaline, and hence most lakes are distribution of groundwater is influenced of little importance as sources of water by geomorphological factors and seepage for immediate use. However, they have rates which are influenced by rainfall economic, hydrological and ecological intensity, type and expanse of vegetation importance, including their richness in cover, and presence of wetlands. biodiversity. Water Resourcces 43 The Kenya Natioal Environment Action Plan AsubstantialproportionofKenya'swater the multi-sectoral uses of water have resources is found in wetlands (including created competition among the various smaller lakes and seasonal wetlands) water users without due regard to the which cover 2 to 3% of the country's need for ecological sustenance or the surface area. Wetlands also play an needs of downstream users. This pattern important role in groundwater recharge poses serious management problems. and discharge, water purification, pollutant removal and sediment trapping. 4.1.3 Recommendations The area of wetlands in Kenya has been shrinking, due to climatic changes, a) Diagnose the relationships overuse of wetland resources, and between climatic factors and conversion to agriculture and other uses. stream flow variability of the major drainage basins 4.1.2 Drainage Basins in the country, and develop and evaluate specific quantitative The drainage system of Kenya is indicators of the determined and influenced by the Great vulnerability of hydrologic Rift Valley running approximately north systems to climate. to south. From the fla'nks of the rift valley, water flows westwards to Lake Victoria b) Undertake water quality and eastwards to the Indian Ocean with assessment throughout the the rift valley itself having an internal country. drainage system. Kenya's drainage systems consist of five major basins, c) Conducta survey to determine the namely: Lake Victoria; Rift Valley; Athi full potential of water resources and coastal area south of Sabaki; Tana in the country. River; and Ewaso Ngiro and north eastern. These basins contain the bulk of d) Prioritise water allocation in Kenya's inland water resources. The quantity and quality according to geological, topographical and climatic domestic, commercial, factors influence the natural availability agricultural and industrial needs and distribution of water with the rainfall and ecological sustenance. distribution having the major influence. The quality and quantity of water varies e) Assess underground water seasonally from basin to basin, but their availability and quality, especially average yields have been estimated (Table in ASAL areas. 4.1). 0 Identify, map, and protect water Table 4.1: The Distribution of water resources by catchment areas. major drainage basins in Kenya. g) Make environmental impact SAFEY1ELDINM3 PERDAY assessment (EIA) a pre-condition Basin Surface Water Ground-water for approval of water related projects; and require post Lake Basin 11,993,184 118,622 investment impact assessment for Rift Valey 211,680 318,192 all water related operations. Athi River 582,336 22Z,319oprtns Tana River 71,841,600 431,499 Ewaso Ng'iro 674,7S4 602,281 h) Conduct a survey to identify, map and describe wetland resources. Source.-Natioxal Water Master Plasl Study 1992. 4.2 GROUNDWATER The basins have become focal points of regional development, thereby attracting 4.2.1 Current Status intensive multiple land use which has accelerated environmental degradation Groundwater is the most universally through siltation, water pollution and available supply of water. It is the changes in flooding frequency. Further, subsurface water that accumulates in the 44 Water Resources The Kenya National Environnwnt Action Plan THE MAIN DRAINAGE BASINS OF KENYA 4 LTakentra Drainage Basin.=# tntema?enaI boundary.\ . 36 00E uH 40wE~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'0' xxc NhataI ~tU Werw Pan (19921 Figre 4.1. hlle Main Drainage Basins Map of Kenya Water Resourcces 45 The Kenya Natioal Enironment Action Plan rocks of the earth's structure by faults and fractures occur, groundwater percolation from the surface. It is usually occur in deep horizons. Aquifers are clean and free from pathogens as it has confined. Yield, depth to aquifers and been naturally filtered as it passes static water level vary within rocks. through subsurface rock materials. Its surface discharge include fresh water Sedimentary rock areas cover 55% of springs and hot springs, among others. Kenya, predominantly in the eastern, parts. The sediments are loose and The water may, however, be permeable. The aquifers are generally contaminated as a result of the abstraction shallow and unconfined. The water in method or polluted by surface water these rocks is salty but the origin of its entering the well. Where the water salinity is not fully known, but is believed collects, is referred to as an aquifer. to be due to accumulation of solute Aquifers are of two types, confined and evaporate minerals within the sediments. unconfined. In a confined aquifer, the water-bearing layer is covered by an 4.2.2 Issues impermeable confining rock layer. The water in the aquifer is under pressure, Available data which is generally which is released only when the confining inadequate, indicates that most layer is punctured. An unconfined groundwatersuppliesinWestern,Central aquifer is one in which the ground water and Nyanza Provinces are generally soft pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure. with moderate alkalinity; chemically, the water is satisfactory for domestic Groundwater is extremely variable in purposes. In the Coast, Eastern and North chemical composition. The variation Eastern Provinces, the water is often occurs both spatially and seasonally. The saline and of poor quality. In these areas water's chemistry is essentially the water in most of the unprotected influenced by the geological formation in shallow wells is of poor bacteriological which the aquifer occurs. quality because of contamination by animal droppings and poor drainage/ 4.2.1.1 Hydro-geological Areas sanitary practices. The hydrogeological areas of Kenya can Onemajorproblem limitinggroundwater be classified into the following three exploitation is its mineral content. categories: volcanic rocks, pre-cambrian Fluoride concentrations exceeds the metamorphic basement Tocks and pre- World Health Organisation (WHO) cambrian intrusive rocks; and drinking water guideline of 1.5 mg/l in sedimentary rocks. many areas, especially in Nairobi, North Eastern and Rift Valley Provinces. Volcanic rocks cover about 26% of the Removal of fluoride is technically country, more commonly in the western difficult. half of Kenya. Groundwater is stored typically in the old weathered surfaces In the western and south-eastern parts of between lava flows and older formations the country, high contents of iron is as well as between successive lava flows. common. Iron concentrations of more Fractures, faults, fissures and joints are than 0.3 mg/l is evidenced by stains on also suitable for groundwater storage. laundry and plumbing fixtures in The groundwater in the volcanic area is addition to causing an undesirable taste. generally of bicarbonate type with low It is often deposited in pipes. Sodium total dissolved solids. There are local content in the ASAL waters far exceeds pockets of high fluoride content which the WHO taste threshold value of 200 are believed to- be of volcanic and mg/I. In fact, groundwater is classified fumarolic origin. into high or very high salinity and high or very high sodium content in ASAL Pre-cambrian rocks are widely areas. distributed in the central, western and north-western parts of Kenya and cover There are several environmental impacts approximately 17% of the country. Where which require consideration when setting 46 Water Resources The Kenya National Environment Action Plan up boreholes. First, lowering of the Ramsar Convention on W-tlands of groundwater head may affect the yield of International Importance as 'areas of other wells. For example, shallow (hand marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether dug) wells may fall dry; free flowing natural or artificial, permanent or artesian wells may stop flowing. Second, temporary, with water that is static or lowering the groundwater level may flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including cause damage to agricultural crops or the areas of marine water, the depth of which natural vegetation. at low tide does not exceed six metres". 4.2.3 Recommendations Wetlands are rich ecosystems which provide essential livelihood products and a) Assess the full potential of services, though their attributes that are groundwater countrywide. not directly related to human use are often not appreciated until a wetland is b) Enhance institutional capacities to destroyed or modified and when the assess and determine water quality restoration of wetlands to revive those throughout the country. functions proves very expensive or inconvenient. c) Protect boreholes, wells, and springs from pollution by, among The functions and values of Kenyan others, improving sanitation wetlands include: Groundwater recharge around them. and discharge, water purification, pollutant removal and sediment trapping, d) Require a brief environmental water storage, storm protection and impact assessment, or at least windbreak, shoreline stabilisation, consultation with other water biomass export in both marine and users in the area, before drilling a freshwater wetlands and microclimate borehole, especially in the ASAL stabilisation. and coastal areas. Some of the main products and uses e) Develop appropriate and include: water for people and livestock; affordable technologies for fishing grounds and fish larval feeding removing chemicals, salts, and grounds; mangrove timber, firewood and other impurities from under- other products; wildlife support, ground water. especially for survival in dry seasons and as habitats for water birds; sources of f) Carry out studies of aquifers and biodiversity - plants, animals, microbial ground water levels before and genetic resources; provision of food undertaking major agricultural for livestock, especially those in drier schemes. areas which act as refuges and sources of green feed; seasonal agriculture that does g) Take water availability and not convert wetlands or alter their management into consideration hydrological functions; wetland foods when planning industrial and plant products such as reeds, developments or manufacturing papyrus, rushes, ambatch, sedges and zones. grasses which are used for making roofs, walls, thatching, mats, baskets, ropes, boats, fish traps, and beehives, among 4.3 WETLANDS - others; medicinal wetland plants; water purification; transport; tourism and 4.3.1 Status and Issues recreation; sport fishing; mining for magadi and salt; clay for pottery and A substantial proportion of Kenya's water brick-making; and cultural and resources is found in wetlands, which ceremonial values. cover 2 to 3% of the country's surface area. Wetlands are places where water Wetlands in Kenya are diverse in type dominatestheecosystemforatleastsome and distribution, but no national of the year. These are defined by the inventory of their types, status and Water Resourcces The Kenya Natioal Enironment Action Plan location currently exists. popular tourist resort. There is increasing water abstraction for agriculture, The management of wetlands is currently particularly commercial flower, fruit, under various institutions whose vegetable and dairy farming. activities and mandates are Consequently, the lake is suffering from uncoordinated, overlapping and hence increasing deposits of agro-chemical ineffective. These ecosystems, having residues. The farming activities have multiple use values, require integrated significantly contributed to- the management and conservation destruction of the riparian vegetation and approaches. pose a serious threat to the quality of lake water. A 1929 agreement between the 4.3.1.1 Important Lakes government and the farmers governs the management of the lake, and the riparian Lake Victoria has numerous wetlands on owners are now drawing up plans for the edges of its shore and islands in more sustainable use. Kenya. These range from papyrus swamps to rocky or sandy beaches. The Lake Elmentaita is a shallow alkaline and wetlands are important for fish breeding unprotected lake with a depth of about 1 and growth; for filtering river waters; for m and an area of 18 km2. It often hosts a building materials and food; for wildlife; large number of flamingoes and is used and occasionally for tourism. as a breeding ground by White Pelicans and Greater Flamingoes. However, recent Lake Kanyabole occupies an area of human settlements and associated around 10.5 km2 adjoining the eastern activities around the lake, particularly side of the Yala Swamp near Lake poor cultivation methods, removal of Victoria. It is a refuge for some species of vegetation, uncontrolled grazing and fish that have disappeared from the main mining for magadi and salt contribute to Lake Victoria. Thus, it is especially environmental stress in and around the important for biodiversity. lake. There is need to consider a protection status for the lake. Lake Jipe is an internal drainage basin in Taita-Taveta District, on the Kenya! Lake Nakuru isa feeding ground forlarge Tanzania border. The lake anid its swamps numbers of flamingoes estimated cover approximately 75 km2. Lake Jipe sometimes up to two million, and other contains significant fisheries resources species of water birds. The lake is one of and is a refuge for wildlife from Tsavo the Ramsars convention sites. The major West National Park. The wetland is threats to the Lake Nakuru ecosystem changing from a lake to a swamp as include industrial wastes, domestic watershed erosion accelerates siltation. sewage, agricultural wastes from the It requires joint management between the surrounding farmlands and heavy two countries. tourism impact. Lake Nakuru National Park provides protection status to the Lake Chala is a crater lake north of Lake lake, but cannot protect it from pollution Jipe, also on the border with Tanzania. from outside the park. Its surface area is approximately 5.2 km2. The hotel/tourism developments on the Lake Baringo is another of the Rift Valley rim of the crater threatens the quality of lakes. It is rich in avifauna and scenic the water and the biodiversity it supports, beauty. Consequently, the lake is an especially the small fisheries. There is important and growing tourist need for developing joint management destination. Presently, this lake is strategies between Kenya and Tanzania. unprotected. The lake annually receives heavy deposits of silt as a consequence of Lake Magadi lies 85 km south-west of the widespread soil erosion on its rainfall Nairobi. It is 29 km long and 4.5 km catchment zone. Its water is turbid and wide. The sodium sesqui-carbonate its surroundings have no protection deposits of the lake bed are commercially status; there is need to consider protected exploited; and it has no protection status. status for the lake. Lake Naivasha is a fresh-water lake on the floor of the Rift Valley. The lake is a Lake Bogoria is an alkaline lake fed by 48 Water Resources The Kenya National Environment Action Plan hot springs, geysers and fumaroles along been reclaimed for agriculture. its shore. It is protected as a national Reclamation is a serious threat to the reserve by the Baringo County Council. future of this unique ecosystem. Lake Turkana, the largest lake in the Rift Valley Basin, receives most of its water Shompole swamp and floodplain is fromRiverOmo,withacatchmentwhich located south of Magadi. It is an include parts of the Ethiopian highlands. important area for livestock grazing and Fisheries resources of the lake are wildlife. Both the floodplain and the currently under-developed for swamp are threatened by the commercial exploitation. There are development of a water project which extensive seasonal floodplains around the will alter the flow and flood regime of the lakeshore and in the Omo delta. Uaso Nyiro River. This development is Protected areas include Sibiloi National now under review following a Park on the north east shore, Mount Kulal comprehensive environmental impact Biosphere Reserve and South Island and assessment. Central Island National Parks. Lorian swamp is an extensive wetland Lake Ol'Bolossat is a shallow fresh-water situated in north eastern Kenya, fed by lake consisting mainly of marshes and the northern Uaso Nyiro. It supports a located in Nyandarua district at an large population of livestockand wildlife. altitude of 2340; the lake is a breeding The Lotikipi Plain, west of Lake Turkana, site for many species of water birds. It is a flat floodplain in a semi-desert zone. has been recommended that this lake and It is fed by seasonal rivers. There is little swamp be protected by gazettement as a human activity on it at the moment, but national park; however, much of the lake there is need to consider its protection area has recently been demarcated for status. settlement. 4.3.1.3 Seasonal and Temporary Lake Kamnarok is situated on the border Wetlands of Elgeyo Marakwet and Baringo Districts. It is part of the KamnarokGame Seasonal and temporary wetlands occur Reserve. There is need for more studies where internal drainage allows water to to characterise its-values, functions and collect in some seasons or in some years. potentials. Seasonal wetlands are found all over the country, and in different ecosystems. 4.3.1.2 Important Swamps Some examples are the seasonal rock pools and springs in the southern part of Saiwa Swamp National Park is a protected Nairobi, the Indachant Swamp west of riverine wetland swamp which has a good the Ngong Hills, and Manguo Swamp in diversity of wetland vegetation. It is Limuru. These small wetlands are famous for its sitatunga antelopes, and is important in collecting and storing a refuge for riverine gallery forest rainfall and providing support to wildlife. primates and wetland birds - including They have a remarkably high level of Crowned Cranes - in a largely farming biodiversity, and many are worthy of area. The swamp is threatened by land conservation. At the moment, however, use activities upstream which might alter they are largely ignored by land use the river inputs and consequently the planners. integrity of the wetland. 4.3.2 Important Coastal Wetlands Yala swamp is a riparian lake wetland that is notable for its biodiversity. It is The Tana Delta is the largest delta formed by the lower reaches of the Yala ecosystem in Kenya and encompasses a River and the delta of the Nzoia River in large number of habitats, including Siaya and Busia Districts. Much of the riverine forests. The delta acts as a barrier wetland is a papyrus swamp and various against tidal action and maintains the submerged and floating plants give rise fresh/salt water balance of the area. It is to many habitats for fish and other a habitat for endemic species as well as wetland animals. Part of the swamp has migratory birds from Europe and Asia. Water Resourcces 49 The Kenya Natioal Enironmewn Action Plan Human impact is mainly traditional land- conservation of wetland resources. use practices of small-scale agriculture and pastoralism; the delta is an important A national wetlands conservation and dry season grazing ground for livestock management programme should aim to: from all over the region. Outside the minimise net loss of the nation's wetlands delta proper, areas of high biodiversity and maintain their ecological functions are the Tana River riverine forests and and values; utilise the existing wetlands numerous permanent and seasonal sustainably and restore those which have oxbow and spring fed lakes. become degraded; develop community wetland conservation programmes, and Mangroves, sea grass beds and coral train wetland scientists and managers. -- reefs are important inter-tidal marine wetlands that are widespread on the In order to reduce conflicts in wetland Kenya Coast. They are vital for the use, it is necessary to carry out an reproduction of many marine organisms, assessment of the physical suitability, including growth of commercially- expected benefits, community important marine fish. Sea grasses and preferences and environmental impact seaweeds also play a significant role in prior to the initiation of large scale the transfer of energy in the lagoon and programmes involving wetlands. reef areas. The following guidelines should be These intertidal wetland systems must considered in wetlands management and be regarded as some of Kenya's most conservation. Target wetlands to be valuable ecosystems - both for their demarcated into clear zones for different products and for their intrinsic values uses, to provide for multiple use and and biodiversity. Some of the coral, reduce user conflicts. Strategies to be mangroves and sea grasses ecosystems formulated should provide for long-term are protected by the several marine sustainable use and management of water national parks and reserves. catchments, watersheds and wetlands. Management strategies for wetlands Sandy beaches are important nesting sites shared between Kenya and her for five species of sea turtles found along neighbours require harmonised the Kenyan coast. Sea turtles are implementation through regional endangered worldwide. Beaches are also cooperation and coordination. important areas for recreation and tourism development. The effectiveness of the above strategies can be enhanced by strengthening the The coastal wetlands of Kenya face capabilities of implementing and serious environmental threats. The main management institutions under whose threats include over-fishing, pollution, jurisdiction the wetlands are presently destruction of corals, dynamiting, and occurring e.g. KWS, local authorities, illegal harvesting of marine resources DDC, LBDA, TARDA, CDA, etc. Those such as coral and shells. wetlands which occur in forest reserves should be managed by the Forest 4.3.3 Integrated Approach to Wetland Department. Management and Conservation These institutions can enhance the Fresh water wetlands have abundant sustainability of their programmes by water and alluvial soils which are good involving communities in the for agriculture. Wetlands also harbour management of wetlands. For example, commercially exploitable species, are rich alternative livelihood should be in biodiversity and have immense considered in light of envisaged potential for tourism development. management strategies for sustainable These qualities make them attractive for utilisation of wetland and small lake exploitation. On-going development resources. Local communities that have programmes, land use activities and exclusive rights to theiradjacent wetland recent initia-tives are seriously resources have typically evolved effective threatening sustainable management and conservation measures and therefore 50 Water Resources The Kenya National Environment Acton Plan management of such wetlands by the a view to identifying or establishing community should be given serious appropriate institutions with adequate consideration. capacities to effectively develop and manage wetlands and marine resources. 4.3.4 Wetlands Information Systems, Training and Institutions 4.3.5 Recommendations The available information on Kenya's a) Conduct a national survey and wetlands is limited and there is urgent establish an inventory of wetlands need to gather, store, analyse, document in order to identify, map, and and disseminate such information. In describe existing wetland order to realise this objective, there is resources. need to establish a national institution that will undertake this responsibility as b) Formulate a national policy on the well as coordinate activities carried out management and conservation of on wetlands by local and international wetlands. organisations. In the meantime, research and conservation activities being c) Develop integrated management undertaken by institutions such as the plans for sustainable and multiple World Conservation Union (IUCN), use of wetlands. International Wetlands and Waterfowl Research Bureau (IWRB), and Kenya d) Develop integrated management Wetlands Working Group (KWWG), plans for wetlands shared between should be encouraged. Kenya and her neighbours through regional cooperation. Training for managers and researchers on wetlands and lakes is important. e) Promote community participation Because none of the courses taught in in wetlands conservation and state universities in East Africa are management. specifically targeted for wetland managers or researchers, there is need f) Make environmental impact for East African universities, institutes- assessment (EIA) a pre-requisite and polytechnics to cooperate to train for development projects that may wetland managers and researchers. affect wetlands, and carry out post development environment The assessment of Kenya's marine monitoring. resources is carried out by several government institutions, mainly the g) Take environmental Kenya Marine Fisheries Research Institute considerations into account during (KEMRI) whose primary concerns are inter-basin water transfer. research on marine biota limited to the continental shelf. The Kenya Forestry h) Minimise net loss of the nation's Research Institute (KEFRI) is primarily wetlands and water catchments. interested in the conservation and management of the mangrove and i) Develop an integrated coastal lowland forests; while the Kenya Wildlife management plan to address Service (KWS) is responsible for the biodiversity, water resources, assessment and management of marine tourism, pollution, human resources within the marine parks and settlement and industry. reserves. j) Implement mitigating measures to Kenya's wetlands and marine resources reduce the magnitude of land- are managed on an ad-hoc basis as based pollutants discharging into presently there is no single institution the coastal and marine legally mandated to develop and manage environment. these resources. The institutions involved k) Establish an information and are limited in their scope and capacities. documentation centre to enhance This situation needs to be reviewed with data and information gathering, Water Resourcces 51 The Kenya Na*ioal Enironment Action Plan analysis, compilation and degraded quality. It contains high dissemination. concentration of salts, and residues of agro-chemicals including pesticides and l) Study and incorporate traditional fertilisers. Some of the more persistent management of wetlands by chemicals remain active and in solution communities. in the irrigation water and pass out of the irrigation scheme and into the receiving m) Train more wetland scientists and water where their presence may limit the managers. uses to which the water can be put. Irrigated agriculture has been practised 4.4 IRRIGATION AND HYDRO ELE- worldwide for a long time without the CTRIC POWER DEVELOPMENT use of agricultural biocides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides and molluscides), 4.4.1 Irrigation Status and Issues but since their development and widespread availability these chemicals Irrigation has been seen as a way to have become an integral part of modern deliver water to potential cropland at an agricultural practice. Although acceptable cost. The adverse impacts are immediate high yields have been realised poorly understood and usually from the use of biocides, it has been overlooked. They include: waterlogging, accompanied by pest resurgence, salinisation or alkalisation of soil; development of insect resistant strains, diversion of water from downstream destruction of agriculturally useful insect users and ecosystems; concentrations of predators and aquatic biota. mineral salts and agro-chemicals discharged into receiving waters; an It is also important to note that many of increase in diseases such as malaria and the biocides commonly used in bilharzia (schistosomomiasis); and loss agriculture are extremely toxic to of plant and animal habitats. humans, livestock, other mammals, birds and fish. There is accumulation of these Diversionofwaterintoirrigationschemes biocides in food products and in certain usually has a negative impact on the cases this has been exceeding WHO downstream human and ecological recommended levels. communities. Such impacts are seasonally variable. In addition, 4.4.2 Hydro-electric Power Status and diversions which drastically reduce the Issues dry season flows in rivers also pose health hazards if stretches of stagnant water are Five dams turn water into power as River created where disease vectors can breed Tana falls from the mountains to the sea. and multiply. Other factors causing They are Masinga, Kamburu, Gitaru, water-related diseases in irrigation areas Kindaruma and Kiambere. Another dam include inadequate supply of drinking is planned at Grand Falls on the Tana. water and poor environmental awareness Together the five dams supply 60% of the of the communities. electricity used in Kenya. The dam on Turkwel Gorge also supplies electric As rivers become increasingly used as power,whiletheoneatNdakainisupplies receiving waters for effluents of various water to the city of Nairobi for domestic kinds and from various sources the need and industrial consumption. They also to maintain adequate volume in the river provide other services; the dams store for dilution purposes becomes more water and control floods; supply water critical. Thus the demand for irrigation for horticulture and livestock; and form water must not be given overriding wetland habitats and recreational sites. priority over compensation flows if the river is to continue to cleanse itself The dams also create a number of social adequately and be fit for use by and environmental problems. People are downstream consumers. displaced and plants and animals lost when the valleys are flooded. Flood Waterleaving an irrigation scheme is ofa control has disrupted downstream 52 Water Resources The Kenya National Environment Action Plan agriculture and ecosystems adapted to 4.5 WATER RESOURCES periodic flooding. Soil erosion in the MANAGEMENT catchments deposit silt in the dams, reducing their "lifespan" and sometimes 4.5.1 Current Status clogging turbines. There are over 30 institutions, both 4.4.3 Recommendations governmental and non-governmental, that play various roles in the water sector. a) Require environmental impact These institutions lack policy guidelines, assessment for all irrigation and elaborate legal framework, human and hydro-power projects and a post fiscal capacity to effectively undertake investment environmental impact their respective responsibilities. This monitoring programme. scenario can generate duplication of efforts, conflicts, and non-accountability. b) Plan irrigation and hydro-power projects with careful assessment Management of water resources in Kenya of soil types and suitability, dry is governed by the Water Act, Cap. 372, and wet season water flow, and whose custodian is the Water biodiversity. Apportionment Board. The Ministry of Land Reclamation, Regional and Water c) Provide extension services in Development (MLRRWD) is the overall irrigation projects to promote authority charged with planning and judicious use of agro-chemicals, management of water resources. Other and if possible, reduce their use. major players in the water sector are the Water Conservation and Pipeline d) Encourage maintenance of Corporation (WCPC), the Tana and Athi irrigation channels to avoid RiversDevelopmentAuthority(TARDA), stagnation of water, and establish the Lake Basin Development Authority infrastructure such as clinics to (LBDA), and the National Irrigation treat diseases and facilities Board (NIB). The local authorities (including constructed wetlands) (municipalities, towns, counties) and to clean up effluents. several NGOs are also involved in water management. A national water master e) Involve local communities in plan has recently been prepared. planning and management of irrigation projects. In order to quantify available water and to sustainably exploit and apportion the f) Provide adequate flow resource, water level gauging stations downstream to maintain have been established countrywide to downstream ecological habitats monitor hydrological and water quality and water supplies to users, variations and characteristics of springs, especially in the more critical dry rivers and lakes. Data processing and season low-flow periods. interpretation is carried out by MLRRWD. The data is utilised by the Water g) Maintain adequate volume in the Apportionment Board in issuing permits river for dilution purposes. for water use. Abstractions are controlled by the Water Apportionment Board h) Enhance public awareness on the through officers of the MLRRWD. health, sanitation, and Groundwater assessment is being done environmental impacts of on demand basis. Monitoring is based on irrigation water and systems. available information from operational boreholes. i) Study the ecological and agricultural benefits of periodic The Water Apportionment Board has flooding, and adjust dam gazetted certain areas as groundwater management to allow for conservation areas in order to prevent regulated flooding downstream. over-abstraction. In all cases, Water Resourcces 53 The Kenya Natioal Environment Action Plan authorisation from the Board is required and especially latrine building campaigns for sinking boreholes and abstraction of do not involve the community groundwater from deep based aquifers. adequately, and fail to take account of cultural practices and customs as they Some of the problems which have been relate to sanitation. experienced in water resources management in this country can be 4.5.3 Recommendations attributed to the weaknesses of the Water Act. They include: over-abstraction a) Introduce suitable tariffs for water without due regard to the needs of usage and sewage discharge. downstream users and ecological sustenance; lack of legally binding b) Develop and/or improve the environmental requirements to be existing water resources monitor- complied with in water development ing systems. activities; and duplication of responsibility leading to lack of c) Introduce incentives for recycling accountability. water. 4.5.2 General Management and d) Improve sanitation in municipa- Sanitation Issues lities, towns, urban centres, and trading centres to be in line with The country's existing hydrological and development of water supply. water quality monitoring network is inadequately equipped and funded. The e) Review and enforce the national gauging network lacks sufficient financial drinking water standards, and resources for maintenance and service. effluent discharge standards, The stations are also short of taking into account WHO appropriately trained personnel for the guidelines, available water quality demanding jobs they are expected to and use of appropriate technology. perform. f) Delineate institutional responsi- Existing water facilities under the bilitiesandclearoperational terms management of municipalities, counties, of reference to avoid duplication cooperatives, NGOs and community of roles and conflicting interests, groups are usually small, some are poorly and strengthen institutional equipped and others are lacking capacities. altogether. These facilities require rehabilitation, expansion, and equipping, g) Strengthen and promote the role especially within municipalities. Towns of community groups, women and lacking these facilities should be provided youth to fully participate in health, with such facilities in the shortest time sanitation, water resources and possible. environmental management and conservation. Some of the problems affecting water facilities are due to the people charged h) Strengthen the various water withmanagingthem. Forexample,many testing laboratories through the of them do not have the training and provision of adequately trained experience to maintain and service the personnel and necessary facilities. Insomeinstances,maintenance laboratory equipment, these in personnel are lacking altogether. turn would strengthen field operations, especially water The quality of sanitation provided affects quality monitoring and hydrolo- the quality of both underground and gical surveys. The laboratories surface water in densely populated areas. should also research into suitable In urban areas, most sewerage systems technologies to support standards have been unable to cope with population on drinking water, effluent increase. Design standards are outdated. discharge, solid waste disposal In rural areas, use of on-site sanitation and waste water management. 54 Water Resources The Kenya National Environment Action Plan i) Introduce incentives for installing water resources in the basin. proper facilities for pollution Consequently, the lake ecosystem has control, and for the usage of undergone significant changes, particu- cleaner process technologies. larly during the last three decades. Likewise, promote use of penalties and sanctions to deter pollution of 4.5.4.1 Land Use Impacts water resources. About 40% of the Lake Victoria basin is j) Establish a water resources under agriculture and the rest is under a department to develop modalities mixture of unimproved pasture and for integrated water resources natural vegetation. The human management at basin level; and to population has been expanding rapidly, review and harmonise existing resulting in increased agricultural and legal instruments that directly or livestock activities. Some of these indirectly relate to water, activities include clearing of forests in including the Lands Act, with a water catchment areas and overgrazing. view to making them more The combined effect of these activities is effective and responsive to water increased soil erosion and pollution of and other environmental issues. the rivers and the lake. k) Enhance the training of specialised Crop production is increasingly applying personnel to manage water agro-chemicals, and substantial amounts resources at all levels, addition- of these agro-chemicals have found their ally, promote in-service training. way into watercourses. Besides, some cultivation methods lack soil 1) Review, improve, and enforce conservation preventive measures; thus, design and discharge standards of they facilitate soil erosion, especially sewerage systems in Kenya. during the rainy season. Soil management is not helped by customs and traditions m) Evolve a national management which favour large herds, irrespective of plan for environmental sanitation the land's carrying capacity. and solid waste collection and Overstocking of livestock has been disposal. increasing, resulting in overgrazing, which in turn leads to accelerated n) Study and use low-input waste devegetation and soil erosion. water management methods such as constructed wetlands. 4.5.4.2 Water Quality, Effluent Disposal 4.5.4 Management in the Lake Victoria and Flooding Basin Water quality has deteriorated due to Among the five basins, Lake Victoria is of increase in eutrophication, especially in special interest. Nearly half of the the Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria. The country's population live in this basin rivershave beenpollutedbyagricultural which is endowed with abundant water runoff and by effluents from industries. and other natural resources. It has For example, phosphates and nitrates immense potentials in terms of water input into the Winam Gulf have been resources, fisheries, biodiversity, very high and are considered the greatest agriculture and hydro-power, among threat to the lake water quality. others. While some of the resources have been exploited, many are still In addition, effluents discharged from undeveloped. However, the lower urban centres in the basin are major reaches of the basin have serious sources of pollution to the rivers and the environmental and health problems that lake. Although a few major towns have affect development. either sewage lagoons or conventional treatment facilities, the performance of Development inagriculture, industry and these facilities- are hampered by urban centres has had adverse effects on overloading and/or poor maintenance. Water Resourcces 55 The Kenya Natioal Environment Action Plan Most other towns discharge untreated or original 300 species of fish are now extinct partially treated effluents directly into or facing depletion. the lake or through the rivers draining into it. Other factors which have affected the status of lake and riverine fisheries in the Likewise, most agro-based industries in Lake Victoria basin are: overfishing by the basin lack waste water treatment use of small mesh nets and harvesting of facilities and like the towns discharge brood stocks; destruction of fish habitats their effluents directly into the lake or through river engineering; siltation due into the rivers feeding the lake. to deforestation, pollution, and water Unfortunately for the inhabitants of the hyacinth infestation. basin, these rivers are the principal sources of their drinking water. 4.5.4.5 Regional Cooperation Flooding is a recurring problem affecting Since Lake Victoria is shared among the Lake Victoria basin. In particular, the Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, regional Kano Plains on the eastern shores of cooperation is crucial to the management Winam Gulf are susceptible to annual of Africa's largest fresh-water lake. flooding from River Nyando. Flooding also affects the lakeshore areas where There is therefore need for regional clearing of vegetation has occurred, cooperation in controlling water hyacinth especially in Busia District. Flood control and pollution; conservation of Lake is therefore a priority concern because of Victoria fisheries; and afforestation and its frequency and the magnitude of the soil conservation programmes to protect damage it causes. the catchment areas. 4.5.4.3 Water Weeds 4.5.4.6 Recommendations Water weeds are gradually becoming a a) Formulate an integrated water problem in Kenya's inland freshwater resources development plan for bodies. Among the weeds, water hyacinth the Lake Victoria basin. (Eichhornia crassipes) has been spreading in Lake Victoria at a fast rate, with b) Assess the full water resources potential adverse effect on the potential of Lake Victoria basin. productivity of the lake through destruction of fish breeding areas, c) Initiate studies on water weeds blocking landing beaches and harbouring control, fisheries management and disease vectors. However, its biodiversity conservation. management would be inadequate without the cooperation of neighbouring d) Make environmental impact countries. assessment a pre-condition for approval of water related and 4.5.4.4 Fisheries Resources fisheries projects. Since the 1970s total fish catches have e) Identify, map, and protect water increased by between four and five times catchment areas. due to the introduction of exotic species such as Nile Perch (Mbuta). However, f) Develop plans and strategies for catch per fishing effort has been dropping, managing water pollution and indicating that the maximum sustainable sanitation for all urban centres in yield is below the present level of the Lake Victoria basin. exploitation. g) Develop strategies for controlling and managing floods in the basin. Furthermore, introduction of exotic species of fish has altered the food web h) Involve industries, local structure of Lake Victoria which has led authorities and local communities to a dramatic decline in diversity of indevelopingstrategiestomanage indigenous fish species. A number of the pollution and sanitation. 56 Water Resources The Kenya National Environmenw Action Plan i) Support cooperation with deterioration of fresh water quality and neighbouring countries in water quantity. quality studies, water hyacinth control and fisheries management. Threats to fresh water supplies, coastal and marine resources include domestic 4.5.5 Coastal and Marine Water and industrial pollution from coastal Management towns, land-based pollution from the hinterland and oil pollution. 4.5.5.1 Current Status Coastal towns and tourist-hotels generate The coastal and marine environment, domestic sewage which is discharged into which includes the land, shore, inter-tidal the sea with little or no treatment. Solid zone, exclusive economic zone (EEZ) and waste, sludges and spent chemicals all high seas, is endowed with abundant find their way into the sea. The rivers natural resources and a variety of emptying into the sea carry a heavy load ecosystems that are rich in biodiversity. of silt during the rainy season, and an These resources are of importance to increasing amount of agro-chemicals. Kenya's economy. In particular, they are Catastrophic pollution from an accidental a basis for the tourism industry which is oil spill is an ever present danger. Kenya's principal foreign exchange earner and one of the major employers. Reef fisheries of the inshore areas have Their socio-economic importance include been overexploited in many areas, with marine based industries, commerce, the exception of the marine national harbours and maritime activities. parks. The current fishing regime, which However, there are environmental and is poorly regulated, has resulted in the socio-economic problems that restrict the depletion of some fish stocks, particularly realisation of their full potential. the popular species. The demand forand consequent harvest of lobsters, crabs and Currently, several organisations are - prawns has reduced the population of involved in the management and use of these aquatic resources considerably, coastal and marine resources. Such especially lobsters. It may be necessary organisations include Ministry of Land to consider serious regulatory measures Reclamation, Regional and Water in the exploitation of lobsters and crabs, Development (MLRRWD), National and to have open and closed fishing Water Conservation and Pipeline seasons. Corporation (NWCPC), Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), Fisheries Department, Over-harvesting of mangrove trees and Kenya Ports Authority (KPA), Local conversion of mangrove forests to salt Government Authorities (municipalities, evaporation pans, industrial or tourist towns and counties), the Coast developments in parts of the coastal zone Development Authority (CDA) and has destroyed the breeding sites and NCOs. These institutions often have habitats of various marine life forms. Silt overlapping mandates, operations and at and sewage threaten the coral reefs, which times, conflicting interests. These pose stabilise the shores, nurtures biodiversity serious management problems. and provide an important tourist attraction. 4.5.5.2 Issues 4.5.5.3 Recommendations Shortage of freshwater supply is a critical problem affecting the coastal areas a) Assess current and future including urban centres and coastal freshwater demands, and explore islands. Fresh water is piped to Mombasa alternative freshwater sources from -the lower slopes of mount including possibilities for sea Kilimanjaro and Sabaki River with water desalination and rainwater frequent breakdowns and repairs. harvesting; and develop a Boreholes sunk too deep or too near the management plan forcoastal water shore risk salt-water intrusion, which is supply to alleviate the recurrent usually irreversible and leads to further water shortages. Water Resourcces 57 The Kenya Natioal Environment Action Plan b) Conduct comprehensive studies to j) Enhance awareness programmes generate data which can be used to inform tourists and local to develop strategies for the residents on what they can do to sustainable exploitation of coastal conserve water and other natural and marine resources. The study resources, including biodiversity. and strategies should include development plans for urban k) Review fisheries regulations and centres and the hotel industry; institute incentives and penalties management of harbours and to regulate lobster, crab, prawns ports; management of human and inshore fish harvests, settlements; management of including open and closed manufacturing zones; and seasons. biodiversity conservation. c) Review the roles and mandates of 4.6 ACTION PLANS the various institutions empowered to manage the coastal 4.6.1 Data/Information and marine resources with a view to streamlining their responsibi- 4.6.1.1 Selected Activities Requiring lities and operations as well as Funding strengthening theircapacities; and then enact a coastal and marine a) Establish a nationl inventory of resources management act. wetlands. d) Draw up suitable plans for the b) Assess the status and potential of provision of appropriate sewerage coastal fresh water sources and facilities and solid waste disposal their watershed areas. systems for all coastal towns. c) Determine the full potential of e) Assess the status and potential of water resources in Kenya coastal fresh water resources and associated watershed areas. d) Assess the full water resources potential for Lake Victoria. f) Strengthen the National Oil Spill Response Committee's capacity to e) Assess underground water cope with possible oil spill availabilityandquality,especially disasters. in ASAL areas. g) Put into place mitigating measures f) Enhance water quality assessment in order to reduce the magnitude throughout the country. of land-based pollutants discharging into the coastal and g) Identify, map and gazette water marine environment. catchment areas. h) Develop an integrated manage- h) Study aquifer and groundwater ment plan for coastal and marine levels before undertaking major resources, including a review of agricultural schemes. policy and legal mechanisms on water TesouTces, land tenure and 4.6.1.2 Some Long-Term Priorities land use, marine national parks and reserves, manufacturing and a) Diagnose the relationship between service industries, and fisheries. climate factors and stream flow variability and evaluate quantita- i) Promote community participation tive indicators for climate change in the management and and its effects. conservation of water resources to ensure sustainable use. 58 Water Resources The Kenya National Environment Action Plan 4.6.2 Policy' for realistic penalties. 4.6.2.1 Actions Which Can Be Taken c) Enact and/or review legislation Immediately to support policies on wetlands, coastal and marine resources, and a) Formulate a comprehensive on liquid, solid and hazardous national water policy, including wastes. water management in arid and semi-arid areas. d) Review land statutes that affect water resources to provide for b) Develop a comprehensive national effective and sustainable water policy on the management and safe resources and environmental disposal of liquid, solid and conservation and management. hazardous wastes. 4.6.4 Capacity Building c) Formulate a national policy on management, use and conserva- 4.6.4.1 Actions Which Can Be Taken tion of coastal and marine Immediately resources. a) Delineate institutional responsi- d) Establish a national policy on bilities and operational terms of disaster management. reference and roles in the water sector. e) Formulate a comprehensive national policy on the manage- b) Formulate an employment policy ment, use and conservation of for local authorities and water wetlands. management agencies. f) Develop a regional policy on the c) Enhance participation of women management and conservation of and youth in water resources and wetlands shared by Kenya and her environmental management. neighbours, in collaboration with the affected governments. 4.6.4.2 Selected Activities Requiring Funding g) Introduce incentives for recycling water in agriculture and industry. a) Increase human, technological and financial resources necessary for h) Takeaccount of water availability, efficient operation and manage- quality and flow when planning ment of water resources. industrial sites. b) Train more wetland scientists and 4.6.3 Legislation managers. 4.6.3.1 Actions Which Can Be Taken 4.6.5 Institutions Immediately 4.6.5.1 Actions Which Can Be Taken a) Review and harmonise the existing Immediately legislative statutes that affect water management with a view to a) Review the mandate and roles of making them more effective and the existing water and responsive to water and environment management environmental issues. institutions with a view to streamlining their responsibilities b) Introduce within the Water Act and operations as well as provision for stop and desist strengthening their capacities. orders for offenders polluting any given water source, and provide b) Review the mandates and roles of Water Resourcces 59 The Kenya Natioal Environment Action Plan b) Review the mandates and roles of d) Prioritise water allocation in the various institutions involved quantity and quality according in management of coastal and to domestic, commercial, marine resources with a view to industrial and agricultural needs, streamlining their roles and and ecological sustenance. responsibilities as well as strengthening their capacities. e) Make Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) a pre-condition 4.6.5.2 Selected Activities Requiring for approval of water related Funding projects; and require post- investment assessment. a) Strengthen institutional capacities of the implementing agencies in f) Involve local communities, water resources data acquisition, women and youth groups in analysis, storage and water and wetlands management dissemination. _ at all levels. b) Establish an agency to coordinate g) Take environmental considera- and supervise the management tions into account during inter- and safe disposal of refuse and basin water transfer. solid, liquid and hazardous wastes. h) Develop suitable environmental impact assessment and c) Establish a national agency to monitoring guidelines. coordinate management and conservation of wetlands. 4.6.6.2 Selected Activities Requiring Funding d) Strengthen existing institutions or establish new ones to: a) Evaluate and rehabilitate the Carry out research on water existing water assessment and resources; conduct environmental monitoring network. research and management; and coordinate environmental matters. b) Prepare and implement sewerage For example, develop and plans for each urban area. implement a suitable plan on the establishment of institutions such c) Identify, map, and gazette water as a Water Research Institute and catchment areas forconservation. an environmental Research Management Centre. d) Develop suitable criteria for determining the optimum flow 4.6.6 Management for downstream riparian use, ecological sustenance and waste 4.6.6.1 Actions Which Can Be taken dilution. Immediately e) Develop and implement a a) Review national drinking water suitable national liquid and solid standards and incorporate them waste management programme. into the Water Act. f) Develop and implement a b) Develop effluent discharge national disaster management sta'ndards for incorporation into strategy for combating drought, the Water Act. floods and oil spills. c) Introduce an appropriate tariff on g) Develop integrated management water usage and effluent plans for multiple use and discharge. 60 Water Resources The Kenya National Environment Action Plan conservation of wetlands. management. h) Develop an integrated coastal 1) Plan irrigation and hydro-power and marine management plan to projects with careful assessment address biodiversity, water of geological, seasonal, resources, tourism, pollution, biodiversity and socio-economic human settlement, and factors, and provide infrastructure industrial development. to mitigate harmful impacts. i) Develop a suitable national land 4.6.6.3 Some Long Term Priorities use plan to harmonise development activities and a) Provide water supply.< schemes environmental conservation. with necessary water quality control and treatment facilities. j) Collaborate with countries in the region in developing integrated b) Establish a water resources data water resources management base and coordinate its and conservation plans for the management. Lake Victoria basin. c) Rehabilitate all existing urban k) Collaborate with other sewerage works with a view to governments in the region to making them fully operational. implement programmes on d) Study and adopt low-input waste water quality studies, water water management methods such weeds control and fisheries as constructed wetlands. Water Resoussrcces 61 The Kenya National Environmwnt Acion Plan ' ;. _.CHAPTER FIVE SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE-:.'- AND' OOD SECURITY. 5.1 OVERVIEW division of large farms in high potential areas into more intensively cultivated Sustainable agriculture refers to small-scale farms and some government utilisation of agricultural resources to investment in research, training and meet the needs of the present generation extension services which have led to the without compromising those of the adoption of high yielding crop varieties future; while food security is the access and animal breeds. However, a lot needs by each citizen to an adequate level of to be done-to attain food self-sufficiency food for normal life. and food security. Agriculture is the mainstay of the national A combination of factors have contributed economy, contributes about 30% of the to the failure to achieve these broad gross domestic product (GDP), produces objectives, i.e., adverse weather most of the national food requirements, conditions, rapid population growth, generates 60% of the foreign exchange limited arable land ind the lack of earnings and provides about 70% of appropriate land-use policy, prevalence Kenya's agro-based industrial raw of pests and high incidence of diseases, materials and almost all employment and high prices of -agricultural inputs opportunities in the rural areas. Realising which have made them less affordable by the fast growth in Kenya's population, most farmers leading to low production. expected to reach 35 million by the year Public investment in agriculture in terms 2000, and given that less than 20% of the of roads, research, extension and other land area is -arable, food insecurity, supportive infrastructure and services is malnutrition and famine are the most inadequate and has even declined over setious threats facing the nation; the years. In addition, inappropriate consequently, the major national technology for land preparation, weeding objectives are to achieve self-sufficiency and harvesting, limited credit facilities, in basic food and livestock products; low agricultural prices together with provide food security for all; maintain inefficient agricultural markets, general strategic food reserves; and generatecrop environmental degradation, weak and livestock products to sustain a institutional linkages, and lack of growing domestic agro-industries and for community empowerment and export. Since these needs must keep pace participation are some of the contributory with the demands of a rapidly growing factors. population, agricultural practices must be sustainable by not degrading basic Wildlife has lately been destroying resources such as soil, water and air. agricultural fields in many parts of the Increased agricultural production country. wildlife also has been in conflict through expansion of land under with livestock. The conflict is a result of agriculture is constrained by limited the direct competition with livestock for arable land. Thus, the most promising space and food. Wildlife is also regarded alternatives are agricultural as a reservoir for livestock diseases. intensification and diversification, to be Besides, wildlife prey on livestock in facilitated by research, training and addition to destroying crops~ extension. Consequently, there is risk that if this trend continues, wildlife could be Tremendous development has been confined to the protected areas only. realised in the agricultural sector due to However, most wildlife currently live a number of factors i.e. expansion in area outside protected areas. Besides, even if under cultivation albeit of more marginal the absence of wildlife would increase quality and easily degraded land, sub- land available to livestock, the presence Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security 63 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan of wildlife is not necessarily acting managementofthebasicnaturalandman against the broader and long-term made resources and sustainable interests of the livestock producer. agricultural development. Lastly, there is need to analyse the short-term Environmental protection is a implications of the on-going structural prerequisite to attaining sustainable adjustment programmes with reference agriculture and food security and yet to sustainable agriculture and food agriculture is a major contributor to security. The resources critical for environniental degradation through sustainable agriculture and food security pollution due to improper use of agro- may be classified as follows: land, water, chemicals, and devegetation. forests, livestock, fisheries, wildlife, Furthermore, degradation occurs as a human, financial, institutional and result of inappropriate land use, poor infrastructural facilities and services. land management practices, poor water management in irrigation facilities, and use of inappropriate tillage methods. The 5.2 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES consequence is decline in soil fertility, siltation of flood plains and dams, 5.2.1 Land unstable hydrological conditions and overall reduction in land productivity. 5.2.1.1 Current Status and issues The negative impacts of environmental Kenya covers an area of approximately degradation have been recognised. 587,900 kM2; 576,000 km2 is land surface However, where these have been of which 461,400 km2 (80%) is classified identified, the present approach to as arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs); the environmental conservation has been remaining 115,300 km2 (20%) being of directed towards the symptoms rather medium and high agricultural potential. than the causes. Besides, land users are These classifications are based mainly on rarely consulted to determine the average annual rainfall and underlying causes. The result has been evapotranspiration. The high and outright rejection or half-hearted medium potential lands are devoted to adoption of recommended environmental crop and milk production, while much of conservation practices. the ASALs are largely used for extensive livestock production such as ranching and In order to achieve self-sufficiency in pastoralism as well as being the habitat food production, food security, for wildlife both in and outside the elimination of malnutrition, creation of national parks and game reserves. The employment and income-earning high and medium potential lands also opportunities, earning of foreign contain important water catchments and exchange and import substitution, it is certain habitats rich in biodiversity which important to increase agricultural are not included in the protected areas. production through: intensification of crop and livestock production; the In order to optimise land use, it is innovation and diffusion of technology necessary to practice proper land to enhance yields; and efficient use of management and land-use planning labour, appropriate machinery and techniques. Aspartofland management agrochemicals. Also, there is need to it will be necessary to: protect highly develop a wildlife utilisation industry erodible soils from accelerated erosion; with a view to diversifying the income generation activities of communities and to adopt proper conservation methods in ranchers in areas of livestock-wildlife potentially productive soils; to interaction. Besides, a conducive rehabilitate eroded soils and prevent environment with regard to technologies, further degradation; to develop efficient price policies, marketing and water use strategies; and to increase crop infrastructure, among others, plays a and livestock production, especially in critical role. This will be achieved ASALs while protecting the quality of through appropriate government surfaceand ground water from pollution intervention in favour of improved by sediments and chemicals. 64 Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security The Kenya National Environmnt Acuon Plan The country has capabilities in resource siderations into sustainable land use survey techniques for use in rational and agricultural development. sustainable exploitation and land use planning for both short-term and long- f) Develop, promote and apply land term benefits. Resource surveys provide tillage methods that reduce soil factual data on the existing land use erosion. patterns, the potential demand for each of the major land use categories, and the g) Develop modalities to enable the underlying resource base. The trade-offs youth to lease family land for their between the short and long-term socio- own use in agricultural production. economic and environmental implications remain key challenges in an h) Enhance extension, demonstrations attempt to attain these goals. and incentives to curb soil erosion. The current land tenure system is aimed i) Introduce incentives to owners of at privatising land which in certain cases underutilised or unutilised land to has led to excessive subdivision often to increase land productivity. uneconomical sizes. Additionally, there are no standards on optimal land-use j) Establish community-based conflict practices in various agro-ecological resolution mechanisms to curb zones. There is also increased migration banditry and insecurity and of people from high potential areas to optimise land use. marginal areas where the migrants introduce inappropriate land use k) Use economic incentives and practices. penalties to promote soil conservation. Although proper land management practices (soil and water conservation 5.2.2 Irrigation and Drainage techniques, proper tillage, and principles of range management) are known, their 5.2.2.1 Current Status and Issues application has not been widely adopted nationally. Likewise, land-use planning The national irrigation potential is practices havebeen used to achieve short- estimated at 540,000 ha and about 300,000 term benefits hence- land resource ha in drainage and valley bottom inventory, land use suitability mapping reclamation. Currently, the area under and evaluation are hardly exploited. irrigation is only 52,000 ha. It is possible that the extraction of water for irrigation 5.2.1.2 Recommendations and the drainage of marshes and valley bottoms for arable farming causes a) Promote a land tenure system that degradation, and loss of biodiversity. enhances agricultural production. Therefore, proper studies including consulting local communities should be b) Increase agricultural production in carried out to determine the best option all parts of the country to achieve for each situation (i.e., agriculture, water self sufficiency in basic food, and catchment, production of wetland raw materials for local agro-based resources (such as weaving materials, dry industries and for export. Thisdoes season grazing and fish breeding not necessarily mean bringing more grounds), or biodiversity conservation). land under cultivation. If agriculture is the option, there is need to plan for proper management of c) Provide advice on optimal land use environmental impacts. practices in various agro-ecological -zones. The government has been committed to the development of irrigation schemes in d) Promote research and adoption of the country. However, the schemes have appropriate land use systems and faced both socio-economic and technical technology. problems. In certain cases, irrigation schemes were initiated without proper e) Integrate environmental con- feasibility studies resulting in serious Sastainable Agriculture and Food Security 65 AGRO -CLIMATIC ZONE MAP OF KENYA i lb< | Zone CAmatic designation Agrlcufual potentle E, a - .1 hurrid - 2 humid high 3 wT1Itumw Nd 4 t: --S. ' . .. . . . . . We would like to register our special appreciation to all those who contributed information and advise to this report. This includes all the participants who attended the five regional workshops. From the international community, recognition goes to the World Bank for their financial assistance and advice to the NEAP process; the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the Network for Environment and Sustainable Development in Africa (NESDA) for their technical assistance; United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) amongst others for their invaluable advise to the NEAP process through their active participation in the NEAP Advisory Commnittee and other fora. Many individuals, organisations and, other interested parties have immensely contributed to the total Kenya NEAP process; directly or indirectly, and the list is too long to generate it here; to them all we say thank you very much for their positive efforts towards the Kenya NEAP process. MEMBERS OF THE NEAP COORDINATING COMMITTEE 1: Mr. J.T.N. Sabari, Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (Chairman) 2. Prof. M.K. Koech, Coordinator, NEAP 3. Mrs. V.M. Nyagah, Deputy Coordinator, NEAP 4. Prof. S.K. Ongeri, Permanent Representative, Kenya Mission to UNEP 5. Mr. R.V. Mugo, Director, National Envirorunent Secretariat 6. Mr. H.G. Kimaru, Permanent Presidential Commission on Soil Conservation and Afforestation 7. Mr. S.M. Tsalwa, Govemrnment Chemnist Department 8. Mrs. L. Masua, Attomey General's Chambers 9. Mr. W.M. Deche, Office of the President 10. Mr. Nehemiah Rotich, East African Wildlife Society 11. Mrs. G. Thitai, National Council for Science and Technology 12. Mr. S. G. Gichere, Office of the Vice-President and Ministry of Planning & National Development 13. Mr. S.P.M. Kiai, Ministry of Land Reclamation, Regional and Water Developmnent 14. Mr. J. Nyamu, Ministry of Health 15. Mr. A.R. Gachuhi, Ministry of Research, Technical Training and Technology 16. Mrs. Grace Wanyonyi, Ministry of Public works & Housing 17. Mrs. E.C. Mibey, National Environment Secretariat 18. Mr. B.O. K'Omudho, National Environment Secretariat 19. Ms. Belinda A. Rego, University of Nairobi 20. Mr. Hesbon Mwendwa Aligula, Department of Resource Survey & Remote Sensing 21. Mrs. M. M. Gatahi, National Environment Secretariat 22. Prof. Isaac Rop, Faculty of Arts and Social Science Egerton University 23. Mr. F.W. Mbote, Ministry of Agriculture,Livestock and Marketing 24. Dr. S.K. Mutiso, Geography Department, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Nairobi 25. Mr. Dominic Walubengo, KENGO 26. Mr. Tara S. Chana, HSEDCO 27. Mr. J.M. Githaiga, Ministry of Finance 28. Mr. SS. Mbaabu Laban, Ministry of Finance 29. Mr. P. W. Karani, Ministry of Land Reclamation,Regional and Water Development 30. Mrs. Fluer Ngw'eno, Kenya Wetlands Group 31. Mr. K.S. Buigutt, Department of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing(DRSRS) Acknowledgement 197 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan TASK FORCE MEMBERS TASK FORCE 1. POUCY, INSTITUTIONAL, LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK AND ECONOMIC INCENTIVES CHAIRMAN: 1. Frof.S.K. Ongeri, Pernanent Representative, Kenya Mission to UNEP Dr. Mohamed Isahakia, Director, National Museums of Kenya and Mr. H.G. Kimaru, Chief Executive, Perrnanent Presidential Commission on Soil Conservation and Afforestation. SECRETARY: 2. M S. Suleman,National Environment Secretariatand Mr.S.M. Tsalwa,Government Chemist, Office of the President, Governrnent Chemist's Department MEMBERS: 3. Mr. S. M. Mbaabu Laban, (External Resources), Ministry of Finance 4. Mr. J. Waweru Karnau, Office of the Vice-President and Ministry of Planning and National Development 5. Mr. L. Obanda, Investment Promotion Centre 6. Mr. G.W. Arum, KENGO 7. Prof. 0. Okidi, Moi University 8. Mr. N. Auma, Ministry of Finance 9. Mr. Kefa A. Ajode, Ministry of Health 10. Mrs. L. Masua, Attorney General's Chambers 11. Mr. W.M. Deche, Office of the President 12. Mr. E.N. Kimuri, Ministry of Commerce and Industry 13. Mr. J.K. Waithiru, National Council for Population and Development 14. Mr. T.U.K. M'Mella, Kenya Mission to UNEP 15. Mr. F. Chege, Ministry of Research, Technical Training and Technology 16. Mrs. Juliet Makokha, Maendeleo Ya Wanawake Organization 17. Mr. 0. Kibuna, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources TASK FORCE 2. BIODIVERSITY (INCLUDING FORESTRY WILDLIFE, BIOTECHNOLOGY AND INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE CHAIRMAN: 1. Mr. Neherniah Rotich, East African Wildlife Society SECRETARY: 2. Mrs. G. Thitai, National Council for Science and Technology MEMBERS: 3. Mr. S.G. Gichere, Officeof theVice-Presidentand Ministryof Planningand National Development 4. Mr. J. E. Odhiambo, Ministry of Tourism of Wildlife 5. Mr. J.M. Mburugu, Kenya Wildlife Service 6. Dr. RK. Mibey, University of Nairobi 7. Mr. J.M. Onyange, Kenya Mission to UNEP 8. Mr. N. Chumo, National Environment Secretariat 9. Mr. G.O. Ochieng, Kenya Forestry Master Plan 198 Acknowledgement The Kenya National Environment Acdon Plan 10. Mr. S. K. Mugera, Ministry of Research, Technical Traiing and Technology 11. Mr. D.K. Mbengei, Kenya Indigenous Forest Conservation Project (KIFCON) 12. Dr. Leon Bennun, Kenya WetlandsGroup/East AfricanNatural History Society, National Museums of Kenya 13. Mr. Richard K. Bagine, National Museums of Kenya l4. Mr. Ephantus Wahome, Department of Resource Survey and Remote Sensing 15. Ms. Rosalie Mary Osborn, East African Natural History Society 16. Mr. J. G. Mukinya, Fisheries Department 17. Mr. Harun R. Muturi, Ministry of Research, Technical Training and Technology 18. Ms Christine Kabuye, National Museurns of Kenya 19. Mrs. Fleur Ngw'eno, Kenya Wetlands Working Group 20. Mrs. Jane Mbaratha, KENGO 21. Dr. Msira, University of Nairobi TASK FORCE 3. WATER RESOURCES (INLAND WATER RESOURCE, COASTAL AND MARINE CHAIRMAN: 1. Mr. P. W. Karani, Ministry of Land Reclamnation, Regional and Water Development SECRETARY: 2. Mr. S. P. M. Kiai, Ministry of Land Reclamation, Regional and Water Development MEMBERS: 3. Mr. N.M. Muchori, National Water Conservation & Pipeline Corporation (NWCPC) 4. Mr. D.N. Kinyanjui, National Environmnent Secretariat 5. Mr. P. Koskey, Environmental Planning, Kenyatta University 6. Mr. P.D. Munah, Kenya Meteorological Department 7. Mrs. Margaret Mwangola, Kenya Water and Health Organization (KWAHO) 8. Mr. D. Bobotti, Tana and Athi River Development Authority (TARDA) 9. Mr. M. Omondi Aketch, Lake Basin Development Authority 10. Mr. J. Mukinya, Fisheries Department 11. Mr. Mathew Kariuki, African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) 12. Mr. G. M. Mailu, Ministry of Research, Science and Technology 13. Mr. J. E. Odhiambo, Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife 14. Mr. J. M. Ngethi, Esso Kenya Ltd. 15. Ms. Cecilia M. Gichuki, Kenya Wetlands Group, National Museums of Kenya 16. Mr. James Ogari, Kenya Marine and Fisheries, Research Institute (KMFRI) 17. Mr. T. Kabii, Kenya Wildlife Service 18. Mr. John Nyamu, Ministry of Health 19. Mrs. M. Kiptanui, Coordinator, UNEP Regional Youth Focal Point 20. Dr. Nathan N. Gichuki, KWWG 21. Dr. Geoffrey Howard, IUCN 22. Dr. Rodney Saim, IUCN Acknowledgement 199 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan TASK FORCE 4. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL AND WASTE MANAGEMENT CHAIRMAN: 1. Mr. J. Nyamu, Ministry of Health SECRETARY: 2. Mr. Ibrahim Ali, Wildlife Clubs of Kenya and Mr. A. R. Gachuhi, Ministry of Research, Science and Technology MEMBERS: 3. Ms. A. Odipo, National Environment Secretariat 4. Dr. F.O. Otieno, Civil Engineering Department, University of Nairobi 5. Mr. F.O. Orago, Kenya Consumer Organisation 6. Mr. M.K.Kimemia, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources 7. Dr. J. S. Chacha, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology 8. Mr. A.W. Muriuki, Occupational Health and Safety Services, Ministry of Labour and Manpower Development 9. Ms. J.A. Okado, Government Chemist's Department 10. Ms. A. M. Mbugua, Kenya Industrial Research and Development Institute 11. Mr. M.C.Z Moturi, Kenya Industrial Research and Development Institute 12. Mr. H.K. Changwony, Nairobi City C5ouncil 13. Mr. L.N. Njau, Kenya Meteorological Department 14. Mr. M.O. Ogutu, Ministry of Commerce and Industry 15. Mr. E.N. Kimaro, Kenya Association of Manufacturers 16. Mr. K.G.O. Wafula, KENGO TASK FORCE 5. HUMAN SETTLEMENTS AND URBANIZATION CHAIRMAN: 1. Mrs. Grace Wanyonyi, Ministry of Public Works & Housing SECRETARY: 2. Mrs. E.C. Mibey, National Environment Secretariat MEMBRS: 3. Mr. J. G. Kariuki, Ministry of Health 4. Mr. K. M. S. Kigen, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources 5. Mr. P.G. Kariuki, Ministry of Local Government 6. Miss Emily K. Kanyua, Office of the Vice-President and Ministry of Planning and National Development 7. Mr. E. Agevi, Shelter Forum -- 8. Dr. P. Ondiege, Housing and Building Research Institute, University of Nairobi 9. Mr. Tara S. Chana, HSEDCO 10. Mrs. Helen K. Nzainga, Ministry of Lands and Settlements 11. Mr. H.K. Changwony, Nariobi City Council 12 Mr. J. M. Githaiga, Ministry of Finance 13. Mr. W. K. Mwambia, Kenya Mission to Habitat 14. Mr. W.M. Deche, Office of the President 16. Mr. J.K. Wang'ombe, Ministry of Lands and Settlement 17. Mr. A.W.O. Obare, Ministry of Land Reclamation, Regional and Water Development 200 Acknowledgement The Kenya National Environment Action Plan TASK FORCE 6. COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION AND PUBLIC AWARENESS CHAIRMAN: 1. Mr. B.O. K'Omudho, National Environment Secretariat SECRETARY: 2. Ms. A. Belinda Rego, University of Nairobi MEMBERS: 3. Mr. D. G. Manguriu, Kenyatta University 4. Mr. S. M. Rukaria, Tana and Athi Rivers Development Authority 5. Mrs. Elizabeth Oduor Noah, National Environment Secretariat (NES) 6. Mr. J. G. Ngumy, Kenya Institute of Education 7. Mrs. J. S. Misoi, Ministry of Culture & Social Services 8. Dr. Paul Rono, Kenyatta University 9. Ms. Jane Alaii, Kenya Medical Research Institute 10. Ms. Jane Kirui, Maendeleo Ya Wanawake 11. Ms. Carol Wanjau, Uvumbuzi aub 12. Mrs. Blanche Tumbo, Ministry of Health 13. Mrs. J. Mputhia, Kenya Science Teachers College 14. Mrs. Kabuha Songole, NGO Co-ordinating Committee Bureau 15. Mrs. C. Kinuthia Njenga, Environment Liaison Centre International 16. Mrs. E.N. Chadri, Wildlife Clubs of Kenya 17. Mrs. M. Kiptanui, Coordiantor, UNEP Regional Youth Focal Point 18. Mr. Aloyce Omolo, CARE Kenya TASK FORCE 7. DESERTIFICATION AND DROUGHT CHAIRMAN: 1. Dr. S.K. Mutiso, University of Nairobi SECRETARY: 2. Mr. Dominic Walubengo, Kenya Energy Non-Governmental Organization MEMBERS: 3. Mrs. R. R. N. Kigame, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources 4. Mr. V.K. Njuki, National Environment Secretariat (NES) 5. Dr. Kassim 0. Farah, Department of Range Management, University of Nairobi 6. Dr. Z.A. Ogutu, Department of Geography, Kenyatta University 7. Mr. N.J.M. Ndugire, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources 8. Mr. S.H. Mwandoto, Kenya Meteorological Department 9. Mr. Harun R, Muturi, Ministry of Research, Technical Training and Technology 10. Dr. F.M. Mutua, Department of Meteorology, University of Nairobi 11. Mr. J.K. Wang'ombe, Ministry of Lands and Settlement 12. Mr. L.N. Kimani, Office of the President 13. Mr. L. Kangethe, KENGO 14. Mrs. Susan W. Mbugua, Department of Resource Survey and Remote Sensing 15. Mr. Vincent Lelei, Drought Recovery Programrne, Office of the President 16. Mr. Fred K. Mwango, Ministry of Land Reclamation Regional and Water Development Acknowledgement 201 The Kenya National Environment Action Plan TASK FORCE 8. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTUREIFOOD SECURITY CHAIRMAN: 1. Prof. Isaac Rop, Egerton University SECRETARY: 2. Mr. F.W. Mbote, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and Marketing MfEMBERS: 3. Mr. Justin Miano, Kenya Forest Development Project 4. Mr. M. M. Mukolwe, Foundation for Sustainable Development 5. Mr. F.K. Were, Office of the Vice-President and Ministry of Planning & National Developm 6. Mrs. Joyce Onyango, National Environment Secretariat (NES) 7. Mrs. M. M. Mwithiga, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources 8. Mr. Moses Gachago, Ministry of Co-operative Development 9. Dr. M. M. Ndavi, Kenya Agriculture Research Institute (KARI) 10. Mr. David N. Riungu, Agricultural Finance Corporation (AFC) 11. Mr. G. K. Kariuki, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and Marketing 13. Mr. R.O. Sikuku, Pest Control Products Board 14. Mr. Wilson Aore, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) 15. Mr. L.N. Kimani, Office of the President 16. Mr. John Mukinya, Fisheries Department 17. Mr. S. M. Guantai, National Cereals and Produce Board TASK FORCE 9. NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM CHAIRMAN: 1. Mr. Hesbon Mwendwa Aligula, Department of Resource Surveys & Remnote Sensing SECRETARY: 2. Mrs. M. M. Gatahi, National Environmnent Secretariat (NES) MEMBERS: 3. Mr. S.K. Mbarire, National Environment Secretariat (NES) 4. Dr. P. L. Legge, Eastern African Environmental Network 5. Mr. Bernard K. Rop, National Oil Corporation of Kenya 6. Mr. J. M. Katuma, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources 7. Mr. F. M. Munene, Central Bureau of Statistics 9. Dr. W. N. Warnicha, University of Nairobi 10. Mr. Peter F. Okoth, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) 11. Mr. K. S. Buigut, Department of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing (DRSRS) 12. Mr. J. K. Keter, East African Wildlife Society 13. Mr. J. M. Kimani, Kenya Meteorological Department 14. Mr. D. M. Gachugu, Kenya Wildlife Service 15. Mr. A.W.O. Obare, Ministry of Land Reclamation Regional and Water Development 16. Mr. J.M. Omwenga, Ministry of Land Reclamation, Regional and Water Developmnent 17. Mr. Martin Anyou, KENGO 18. Mrs. Monica A. Ayieko, Winrock International 19. Mr. J. Kiptarus, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and Marketing 20. Ms. Wamuyu Gatheru, Uvumbuzi Club 202 Acknowled, The Kenya National Environmnwt Action Plan Sub-Task Force on Physical Envirornment Chairman: 1. Dr. S.K. Mutiso, Geography Department, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Nairobi Secretary. 2. Mrs. M.N. Gatahi, National Environment Secretariat (NES) Members: 3. Mr. Hesbon Mwendwa Aligula, Department of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing 4. Dr. W.N. Wamicha, University of Nairobi 5. Mr. P.F. Okoth, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute(KARI) 6. Dr. Z. A. Ogutu, Kenyatta University 7. Mr. S.G. Gichere, Office of the Vice-President and Ministry of Planning & National Development The Provincial NEAP Workshops Coordiantors 1. Mr. Nathaniel arap Chumo, NES 2. Mr. K. M. S. Kigen, MENR 3. Mr. P. G. Onyango, MENR 4. Mr. M. K. Kimemia, MENR Workshops Rappartours l. Mr. S.M. Tsalwa, Government Chemist Departemnt 2. Mrs. Grace Thitai, National Council for Science and Technology Editors 1. Mr. K.S.A. Buigutt, Department of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing 2. Mrs. Fleur Ng'weno, Kenya Wetlands Working Group NEAP Secretariat 1. Prof. M.K. Koech, Coordinator, NEAP 2. Mrs. V.M. Nyagah, Deputy Coordiantor, NEAP 3. Mr. Moses Misik - NEAP Accountant 4. Mrs. J.W. Njagi, NEAP Staff 5. Miss Julie G. Magambo, NEAP Staff 6. Mr. A. Cheruiyot, NEAP Staff 7. Mr. Gidraf Mwangi, NEAP Staff 8. Mr. Martin Nzioka, NEAP Staff 9. Miss Belia Nyamwega, NEAP Staff 10. Mr. A. Ofunya, NEAP Staff 11. Mr. Douglas Kirichu, NEAP Staff 12. Mr. John Mwaluko, NEAP Staff 13. Mr. Jotham Ovita, NEAP Staff 14. Mr. Moses Kiogora, NEAP Staff 15. Mr. Kimaru Sitienei, NEAP Staff 16. Mr. Francis Nyachae, NEAP Staff Desk Top Publishing, Design and Cartography 1. Miss Cathrine M. Ondiff, DRSRS 2. Mr. Felix Mugambi, DRSRS 3. Mr. E.M. Ojema, DRSRS Acknowledgement 203 /,bi, L/ f t KENYA: SERVICE CENTRES APPENDIX IV t/ o toiseoiiv N | X 's E T H I 0 P I A u-,i T H I H,,, X 0 a"tr" \ lMANDERA t I U R V A N At J o \ X ,} \~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ K.~~~TR MARSARIT C > ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~WAJtR J TS N2\0f IoLO NUK R TH E ASTERN I E{L lMAR1krFT "~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~-''M, *"'.,' *r ./ l .s%~~ tInbo R E o f YA NZA I /- "' * B A N I .3,~~~~~~~~~7 'L.~~TU.0~~05 O-eR5" *""'-> Dr Ay SE £O Xcr' 55055 *55QA RVERti ET \~~ ~ ~~~~ ~ GAVIS,SA M I O U§ IN-_O / ° 0- IK IOB r-4% O..rWO SCA LE 1:m... 2,1k 500,000 . . ..... \ K A . A1 N,~~~~~ /,\\ S t \ SCALE IAIIA-IAVEIA 2 500,0 0 C.-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ KILFIK 0K KT LEGENDTA A-TAEI4 __NATONAL BOUNDARIES iC| 6o _ _ #N_ROOINCIAL ADMINISTRATIVE BOUNDARIES _R/mA, C D_____ DISTRICT ADIINISTRATIVE BOUNDARIES 4 '…r______ RIRCIPAL TOWNS.\ Tue 2 < ?-1 A- 1 O …_______________URBAN CENTRES. T/.N a--------------- RURAL CENTRES 5 _ .. * \ -/ o------------ NARKET CENTRES. - - -- LOCAL CENTRES. N-LO AAL CERE CLASS"BADOADS __ ______________ RALWAY LINE