MAKING INROADS FOR WOMEN A Qualitative Study on Constraints and Opportunities of Women’s Equal Participation in the Roads Sector in Malawi MAKING INROADS FOR WOMEN A Qualitative Study on Constraints and Opportunities of Women’s Equal Participation in the Roads Sector in Malawi © 2019 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the govern- ments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank en- courages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be ad- dressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. ABSTRACT Drawing on focus group discussion with young wom- leaving the sector. The study found that women face en in secondary schools and engineering and voca- a wide variety of challenges at different stages of tional schools, female engineers, contractors and their career cycle that lead to high rates of attrition. workers in the roads sector and in-depth key infor- Many of the challenges are embedded in the culture mant interviews with government and non-govern- of sexism, gender bias, and stereotypes that subtly, mental stakeholders as well as teachers from sec- but often overtly sidelines women, who then choose ondary and technical and engineering schools this a different career path. The report identifies a core qualitative research explores the reasons women in set of actions that address key challenges of wom- Malawi do not choose careers or enter employment en attraction, selection and retention in the roads in the roads sector and at the reasons behind them sector. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study funded by the Nordic Trust Fund (NTF) ister Munthali (Consultant). We also thank the peer was conducted by a team composed by Miriam reviewers Veronica Ines Raffo (Senior Infrastructure Muller (Social Scientist), Sevara Melibaeva (Senior Specialist) and Inka Schomer (Operations Officer) Transport Economist), Ana Luiza Machado (Consul- for their valuable comments and suggestions. De- tant) and Ursula Casabonne (Consultant). The team siree Gonzalez (Program Assistant, GPV04), Miriam benefitted greatly from the valuable contributions of Sangallo Kalembo (Team Assistant), Desta Wol- the Advisory Committee composed by Government de Woldeargey (Program Assistant), and Tatiana representatives, UN agencies and local NGOs (see Daza (Senior Program Assistant) provided support Annex 4). Important inputs were contributed by throughout the implementation of the study. Our John Ng’ambi (Social Specialist, Roads Authority), deepest gratitude to the key informants and to the Julia Schipper (Consultant), Chikondi Clara Nsu- women and men who shared their personal stories sa-Chilipa (Transport Specialist) as well as by Jeff with us. The opinions, interpretations, and conclu- Petruzzelli and Ray Maietta from ResearchTalk. We sions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect thank the excellent team of researchers who sup- the views of the World Bank, its Board of Executive ported data collection and processing: Leah Mziya Directors, or the Governments they represent. (Consultant), Mwawi Kamanga (Consultant) and Al- TABLE OF CONTENTS Executive summary 8 1. Introduction 11 2. Conceptual Framework: Women’s Career Cycle in the Roads Sector 17 3. Methodology of the Qualitative Study 22 4. Findings 28 Attraction 29 Gender disparities in access to education 29 Informational and institutional failures in secondary schools 31 Aspirations molded by societal expectations 33 Hostile climate and other institutional challenges 37 Concerns over work-life balance and husband’s discouragement 40 Concerns over quality of jobs 40 Selection 40 Gender bias in hiring and in the selection of tender process 41 Lack of access to productive inputs 42 Corruption and sexual extorsion 42 Retention and Advancement 42 Difficult work place environment 42 Work-family challenges in the roads sector 44 Lack of opportunities, promotion and continuous learning 45 5. Policy Implications 48 Attraction 48 CCTs for girls to remain in secondary schools ease financial constraints 48 Address gender stereotypes in school curricula and the classroom 49 Increase girls’ mastery and interest of foundational skills in math and sciences 50 Career talks and exposure to female role models 51 Provide scholarships and bursaries for women in engineering and TEVET studies 52 Provide remedial academic support to first year female engineering students 52 Counter the ‘chilly climate’ in the educational environment 52 Build professional role confidence to improve the school-work transition 53 Campaigns to encourage women to join the roads sector 53 Selection 54 Address gender bias in hiring 54 Reform public procurement to make it more gender-inclusive 55 Promote opportunities for networking for women in the roads sector 57 Retention and Advancement 57 Address sexual harassment in the workplace 57 Address work-like balance and improving working conditions 58 Establish welcoming workplace environments 59 Support career development and advancement of women 59 6. Conclusion 61 References 62 ANNEX 1. Status of Women in Malawi 65 ANNEX 2. Research Methodology 71 ANNEX 3. Survey Instruments 75 ANNEX 4. Advisory Committee for this Study 83 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Government of Malawi (GoM) has taken steps women in the roads sector at each stage in the career to promote gender equality in the transport sector cycle focusing on: attraction, selection, retention, through the issuance of laws, policies, and guide- and advancement. The study employs qualitative lines. The National Transport Policy (2015) pro- research methods consisting of focus group discus- vides a platform for supporting gender-balanced sions with women and girls along the career cycle in and non-discriminatory provision and accessibility the roads sector and key informant interviews. of transport services. Further, the Malawi National The study has yielded insights into the multiple Transport Master Plan 2017 -2037 explicitly rec- and overlapping factors embedded in the socializa- ognizes the need to encourage women to work on tion, learning and hiring processes that result in roads maintenance. However, the existence of pol- high rates of attrition of women in the engineering icies and guidelines has not translated into a bal- and roads-related technical field at different stages anced employment of women in the transport sec- of the career cycle, often called the “leaky pipeline” tor. Data from the National Roads Authority shows in policy discussions about women in STEM. From that over 90 percent of firms that it contracted be- secondary school through university and vocational tween 2007 and 2011 to construct and rehabilitate schools, female students report less confidence and roads in Malawi were male-owned, and 10 percent aspiration in engineering and vocational training in are small sized women-owned firms that participate the roads sector. At the selection stage, women face in low value contracts like grass cutting and simple gender bias in hiring and difficult work environment, maintenance works. representing an exodus of talent among women who The study aims to understand the constraints to could otherwise become the next generation of ar- women’s equal participation in the roads sector in chitects, engineers, and roads sector contractors. At Malawi to inform the development of interventions the retention and advancement phase women con- to promote gender equality in the sector. The study front a difficult work environment where women are adopts a career cycle approach that allows to identi- sidelined from career advancement opportunities, fy and describe the barriers to career progression for face sexual harassment and have difficulty balanc- 8 ing work and family obligations in a sector where sector requires a comprehensive and multi-sectoral many of the opportunities are in remote locations. approach and one that needs to address the under- The roads sector in Malawi offers opportunities lying causes that subtly results in gender stereo- for women: opportunities in the forms of generating types and gendered occupational cultures and ca- substantial incomes, designing transport infrastruc- reer choices. The table summarizes the key study ture to foster socio-economic development, and findings and core set of actions to help women over- providing role models for the young women of the come the obstacles at different stages of the career future. Increasing the gender balance in the roads cycle targeting women at all age groups. Summary of key findings recommendations at each stage of women’s career cycle in the roads sectorn FINDINGS RECOMMENDATIONS ATTRACTION • Gender disparities in access to education • Provide CCTs for girls to remain in secondary schools ease • Informational failures financial constraints • Institutional failures • Address gender stereotypes in school curricula and the • Aspirations molded by societal expectations classroom • Concerns over university/workplace • Increase girls’ mastery and interest of foundational skills in environment. math and sciences. • Inhospitable or ‘chilly environment’ and • Organize career talks and exposure to female role models other institutional failures in tertiary • Provide information on returns to education. institutions • Provide scholarships and bursaries for women in engineering and TEVET studies • Provide remedial academic support to first year female engineering students • Counter the hostile educational environment in engineering schools and TEVET • Build professional role confidence to improve the school to work transition. • Campaigns to encourage women to join the roads sector SELECTION • Gender bias in hiring and in the selection of • Address gender bias in hiring by tweaking the recruitment tender process process • Lack of access to productive inputs • Reform public procurement to make it more gender-inclusive • Concerns over work-life balance and • Promote opportunities for networking for women in the roads husband’s discouragement sector • Concerns over quality of jobs and risk RETENTION AND • Difficult workplace environment • Address sexual harassment and sexual extorsion in the ADVANCEMENT • Work-family challenges workplace • Lack of opportunities for promotion and • Address work-life balance and improve working conditions continuous learning • Establish welcoming workplace environments • Support career development and advancement of women 9 10 1. Introduction The Government of Malawi (GoM) has taken steps to promote gender equal- ity in the transport sector through the issuance of laws, policies, and guidelines. Malawi is a signatory of CEDAW, a UN convention which advocates for the elimination of any form of discrimination against women. The country adopted the Gender Equality Act in 2013 and adopted the National Gender Policy in 2015. The National Transport Policy (2015) provides a platform for supporting gender-balanced and non-discriminatory provision and accessi- bility of transport services. A recent report finds that, for 141 countries, the sectors, such transport, are sectors that are often loss in human capital wealth due to lifetime gender high-paying but remain male-dominated. income inequality is approximately $160.2 trillion The GoM is aiming to promote gender balance in (Wodon and de la Brière 2018). This suggests that the transport sector. The 2015 National Transport globally, human capital wealth could increase by Policy provides a platform for supporting gender-bal- 21.7 percent and total wealth by 14.0 percent, with anced and non-discriminatory provision and acces- gender equality in earnings. Occupational sex segre- sibility of transport services. The policy addresses gation is a main driver of these observed gaps: Glob- the Ministry of Transport and Public Works’ (MoT- ally, one finds significant differences in the types of PW) commitment to equal employment opportunity work undertaken by men and women. Women are and affirmative action in the promotion of women often underrepresented in engineering, manufac- professionals in the Transport sector. Objectives turing, construction and science (and overrepre- include increasing ratio of women to men with ac- sented in education and health for instance). These cess to employment in the sector and income gen- differences are not trivial, since they translate into erating opportunities, reducing income disparities gaps in earnings and productivity. Infrastructure between women and men, and improving women participation and decision-making skills in com- 11 munity infrastructure. With the assistance from the However, the existence of policies and guidelines EU and UNFPA, the MoTPW has developed Gender has not translated into a balanced employment Mainstreaming Guidelines for the Transport Sector of women in the transport sector (MoTPW, 2016). (GoM Ministry of Transport and Public Works 2014) Available data2 for the ILO3 indicates that women are to ensure that all programmes, projects, policies, under-represented in the transport sector (Figure 1). Acts and Regulations and budgets integrates gen- Data from the National Roads Authority shows that der issues. Further, the Malawi National Transport over 90 percent of firms that it contracted between Master Plan 2017 -2037 established social inclusion 2007 and 2011 to construct and rehabilitate roads as a cross-cutting issue, including considerations of in Malawi were male-owned. Only 248 out of 3000 its gender dimension1. The Plan explicitly recogniz- firms that were awarded contracts were wom- es the need to encourage women to work on roads en-owned. In addition to that, only 20 of the 248 maintenance. The guidelines and the Plan have registered are medium-sized firms while 228 are been developed against the backdrop of the imple- small sized firms (Figure 2) that participate in low mentation of the second Malawi Growth and Devel- value contracts like grass cutting and simple main- opment Strategy (MGDSII) that emphasizes gender tenance works. Likewise, of the 78 registered indi- equality to achieve sustainable economic growth vidual consultants, only two are women. and alleviate poverty. 2 There are no cross-country gender disaggregated data of work- ers in the roads subsector. The LABORSTAT database maintained by the ILO includes data for the broader category of” transport, storage and communications” 1 See: http://www.malawi.gov.mw/images/Publications/NTMP_Fi- 3 LABORSTAT database maintained by the ILO includes data for the nal_Documents/Final_Report/NTMP_Final_Report.pdf generic category of ‘transport, storage and communications’. Box 1. Malawi’s Roads Sector and its key actors Malawi’s public road network covers a total of 15,451km, comprising Main (21.7 percent), Secondary (20.2 percent), Tertiary (26.7 percent), District (22.7 percent) and Urban (8.7 percent) roads. Only 26 percent of the national classified road network is paved. Institutional reforms in the road sector in 2006 led to the creation of the Roads Fund Ad- ministration (RFA) and the National Roads Authority (RA) to administer the collection and use of fuel levies and other eligible charges, for road maintenance respectively. The RA 12 reports to the Ministry of Transport and Public Works (MoTPW) responsible for policy and strategy development, regulatory and legislative functions. Road passenger transport and road safety regulation is within the jurisdiction of Directorate of Road Traffic and Safety Services (DRTSS), formerly the Road Traffic Directorate (RTD) under the MoTPW. The RFA is responsible for GoM’s annual road sector budget implementation and reports to the Minis- try of Finance (MoF). The National Construction Industry Council (NCIC) established in 1996, is mandated to Regulate, Promote and Develop the Construction Industry in Malawi. Their role includes: ensuring that all contractors, consultants, material manufactures/suppliers and all play- ers in the construction industry are operating within rules set forth in the NCI Act (1996) and codes of ethics (2009); registering Contractors, Consultants, Material Suppliers and Manufacturers and also providing short courses to its members. One of the objectives of its five-year Strategic Plan is to develop efforts to increase participation of women and youth in the construction industry by up to 40 percent by the year 2023. Malawi Institute of Engineers was established in 1998 to form a “voice, a platform and a center for information and technological knowledge sharing for engineers and technicians practicing in Malawi”. Their role includes: a) to represent, protect and assist the engineers as regards conditions of practice advancement and otherwise; b) to engage in formal or informal activities designed to foster and extend the study of engineering; c) to maintain a register of engineers who are deemed by the MIE to be qualified to practice the profession of engineering. Since 2017, the MIE also has a Women’s Chapter. The Chapter was an initia- tive of female MIE members who noted the low levels of participation of women in annual general meetings of the institution. The goal of the Chapter is to increase women’s partici- pation in the industry, including the encouragement of girls to pursue careers in the field. Activities include career talks and mentorship programs4. 4 The Chapter has also partnered with WomEng (South Africa) as part of the GCRF Africa Catalyst program funded by the UK Royal Academy of Engineering. The aim of this project is to assist engineering bodies countries in Sub-Sa- haran Africa in setting up women chapter, leveraging off WomEng’s skills and experience. WomEng will assist in training and development of body members; this will include leadership and entrepreneurship training, continu- ous relevance amongst engineering professionals, diversity training and to develop an execution plan of critical programs, which include high school STEM awareness programs and university employability, entrepreneurship 13 The Malawi Polytechnic is a constituent college of the University of Malawi, including the faculties of: Applied Sciences; Built Environment; Commerce; Education and Media Studies; and Engineering. Currently, the Polytechnic is institution where all transport engineers are trained in Malawi5. and skills building programs for female engineers. The ultimate goal is to improve the number of registered female engineers in sub-Saharan Africa. 5 See also: https://www.poly.ac.mw/about/polytechnic Figure 1. Percent of women in transport, storage and communications, 2017 60% 50% 34% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Côte d’lvoire Nepal Guinea Congo Benin Malawi Belarus Ukraine Netherlands Tunisia Ethiopia Brazil Philippines Burkina Faso 14 Figure 2. Percent of male and There is a dearth of literature on constraints that women-owned active registered hinder women’s equal participation in the roads firms in the Roads Authority, 2018 sector in Malawi. This study, commissioned by the Women-owned Malawi Roads Authority, aims to fill this knowledge gap. Specifically, it aims to understand the con- straints to women’s equal participation in the roads Male-owned sector in Malawi to inform the development of inter- ventions to promote gender equality in the road sec- tor. Given the multi-sectoral challenges it identifies, its findings are directed to a set of different actors Source: ILOSTAT and Malawi National Roads Authority across those sectors in Malawi and which are rep- resented in the Advisory Committee that was estab- lished when initiating this research (see Annex 4). 15 16 2. Conceptual Framework: Women’s Career Cycle in the Roads Sector The literature on women’s labor participation in the roads sector points to dif- ferent constraints women face throughout the career cycle as depicted in Figure 3. The career cycle approach allows to identify and describe the barriers to career progression for women in the roads sector at each stage in the career cycle focusing on: attraction, selection, retention, and advancement. These barriers are related to gender norms (e.g. ‘gender stereotypes that define ‘men’s work’ and ‘women’s work’), to the legal framework (e.g. legal restrictions that inhibit the working time of women in some countries, most notably night-work), and ‘gen- der-intensified’ barriers that affect both sexes but bear down most on women (e.g. inadequate childcare provision or the absence of ‘family-friendly’ working arrangements create problems for both men and women, but as women invari- ably bear the primary responsibility for childcare and other household activities, they are more severely affected). Figure 3. Women’s Career Cycle in the Roads Sector: Key Challenges Attraction Selection Retention Advancement Source: Adapted from Turnbull 2013. 17 Attraction. Legal restrictions and societal gender higher level/managerial roles who might train and/ norms and attitudes restrict women’s attraction to or mentor potential new recruits and support them work in the roads sector. In some countries, legal as they develop their careers (Turnbull 2013). It restriction on women’s employment exist such as should be noted that STEM careers differ from oth- the prohibition of night work (Women Business and er careers in that they often entail obtaining ‘hard the Law 2018). But even if no legal restrictions exist, skills’ applicable to STEM jobs which require higher gender stereotypes (i.e. for instance the assump- and lengthier investments in education, as well as tion that roads sector jobs are ‘not for women’ and accumulating work experience, which makes the preconceptions about the careers that young girls ‘leaky STEM pipeline’ phenomenon far more import- might, or might not, be interested in) may result in ant for women. In Malawi, the GoM’s guidelines for very few young women making the transition from mainstreaming gender in the transport sector high- school to employment in the roads sector. Attrac- light the limited talent pool among women due to tion may come from exposure to the roads sector at low numbers of women’s enrolment in STEM fields of school (e.g. careers advice), within the family or lo- study (MoTPW, 2016). cal community (e.g. growing up in a city-port or ad- Selection. Selection refers to both the formal and jacent to an airport or railway yard) and will be heav- informal procedures used by the organization in ily influenced by the Human Resource (HR) policies the recruitment and hiring of people and or firm of roads sector organizations (e.g. corporate image, contractors with the attributes the organization commitment to equal opportunities) and societal desires. The process of recruitment may favor men values (e.g. prevailing views on what constitutes because of inappropriate selection criteria, and/ ‘men’s work’ and ‘women’s work’) (Turnbull 2013). or the organization’s bias and reluctance to hire fe- Young women may not be actively encouraged to male candidates. In terms of the former, one can find consider the available career and job opportunities countless examples in the roads sector of outdated in the roads sector even though such options in- job/person specifications for posts that have been clude a wide range of (often well-paid) manual jobs transformed by new technology (Turnbull 2013). and professional and technical occupations. Fur- For example, physical strength is no longer a re- ther, roads sector jobs are also unlikely advertised quirement of many roads jobs – but can be used to young girls at school as a potential career choice. as a barrier to women’s entry into the sector. In the As a result, women may be less likely to study tech- World Bank-supported Rural Road Infrastructure Im- nical careers and science, technology, engineering provement Project in Nicaragua in which women’s and mathematics (the so-called ‘STEM subjects’). labor participation reached 46 percent, women re- This limits the possibilities of initial attraction and ported they did not have the opportunity to take on selection but also career progression, especially as what was perceived to be “men-only” jobs, such as there is a dearth of female role models or women in laying heavy cobblestones. Women were typically 18 given “lighter” or “clean” tasks like administrative Advancement. The final stage of the career cycle is duties and traffic signaling (Casabonne, Jimenez the progression from a job to a career and a sense and Muller, 2015). of realizing one’s potential, which is arguably the Retention. Retention refers to the ability of the litmus tests of quality employment. To reach the organization/sector to retain female recruits. final stage of the career cycle in the roads sector Low retention of female recruits can be attributed is extremely difficult for women as there is both to poor working conditions and workplace environ- horizontal segregation (a ‘sticky floor’) and verti- ment, and an insufficient flexibility in arrangements cal segregation (a ‘glass ceiling’). The ‘sticky floor’ that enable women to reconcile work and family life, highlights the fact that women’s careers in the roads unequal pay and lack of training and professional sector might ‘never get off the ground’ because they development (Shah et al 2007, Project Wise 2009). are confined to feminized roles with limited train- Common concerns by women in terms of working ing or career opportunities. So even when women conditions include the absence of basic amenities secure entry to male-dominated sectors and occu- (e.g. separate toilets, changing rooms and sanitary pations, they are typically excluded from the ‘most facilities), and insufficient attention to health and masculine’ tasks (e.g. very physical, dirty and/or well-being (e.g. hazardous working conditions, per- dangerous work, as well as many ‘technical’ roles), sonal protective equipment designed specifically which in turn can stall or even curtail their promo- for women, and safety and security especially at tion prospects (Turnbull 2013). The ‘sticky floor’ is night and/or when working in geographically iso- compounded by the barrier of the ‘glass ceiling’, lated locations) (Turnbull, 2013). In addition, the with very few female role models or mentors to sup- heavy dominance of men in certain roles can lead port career progression and limited opportunities to women feeling isolated in the workplace, par- for training and development. Women who secure ticularly if they experience sexist attitudes during employment in the roads sector are often regarded their work (European Commission 2016). Violence as ‘pioneers’ or ‘trail blazers’ for future generations against women and sexual harassment is one of of women. the most important factors limiting the attraction of It is worth noting that some barriers are not dis- transport jobs for women and breaking the retention crete, nor stage specific, but rather interconnect- of those who are employed in the transport sector ed and reinforcing the need for a holistic approach (Turnbull, Lear and Thomas 2009, Pillinger 2017). to women’s employment in the roads sector. For ex- Other concerns are related to earnings, i.e. unequal ample, working around the cycle from initial attrac- pay, unequal access to premium wage rates (e.g. tion, transport jobs are unlikely to be ‘advertised’ overtime or weekend work that is difficult to recon- to young girls at school as a potential career choice cile with family commitments). because of gender stereotypes (i.e. the assumption that roads jobs are ‘not for women’ and preconcep- 19 tions about the careers that young girls might, or might not, be interested in). As a result, women are less likely to study STEM field subjects which not only limits the possibilities of initial attraction and selection but also career progression, especially as there is then a dearth of female role models or wom- en in higher level/managerial roles who might train and/or mentor potential new recruits and support them as they develop their careers. If there are few, if any, women in a roads organization, or at least in particular roles (e.g. civil engineering), then the or- ganization is less likely to offer flexible working ar- rangements or (re)design equipment, tools, person- al protective equipment (PPE) and the like. This, in turn, reinforces the lack of attraction of roads sector jobs to women. 20 21 3. Methodology of the Qualitative Study The qualitative research consisted of focus group discussions with women and girls along the career cycle in the roads sector and key informant interviews6. Research was implemented between August 2017 and October 2018, detailed in Figure 4. This section lays out the key features of the research methodology. Figure 4. Research implementation Phases Phase I Scoping & Phase II Research Phase III Phase III Data Engagement Design Implementation Analysis & Report FGD and KII Writing AUG 2017 NOV 2017-MAY 2018 JUN 2018 JUL-DEC 2018 AUGUST 2017 DEC Qualitative and quantitative research represent dif- problem and its distribution in a population. In con- ferent research paradigms.6Quantitative methods trast, qualitative methods allow for understanding are valuable for drawing conclusions that are valid nuances and details of complex social phenomena for the broader population under study. They are par- from the points of view of those who experience ticularly suitable for measuring the frequency of a them. Although findings cannot be generalized for the entire population, they reveal multiple layers of 6 This research follows the principles of protection of human sub- meaning for a particular group of people, which is jects outlined by the Belmont Report (1978) and the guidelines for conducting research in Malawi as established under the important when studying human behavior, beliefs, 2013 National Commission for Science and technology Act. This attitudes, and perceptions. Findings from qualita- study was reviewed and approved by the National Committee for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of the National tive research should be understood and used in Commission for Science and Technology (NCST) in May 2018. 22 ways that are different from quantitative findings. ent stages in their career in the roads sector7 and The objective is not to test causalities and gener- come up with concrete policy recommendations to alize findings. It is precisely by studying the con- promote women’s participation in the sector. ditions, meanings and practices found in specific • Which factors shape occupational choices for contexts that qualitative research can provide deep young women and their perceptions of technical insights into the heterogeneity within a generalized careers in the road sector? picture. Exploratory qualitative data serves to build and refine theories, and also helps understanding • What are the challenges young women face in limitations in the application of general theories to engineering and technical vocational schools in specific contexts. the roads sector? To better define the study’s design, the team im- • What are the barriers women face in accessing plemented an initial scoping and engagement economic opportunities in the road sector as em- phase. In addition to preliminary desk and literature ployees, consultants and contractors? review, the team consulted with 27 governmental • What are the challenges women face to remain and non-governmental stakeholders in Malawi in and succeed in technical positions in the road August 2017. The objectives of these initial consul- sector? tations were to map existing data and information • Which strategies can women use to cope posi- on the barriers to women’s participation in the road tively and surpass the challenges faced along sector; identify existing interventions aimed at in- their trajectories? creasing women’s participation in the sector as well as challenges and lessons learned from their imple- Data collection focused on the district of Blantyre, mentation; and gain recommendations about the southern Malawi. The district was selected as main most appropriate research design considering local site because it concentrates major institutions rele- priorities and realities. These initial conversations vant to educational and employment opportunities with stakeholders were documented through exten- in the road construction sector, such as the Malawi sive field notes, which were analyzed in-depth. They Polytechnic and the Malawi Institute of Engineers, allowed the team to assess and develop relevant as pointed by stakeholders during initial consulta- research questions, themes, field sites, sample pop- tions. Cooperation with these institutions helped to ulation and size as well as articulate recruitment facilitate participant recruitment from these institu- strategies for participants in the study. tions. Secondary and technical schools where the The key research questions below reflect both a team could conduct data collection were identified career cycle approach and a pragmatic approach 7 The study attempted to keep the data collection as bound as to understand the challenges women face at differ- possible to the individuals connected to the roads sector but in some cases, this was not possible. For example, the closest we could get was to civil engineering students or technical students in areas related to the road sector. 23 Figure 5. Study Sites twelve women and girls—, and 11 key informant interviews (KIIs). FGDs drew upon participants’ attitudes, feelings, beliefs, experiences and reactions by eliciting a discussion of multiple perspectives within a group context. Apart from providing a wider range of re- sponses to research questions, social processes at work in a group interview also serve to evolve stan- dards of behavior, which can release inhibitions and call for open reports intimate experiences and sen- timents (Merton, Fiske and Kendall, 1990). FGDs were conducted by a moderator and a note-taker of Lilongwe gender matched to participants and lasted approxi- mately one and a half hours. Six different FGD guides were developed to guide FGDs with the different sample groups (see Annex 3). These guides were Blantyre developed based on themes identified in the litera- ture and initial consultations with stakeholders. The interviews were conducted in both English and local language (Chichewa) as chosen by participants. Ta- by Blantyre’s Education Division Manager (see An- ble 2 presents the major themes addressed in each nex 2 for details on site and participant selection). A interview guide. smaller portion of data collection also took place in Key informant interviews (KIIs) were conducted Lilongwe, the country’s capital, with key informants with government and non-governmental stake- from several governmental ministries as well as holders as well as teachers from secondary and with contractors8. technical schools and University. Interviews last- The sample selection followed a purposeful design ed between 60 to 90 minutes. Annex 2 presents the criterion based on the specific areas of research interview guide for KIIs designed to broadly address (Table 1). The qualitative study combined six fo- the four research questions presented in Table 1. cus groups discussions (FGDs) –each with five to The KIIs aimed to deepen the understanding on ex- isting programs and institutions and collect infor- mation on how to build on those to promote women’s 8 Initially, the team planned to conduct FGDs with consultants and participation in the road sector. contractors in Blantyre. As not enough women could be recruited for the FGDs to be conducted in Blantyre, the site was moved to Lilongwe, where only the FGD with contractors was feasible. 24 The third method of data collection employed for researchers’ observations aimed to provide a better this component were field observations made by understanding of the context of interviews and in- research team in a variety of forms: research dia- terviewee’s lives as well as capture non-verbal com- ries; field reports; and observation sheets for each munication during interviews. interview and FGDs conducted (see Annex 2). Field Table 1. Purposeful Sample Selection9 Number of Number of Guiding Research Question(s) Themes Group Interviewed FGD participants AT ENTRY 1. Which factors shape • Relations: family composition, trajectories Young women in 2 FGDs 22 occupational choices for and relationships; perceptions about their secondary school young women and their community; role models. identifying their perceptions of technical • Future: aspirations, perceived ability to careers. One rural careers as attractive? make decisions about their future. and one urban 2. What are the challenges • Education: experiences and attitudes school with career that girls face in towards school; knowledge about and talks engineering and technical attitudes towards technical /entrepreneurial schools? careers; perceived barriers to follow technical careers (existence of economic opportunities, salaries; affordability). • Public policies: knowledge and perceptions, scholarships; career talks8 In addition: Young women in 1 FGD 11 • Deciding for and accessing technical university studying education: decision process; motivators civil engineering and de-motivators; attitudes from family/ partner/peers; information about technical careers and means of accessing this info; availability of financial and logistical support. • Barriers to succeeding in university or Young women in a 1 FGD 10 technical school: peer environment and technical school networks; sense of meritocracy and belonging; infrastructure and relations with teachers; coping strategies/resources in crisis moments. 9 Career talks with young women in secondary schools are organized by the NCIC, the Malawi Institute of Engineers (MIE) and the Malawi Polytechnic. The objective is to provide career guidance to motivate female students to go on and study construction-related programs at tertiary level. For this study, the team coordinated with the Roads Authority to organize a career talk in combination with data collection in schools. Girls were interviewed before and after the career talk. 25 Number of Number of Guiding Research Question(s) Themes Group Interviewed FGD participants AS ROADS SECTOR WORKERS 3. What are the barriers In addition: Women transport 1 FGD 5 women in technical • Employment: professional trajectories; engineers professions face in barriers and facilitators in looking for a job; accessing economic work conditions and peer environment; opportunities in the road infrastructure and relations with male peers sector as employees, and bosses; sense of belonging; sense of consultants and fairness/meritocracy; coping strategies/ entrepreneurs? resources in crisis moments. 4. What are the barriers • Entrepreneurship: barriers to securing women faced in contracts; access to financial resources; Women road workers 1 FGD 11 remaining and access to networks; Access to opportunities succeeding in technical and barriers to competitiveness. Women contractors 1 FGD 5 tracks? in road sector TOTAL 7 FGDs 64 RECOMMENDATIONS THROUGHOUT THE LIFE CYCLE 5. How can we build on • What are the different factors that might Key informant existing interventions/ influence girls’ choice of career and interviews (KII)10 11 institutions to promote their perceptions of technical sectors as women’s participation attractive? in the road sector in • What are the perceived challenges and Malawi? opportunities to women’s participation in the roads sector? • How have policies and programs responded to these challenges at local, regional and national levels? • What is working well and what are the lessons learned? • What actions would you recommend to support more progressive and equal gender roles in the sector in future? TOTAL 75 10 Besides the general limitations of qualitative re- affect the outcomes for women in the engineering search mentioned earlier, there are specific limita- field. Also, the study’s sample was limited to women tions inherent to this particular piece of research: in certain locations of rural and urban Blantyre and Certain themes and realities were not possible to Lilongwe - the two most densely populated districts be explored in-depth in this research. For instance, of Malawi. Women and girls from these locations there may be additional structural barriers to wom- may face cultural or socioeconomic challenges that en’s entrepreneurship and education in Malawi that are different from those who live in other geographic will not be addressed in this study but indirectly locations. 10 Key informant interviews are planned with representatives from the following organizations: Ministry of Transport and Public Works (1); National Construction Industry Council (1); Ministry of Gender, Children, Disability and Social Welfare (1); Ministry of Labor (1); The Malawi Polytechnic (1); Ministry of Education (1); the Malawi Institute of Engineers (1), Malawi Roads Authority (1); Principal/teacher from one selected rural and one selected urban school (2); Principal/teacher from one selected technical schools (1). 26 27 4. Findings Interviews with female students in secondary and tertiary engineering and vocational training schools, women workers in the Malawi roads sector, and key informant interviews have yielded insights into the multiple and over- lapping factors at various levels -the individual, institutional, and societal-, that influence, interact and reinforce each other, producing cumulative effects. Many of these factors are embedded in the socialization, learning and hiring processes that result in high rates of attrition of women in the engineering and roads-related technical field at different stages of the career cycle, often called the “leaky pipeline” in policy discussions about women in STEM. The leaky pipeline starts early. From secondary chitects, engineers, and roads sector contractors. It school through university and vocational schools, should also be mentioned, as Annex 1 shows, that in female students report less confidence and aspi- Malawi there is a lower share of girls than boys that ration in engineering and vocational training in the complete secondary education, which affects the roads sector. At the selection stage, women face leaky pipeline. Table 2 summarizes the key findings gender bias in hiring and difficult work environment, that relate to the different phases of the career cy- representing an exodus of talent among women who cles and correspond to the four main research ques- could otherwise become the next generation of ar- tions of the study. Table 2. Summary of key sets of findings related to the career cycle phases ATTRACTION SELECTION RETENTION AND REALIZATION • Gender disparities in access to education • Gender bias in hiring and in the • Difficult work place environment • Informational failures selection of tender process • Work -family challenges in the • Institutional failures • Lack of access to productive inputs Roads Sector • Aspirations molded by societal expectations • Concerns over work-life balance • Lack of opportunities for promotion • Concerns over university/workplace and husband’s discouragement and continuous learning environment. • Concerns over quality of jobs and • Inhospitable or ‘chilly environment’ and other risk institutional failures in tertiary institutions 28 Research question #1: What factors shape occupational choices for young women and their perceptions of technical and engineering careers in the roads sector? ATTRACTION the roads sector. In addition, participants noted that parents place a larger share of the domestic The qualitative study identified seven sets of work burden on girls compared to boys and so they gendered factors that influence girls’ occupation- have less time to devote to homework and studies al choices and restrain them into selecting STEM impacting girl’s education performance including and other technical and professional careers in their school attendance. Participants also indicated the roads sector, namely: 1) factors that relate to that a higher proportion of girls drop out of second- access and quality of primary and secondary edu- ary school due to teenage pregnancy and orphan- cation; 2) informational and institutional failures hood11 as households demand girls time in home that affect the decision to select a STEM fields of production and care of siblings. Box 2 describes the study; 3) stereotype threat or a negative notion that educational system in Malawi. women are not good at math and sciences; 4) as- “[Today] there is free [primary] education, so both pirations that are molded by societal and parental boys and girls go to school, but that is not enough. expectations of the types of jobs suitable for men Because for the girl child, they wake up very early and for women (gender-role stereotypes) 5) girls’ in the morning to sweep the compound, to prepare concerns over male-dominated university and work- the fire, prepare breakfast, sometime even go to place environment; and 6) inhospitable environ- draw water before even think to go to school. For the ment and other institutional failures that presents boy child it is different. The boy child will wake up difficulties for girls to success in engineering and to go straight to have a bath, eat something, go to technical studies. We explore each on turn. school. Back from school, the girl child will get a pail and draw water, help the mother with the household Gender disparities in access to work. The boy child will go scorch free. So that’s the education 11 Approximately 12.5 percent of children under 18 are orphans Gender disparities in access to education is a key according to recent data (Shoko and Ibisomi 2016). Most families caring for orphans in Malawi lack the means to provide and foundational factor that impacts the number their family members with basic necessities. Orphans very often lack parental care and proper nutrition, have inadequate shelter of women in technical and engineering careers in and limited access to education and healthcare, and are at an increased risk of exploitation and abuse (USAID 2016). 29 beginning, already you can see the girl child’s men- group discussion in English, which demonstrates tality is home bound, yeah. You are given most of the extent of the barrier they will face in trying to the household work while the boy child thinks differ- access university since national examinations for ently”. entry into university are done in English. -Key informant. Furthermore, findings suggest that financial con- Language barriers also pose a constraint for girls straints remain serious barriers to post-primary in rural areas, diminishing the pool of girls enter- education for girls. Schooling materials, tuition and ing the roads sector as skilled workers. Female other special fees such as exam fees may be too students from rural schools that participated in the high for poor households to afford and especially study were not comfortable in conducting the focus for households in rural areas. Parents may also pri- Box 2. The Education System in Malawi The formal education system in Malawi follows an 8–4–4 structure: eight years of primary education (Standard 1–Standard 8), four years of secondary (Form 1–Form 4), and four years of university level education. At the end of their primary education, students take the Primary School Leaving Certificate Examination (PSLE), which determines their eligibility for entry into secondary school. At the end of two years of secondary education, pupils take the national Junior Certificate of Secondary Education (JCE), which is followed by the Malawi School Certificate Examination (MSCE) two years later. Technical and vocational training can start after either JCE or MSCE. Tertiary education is provided by an array of educational institutions, including primary and secondary teacher training colleges, technical and vocational training schools, and university colleges. For university entrance and for the secondary teacher training college, an MSCE certificate is required. For primary teacher training, the policy is to take MSCE graduates, but those who passed the JCE may also be accepted. Primary, secondary, teacher, and higher education levels fall under the authority of the Ministry of Education Science and Technology. Source: World Bank 2010 30 oritize paying for boys’ fees when the financial re- to the career talk on engineering and roads sector sources are scarce. technical careers, girls said they did not know that there were different types of engineering and roads Infor mational and institutional construction jobs that did not involve hard physical failures in secondary schools labor and getting dirty. They expressed interest and were encouraged at the prospect that technical and While theoretically a person’s choice of his/her engineering careers also involved aspects of design career, education or training reflects his or her and supervision. interest, information plays a significant role in “I think that most people think it is very tough and career decision making. The study revealed a lack the clothes they wear are not impressive and even of information about technical and engineering pro- the work is not impressive, and they can even get fessions among female secondary school students sick often. So, most people want jobs where they will in both urban and rural areas. In general, girls had just sit like accountants.” very little knowledge about engineering, what an en- – FGD young women in urban secondary school gineer does for a living, and how one can become an FGDs and KII found that prestige and status con- engineer. Girls in a rural secondary school that par- tinue to be attached to university education. Young ticipated in the FGD said that engineering jobs had people (and their parents) seek career paths in the to do with things like mat weaving, repairing fridges, so-called professional occupations, even though in bikes and cars. In urban areas, only a few students Malawi there are few employment opportunities in had a better idea about engineering. the profession for which they wish to train. Techni- “Initially my understanding was that engineering is cal, Entrepreneurial and Vocational Education and about cellphone and fridge repairing but due to that Training (TEVET)12 is often regarded as inferior, or career talk session, I have now learned that engi- as a second choice after professional education, re- neering is not about what I have been thinking all gardless of the student’s interests or abilities. Girls this time. Indeed, I was ignorant on this. Engineer- therefore dismiss promising and meaningful career ing is about road construction, buildings and other paths in areas where employment demand is great- things, and I think I have really been motivated with that presentation.” – FGD young women in rural secondary school 12 After completing two years of secondary education, students can take the National Junior Certificate of Secondary Education (JCE), followed by the Malawi School Certificate Examination In urban areas, girls made negative associations (MSCE). These two certificates can give access to TEVET. TEVET with engineering and road sector-related oppor- is provided in technical colleges, community-based training centers, private technical and vocational training providers, and tunities as low skilled jobs and “dirty jobs”. This the apprenticeship training system which combines on-the job was discouraging to them in comparison to other practical training with theory courses in college. Most of public formal TEVET is provided in seven Technical Colleges (TCs) that careers like law, accounting and business. Prior provide four years technical and vocational training courses (World Bank 2010). 31 er, simply because of the stigma attached to techni- ly had some setbacks but still I survived and here I cal and vocational occupations. am continuing pursuing my studies at this college”. The study also showed that girls’ occupational – FGD young women in TEVET studies establishment choices are shaped by their exposure to their “Even boys are considered students of a low class environment, revealing differences between ur- because they are at a technical college. Some of ban and rural locations. In rural areas, girls are them did very well during their secondary education exposed to a limited set of occupations and role and when they enroll with a technical college, peo- models that shape a narrow understanding on the ple end up downgrading upon them for ending up at careers they could follow. Students in rural areas a technical college.” mentioned careers they see every day, such as -FGD with female students in TEVE nurses at the clinic, teachers at their school, and studies establishment police. Girls expressed a desire to pursue an occu- In addition, focus group discussions revealed a pation that will allow them to “make a difference” stark difference between urban and rural girls re- for their families and their communities. In con- garding the influence and support they receive (or trast, in urban areas, a more diverse set of career not) from family, mentors, school staff when mak- options are perceived as possible by young girls, ing career choices. All rural girls interviewed report- often influenced by professional trajectories of ed having made the decision on careers they want- family members, such as accountant, lawyer, sur- ed to pursue by themselves. Their reasons were that geon, entrepreneur. Further, in urban areas, sec- they were afraid of being misguided or discouraged. ondary school girls expressed the view that educa- This shows that they lack individuals whom they tion holds the key for advancement in life. can trust to guide them through these choices. This “I am a student under the sponsorship of TEVET. I can also be because, in contrast to urban girls, they was confronted by my father for choosing to enroll are less likely to have family members who have for this course under the TEVET vocational skills done post-secondary studies, leaving them unable program. He wanted me to have pursued a differ- to guide their children through the process. Urban ent course and not this one. When I got shortlisted secondary school girls said they discussed career to come and study for this course mainly in brick choices with family members and mentors who fa- laying, I thought my father won’t pay for my col- cilitated access to information about different ca- lege fees. Some three days before my departure to reers and what is necessary to pursue it in practice. school, my father was still not clear if he will pay “I did not consult anyone because in many circum- the fees for me. Most of the times, many boys talk stances people just end up frustrating you when you badly about us ladies who have gone to a technical consult them.” college to pursue courses in vocational skills. I real- – FGD young women in rural secondary school 32 “I consulted my relative so that we should help each not exposing them to female role models in the en- other in career choices because she already went gineering and roads sector, and not teaching girls through this, so I had already decided that I want to growth mindset, grit and perseverance skills. Key be a doctor, but I wasn’t sure which one exactly. So, informants from secondary schools, the Polytech- when we talked about that in our family, one spoke nic and the Roads Authority emphasized the need to about becoming a surgeon, the other one said you expose engineering concepts and science and tech- should do physio therapy considering how you are nology applications to female students at young and the way you know yourself. So, I saw that from age to start attracting them to engineering careers. the way I am and the way I know myself what I can In the view of the Principal of an urban secondary manage: I can really do physio therapy. So, if there school, this should start in Form 1 when girls are would be some difficulty I would still be able to do it.” beginning to make career choices. In later grades, – FGD young women in urban secondary school schools could engage large private sector compa- Further, secondary school and university students nies to hold science and engineering competitions also noted that sometime their career choice hap- to motivate students in the field. The interviews also pens somewhat randomly as they don’t quite know emphasized the need for students to receive career what the available choices are. They sometimes ask guidance, providing students with information about their parents or others about what they should in- the requirements for engineering and roads sector clude in in their career choice forms, which indicates related studies. Key informants also emphasized that they are not making an informed decision. the importance of organizing career talks and ex- posing girls to female engineers and skilled workers “You know in the past kids in the past our age not in the roads sector. This would help to break gender this middle one we were so obedient to our parents stereotypes and overcome certain mental models, so at the secondary school we were given the forms and help young women navigate and overcome their that can you fill these forms and bring them tomor- concerns and encourage them to selected techni- row what I did I just gave them to my dad there these cal/engineering studies. forms we need to fill and I don’t know what to write so my dad said okay put engineering I wrote I can’t Aspirations molded by societal remember the other two choices and I just had to submit and I was selected that’s how I ended up be- expectations ing here am really proud now because I never knew The study found that social norms about gender it would be like what it is now.” roles and stereotypes mold girls’ career aspira- – FGD with female engineers tions. Gender roles are common beliefs about what The study pointed to various institutional failures men and women tend to do, as well as what men and in secondary school in terms of not introducing women are supposed to do. The study revealed that female students to engineering concepts early on, there are strong mental models that engineering and 33 roads-sector related jobs are a man’s occupation, a girl I also want to be rich at some point’. Me too, involving heavy machinery, tough, ‘dirty’ and incon- I can solve those beams and slabs. Then I applied gruous with the female gender role. Indeed, focus and luckily enough I was taken, but my dad was not group discussions with secondary school girls and happy because he was like ‘this course is for guys girls in engineering and TEVET studies revealed that not ladies. But I challenged him and I said that I will parents discourage girls to pursue engineering and work hard and finish this course no matter what.” technical careers. Girls also perceive that they have -FGD with female students in Polytechnic less chances of getting married if they pursue these On the flip side, many female students in the Poly- careers as boys will be intimidated by girls that are technic that participated in the focus group dis- too smart or educated. Girls expressed concerns cussion, mentioned that they were attracted to the that their future husband would not allow them to engineering career because of the encouragement work as an engineer or roads sector skilled worker they received from their fathers and because their in work sites away from home. They also voiced con- own father or another close family member was an cerns about their ability of combining their caregiv- engineer. This shows how parents expectations and ing and household duties with a career in the roads aspirations for their daughters helps to shape their sector once they have families of their own. Another academic trajectories. The more parents encourage issue that came up in FGDs with secondary school their children’s after-school STEM activities, provide was their reluctance to enter into engineering stud- STEM educational materials and content, the more ies due to the longer duration: five years as opposed their daughters become interested in engineering to four years for a business administration degree. and STEM. Parents’ beliefs about their children’s “According to the Malawian culture girls engaging in ability to perform well in mathematics increased engineering or bricklaying look awkward because it their confidence in mathematics and sciences. This is not work that women should do - it is for men.” shows that parents are critical early socializers of – FGD young women in urban secondary school their children’s academic interests. “Some girls get discouraged with the way how “My dad is a civil engineer. So, from a young age people talk when they see that a girl is in college it was strict upbringing, even for my sister he’d studying technical and engineering courses. They choose what she’s going to do. As for me, he said say that these are courses suitable for men and not you are going to do civil engineering, but it also hap- women.” pened that I was very good at my sciences in high – FGD young women in rural secondary school school. And despite that, my teachers in high school “I told my dad about it [that I wanted to do engineer- said I wouldn’t do it - so that gave me more motiva- ing] but he didn’t like the idea. He was like you are tion that you know what, I’m going to do it and let just a girl, you can’t do this, this is just for guys. So, I me work harder in the science subjects that I need told him, ‘you know dad, I can do it, despite that I am to get into that program.” 34 -FGD with female students in Polytechnic Stereotype threat “Okay, the very first time I heard about civil engineer- In addition to affecting preferences, stereotypes ing, I was in secondary school and people who were affect women through a phenomenon known as doing career guidance, I think they were from Chan- “stereotype threat” (Box 3). Focus groups and key co, and others from Poly as some sort of a group, so it informant interviews revealed that girls have inter- was from them that I got to hear about civil engineer- nalized beliefs that boys are better at math, science, ing. Also, seeing my uncle who was also in the same and physics. The male dominated environment in field. So, the interest came because of those two.” engineering university and TEVET careers also rein- -FGD with female students in Polytechnic forces and activates the negative stereotypes about “For me it was my dad who motivated me. He had women’s abilities. The interviews also indicate how seen my interests growing up he was in IT and he negative stereotypes about women’s math abilities would teach me computer stuff and I was so fasci- are transmitted to girls by their parents and teach- nated with that. Even when it was time to watch TV I ers, shaping girls’ math attitudes and ultimately would want to watch shows where they are building undermining performance and interest in science, stuff, inventing things, scientists and all. [For me] technology, engineering, and math fields. this decision was made way back when I was in pri- “Most of the times people say math is not for girls, mary school. He told me: ‘You should be an engineer. so to go for engineering you need to have done re- You just need to put your mind to it.’ So, he like set ally well in math. So as girls you face a challenge of that path for me when I was young.” fear that I won’t be picked - so it is better I just apply -FGD with female engineers for another course all together.” – FGD young women in urban secondary school Box 3. Stereotype threat Stereotype threat describes a threat—sometimes referred to as an anxiety—that people experi- ence when they fear being judged in terms of a group-based stereotype (Steele, 1997; Steele & Aronson, 1995). Stereotype threat has been theorized not only to influence women’s performance in math and science, but also to contribute to disengagement from fields in which women are neg- atively stereotyped, such as engineering and other STEM subjects. 35 Too few placements in engineering any person due to issues of underpayments. I need schools to have a company of my own and be an employer.” -FGD with female students in TEVET The above-mentioned findings relate to difficulties studies establishment in attracting women into the roads sector-related Economic class or status may also play into young engineering fields. In addition to these constraints, people being attracted to engineering albeit for the fact that there is just one engineering college in different reasons. Young people’s whose parents Malawi with a limited number of placements, means are engineers or have a professional degree will like- that young women face a tough competition to get ly be more exposed to STEM fields of study and thus selected and might get discouraged to pursue it. more likely to choose and have the grades and qual- Further, the district quota13 which involved students ifications to apply. That said, girls from higher eco- being selected into higher education based on their nomic status would not choose TEVET education and district or region rather than straight merit, might choose a university degree that has higher prestige also discourage students from applying even if they than engineering. On the other hand, young people feel they have a chance because of their academic from a lower economic status may see engineering standing. and technical-related fields with more prestige and Other factors that led women choose as a way to higher economic status. engineering/technical careers The key benefit female students feel they gain from their degrees is the challenge, prestige and the Young women interviewed by the study pointed to practice application of their courses. Female stu- several factors that interested them related to the dents mentioned they liked the fact they are break- engineering and road-sector related technical ca- ing the gender norms by studying engineering and reers. Some viewed that the careers allow them to technical studies. They enjoyed the attention and make a difference in their communities and person- prestige it brings. The female students in the tech- al interest in the engineering and technical careers. nical vocational college said they liked the hands-on They also mentioned that it may bring better job practical application of what they are learning. They prospects, income opportunities, and the possibility also find that the business development courses are of engaging in entrepreneurship. Young women also a good complement to their technical coursework to expressed the desire to prove themselves and chal- pursue entrepreneurship in the future. lenge gender stereotypes. “I have liked the challenge of something most peo- “What influenced me to enroll for this course was ple are scared to do. And then, when you are telling that I have always wanted to have my own compa- someone, I am doing civil engineering, like you are a ny. I don’t have an interest of getting employed by 13 Since 2009, Malawi has a quota system for admitting students to public universities based on their district of origin. In addition, there is a 50/50 quota for male/female students in universities. 36 Research question #2: What challenges young women face in suc- ceeding in engineering and technical vocational schools? girl, and I’m like yeah, I know! It’s the challenge ..the students feel intimidated of participating in study harder it becomes the more I push for it.” groups largely made up of young men. Young women – FGD young women at the Polytechnic described negative group dynamics in which they “As a brick laying student, I get excited with the way were mocked by their male peers which impacted we get trained to actually interpret the plan or design their confidence and self-esteem. Female students of something on paper and get it on the ground for also expressed that teachers lacked confidence that actual construction. Not any ordinary person can they would succeed in their courses. In this climate, manage this. It requires someone to get trained first.” even highly skilled and motivated women may won- – FGD young women at the TEVET der if they belong, are valued and respected in the studies establishment engineering field. This social marginalization may thus feed on itself and worsen female students’ aca- Hostile climate and other demic outcomes over time. institutional challenges “In our first days at this campus, boys used to in- timidate us a lot. They could ask us some mockery At the tertiary level, the study found several insti- questions like: “What are you girls up for at this col- tutional and logistical-related challenges for wom- lege?”. They could laugh at us during our practical en in engineering and technical colleges. The first lessons. Despite all these discouragements, we still was that as these careers are currently male-domi- worked hard and today we able to do well in class nated, female students in the Polytechnic and voca- due to our hard work.” tional training program experienced a an inhospita- – FGD young women at the TEVET ble or ‘chilly climate’ in which they feel unwelcome studies establishment (Box 3). In the Polytechnic, since there are many more male students than female students, female 37 Box 3. The ‘Chilly Climate’: Subtle Ways in Which Women Are Often Treated Differently at Work The ‘chilly climate’ is a commonly used phrase that describes a myriad of unconscious diminishing behaviors that often proliferate in any male-dominated environment. Most of the behaviors are what has been described as “microinequities,” a term coined by Mary Rowe of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Rowe and Girlando-Kerr 2017). They de- scribe the small everyday inequities through which individuals are often treated different- ly because of their gender, race, age, or other “outsider” status. Taken by itself, a microin- equity may have a miniscule effect, if it has any at all, and is typically not noticed by the person it happens to or by the person who asserts it. Yet when these behaviors occur again and again, and especially if they are not noticed or understood, they often have a dam- aging cumulative effect, creating an environment that is indeed chilly -- an environment that dampens women’s self-esteem, confidence, aspirations and their participation. Some examples are listed below: Behaviors that communicate lower expectations for women • Grouping women in ways which indicate they have less status or are less capable. • Doubting women’s work and accomplishments. • Expecting less of women in the future. Yielding to the influence of internalized stereotypes • Focusing on a woman’s appearance, personal qualities and relationships rather than on her accomplishments. • Expressing stereotypes that discourage women from pursuing professional careers, such as “Women are naturally more caring and men are naturally more aggressive.” • Assigning tasks according to stereotyped roles. Women are assigned to be the no- te-takers. Excluding women from participation in meetings and conversations • Interrupting women more than men or allowing their peers to interrupt them. Women may be more vulnerable when interrupted -- they may not participate again for the rest of a meeting. 38 Treating men and women differently when their behavior or achievements are the same. • Treating women who ask extensive questions as trouble-makers and men as interested and bright. • Believing that women who ask for information don’t know the materials, but that men who ask are smart, inquisitive and involved. • Viewing marriage and parental status differently for men and women -- as disadvanta- ges for women and advantages for men. • Judging women who speak tentatively as being less competent or knowledgeable. Overt hostile behavior toward women • Ridiculing or making denigrating remarks about women’s issues or making light of is- sues such as sexual harassment and sexual assault. • Discouraging women from conducting research on women’s issues. • Calling women names if they are interested in women’s issues or protest sexism. Source: Sandler, Silverberg and Hall 1996. Further, female students said that they would Another institutional challenge relates to the issue appreciate and benefit from additional support. of on-campus accommodation. Polytechnic stu- They mentioned the need for peer support net- dents reported that the inability to find accommoda- works of female students in engineering to help tion close to the college library hinders their ability new female students cope with the stress of the to study and to participate in school discussions. workload and find strategies to build emotion- Because group work can be long hours and often al resilience. At a TEVET college, female students goes into the night, those who live far do not have wished there would be financial support or a more means or feel safe to go to the library. A key infor- direct pathway from TEVET to engineering studies, mant from the Ministry of Education Science and which presently doesn’t exist. Technology also mentioned that lack of on-campus accommodation posed a stronger challenge for fe- male students than for male students. 39 Concerns over work-life balance Concerns over quality of jobs and husband’s discouragement Concerns of quality of jobs also surfaced in the The study found that women also choose to forgo FGDs. Female engineers favored jobs in large com- careers in the roads sector due to concerns over panies rather than small companies because jobs work-life balance and working conditions. Work-life are less precarious, and women are less exposed balance is an important issue especially for women to uncomfortable situations that could arise in a in engineering and technical jobs related to the work small consulting company owned by men. In terms sector. Because culturally women are expected to of entering the field of entrepreneurship in the roads fulfill the responsibilities associated with home and sector, it was mentioned that women are usually not family and men are expected to be the breadwin- inclined to enter entrepreneurship because they are ners, women may experience negative outcomes as less risk averse. a result of a culture of working long hours and work- [On working with consulting company] “Normally, ing in remote locations, more frequently than men they are owned by men. They have wives and now do. Thus, when work responsibilities become incom- this man employs you, a lady. I have noted there patible with the demands of family life, women, es- hasn’t been good relationship between the wife of pecially mothers, find themselves in a situation in that owner of the company and this engineer. So, which they must choose between work and family. some people have ended up resigning.” Women also face pressure from their husbands not -FGD with female engineers to enter the roads sector because of the concerns “I think it’s also to do with risk. You know, we women but also because of jealousy and partners’ suspi- have a lot of fears. Is this going to work? Am I going cions of affairs with clients and co-workers. to manage this? But the guys are more risk takers. “In a family setting if the husband does not want That’s why you’ve got I think the larger number of his wife to work he can say ‘Because you spend a men being contractors than women.” lot of time at the work place I don’t want you to go -FGD with female engineers anymore’. And we have seen many cases of wom- en stopping going to work at the husbands’ orders. SELECTION They say you should be home and take care of our children because if you go to work other men will see Women face three sets of challenges in the selec- you since you work a lot with men.” tion process and accessing economic opportuni- -Key informant, staff member in TEVET ties in the roads sector: (1) Organization’s bias and studies establishment reluctance to hire female candidates; (2) Lack of access to productive inputs by female contractors, and (3) sexual extorsion. 40 Research question #3: What are the barriers women face in accessing jobs in the road sector as employees, consultants and entrepreneurs Gender bias in hiring and in the are not sure if you might do it according to specifi- cations.” selection of tender process -FGD with female contractors FGDs and KII identified that there was gender bias “The other challenge is that the construction indus- in hiring, as employers are significantly less likely try has clients and most of them are men like engi- to hire a woman compared to an equally capable neers, consultants and they meet with their fellow man. Female engineers perceive that employers men contractors at different forums; drinking plac- have a perception that women are less capable, and es is where they can negotiate for the contracts or they are afraid that women won’t be able to put in whatever. But we as women we are not able to meet the hours and to travel on-site. Notwithstanding, the with them to discuss anything concerning our job gender quota14 has allowed women to access job op- so networking with the client organizations it’s a lit- portunities according to FGD with female engineers. tle bit difficult for us women because of the forums In terms of the procurement process, female con- where they can network with the fellow men. Yeah, tractors still perceive that there is discrimination on they will meet watching football, at the club drinking the basis of gender during bidding process favoring so it’s not possible for us.” companies owned by men as there may be a per- -FGD with female contractors ception that women-owned companies might not In contrast, unskilled female roads workers said carry out the public works properly. Further, there is that they found it easy to access jobs in roads con- a greater likelihood of men-owned contracting com- struction and maintenance and there was no dif- panies knowing upcoming bids or accessing con- ference in pay with male workers. However, women tracts because of men’s business networks in the complained that jobs were short term (3 months sector, which women do not have access to. duration) and therefore workers are exposed to “In the view that you are a lady contractor most of higher job insecurity and vulnerability. Women said times, I am sure, when the technical personnel are they would like opportunities for training in specif- doing the evaluations you are under graded, they ic skills which would help to find employment once the roads contract ends. In addition, they would like opportunities to do other jobs in road construction 14 Malawi encourages 30 percent female representation in govern- mental institutions. 41 that are at present only given to men, such as driv- Female contractors and female job candidates often ing heavy machinery. face sexual harassment, where individuals in posi- “In the road work most of the times we use ma- tions of power demand sexual favors as bribes to get chines and most of those machines are driven by jobs. Sexual extorsion leads to severe physical and males. If you look at us women here, we have well- mental health consequences, including psycholog- built women who can drive and move a machinery. ical problems, unwanted pregnancy, marital prob- So, maybe if we saw a woman driving that machine lems, risk of HIV infection and social marginaliza- it can help other women be attracted [to jobs in the tion. Victim blaming makes it extremely difficult for roads sector].” women to report such crimes and to seek redress. -FGD with unskilled female workers in the roads sector RETENTION AND ADVANCEMENT Lack of access to productive inputs Female-owned contracting companies face diffi- Research question #4: culties in accessing key access productive inputs, What are the barriers women namely start-up capital and credit. Female contrac- face in remaining and succeed- tors said that the capital requirements for registering ing in careers in the roads sector? as a contractor with the Roads Authority are very high and prohibitive to women. Further, women-owned companies face challenges in coming up with fund- ing for implementing projects as they face barriers that make it difficult to access lines of credit such as Difficult work place environment collateral requirements, or the need for a guarantor. A key factor that affects women’s job satisfaction FGDs with female contractors and engineers also in- in the roads sector is being treated in a conde- dicated that husbands often takes over the running scending, patronizing, or discourteous manner of the companies when they become profitable. by supervisors, senior managers, and co-workers. Female engineers and contractors that participated Corruption and sexual extorsion in FGDs said they often experienced specific under- Sexual harassment also come in to play in the firm mining behaviors from supervisors and co-workers, contracting process. Key informants pointed to the such as having their ideas belittled; being talked issue of sexual favor requests in exchange for a job down to, being perceived as less capable, and gener- and how gender issues play in during hiring process. ally having their efforts to be successful on the job 42 undercut. Women also perceived they lacked sup- en in the field at all levels are exposed to both un- port from fellow women colleagues, who engage in wanted sexual attention (unwelcome verbal or gossip or question them on their decision to take on physical sexual advances) and sexual extorsion on-site jobs for leaving their family obligations. (when favorable professional or educational treat- “[Colleagues] look down upon you that maybe you ment is conditioned on sexual activity). Female cannot perform. Because sometimes when you are engineers that participated in the FGD said they feel a woman, people might say, ‘she comes to the site uncomfortable talking with their male colleagues, maybe she won’t’. If it was a man, they would listen especially married men, because they fear being to him quickly. If it was a woman, they would say” misunderstood and damaging their reputation. ‘she cannot help us’ because in our culture we are Women engineers interviewed also mentioned that seen as inferior to men.” they could suffer retaliation from superior if they re- -FGD with female engineers fuse advances. In addition, women unskilled work- ers said they are ridiculed in the streets and some- In addition, female engineers said that there is a times called prostitutes. deep-seated cultural mindset that women cannot lead. And if they do get promoted, women have dif- Sexual harassment at the workplace has econom- ficulty earning the respect from their now subordi- ic and career effects on working women as numer- nates and team. They often find themselves in a po- ous global studies show. It increases absenteeism, sition where they tend to please team members and work withdrawal and wanes organizational commit- accommodate them. ment (Merkin 2008, Willness et al. 2007). Because sexual harassment forces some women out of jobs, “I will give an example based on my experience. Let’s it likely influences their career attainment and earn- say you are promoted. [Your colleagues that now re- ing loss (Lopez et al. 2009). Study participants port to you] will not accept that you are not at par mentioned other effects of sexual harassment on now. They now have to get instructions from you. It women’s careers including hindering skills transfers takes you to accommodate those people, so that you and acquisition from male peers. move together. Otherwise, they would want to frus- trate you. It’s not easy. If you are not strong enough “Maybe they want you to have a relationship with you may bow down and leave the organization.” them and that kind of a relationship it’s not just you know mere relationship we are talking about deep -FGD with female engineers things whereby somebody wants to help you and he Sexual harassment15 was an issue that was also says that what is it that you are going to give me? mentioned in the FGDs. The study found that wom- It’s not always cash it maybe sexual, you know, ben- 15 Sexual harassment is defined as an unwelcome sexual ad- efits, it can be money, it can be…it’s something that vance, request for sexual favor, other verbal, non-verbal or phys- ical conduct of a sexual nature that unreasonably interferes with work, alters or is made a condition of employment, or creates an intimidating, hostile or offensive work environment (World Bank Training to Staff on Sexual Harassment). 43 Box 4. Factors that increase the likelihood of sexual harassment in the road sector Various factors increase the likelihood that women in the roads sector in Malawi become targets of sexual harassment: • A culture where sexual harassment and violence against women is normalized and hi- ghly embedded. • Male-dominated work settings. • Unequal power relations where female engineers and contractors are dependent on male superiors for jobs and career advancements. • Lack of effective legal policies and procedures to prevent sexual harassment. • Uninformed leadership at all levels lacking the tools, intention, and/or focus needed to undertake the key actions necessary to reduce and prevent sexual harassment. you look at yourself and you say this will tarnish my jobs in the roads sector are often incompatible with image maybe as a Christian, as a mother or a wife.” women’s ability to balance critical career experi- -FGD with female contractors ences with family demands. Among the challenges “Some bosses want to take part and sleep with the are extended work travel to the field that is often a woman, have sex with her, and give her the job po- requirement. As roads sector occupations have re- sition.” mained predominantly populated by men, there are -FGD with women unskilled road workers. sustained cultural norms and expectations of what is an “ideal” roads sector employee and one that Work-family challenges in the is not conducive to the careers of individuals also managing extensive family demands. The study roads sector also reveals that the patriarchal culture in Malawi instills a deep-seated notion in women themselves The study found that family-related challenges that their primary societal role is taking care of pose significant hurdles for women in the roads their family. While women interviewed advocated sector. Female engineers and contractors said for equal opportunities in the roads sector, at the 44 same time they expressed the importance of fulfill- woman is an engineer at the office, they expect her ing their roles as caretakers. This causes women to to perform as much as the man. After that when she either not apply to roads sector jobs that are incom- goes home she has to be 100%. We have to be 100% patible with their family caring responsibilities or to at home, 100% at work, 100% everywhere. That’s a face a heavy double burden. major challenge.” “In a family setting if the husband does not want -FGD with female engineers his wife to work he can say because you spend a Deter mination and resilience of lot of time at the work place I don’t want you to go women in the road sector anymore. And we have seen many cases of wom- en stopping going to work at the husbands’ orders. As we see in the previous section, the study reveals They say you should be home and take care of our multiple constraints and challenges that women children because if you go to work other men will see face, which led many to opt out from job opportuni- you since you work a lot with men. So, the men be- ties in the roads sector in Malawi. Despite all these come biased that even there you also date the boss- difficulties, there are many women that remained es yes.” firm, took the challenge with resolve and are work- - Key informant, TEVET studies establishment ing and contributing to the sector. There are var- ious commonalities of experiences in the stories Lack of opportunities, promotion of female engineering and technical students and and continuous learning female roads workers, engineers, and contactors. Many of these women spoke about the satisfying Women engineers that participated in the FGDs aspects of engineering and technical studies and in said that they struggled with the undervaluation their job such as breaking gender stereotypes, so- of their skills in the workplace. They are not given cial value, and prestige and independence. Female learning and job opportunities that will help them focus group participants also said that the main advance in the organization. When they ask for sources of resilience, dedication and strength is these opportunities, they are made to feel that they their commitment to their role and their belief in the should be content with what they have and not ask positive contribution that their role can bring about. for more. It can be inferred from this study that agency, in “[There is a] cultural element. We are perceived its manifestation of self-confidence, self-belief and to be the homemakers if there are children in the a strong sense of purpose, is a key determinant house I don’t know maybe I would say 70% of the in women ability to demonstrate their capabilities responsibility is on the woman and then even taking against the odds. It is apparent that for these wom- care of the home it’s the woman, everything pretty en, their agency is uncompromisingly coupled with much. Home management, it’s the woman. If this their faith in themselves and in their ability to make positive contribution. 45 “To me it’s more of an exciting thing because I look stage where it’s normal for a woman to be in a high at my background and then when am able to finish a position in technical work. That is the goal. job, I feel so excited because the achievement alone -FGD with female engineers shows that the impact that it’s going to give maybe “But one thing for sure that I have noted when you to the community it’s a good one.” are an engineer even in college people respect you -FGD with female contractors because they take you as somebody who is so pow- “I just like challenging jobs like making bridges, you erful and intelligent.” know. I just feel so fascinating when am doing that. -FGD with female engineers And whenever I see I have done a beautiful bridge I “Being in a male-dominated industry gives us a plat- feel so good in my mind, looking at it am like wow form to show that women are also capable. It gives this is great I have done it. Sometimes when I am you a push. I think that if f I was in a profession that working with the men, it feels so good because you was dominated by women, I wouldn’t have that put all your power there, you are pushing something much drive. I need to really work hard so that I can because me I do the work as well. It just feels good.” prove myself.” -FGD with female contractors -FGD with female engineers To cope with the challenges listed above the women “It’s a male- dominated industry pretty much. It have to work extra harder to give out the required gives us a platform to step out of our normal. We output and to give in quality work. The other thing want to prove that we can be the same as men.” is as women to believe in yourself because it’s not -FGD with female engineers easy in a men-dominated field. We ought to get to a 46 47 5. Policy Implications The previous section shows that the lack of gender diversity in the roads sec- tor in Malawi is a multilevel problem requiring multisectoral solution and cooperation across sectors. The findings also show that gendered barriers are subtle, often the result of gender stereotypes, and gendered occupational cul- tures. Differences in the status of women, especially regarding career choices, the division of household responsibilities, and differences in paid and unpaid labor are still engrained in the society and continue to play a powerful role in shaping the career development of men and women. Therefore, efforts in this area need to be multifaceted and multi-sectoral and address the underly- ing causes of the leaky pipeline of women in the roads sector.16 Table 4 lists promising initiatives to help women overcome the obstacles at different stages of the career cycle targeting women at all age groups. ATTRACTION level, a larger proportion of girls than boys drop out due to financial constraints, pregnancy, orphan hood Interventions in secondary schools and other factors. Several impact evaluations have shown that cash transfer programs can boost stu- CCTs for girls to remain in dent’s participation in secondary education. These secondary schools ease financial programs provide families with a small cash transfer if their children meet certain school attendance tar- constraints 16 As mentioned earlier, this study was supported by a multi-sec- The adoption of free primary education in Malawi re- toral Advisory Committee to whom the following recommenda- tions are directed. The Advisory Committee was chaired by the sulted in remarkable progress in boosting girl’s enroll- Ministry of Transport in Malawi and the Roads Authority - both of ment at the primary level. However, at the secondary which are key actors in governing the process of driving change across the ‘leaky pipeline’. 48 Table 3. Policy Recommendations Each Stage of Women’s Career Cycle in the Roads Sector RETENTION ATTRACTION SELECTION AND REALIZATION • Provide CCTs for girls to remain in secondary • Address gender bias in hiring. • Address sexual harassment and schools ease financial constraints. • Reform public procurement to sexual extorsion in the workplace. • Address gender stereotypes in school curricula make it more gender-inclusive. • Address work-life balance and and the classroom. • Promote opportunities for improving working conditions. • Increase girls’ mastery and interest of networking for women in the roads • Establish welcoming workplace foundational skills in math and sciences. sector. environments. • Organize career talks and exposure to female • Support career development and role models. advancement of women. • Provide information on returns to education. • Provide scholarships and bursaries for women in engineering and TEVET studies. • Provide remedial academic support to first year female engineering students. • Counter the “chilly climate” in the educational environment in engineering schools and TEVET. • Build professional role confidence to improve the school to work transition. • Campaigns to encourage women to join the roads sector gets (for example, an 80 percent attendance record is ther improving English language skills in rural areas often required). Baird et al. (2014) reviewed 35 eval- are important to improve the chances of students in uations of conditional (CCT) and unconditional (UCTs) rural locations to enter into technical studies in the programs (10 of which include secondary school roads sector. outcomes) to assess their impacts on enrollment, attendance, and test scores. Using meta-analysis Address gender stereotypes to pool results from all 35 studies, they found that in school curricula and the both CCTs and UCTs significantly increased school en- rollment and attendance relative to a control group. classroom Not surprisingly, the programs that included some The study showed that girls are less self-confident element of conditionality tied to enrollment or atten- than boys in their math and science problem-solving dance led to larger increases in these outcomes (a skills and report stronger feelings of anxiety towards 60 percent improvement in the odds of enrollment mathematics. As participants noted, this is linked to in their sample) than did UCTs (18 to 25 percent im- provement in the odds of enrollment). In addition, fur- 49 negative gender stereotypes in the classroom per- Increase girls’ mastery and petuated by students, teachers and parents. interest of foundational skills in The national school curriculum can reinforce social and gender inequalities by implicitly upholding tra- math and sciences ditional gender stereotypes or by disregarding the Foundational knowledge in math, physics, spatial diversity of learning needs and styles among girls skills, not to mention critical reasoning and reading and boys throughout the country. Alternatively, a skills, is necessary to absorb engineering and tech- national curriculum can promote positive messag- nical content on a deeper level and paves the road to es about equality between women and men. Many success in getting into engineering and TEVET insti- developing countries have undertaken efforts to tutes. Efforts should be made to strengthen female remove gender biases from textbooks and curricu- students foundational skills in math and sciences lum and to change teacher attitudes that tend to re- and engage them in spatial skills training and en- inforce gender inequality. Furthermore, efforts can couraging them in handling equipment and tools. be made to represent more equality and diversity in The school curricula should also explicitly impart a roles that exists at present. Such an approach might growth mindset. Individuals with a growth mindset encourage children to think beyond the social roles believe that intelligence is malleable, and that effort, they see around them. practice, and persistence can enhance ability over Further, schools can educate parents through such time, while individuals with a fixed mindset believe avenues as parents’ nights/workshops regarding that intelligence is a static trait or an innate ability. the importance of STEM performance and partici- Studies have shown that youth with growth mind- pation for women so that parents understand that sets had higher academic performance and higher women and men’s STEM abilities, regardless of per- completion rates of challenging math courses than formance, are comparable and are highly subject youth with fixed mindsets (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, to effort and experience. Suggest that they provide & Dweck 2007; Yeager and Dweck 2012). Individuals daughters with STEM materials (calculators, com- with a growth mindset are also more likely to per- puters, math games), opportunities and self-learn- sist in the face of a challenge, while individuals with ing options (e.g., good print and online materials) fixed mindsets are more likely to give up for fear of related to increasing knowledge and skills, learning failure. Fixed mindsets can be problematic, partic- about female role models, coping with math anxiety, ularly for girls and women who believe that math and accessing career information. ability is due to innate intelligence. After conducting several decades of research on this topic, Dweck et al. (2007) found that girls cope less well than boys when confronted with difficult math material and are more susceptible than boys to experienc- 50 ing reduced math performance when they endorse outcomes that are the ultimate goals of engineering a fixed mindset. Therefore, downplaying the role of and TEVET careers in the roads sector. Young women innate intelligence in these fields should hopefully should learn the societal benefits of jobs in the roads encourage more women to pursue STEM careers. sectors, how they provide opportunities for working As growth versus fixed mindsets seem to emerge with others and improve the socio-economic devel- during late elementary school, emphases on effort, opment of the country. Highlighting the communal persistence, and hard work should begin as early as aspects of road sector careers can increase young possible to enhance academic performance. women’s interest in these careers. Teachers can also foster girls’ long-term interest in A key informant said that the Women’s Chapter in math and science by choosing activities connecting the Malawi Institute of Education (MIE) is struggling math and science activities to careers in ways that to recruit female engineers to volunteer to give ca- do not reinforce existing gender stereotypes and reer talks to secondary. To address this challenge, choosing activities that spark initial curiosity about the MIE could recruit female Polytechnic students math and science content. Teachers can also pro- instead who might have less family obligations and vide ongoing access to resources for students who more time to volunteer. These volunteer opportuni- continue to express interest in a topic after the class ties could also help female engineering students’ has moved on to other areas. network with professionals in the field that are part of the Women’s Chapter. Career talks and exposure to Provide infor mation on returns to female role models education The study showed how career talks of women in A potentially effective, low-cost, policy intervention the roads sector as engineers and technical work- to encourage women into engineering and profes- ers greatly helped increase secondary school girls’ sional careers in the roads sector is to better inform knowledge and interest about careers and job op- female students about the returns to schooling in portunities in the sector. Young women cannot be different fields. In Mexico, the pilot program, Percep- what they cannot see, thus exposing girls early on ciones (perceptions) provides students in public, to role models promotes positive beliefs regarding technical, high schools entering 10th grade infor- women’s abilities in math and science, invalidates mation about the returns to high school and tertia- stereotypes, helps widen their aspirations and to ry education. Impact evaluation results included explore career avenues that they may not have con- improved learning outcomes, especially math test sidered originally. scores among girls. In addition, as a result of the Career talks can showcase how professionals’ ev- information treatment a significant number of girls eryday work aligns with the societally beneficial switched from biology-related tracks to the more 51 math-intensive economics high school sub-tracks Counter the ‘chilly climate’ in (Avitabile et al 2015). the educational environment Interventions in engineering colleges and TEVET in- stitutions The study found that women entering male-domi- nated engineering and technical fields experience a Provide scholarships and ‘chilly climate’ in which they feel unwelcome. A sense of belonging has measurable effects on an individ- bursaries for women in ual’s physical and mental states. Therefore, tertiary engineering and TEVET studies educational institutions should change environmen- tal cues to signal that women are respected, valued, In addition to actively attracting women in the en- and welcomed in these settings. Sensitizing male gineering and technical fields in the roads sector students and teachers about the chilly environment through career talks and gender quotas, the govern- and the importance of building a more welcoming, ment and private corporations and foundations can diverse and inclusive student environment is one provide scholarships to women in the engineering possible intervention. Sponsoring social events such and TEVET studies. This would ease the financial as ’Women in Engineering’ and peer networks of fe- constraints of women enrolling in tertiary studies male students from different grades can also help as revealed in the study. address the social alienation of women in the univer- sity/TEVET environment and in the field. Provide remedial academic Further, in order to increase retention and improve support to first year female the environment for female students in engineering engineering students and TEVET studies, the Polytechnic and TEVET insti- tutions could establish a mentoring program within The study found that female students in engineer- the faculty where senior female engineering /TEVET ing may have a skills disadvantage and therefore students could mentor junior female engineering struggle academically in their first year of studies. students to nurture the progression of the younger Policies placing first-year engineering students as- engineering students, lower their dropout rates, and sessed as needing remedial math and other course- increase women’s confidence in their abilities. work directly into college-level quantitative courses, with additional support, can increase student suc- cess and increase college graduation rates. 52 Build professional role shifts the image of who is a good fit for enginee- ring and stops the devaluing of competencies confidence to improve the and contributions that are female stereotyped. school-work transition • Enable early contact between students and pro- Emerging research suggests that ‘professional role fessionals. Meaningful contact with engineers in confidence’ is significantly associated with engi- the field provides students with role models and neering persistence and that women tend to have mentors and also helps students understand the less professional confidence than men have (Buse breadth of skills that they will need to be suc- et al 2013, Cech et al 2011). Professional role con- cessful. Individuals with low professional role fidence can be divided into two discrete concepts: confidence could benefit from interaction with expertise confidence (the confidence that one pos- professionals with whom they can identify. sesses the requisite skills and knowledge to be a • Communicate that engineering and technical professional in a chosen field) and career-fit confi- skills and competencies are learned, not inna- dence (confidence that the field is consistent with te. A conception that some people’s brains are one’s interests, values, and identity) (Corbett and hardwired to do engineering work (and that men Hill 2015). To increase female students’ “profession- are better at math and science than women are) al role confidence”, engineering and TEVET institu- contributes to low professional role confidence tions can: by perpetuating a stereotype that some people • Emphasize the wide variety of expertise neces- are natural engineers while others are a poor fit sary to be successful as an engineer. A narrow for engineering. focus on math and science obscures the other areas of expertise—writing, communicating, or- Campaigns to encourage women ganizing, and managing—that engineers need to join the roads sector to be successful. In order to attract more women in the sector and • Including engineering design activities in the challenge traditional gender stereotypes, relevant field early in undergraduate coursework allows agencies can launch campaign that showcases students to see the differences between text- women engineers and tradeswomen in the roads book problems and the creativity and critical construction industry. The targeted media cam- thinking necessary for actual engineering pro- paign can be in the form of billboards or TV adver- blem solving. Recognizing that these areas of tisements and job advertisement sites. For exam- expertise are critical to the engineering role also ple, in Massachusetts, USA, the campaign ‘Building 53 Box 5. Showcasing Female Role Models in Transport UK’s Freight Transport Association (FTA) and the NGO Everywomen hosts an annual ‘Wom- en in Transport & Logistics Awards’. The awards program celebrates the achievements of phenomenal women reshaping the UK’s transport and logistics industry, while showcasing the range of exciting career opportunities it has to offer. Each award category honors an exceptional “Leader” who is driving change, and an individual at any stage of their career who is going above and beyond for their organization. An overall “Industry Champion of the Year Award” is presented to a man or woman making an impact on attracting and retaining women in transport and logistics. New for 2018 was the ‘Male Agent of Change’ category award, awarded to a man for his active commitment to advancing the progress of women working in transport and logistics. The ‘Industry Champion Award’ also recognizes a man or woman who is championing the progress of women working in transport and logistics. Source: www.everywoman.com/tlawards a Life That Works’ was launched as a partnership SELECTION among tradeswomen advocacy groups, building trade unions, construction industry leaders includ- ed highway billboards with images of women in con- Address gender bias in hiring struction and a website showcasing women’s per- The study suggests that female skilled workers in sonal experiences in the sector (Conti, 2017). The the road sector may face discrimination when apply- roads sector can also support female pioneers in the ing to a position as hiring managers are more likely sector, not only to enable them to realize their full to hire a man over a woman. One way to counter this potential but to establish themselves as role models inherent bias against women is to tweak the recruit- and create networks to support other women who ment process by instituting several measures, as enter the industry (Turnbull 2013). Box 5 shows an follows: initiative co-led by the UK’s Freight Transport Associ- • Language analysis of job descriptions: Use an ation (FTA) and the NGO Everywomen to showcase application available for free17 to review gen- female role models in the Transport industry. 17 Use a tool like Textio tool (https://textio.ai/gendered-language- in-your-job-post-predicts-the-gender-of-the-person-youll-hire- 54 der-coded language from job descriptions. The organically through conversation — can introdu- tool uses a simple color scale to highlight words ce gender bias by for example, asking whether (like “ambitious” and “driven”) that will appeal the applicant is in a relationship or married. On more to men and words (like “nurturing” and the other hand, structured interviews, whereby “collaborative”) that will speak more to women, each candidate is asked the same set of defined so job descriptions can be reworked to be more questions, allows employers to focus on the fac- balanced. tors that have a direct impact on performance. It • Blind recruitment: Remove personally identifia- is suggested to use an interview scorecard that ble information from the resumes of applicants grades candidates’ responses to each question including their name and gender. on a predetermined scale. • Work sample tests: Require the applicant to do a • Gender-diverse panel: Employ a diverse set of work sample tests, which mimic the kinds of tasks interviewers. Women are much more likely to the candidate will be doing in the job. They are a join a company when they can interact with wo- deemed to be good indicators of future job perfor- men who are already there and can testify to a mance. Evaluating work sample tests from multi- company’s commitment to diversity. In addition, ple applicants also helps calibrate your judgment a gender-diverse panel also helps decrease the to see how Candidate A compares to Candidate B. likelihood of gender bias in hiring. • Institute the Rooney Rule: The American Natio- In some countries, participatory gender audits nal Football League (NFL) created a policy that (PGA) have been conducted to determine these requires teams to interview minority candidates requirements and ensure that selection criteria for senior football operations and head coaching are appropriate and not gender biased (ILO 2012). jobs called the “Rooney Rule”. In this case the PGA’s go beyond a purely technical assessment and Rooney rule can be applied so that for X number include personal and institutional biases in the cul- of candidates that are interviewed, X number (or ture of the organization. Through a process of reflec- X percentage) would be women. This policy re- tion, PGAs shine a light on the ‘unwritten’ or ‘unsaid’ cognizes that if there is only one women in the biases of selection that lead to an underrepresenta- job candidate pool, there is a statistically smaller tion of women. chance she will be hired. Refor m public procurement to • Structured standardized interviews: Research shows that unstructured interviews — which make it more gender-inclusive lack defined questions and whereby a candida- Female-owned contractors in the roads sector inter- te’s experience and expertise are meant to unfold viewed as part of this study said they faced consid- cd150452407) or the free Gender Decoder (http://gender-decoder. erable barriers and challenges to accessing procure- katmatfield.com/) to identify problem spots in your word choices. 55 Box 6. Preferential Procurement Policies in Different Countries Some countries have preferential public procurement policies specifically aimed at enter- prises owned by women. • In Israel, the Mandatory Tenders Law states that when two bids receive the same num- ber of points after evaluation, the bid from a ‘business controlled by a woman’ shall be chosen (Government of Israel Ministry of Finance 2008). The law’s ‘Encouragement of Women in Business’ amendment further explains that a company needs an accoun- tant’s certification to prove that it qualifies as a ‘business controlled by a woman’. • In Kenya, every procuring entity needs to allocate at least 30 percent of its procurement value to youth, women and persons with disabilities (Republic of Kenya 2015). Further, performance securities (bonds, guarantees and letters of credit) are not required in procurement reserved for enterprises owned by women. Every six months, procuring entities at national and county levels have to report to the national public procurement authority with data on the value of goods and services procured from enterprises ow- ned by women. The authority consolidates these data and reports to Parliament. • In India, the government reserves some items for exclusive purchase from suppliers in the small-scale sector (Government of India Ministry of Finance, 2006). This sector includes several suppliers that work through women’s development organizations in rural areas. • South Africa applies an elaborate preference points system, through which enterprises owned by women receive extra points for their bids. Source: Harris (2017) ment tender and winning procurement contracts technical and managerial skills, and gender bias in for roads works projects. These challenges were: tendering process. Some of the potential measures high minimum capital requirements to register as a to redefine procurement policies and processes to vendor, inadequate access to credit, high financing open up opportunities for female-owned contractors costs, fewer networking opportunities, inadequate may include the following: 56 • Formation of joint ventures: The Roads Authori- tered around male-friendly activities such as con- ty and other stakeholders to support efforts by gregating in sports bars, often involving alcohol. female contractors aimed at improving their ca- Therefore, more diverse forms of social/networking pacity to compete effectively such as formation for opportunities that are women-friendly should be of Joint Ventures or joining forces with other con- sought and promoted to improve access for employ- tractors in tendering processing and execution of ment and career development for women. The rele- contracts. vant Ministries and agencies can host events that • Revising the capital requirements for registered bring together professionals in the roads sector and vendors and simplify access to bank guarantee undertake outreach for women in the sector as part of this initiative. • Providing training to women-owned contractors to improve their capacity in the preparation of RETENTION AND responsive bids and on other skills where fema- le-contractors might be deficient on. ADVANCEMENT • Improvement of fair competition, avoiding co- rruption practices and enhance transparency in Address sexual harassment in the supplier selection process: through the use the workplace of e-procurement or a implementing a database that contains records of contractors’ performan- Sexual harassment, an issue in many workplaces, is ce can assist the Roads Authority and stakehol- a significant barrier to the successful integration of ders in monitoring performance of local firms women into the roads sector, as this study found. It in various aspects number of project tendered, is typically acute in the roads sector as when women problems encountered, exceptional good perfor- spend long periods away from home, are geographi- mance. cally isolated, and work in a predominantly male en- vironment. Such problems are also aggravated by • Consider using preferential procurement policies employees’ lack of awareness about the existence to promote the participation and selection of en- of anti-harassment policies at the workplace and/or terprises owned by women (see Box 6). lack of trust in the complaint process, as well as the tendency not to report such situations. Promote opportunities for Therefore, addressing sexual harassment in the networking for women in the workplace is key in making the workplace safe for roads sector women. Ultimately, employers have the most pow- er to establish a work environment that treats all Another key challenge identified by this study was workers equitably and with respect. They can and that networking events and opportunities are cen- should do this by setting and promoting clear policy, 57 conducting sexual harassment prevention training, ing away from home, can push women out of the monitoring the workplace and conducting prompt industry. Flexible working patterns, extended hours, and thorough investigation of complaints. variable start/ finish times, shift-work, and 24/7 op- In terms of addressing sexual extorsion in roads erations make it difficult and at times impossible to works bids, several actions18 can be pursued such as: reconcile work and family commitments. This study found that women in the roads sector face double • Revise anti-corruption and/or gender-based vio- burden, with responsibilities to both work and fam- lence laws to cover sexual extortion. For exam- ily and women face resistance from their husband ple, Section 27 of the Tanzania Prevention and and family for travelling to roads construction sites Combating of Corruption Act of 2007, makes it an where possibly housing and sanitary conditions are offense for “any person in position of power or au- often inadequate and unsafe for women. thority” to “demand [] or impose [] sexual favors” as a condition of the exercise of that authority. Roads construction companies can support em- ployees to achieve a work-life balance by estab- • Awareness raising and public education pro- lishing flexible working arrangement such as flex- grams and training on SEA, SH and sexual extor- ible working patterns: variable start/ finish times, tion to Roads Authority staff. shift-work, providing part-time work, adjusting shift • Develop brochures to tell people where to file work rosters, creating job share arrangements. complaints, simplify complaint procedures, im- Flexible working arrangements can be established prove record keeping. by reengineering the conventional method of work- • Establish Codes of Conduct in the Roads Authori- ing and creating virtual working environment. This ty with clear accountability structures. would increase presence of women in managerial and senior positions. • Establish effective grievance procedures. To improve working conditions, roads construction • Have more female officers overseeing land admi- companies can ensure the provision of various ame- nistration/registration process. nities in the road construction sites, such as: Address work-like balance and • Sanitary facilities (e.g., restrooms, water tanks, and drinking water) were provided on-site during improving working conditions the construction period. In terms of work-life balance, working conditions in • Canteens the roads sector, most notably non-standard working • Solid and liquid waste-collection systems hours, such as night work and shift work, and work- • Provision of daily transportation for staff between 18 Transparency International’s toolkit “Stopping the Abuse of Pow- er through Sexual Exploitation: Naming, Shaming, and Ending a central location and the project site; thus, bu- Sextortion” (2012) provides a comprehensive set of actions that ses, vans, pickup trucks, and cars are used for can be taken to address this issue. 58 staff commute and equipment transport. Support career development and • Separate housing facilities for women advancement of women Establish welcoming workplace To advance women’s career development in the roads sector, employers should support career de- environments velopment and advancement of women by: The study found that women face a chilly work envi- • Communicating clear responsibilities, goals, and ronment that lowered women’s job satisfaction, in- paths toward advancement. cluding being treated in a condescending, patroniz- • Assigning employees challenging projects that ing, or discourteous manner by supervisors, senior help them develop and strengthen new skills. managers, and co-workers. Road sector organiza- tions and companies can improve the workplace en- • Providing training and development opportuni- vironment through a number of actions and policies. ties for employees. • Increase the number of women at all levels of • Acknowledging and rewarding employees’ con- management. tributions. • Provide opportunities for women to develop a su- • Ensuring that employees have manageable wor- pport network of other technical women. kloads and are not expected to routinely work excessive hours. • Be proactive and vocal about management’s commitment to increasing the representation of • Providing opportunities for senior technical wor- technical women in your organization. kers to mentor students or junior-level technical workers. • Formally recognize necessary nontechnical work such as working well with others and men- • Facilitating opportunities for employees to work toring—work that is not male-stereotyped— on projects and issues that are socially relevant. along with technical work. • Instill a corporate culture that encourages a su- pportive, friendly, and respectful environment, and work to root out uncivil and undermining behaviors. 59 60 6. Conclusion The roads sector in Malawi offers opportunities for embedded in the culture of sexism, gender bias, and women: opportunities in the forms of generating stereotypes that subtly, but often overtly sidelines substantial incomes, designing transport infra- women, who then choose a different career path. structure to foster socio-economic development, For women to make inroads into the transport sector, and providing role models for the young women of changes need to be made within the education sys- the future. However, as in many other countries, the tem and within the industry. This requires multi-sec- roads sector in Malawi is a male-dominated sector toral efforts and cooperation that emphasize the and presents major challenges for equal opportuni- structural and systemic constraints to address the ties for women. embedded gender norms that steer women away This small in-depth qualitative study sheds light at from STEM and technical fields, and not place the the reasons women in Malawi do not choose careers primary burden on women having to ‘catch-up’. The or enter employment in the roads sector and at the report provides an action plan that identifies a core reasons behind them leaving the sector. The study set of actions that address key challenges of wom- found that women face a wide variety of challeng- en attraction, selection and retention and advance- es at different stages of their career cycle that lead ment in the roads sector. to high rates of attrition. Many of the challenges are 61 References Avitabile, Ciro; De Hoyos Navarro, Rafael E.. 2015. 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Steele, C. M., Spencer, S. J., & Aronson, J. 2002. Con- Yeager DS, Dweck CS. 2012. Mindsets that promote tending with group image: The psychology of resilience: when students believe that per- stereotype and social identity threat. Advanc- sonal characteristics can be developed. Edu- es in Experimental Social Psychology, 34, cational Psychologist. 2012; 47:302–314. 379–440. 64 ANNEX 1. Status of Women in Malawi Malawi is a small and densely populated land- eliminate customs and practices that discriminate locked country in Sub-Saharan Africa of 18 million against women. The Malawi government has devel- people in sub-Saharan Africa. Malawi is principal- oped laws, policies, and programs that promote pro- ly an agricultural country with about 83 percent of tection and respect for women’s and girls’ human its population dependent on subsistence agricul- rights. The government’s blueprint for development, ture (Malawi’s Fourth Integrated Household Survey the Malawi Growth and Development Strategy III 2016-2017). The country has one of the lowest lev- (MGDS) 2017-2022, promotes gender equality and els of per capita income in the world. Gross National gender mainstreaming in all sectors (Government Income per capita was US$486 in 2017 (WDI 2017). of Malawi 2017). The government of Malawi has also In 2010, 71.4 percent of Malawians were below the developed a national gender policy revised in 2015 extreme poverty line of 2011 PPP $1.90 per person (Government of Malawi 2015). per day and 88.8 percent were below the $3.20 per Yet, women in Malawi generally fare worse than person per day poverty line (Figure 3). Malawi’s their male counterparts on most social and eco- human development challenges are reflected in its nomic indicators, including secondary and tertia- ranking of 170 out of 187 countries on the United ry education enrolment and literacy, labor force Nations’ 2016 Human Development Index (UNDP participation, asset ownership, political partici- 2016). pation and gender-based violence. Malawi ranks Malawi has a very young age structure: 56 percent 170 out of 188 on the UN’s 2015 Gender Inequality of the population is under the age of 20 (UN Pop- Index (GII). Patriarchal beliefs and attitudes still pre- ulation Prospects 2017). In 2017, the fertility rate vail and customary laws and traditional and cultural was 4.6 births per woman, slightly lower than the practices, many of which are harmful to women’s sub-Saharan Africa average of 4.8. rights, shape the lives of women and girls (Malawi Malawi’s Constitution recognizes women’s right to Human Rights Commission 2005). full and equal protection by the law, and non-dis- In terms of educational outcomes, while primary crimination on the basis of their gender or mari- enrollment for both boys and girls has increased in tal status. The Constitution calls for legislation to the past two decades, school completion rates are 65 low. In 1994, the government of Malawi eliminated ment Indicators 2015). Box 2 describes the educa- school fees for publicly financed primary schools. tional system in Malawi. Since then, primary completion rates increased There are wide gender gaps in women and men’s from 36 to 77 percent for girls and 46 to 77 percent economic opportunities in terms of labor force for boys between 1994 and 2013 (Figure 6). How- participation, earnings and control of productive ever, gross enrollment rates over 100 percent indi- assets. In terms of labor force participation, 82 cates that a portion of students’ age exceeds the percent of men compared to 72 percent of women official age group (e.g. repeaters) (Figure 7). (ages 15 and above) are in the workforce (Table 1). A substantially smaller number of girls and boys Most women (90 percent) and men (80 percent) attend and complete secondary school. In 2016, are employed in the agricultural sector, which is secondary gross enrollment stood at 35 percent for the mainstay of Malawi’s economy (Figure 3). A girls and 39 percent for boys (Figure 2). Lower sec- larger proportion of men (44 percent) than wom- ondary completion rate is 19 percent for girls and 21 en (33 percent) are salaried worker (Table 1). In per cent for boys in 2016 (Figure 1). Furthermore, terms of occupation, while most male and female merely 0.5 percent of young women and 0.8 per- salaried workers are unskilled, a larger proportion cent of young men attend tertiary school. Literacy of men than women are in higher skilled occupa- rates are also low, at 55 percent for women and 70 tions (Figure 4). percent for men ages 16 and above (World Develop- Figure 1. Primary school completion Figure 2. Primary gross enrollment rates have improved but secondary rates over indicate repeaters and school completion rates remain low over-age children Primary and Secondary School Primary and Secondary Gross Completion Rate Enrollment Rate 141 137 100 77 77 150 80 94 100 60 36 46 32 100 40 21 19 21 35 39 20 50 23 0 14 Girls Boys Girls Boys 0 Girls Boys Girls Boys Primary Lower secondary completion rate completion rate Primary Secondary 1994 2013 1993 2016 Source: World Development Indicators 66 Table 1. Key Labor Indicators by Gender, 2017 Men Women Labor force participation rate for ages 15-24 (%) (modeled ILO estimate) 65 62 Labor force participation rate (% of population ages 15+) (modeled ILO estimate) 82 72 Vulnerable employment (% of employment) (modeled ILO estimate) 66 54 Contributing family workers (% of employment) (modeled ILO estimate) 6 9 Wage and salaried workers female (% of employment) (modeled ILO estimate) 44 33 Unemployment (% of labor force) (modeled ILO estimate) 5 7 Unemployment, youth (% of labor force ages 15-24) (modeled ILO estimate) 9 7 Source: World Development Indicators Figure 3. Most men and women are employed by the agriculture sector Employment by Sector, 2017 (percent) Women 90 7 4 Men 80 10 10 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Employment in agriculture Employment in industry Employment in services (% of employment) (% of employment) (% of employment) (modeled ILO estimate) (modeled ILO estimate) (modeled ILO estimate) Source: World Development Indicators Figure 4. While the large proportion of the workforce is employed in low-skilled work, still more men than women are employed in medium and higher skilled work Employment by Occupation, 2017 (percent) 2,3 Women 2,3 92,2 Men 8,3 8,3 86,1 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Skill levels 3 and 4 (high) Skill level 2 (medium) Skill level 1 (low) Source: ILO Key Labor Indicators, ILOSTAT Note: Skills definition: Skills level 3: comprises Managers, professionals, and technicians; skills level 2: com- prises: (1) Clerical, service, and sales workers, (2) Skilled agricultural and trades workers, and (3) Plant and machine operators, and assemblers; skills level 1: comprises elementary occupations. 67 Most land is inherited, owned and operated by is transferred from fathers to sons. It is in a way a men. While data on gender-disaggregated land own- mirror image of the matrilineal one where the pow- ership is more than 20 years old, key informants erful figure is the man other than the woman. How- interviewed as part of this study indicate that the ever, research conducted in nine districts in Malawi, majority of land is owned by men19. Malawi, there regarding women and inheritance property rights are three major categories of land tenure: custom- revealed that in both matrilineal and patrilineal sys- ary land, public land, and private land20. Customary tems of marriage women have few or no indepen- land is by far the most common form of tenure in dent rights to land property due to the mixture of Malawi. According to the National Census of Agri- traditional customs and women’s unequal access to culture and Livestock (NACAL) 2006/07, about 80 legal services, flaws in administration and adjudica- percent of land used by agricultural smallholders tion of women’s inheritance claims at the local level was customary land21. The inheritance of customary (Ngwira et al., 2002; Chiweza, 2005). land follows the customary law. Land is transferred Women in Malawi have low access to financial ser- predominantly through inheritance from relatives vices. While there are no legal restrictions on wom- and marriage is one of the means to land access en’s access to financial services including credit, (Kishindo, 2004). Two customary systems of inher- the government reports that women face difficulties itance, the matrilineal and the patrilineal systems due to the need for collateral and the high interest can be distinguished in Malawi. Under a matrilineal rates charged by microfinance institutions (CEDAW, system, chieftaincy is handed down through the fe- 2010). Bank loans often require even higher collat- male line and so is land. Under the matrilineal sys- eral, which women have more limited access to, and tem of marriage, a man’s rightful heirs to his land thus women tend to turn to credit through micro-fi- are his sister’s children (Pachai, 1978). This system nance institutions (CEDAW, 2010). The Ministry characterizes land transfers within the central and of Finance has established a department charged southern regions (Ng’ong’ola, 1982; Pachai, 1978; with regulating microfinance institutions, so as Peters, 2010). Under the patrilineal system, land to ensure that interest rates are not significantly 19 According to the 1993 Agricultural Census, the percentage of higher than those offered in the commercial bank- female landholders in 1993 was 32 percent (FAO Gender and Land Rights Database). ing system, but data on the results of these efforts 20 The customary system of land tenure has the traditional is not available (CEDAW, 2010). In 2017, the gender concept of considering land in a village as belonging to the com- munity although the individual in the community has the right gap in access to account ownership with a financial to cultivate it and sometimes uses the land as though he was institution or mobile money service prodder was 8 the owner (Nothale, 1982). Public land refers to land occupied, used, or acquired by the Government or any other land, which is percentage points, with only 30 percent of women neither customary nor private. Private land refers to land owned, owning an account compared to 38 percent of men held, used, or occupied under a freehold title, a leasehold title, or a certificate of claim, which is registered as private land. (Figure 5). 21 The National Census of Agriculture and Livestock (NACAL) 2006/07, main report, National Statistical Office, Government of Malawi, 2010). 68 Figure 5. Women have low access to financial services Account ownership at a financial institution or with a mobile-money-service provider, by gender (% of population ages 15+), 2017 100 80 63 53 60 40 38 40 30 30 20 0 Lower middle income Low income Malawi Men Women Source: World Development Indicators The percentage of firms owned by women and percent), being jealous or angry if they talk to other firms with women in the top management is low men (50 percent), accusing them of being unfaith- in Malawi. Approximately 28.1 percent of firms in ful (24 percent), not permitting them to meet their Malawi have female participation in ownership and female friends (13 percent), and limiting contact 14.2 percent have women in top firm management, with their families (11 percent). which is slightly lower than the Sub-Saharan Africa Significant numbers of men and women believe average of 32 percent and 26 percent, respectively. that a husband is justified in beating his wife in Violence against women in Malawi is widespread. certain circumstances. Sixteen percent of women Recent DHS data show that 34 percent of women had and 13 percent of men say that a husband is justified experienced physical violence and 21 percent sexu- if at least one of the following five circumstances oc- al violence since age 15 (Figure 6). The same data curred: she burns the food, she argues with him, she indicate that rates of sexual violence and physical goes out without telling him, she neglects the chil- violence by an intimate partner vary by age, peak- dren, and she refuses to have sex with him (Malawi ing with the 25-29 group (and are higher in rural DHS 2015-2016). Attitudes towards wife beating do than urban areas. Many women have experienced not appear to have changed since the 2010 MDHS. controlling behaviors from a husband or intimate For both women and men, there was a 2-percentage partner (Malawi DHS 2015-2016). These include in- point or less change in attitudes during this time. sisting on knowing where they are at all times (60 69 Figure 6. A Large Proportion of Women in Malawi Experience Physical and Sexual Violence 40 34 35 28 28 30 25 25 21 20 14 16 14 14 13 11 12 15 10 5 0 Ever experienced physical Physical violence in the past Women who ever Women who experienced violence since age 12 months often or experienced sexual violence sexual violence in past 12 &( 15-49) 15 (ages sometimes (ages 15-49) (ages 15-49) months (ages 15-49) 2004 DHS 2010 DHS 2015-16 DHS Source: Malawi Demographic Health Survey 2004, 2010, 2015-16. 70 ANNEX 2. Research Methodology Research Objective. This research explored con- Data collection. Data was collected through 6 focus straints to and opportunities for the promotion of groups discussions (FGDs) with girls and women women’s participation in the roads sector as em- and 11 key informant interviews (KIIs). FGDs and ployees, consultants and entrepreneurs. The re- KIIs were conducted sequentially, with KIIs imple- search was guided by five major questions: mented only at the end of the fieldwork. This se- 1. Which factors shape occupational choices for quence allowed a more appropriate identification of young women and their perceptions of technical key informants to address knowledge gaps identi- careers in the road sector?  fies after focus groups discussions. 2. What are the barriers women face in accessing Recruitment strategies and criteria. Research par- economic opportunities in the road sector as em- ticipants for FGDs and KIIs were recruited through ployees, consultants and contractors? cooperation with local institutions as summarized in the table below. In all FGDs, the team attempted to 3. What are the challenges women face to remain recruit at least one person with disability – although and succeed in technical positions in the road it was not always possible. sector? Research Instruments. Five different guides for 4. Which strategies can women use to cope posi- FGDs were designed: one for teenage girls in second- tively and surpass the challenges faced along ary schools; one for young women (18-24 years) in their trajectories? technical schools and universities; as well as one 5. How can policy makers build on existing formal for each of the following groups: women engineers an d informal institutions to promote women’s women who are already engaged in the road sector, employment in the road sector in Malawi? women technical staff in road sites and women con- These research questions were designed to capture tractors. FGDs explored four major themes related to the sequence of barriers women face through their women’s participation in the road sector: factors re- life cycles when seeking to follow a successful ca- lated to occupational choices; barriers to accessing reer in the road sector - from early to mature age. economic opportunities; factors which might hinder women’s continuation and success in technical jobs; 71 Recruitment Strategy for Sample Group Sample Recruitment The District Education Division Manager (EDM) of Blantyre supported the identification of three secondary schools: one for conducting a pilot, a rural school and an urban Young women in secondary school identifying their school. Non-pilot schools had to be mixed-gender and not boarding schools. In these careers. FGDs will be conducted in rural/urban schools, the head teachers helped identify 6-12 girls in Form 322 to participate in FGDs. schools and before and after career talks. Career talks were delivered in each school in coordination with the Malawi’s Roads Authority (RA). Data was collected before and after the talks. Young women in universities who are engaged in The Head of Department of Civil Engineering in the Malawi Polytechnic identified 6-12 technical careers students from different years of civil engineering course to participate in the FGD. The EDM of Blantyre helped identify one technical school closest to the district capital Young women in technical schools  offering courses pertinent to the road sector, such as bricklaying. The principal of the selected technical school then identified 6-12 current students for the FGD. Women engineers were identified through the cooperation with Malawi’s Institute of Women engineers Engineers – Women’s Chapter and the RA. The Roads Authority selected an active road construction site closest to the capital of Women technical staff working on road site Blantyre. Women participants were selected by the project’s human resources official. An initial number of contractors in Lilongwe were invited to participate through the Women contractors in road sector cooperation with the Malawi Institute of Engineers – Women’s Chapter, followed by snowballing. Key informants: school teachers, governmental and non-governmental institutions related to the Coordination with the relevant institutions transport sector; and existing entry points to promote women’s partic- Ethical Considerations and Protocols23. Prior to all ipation in the road sector. In addition, a guide for KIIs interviews and focus groups, participants were giv- was developed, focusing on: perceived challenges to en consent forms stating the broad objective of the women’s participation in the sector; effectiveness of research and its confidential nature; the sponsor of current policy and programs; recommendations for the study; the length of time that the focus group or strengthening women’s participation. These guides interview would last; major themes that would be were developed based on themes identified through covered; costs and benefits of participating in the the existing literature and initial consultations with study; their right to withdraw their participation at stakeholders any point—before, during, or after the research, and to choose not to answer any question. Participants were given the opportunity to ask any questions before signing the forms. In the case of underage 23 This research followed major principles of protection of human subjects outlined in the Belmont Report (National Commis- sion for the Protection of Human Subjects in Biomedical and Behavioural Research, 1978); (Ellsberg and Heise 2005: Re- 22 This is equivalent to the one grade before the final year as, in searching Violence Against Women) ); Ethical Research Involving the period the research was implemented, students in their Children (Graham et al., 2013), and the guidelines for conduct- final year of secondary school were preparing for their national ing research in Malawi as established under the 2013 National exams to enter college. Commission for Science and technology Act. 72 secondary school girls, assent was obtained from view or focus group protocols; each FGD participant. In addition, consent was also • A matrix containing quotations and themes orga- obtained from each school’s headmaster as adult nized by sample group and topic was prepared guardians of the students. and then analyzed for the write-up of a draft ver- Data management. Interviews conducted in local sion of the report; languages were transcribed directly into English. • Draft study findings were discussed with the Ad- All interviews were audio recorded and transcribed. visory Committee and additional clarifications Transcripts were stored in a protected database and feedback were sought. managed by the research coordinator, along with observation sheets, audio files, sociodemographic • The final write-up was completed. data, and consent forms. To ensure confidentiality, Specific ethical protocols related to harassment consent forms with participants’ names made no and gender-based violence. Although no direct direct link to the data, which was anonymized and questions related to violence were asked to par- stored under unique identifiers. No names were writ- ticipants, the team took special steps to mitigate ten on instruments or observations notes filled out risks associated with interviewing survivors of gen- by fieldworkers. der-based violence (GBV) or victims of sexual ha- Data analysis. Interview facilitation, transcription rassment. The following measures addressed these and coding were done by different team members special risks: with the objective of quality checking each product • Team training: Although field workers were expe- and facilitating feedback processes between team rienced, they also received a 2-day specialized members. Each field team member was instructed training prior to fieldwork, including: revision of to keep daily fieldnotes containing detailed observa- research objectives and questions; techniques tions, informal conversations, key quotations, and for conducting FGDs and KIIs; revision of re- themes arising from interviews and focus groups. search instruments and protocols. The training These data were analyzed by the research coordina- also included: overall orientation on the concepts tor in parallel to field work and guided subsequent of gender and gender discrimination and inequa- episodes of data collection. The rest of the analysis lity; principles of conducting human subjects unfolded as follows: research; how to recognize survivors of GBV and • Episode profiles24 were prepared for each data VAC; how to avoid disclosure during an interview collection episode highlighting quotations and to protect participants from harm; what to do if a themes emerging from each question of inter- disclosure occurs—what to say and not to say to participants; and how to recognize and deal with 24 Episode profiles are an analytic tool of ResearchTalk’s Sort and vicarious trauma experienced by the research Sift, Think and Shift analysis approach. They permit ”vertical” analysis of each transcript—a holistic story of what is learned team members themselves. from each data document. 73 • Disclosure of mandatory reporting laws and such information, the interviewee was reminded reminders during interviews and focus groups: of the mandatory reporting regulations. Partici- Malawi has mandatory reporting laws for cases pants were offered and reference to the District of GBV and VAC. During the consent process, the Social Welfare Officer when necessary. team informed participants that if certain infor- • Liaising with service providers: The team drew mation were disclosed (such as the identity of upon a list of professional counsellors drafted perpetrators or victims), this would trigger man- with the help of the District Social Welfare Officers datory reporting. During interviews, researchers (DSWOs) and District Health Offices (DHOs). This were trained to be continuously mindful of the list was shared with the research team to use in need to avoid particular types of information that case respondents needed such counseling. might trigger mandatory reporting. If the inter- viewer felt the participant was about to disclose 74 ANNEX 3. Research Instruments INSTRUMENT 1: GUIDE FOR derstand the process you go through in making FGDS WITH TEENAGE GIRLS these choices. IN SECONDARY SCHOOL a. You mentioned several careers you are inter- (BEFORE AND AFTER ested in. What are the different factors that CAREER TALKS) have influenced your choice of career? [take each question separately, do not turn this Section 1: Before career talk into an individual interview] 1. Ice-breaker: Thank you for agreeing to participa- b. Do/did you make this decision on your own or te in this study. With our conversation, we would did you talk it over with anyone in your life? like to find out more about what young women [ask openly, then probe for who]? want and expect for their future and the process c. Why did you decide to talk it over with this/ for making important life decisions. these person(s) a. So let’s start by hearing from each of you. d. How did this/these talk(s) affect your deci- When you think about your future, in 10-15 sion? years from now, how would you like your life to be like? ? [Ask open first, and let them 3. Now we want to hear your views about technical discuss freely. Then probe for deepening an- and engineering-related jobs. swers: what else?] a. What sort of opportunities do you think are b. Do you see yourself with a job or a career? If available in this field? so, which one? b. You have mentioned some job possibilities. 2. At some point in secondary school, you will have What is your opinion about these opportuni- to make decisions about work and which sub- ties? jects or careers you would like to pursue – some c. Do you see these jobs and careers as possi- of you may already have done so. We want to un- bilities for your own future? Explain. 75 d. What do you think attracts some girls to pur- a. Has the talk provided you with new informa- sue these technical jobs and careers? e. What tion about technical careers or changed your are some of the challenges you think girls opinion about them? In which ways? may face in trying to pursue these opportuni- b. What is the most important take-away you ties? have from the career talk? 4. Are you aware of any interventions which might 6. One of our objectives with this research is to make technical careers attractive to girls? identify strategies to attract more girls to techni- a. What do you know about them? cal schools and university so that they are able b. Where did you come to learn about them? to pursue careers in the road sector. Do you have any suggestions on what could be done to achie- c. What is your opinion about these interven- ve this goal? tions? [ask openly, then probe for each in- tervention mentioned, probe for whether they 7. We are reaching the end of our conversation. Is think these interventions are helpful or not]. there anything else you would like to add or any question you would like to make to wrap-up? We Section 2: During the career talk thank you immensely for your participation. The Thank you for all your answers. Now, we are going information you provided will be very helpful in to take a break as Miss X [say name of presenter] helping us think about ways to promote women’s is going to talk to you about her experience of work- access to opportunities in the road sector. ing as an engineer. [Ask teacher to explain the talk] [NOTE: During the talk, please take notes. Register INSTRUMENT 2: FGDS how the teacher introduced the talk, what the pre- WITH YOUNG WOMEN senter is saying and how the girls and the teacher IN UNIVERSITY AND are reacting. For example: Do they look curious? TECHNICAL COLLEGES Do they look bored? Do they ask questions? Which Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. ones? Which topics do they seem more interested With our conversation, we want to learn about the in?] experiences of women who have decided to pursue Section 3: After career talk technical jobs careers in the road sector, such as en- 5. You just had a conversation about future, jobs gineering. and careers. What are your thoughts on the ca- 1. You all have made this decision at some point in reer talk you just had? [probe for positive and your lives and we are interested in understan- negative impressions, what worked well and ding the factors that influenced you to pursue what did not]. this track. Can you tell us a bit how that process was for you? 76 a. When making this decision, which factors at- a. What do you think is attractive and challeng- tracted you to this career path? ing in each of these options? b. What concerns, or reservations did you have b. Do you think these factors you mentioned are at the time? Explain. the same for men and women or affect them c. Did you take this decision on your own or did in the same way? Explain. you talk it over with anyone in your life? Why 5. One of our objectives with this research is to and how did it affect your decision? identify strategies to attract women to technical d. How do you think your experience was similar careers and support them in succeeding in the or different to that of other women? road sector. e. How was it similar or different to that of men? a. Do you have any suggestions on what could be done to achieve this goal? 2. Now we want to learn about your experience as young women studying in technical schools/co- b. Are you aware of any initiatives being im- lleges. plemented - both by government and non- governmental institutions - and what is your a. Tell us what you liked about studying in this opinion about them? (Probe issues around technical school. quotas, procurement of services, gender poli- b. Did you face difficulties or challenges at some cies within working environment etc.) point? What were those? We are reaching the end of our conversation. Is there c. You have mentioned some of the challenges anything else you would like to add or any question you went through. How did you manage or you would like to make to wrap-up? We thank you deal with them? immensely for your participation. The information d. Did other students face similar challenges? you provided will be very helpful in helping us think Explain. about ways to promote women’s access to opportu- nities in the road sector. 3. Thinking about your future, where would you like to be professionally in 10 years from now? INSTRUMENT 3: GUIDE a. What you think may make it difficult for you FOR FGDS WITH FEMALE to achieve your goals? TRANSPORT ENGINEERS b. What could support you on your path? Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. 4. In the road sector, some options are to work as With our conversation, we want to learn about the employees, consultants and contractors. experiences of women who have decided to pursue technical jobs or careers in the road sector and how this might affect their lives. 77 1. What is it like to be working as a transport engi- b. Did you face challenges at some point? What neer? (ask openly, then probe for positive and were those? And how did you manage them? negative aspects). Did other students face similar challenges? Explain. a. Which process did you go through and which 4. In the road sector, some options are to work as measures did you take to access this oppor- employees, consultants and contractors. What tunity (training, life changes, etc)? factors influenced you to become a transport en- b. Are there challenges you faced in trying to ac- gineer? cess opportunities as an engineer? Explain. a. What do you think is attractive and challeng- c. Are there challenges you faced in trying to ing in each of these options? succeed in these jobs? Explain. b. Do you think these factors you mentioned are d. Which factors or strategies help/have helped the same for men and women or affect them you? in the same way? Explain. e. How do you think your experience was similar 5. Thinking about your future, where would you like or different to that of other women? to be professionally in 10 years from now? How was it similar or different to that of men? a. What you think may make it difficult for you 2. You all have made the decision at some point in to achieve your goals? your lives to follow technical career tracks and b. What could support you on your path? we are interested in understanding the factors 6. One of our objectives with this research is to that influenced your decision. Can you tell us a identify strategies to attract women to technical bit how that process was for you? careers and support them in succeeding in the a. How did you decide in this moment? road sector. b. What concerns, or reservations did you have a. Do you have any suggestions on what could at the time? Explain. be done to achieve this goal? c. Did you take this decision on your own or b. [If they have suggestions]: How do you think did you talk it over with anyone in your life this could be implemented? (friends, family, teachers)? Why and how did c. Are you aware of any initiatives being imple- it affect your decision? mented to attract women to these technical 3. Now we want to hear about your experience careers? Who is implementing them? studying in technical schools/colleges. d. How did you come to learn about these inter- a. Tell us what you liked about studying in this ventions? technical school? Elaborate. 78 e. You have told me some interventions you d. Which factors or strategies help/have helped are aware about. Now tell me your opinion you? about them (probe for each intervention men- e. How do you think your experience was similar tioned). or different to that of other women? 7. We are reaching the end of our conversation. Is f. How was it similar or different to that of other there anything else you would like to add or any men? question you would like to make to wrap-up? 2. Thinking about your future, where would you like We thank you immensely for your participation. The to be professionally in 10years from now? What information you provided will be very helpful in help- you think may make it difficult for you to achie- ing us think about ways to promote women’s access ve your goals? What could support you on your to opportunities in the road sector. path? INSTRUMENT 4: GUIDE 3. We are interested in understanding the factors FOR FGDs WITH FEMALE that influence women’s decisions to pursue te- TECHNICAL STAFF WORKING chnical jobs in the road sector. Tell us about the IN ROAD SITES moment when you decided you would pursue a technical job in the roads sector. Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. a. How did you decide in this moment? With our conversation, we want to learn about the experiences of women who have decided to pursue b. What concerns, or reservations did you have opportunities in the road sector and how this might at the time? Explain. affect their lives. c. Did you take this decision on your own or 1. What is it like to be working in a road construc- did you talk it over with anyone in your life tion site? (ask openly, then probe for positive (friends, family, teachers)? Why and how did and negative aspects). it affect your decision? a. Which process did you go through and which 4. Now we want to hear about your experience measures did you take to access this oppor- studying in technical schools/colleges. tunity (training, life changes, etc)? a. Tell us what you liked about studying in this b. Are there challenges you faced in trying to ac- technical school? Elaborate. cess these technical jobs? Explain. b. Did you face difficulties or challenges at some c. Are there challenges you faced in trying to point? What were those? And how did you succeed in these jobs? Explain. manage them? 79 c. Did other students face similar challenges? a. Which process did you go through and which Why/ how? measures did you take to access this oppor- 5. One of our objectives with this research is to tunity (training, life changes, etc)? identify strategies to attract women to technical b. Are there challenges you faced in trying to ac- careers and support them in succeeding in the cess opportunities as a contractor? Explain. road sector. c. Are there challenges you faced in trying to a. Do you have any suggestions on what could succeed in these jobs? Explain. be done to achieve this goal? d. Which factors or strategies help/have helped b. Are you aware of any initiatives being imple- you? mented - both by government and non-gov- e. How do you think your experience was similar ernmental institutions and what is your or different to that of other women? opinion about them? (Probe issues around quotas, procurement of services, gender pol- f. How was it similar or different to that of men? icies within working environment etc.) 2. You all have made the decision at some point in 6. We are reaching the end of our conversation. Is your lives to follow technical career tracks and there anything else you would like to add or any we are interested in understanding the factors question you would like to make to wrap-up? We that influenced your decision. Can you tell us a thank you immensely for your participation. The bit how that process was for you? information you provided will be very helpful in a. How did you decide in this moment? helping us think about ways to promote women’s b. What concerns or reservations did you have access to opportunities in the road sector. at the time? Explain. INSTRUMENT 5: FGD WITH c. Did you take this decision on your own or FEMALE CONTRACTORS IN did you talk it over with anyone in your life THE ROAD SECTOR (friends, family, teachers)? Why and how did it affect your decision? Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. 3. Now we want to hear about your experience With our conversation, we want to learn about the studying in technical schools/colleges. experiences of women who have decided to pursue opportunities in the road sector and how this might a. Tell us what you liked about studying in this affect their lives. technical school? Elaborate. 1. What is it like to be working as a contractor in this b. Did you face challenges at some point? What industry? were those? And how did you manage them? 80 c. Did other students face similar challenges? INSTRUMENT 6: KEY Why/ how? INFORMANT INTERVIEWS 4. In the road sector, some options are to work as Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. employees, consultants and contractors. What With this conversation, we are interested in under- factors influenced you to become a contractor? standing the factors that influence young women’s a. What do you think is attractive and challeng- decisions about which subjects or careers to pur- ing in each of these options? sue. We want to understand the process they go b. Do you think these factors you mentioned are through in making these choices to support the de- the same for men and women or affect them velopment of initiatives/policies that attract women in the same way? Explain. to technical careers, specifically in the road sector. 5. Thinking about your future, where would you like 1. What are the different factors that might influen- to be professionally and what are the factors ce girls’ choice of career? which might help and prevent you from achie- a. At which point of the school life does a girl ving your goals? have to make such decision and how does the 6. One of our objectives with this research is to process work? identify strategies to attract women to technical b. What are the factors that might attract or re- careers and support them in succeeding in the pel young women from pursing technical ca- road sector. reers? a. Do you have any suggestions on what could 2. Now consider the young women who have alre- be done to achieve this goal? ady chosen to attend technical schools/colleges. b. Are you aware of any initiatives being imple- a. Are there any specific barriers you think mented - both by government and nongov- young women face in trying to access or suc- ernmental institutions and what is your opin- ceed in university or technical school? Ex- ion about them? plain. 7. We are reaching the end of our conversation. Is b. There are high rates of attrition of young wom- there anything else you would like to add or any en from technical schools/colleges. What are question you would like to make to wrap-up? We some of the causes you see behind this? thank you immensely for your participation. The c. What do you think could be done to better information you provided will be very helpful in support young women in succeeding in these helping us think about ways to promote women’s spaces? access to opportunities in the road sector. 81 3. After graduation, in the road sector, some options country. How do these women cope with their are to work as employees, consultants and con- technical work in the roads sector as contrac- tractors. What are the different factors that mi- tors? ght influence young women’s decision of which 5. One of our objectives with this research is to route to pursue? identify strategies to attract women to technical 4. We are interested in understanding the expe- careers and support them in succeeding in the riences of women who have decided to pursue road sector. opportunities in the road sector and the challen- a. Do you have any suggestions on what could ges they might face both in the workplace, but be done to achieve this goal? also in their communities and in their families. b. Are you aware of any initiatives being imple- a. Are there any specific barriers you think mented - both by government and nongov- women face in trying to access or succeed in ernmental institutions and what is your opin- technical jobs (probe for the three spaces)? ion about them? Explain. We are reaching the end of our conversation. Is there b. There are high rates of attrition of young wom- anything else you would like to add or any question en from technical positions. What are some of you would like to make to wrap-up? We thank you the causes you see behind this? immensely for your participation. The information c. There are a number of women who have you provided will be very helpful in helping us think succeeded as employees, contractors and about ways to promote women’s access to opportu- consultants within the roads sector in this nities in the road sector. 82 ANNEX 4. Advisory Committee for this Study Stakeholders • Roads Authority • Ministry of Transport and Public Works • Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Welfare • Ministry of Education, Science and Technology • Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development • Ministry of Labour, Youth, Sports and Manpower Development • Ministry of Finance, Economic Planning Department • Malawi Police Service • Female Contractor • National Construction Industrial Council of Malawi • University of Malawi, The Polytechnic • Malawi Institute of Engineers (MIE) - Women’s Chapter • UNICEF • UNFPA • UNWomen • CONGOMA • NGO Gender Coordination Network - MEGEN • Malawi Human Rights Commission • YONECO • Malawi Human Rights Consultative Committee • Eye of the Child • National Human Rights Council of Malawi • Center for Human Rights and Rehabilitation (CHRR) 83