47034 TREASURES OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN SRI LANKA: RESTORING PERFORMANCE, EXPANDING OPPORTUNITIES AND ENHANCING PROSPECTS February 2005 The World Bank Human Development Unit South Asia Region 2004 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/ The World Bank 1818 H Street, Washington, DC20433 Telephone; 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org E-Mail : feedback@worldbank.lk Published by The World Bank Colombo Office 73/5, Galle Road, Colombo 03, Sri Lanka. Internet: www.worldbank.org/lk This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. 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II Table of Contents Executive Summary - English E I - Sinhala S I - Tamil T I Chapter One The Education System: Policies, Enrolment and Organization 01 1.1 The Policy Framework and Organization of the Education Sector 02 1.2 The Education System: Enrolment, Grade Cycle Transition and Completion 05 1.3 The Governance Framework of the Education System 09 Chapter Two Economic and Social Benefits of Investment in Education 13 2.1 Economic Benefits of Investment in Education: External Efficiency 13 2.2 Social Benefits of Investment in Education: Externality Effects 19 2.3 Social Benefits of Investment in Education: Equity and Distributive Justice 20 2.4 Equity of Public Education Expenditure 23 2.5 Regional Dimensions of Equity: Geographical Variations in Equitable Access to Education 24 2.6 Regional Dimensions of Equity: Government Policies to Overcome Regional Variations in Education Access, Quality and Opportunity 27 2.7 Conclusions and Options for the Future 30 Chapter Three Investment in Education: Resources and Service Delivery 33 3.1 Public Investment in Education 33 3.2 Private Investment in Education 38 3.3 Sources of Education Financing 41 3.4 Internal Efficiency of Investment in Education 41 3.5 Education Service Delivery: Organizational and Operational Challenges 46 3.6 Conclusions and Options for the Future 51 Chapter Four Dimensions of Education Quality: Status, Challenges and Policy Responses 58 4.1 Dimensions of Education Quality: Levels and Determinants of Cognitive Achievement 58 4.2 Enhancing Education Quality: Government Policies and Strategy 63 4.3 Pursuing Excellence in Education Quality 66 4.4 Orienting the Education System to the World of Work 69 4.5 Case Studies of Selected Dimensions of Education Quality 71 Case Study I: Developing Responsive Schools for Quality Learning 72 Case Study II: Early Childhood Development in Sri Lanka 81 Case Study III: Rehabilitating and Reconstructing Education in the Conflict Affected Areas 84 Case Study IV: Promoting Peace building, Civic Values and Social Cohesion through Education 87 Chapter Five Training and Links to the Labor Market 93 5.1 TVET Institutional Framework and Policies 94 5.2 Overview of TVET Trends from Labour Force Surveys 102 5.3 Determinants of Training 109 5.4 Training and Labor Market Outcomes 111 5.5 Conclusions and Implications for the Future 117 III List of Tables Table 1.1 Government Schools, Student Enrolment and Teachers, by Province, 2002. Table 1.2 GCE O/L and GCE A/L Examination Pass Rates, by Province, 2002. Table 1.3 Tertiary Education Enrolment Rates, 2002. Table 2.1 Social and Private Rates of Return to Education, 2002. Table 2.2 Earnings Functions Corrected for Selection Effects, 2002. Two Stage Least Squares Estimates. Table 2.3 The Impact of Education on the Occupational Attainment of Men and Women, 2002. Marginal Effects Derived from a Multinomial Logit Model, Maximum-Likelihood Estimates. Table 2.4 The Impact of Education on Female Labor Force Participation, Marginal Effects Derived from a Probit Model, Maximum-Likelihood Estimates (2002). Table 2.5 Unemployment Rates by Education Level, Men and Women. Table 2.6 The Impact of Maternal Education on Child Nutrition, 2000. Regression Coefficients from Probit Models, Maximum-Likelihood Estimates. Table 2.7 Proportion of Babies given Colostrum at Birth by Mother's Education Level, 1993 and 2002. Table 2.8 Multiple Regression Analysis of Economic Welfare, Generalized Least Squares Estimates. Table 2.9 Net Enrolment Rates in Major Education Cycles by Economic Groups. Table 2.10 Inequality Measures of Public Education Expenditure. Table 2.11 Primary Education Learning Outcomes by Province, 2003. Table 2.12 Net Enrolment in Senior Secondary Education and GCE O/L and GCE A/L Examination Pass Rates, 2002. Table 3.1 Public Investment in Education as a Proportion of National Income and Government Expenditure, 1998-2002. Table 3.2 Education Expenditure as a Share of National Income and Government Expenditures, Sri Lanka and Selected Other Countries. Table 3.3 Time Trend of Public Education Expenditure per Student in Real Terms, 1998-2002. Table 3.4 Education Investment by Education Level, 2002. Table 3.5 Unit Recurrent Expenditure on Major Education Cycles: Sri Lanka and Selected Countries. Table 3.6 Household Education Expenditure, 1995/96. Table 3.7 Compulsory Education Cycle: Repetition Rates and Drop Out Rates, by Gender, 2001. Table 3.8 Proportion of Repeaters in the GCE O/L and GCE A/L Grades, 2002. Table 4.1 Proportion of Children Achieving Mastery of Language Skills at Grade 4, 2003. Table 4.2 Proportion of Primary Children Achieving Mastery of Numeracy Skills at Grade 4, 2003. Table 4.3 Regression Analysis of Student, Household and School Characteristics Affecting Learning Achievement in Grade 4 in 2003. Table 4.4 'Civic Education Study' Student Questionnaire, Civic Knowledge Table 5.1 TEVT Enrolments by Province, 1990 to 2002. Table 5.2 Total Expenditures by Major TEVT Institutions (Rs. Millions). Table 5.3 Principal Outcomes of Tracer Studies of TEVT Graduates. Table 5.4 Overview of Training in Sri Lanka - 1992, 1997, 2002 Percent Getting Training by Type of Training, Education, Sex and Province. Table 5.5 Percent Getting Training by Age Group and Education - 1992, 1997, 2002. Table 5.6 Training and Probability of Unemployment Last Week Using Pseudo-Cohort Data LFS 1992- 2002 Table 5.7 Probability of any Training and Formal Training: 1992-2002. Table 5.8 Probability of Unemployment Last Week and Usually Unemployed Last Year, 1992-2002. Table 5.9 School to Work Transitions with and without Training. Table 5.10 Returns to Training for Wage and Salary Employees by Sector. Annex Tables Table A1 Male and Female Labor Force Participation Rates, 2002. IV List of Figures Figure 1.1 Adult Literacy Rates in Relation to National Income per Capita, 1987-1990. Figure 1.2 Adult Literacy Rates in Relation to National Income per Capita, 2001. Figure 1.3 Organizational Structure of the Sri Lankan Education and Training System. Figure 1.4 Net Compulsory Education Completion Rates, Grades 1-9, 2001. Figure 1.5 Time Trend of GCE O/L and GCE A/L Pass Rates, 1993-2002. Figure 1.6 Tertiary Education Enrollment Trends, 1997-2002. Figure 1.7 Flow of Government Education Resources in the School System. Figure 1.8 Flow of Resources to Central Government Education Institutions. Figure 2.1 Private Marginal Rates of Return to Education, Men and Women, 2002. Figure 2.2 Poverty Incidence by Education Level of Household Head. Figure 2.3 Lorenz Curves of Shares of Public Education Expenditure among Economic Groups. Figure 2.4 Participation Rates in the Compulsory Education Cycle (Grades 1-9), 2001. Figure 2.5 Progressive Government Financing of Provinces with Low Average Primary Education Achievement Levels. Figure 2.6 Progressive Central Government Financing of Provinces with Low GCE O/L Pass Rates. Figure 3.1 Shares of Public Capital and Recurrent Education Spending, 1998-2002. Figure 3.2 Shares of Private Education Expenditure per Student by Spending Category. Figure 3.3 Shares of Education Financing by Source, 2002. Figure 3.4 Cumulative Number of Schools by Student Teacher Ratio. Figure 3.5 Unit Recurrent Cost of a Teacher by School Type. Figure 3.6 Unit Recurrent Cost of Public Universities as a Function of Students on Roll. Figure 3.7 Unit Recurrent Cost of Public Universities Related to Student-Teacher Ratios, 2002. Figure 3.8 Teacher Absenteeism, by Province, 2002. Figure 3.9 Real Value of Salaries of Teachers in Relation to Other Government Servants. Figure 4.1 Needs of the Education Reconstruction, Rehabilitation and Development Program. Figure 4.2 The Financing Gap of Capital Stock Needs in the Conflict Affected Areas. Figure 4.3 Salaries per Student and STR in NEP Districts. Figure 4.4 'Civic Education Study' Student Questionnaire (Social Cohesion, Diversity, Peace). Figure 4.5 'Civic Education Study' Student Questionnaire (Social Cohesion, Diversity, Peace). Figure 4.6 Integration of Peace building & Civics in Schools. Figure 5.1 Institutional Framework of the TVET Sector. Figure 5.2 TEVT Enrollments 1990-2002. Figure 5.3 Proportion of Working Age Population with Technical and Vocational Training: 1992-2002. Figure 5.4 Time-To-First-Job by Level of Schooling. V Vice President Praful Patel Country Director Peter Harrold Sector Director Julian Schweitzer Sector Manager Michelle Riboud Team Leader Harsha Aturupane This report was produced by a team composed of: Harsha Aturupane (Senior Economist and Task Team Leader, SASHD), Helen Craig (Senior Education Specialist, SASHD), Hong Tan (Lead Economist, WBI), Venita Kaul (Senior Education Specialist, SASHD), Mohamed Allak (Consultant), Peter Colenso (Education Specialist - seconded from DFID), Paul Glewwe (Consultant), Thomas Kellaghan (Consultant), Sunil Chandrasiri (Consultant), Asoka Perera (Consultant), and Upul Sonnadara (Consultant). Peer reviewers were: Benoit Millot (Lead Education Specialist, AFTH2), Qaiser Khan (Lead Social Protection Specialist, SASHD); Alberto Rodriguez (Senior Education Specialist, LCSHE); and Anil Deolalikar (Professor of Economics, University of California). Phillip Senaratne (Consultant); Sisira Liyanage (Consultant); and Nishantha Palihewardena (Consultant) provided research assistance. VI Abbreviations ADB - Asian Development Bank AFTH2 - Africa Region Human Development Unit 2 ANTRIEP - Asian Network of Training and Research Institutions in Educational Planning CCTE - Chief Commissioner for Teacher Education DDIT - Double Deductions Tax Incentives for Training DFID - Department for International Development DRT - District Resource Teacher DTET - Department of Technical Education and Training DVTC - District Vocational Training Centers ECAHD - Europe and Central Asia Human Development Unit ECCD - Early Childhood Care and Development ECD - Early Childhood Development ECE - Early Childhood Education EFA - Education for all GCE A/L - General Certificate of Education - Advanced Level GCE O/L - General Certificate of Education - Ordinary Level GDP - Gross Domestic Product GEP2 - General Education Project II GOM - Government of Malaysia GOSL - Government of Sri Lanka GTZ - German Agency for Technical Corporation HREF - Human Resources Endowment Fund IEA - International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement IT - Information Technology JICA - Japan International Corporation Agency LCSHE - Latin America and the Caribbean, Human Development, Education LFS - Labor Force Survey LKR - Sri Lankan Rupees LMIS - Labor Market Information System M&E system - Monitoring and Evaluation System MBO - Multiple Textbook Option MHRECA - Ministry of Human Resource Development, Education and Cultural Affairs MID - Ministry of Industrial Development MOE - Ministry of Education VII MTET - Ministry of Tertiary Education and Training MTEVT - Ministry of Tertiary Education and Vocational Training MYAS - Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports NAITA - National Apprentice and Industrial Training Authority NCOEs - National Colleges of Education NEC - National Education Commission NEP - North Eastern Province NEREC - National Education Research and Evaluation Center NGOs - Non-Governmental Organizations NIE - National Institute of Education NYSC - National Youth Service Council OLS - Ordinary Least Squares Pexp - Potential experience PSDG - Province Specific Development Grant RGDP - Regional Gross Domestic Product RVTC - Rural Vocational Training Centers SASHD - South Asia Sector for Human Development SBT - School-Based Training/Support SDP - Skills Development Project SIDA - Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency SLAAED - Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Education SLIATE - Sri Lanka Institute of Advanced Technical Education SMEs - Small and Medium - size Enterprises STR - Student Teacher Ratio TCs - Teacher Centers TEVT - Technical Education and Vocational Training TVEC - Technical and Vocational Education Commission U.K. - United Kingdom UGC - University Grants Commission UN - United Nations UNDP - United Nations Development Program UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF - United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund USD, US$ - U.S. Dollars VTA - Vocational Training Authority of Sri Lanka VTEC - Vocational and Tertiary Education Commission WBI - World Bank Institute VIII Acknowledgements The study team acknowledges Planning, Finance Commission, Director-General, Budget, with sincere gratitude the University Grants Commission Ministry of Finance, Mrs. assistance of several World and Provincial Councils assisted Ranjini Nanayakkara, Bank colleagues and in providing policy ideas, Additional Director-General, Government of Sri Lanka statistics and information. In External Resources Department, counterparts in the preparation particular: Dr. Tara de Mel, Ministry of Finance and of this draft, in particular Mr. Secretary, Ministry of Planning, Mr. B. Peter Harrold (Country Director, Education, Mr. Lalith Abeygunewardena, Additional Sri Lanka), Mr. Julian Weeratunga, Secretary to the Director-General, Budget, Schweitzer (Sector Director, Prime Minister, Ministry of Finance and SASHD), Mr. Charles Griffin Mr.V.K.Nanayakkara, former Planning, Anoja Munasinghe, (Sector Director ECAHD and Secretary, Ministry of Human Deputy Director, Department of former Sector Director, Resources, Education and National Planning, Ministry of SASHD), Ms. Michelle Riboud Cultural Affairs, Mr. Finance and Planning, Mr. (Education Sector Manager, H.M.Sirisena, former Secretary, T.D.Sumanadasa, Chief SASHD), Ms. Mansoora Rashid Ministry of School Education, Accountant, Ministry of (Social Protection Sector Mr. R.S. Medagama, Advisor, Education, Mr. S.U. Wijeratne, Manager, SASHD), Mr. Qaiser Ministry of Education, Prof. R.P. Director, Policy, Planning and Khan (Lead Social Protection Gunewardena, former Monitoring, Ministry of Specialist - Peer Reviewer), Mr. Chairman, National Education Education, Mr. Anil Deolalikar (Professor of Commission, Prof. Swarna D.M.Dissanayake, Accountant, Economics, University of Jayaweera, former Deputy Ministry of Education and Mrs. California - Peer Reviewer), Mr. Chairman, National Education Hema Perera, Deputy Director, Alberto Rodriguez (Senior Commission, Mr. Eric de Silva, Ministry of Education. The Education Specialist - Peer former Advisor, Ministry of Department of Census and Reviewer), Mr. Benoit Millot Policy Development and Statistics shared several data (Lead Education Specialist, Planning, Dr. Patricia Alailima, sets which were extremely AFTH2 - Peer Reviewer) and Director-General, Department useful for the analysis. Mr. Sisira Liyanage of National Planning, Ministry Preliminary information from (Consultant) and Mr. Phillip of Policy Development and the analysis was shared at two Senaratne (Consultant). In Implementation, Mr. B. workshops, in Colombo and addition, several Sri Lankan Abeygunawadena, Additional Galle, and provided extremely officials in the Ministry of Director General, National useful feedback. The UK Education, the former Ministry Budget Department, Ministry of Department for International of Human Resource Finance and Planning, Mr. Development (DFID) provided Development, Education and G.B.H. Liyanage, former financial assistance through a Cultural Affairs, the former Additional Secretary, Ministry Trust Fund. This assistance is Ministry of School Education, of School Education, Mr. S. gratefully acknowledged. the former Ministry of Tertiary Leelaratne, Additional Education and Training, Secretary, Ministry of Tertiary Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Education and Training, Mrs. Policy Development and C.S. Kumarasinghe, Additional IX X Executive Summary OVERVIEW, PRINCIPAL FINDINGS AND OPTIONS FOR THE FUTURE Introduction 2. Unfortunately, over the development in recent years [see 1. The Sri Lankan education past fifty years the economic NEC (1997), (2003)]. system has been celebrated in performance of the country development policy circles and lagged behind the pace of Education Organization in the economic literature for its education development, with Relation to Development success in providing widespread several adverse consequences Policy Models access to primary and secondary for the education system. The education, and enabling the poor economic growth rate of 3. The Sri Lankan education country to attain a high level ofthe country meant that, over system has followed the human development for a low time, Sri Lanka lacked the classical recipe of development income economy. Up to the resources to invest sufficiently policy in two important respects. early 1990s Sri Lanka enjoyed in education to keep up with First, it has emphasized the the highest basic social countries which grew much importance of public financing development outcomes relative faster, such as South Korea, and provision of basic education to per capita income among Singapore, Hong Kong, and secondary education to the virtually all developing Malaysia and Thailand. In entire population. This visionary countries. This achievement was consequence, Sri Lanka has lost emphasis, commencing in the the result of strategic public its initial lead in education. In 1930s and 1940s, was policy decisions, over several addition, due to slow growth, the generations ahead of its time. successive generations, to investdemand for educated labor Second, Sri Lanka limited resources in education, health failed to expand sufficiently public resources devoted to and other social services. The rapidly to match the supply of tertiary education, awarding Sri Lankan policy makers who educated young people entering emphasis to the basic and designed the basic framework of the labor market. This resulted secondary cycles. The fruits of the education system, in the in an enduring problem of these policies have been reaped 1930s and 1940s, were far ahead educated youth unemployment. in subsequent generations, with of their time in perceiving Modern Sri Lankan policy basic education attainment, human capital as a promising makers are aware of the primary health outcomes and investment with the potential to country's lost education social development indicators produce a wide range of advantage and problems. In close to levels observed in important economic and social consequence, education has upper-middle income and benefits. become an area of intense public developed countries. interest, debate and policy E 1 4. Sri Lanka has also legislation to allow private important equity issue exists, as deviated from the classical schools and private universities the 18% of children who fail to recipe in one important respect. to be established [see NEC complete grade 9 are drawn The establishment of private (2003)]. This is a path breaking from poorer homes, schools from grades 1-9 was recommendation which, if economically disadvantaged legally banned in the early implemented, would remove a geographical regions such as the 1960s. This legal prohibition major, self-imposed shackle on rural hinterland, conflict remains in force to date. This the education system and enable affected areas and the estate has made Sri Lanka one of the Sri Lanka to compete on more sector, or are disabled and few countries in the world to even terms with other countries. handicapped children. Strong legally forbid the establishment policy action is needed to reach of schools. Other low income Enrolment Patterns and these vulnerable socio- countries and states famous for economic groups, and achieve their high basic education Trends the target of universal enrolment attainment levels, such as Costa The compulsory education cycle and completion in the Rica and the state of Kerala in (grades 1-9) compulsory education cycle. India, rely heavily on the private 5. Net enrolment in grade 1 sector. In Kerala, for instance, The senior secondary education, is about 97% for both boys and more than half of school GCE O/L and GCE A/L cycles girls, and nearly all children enrollment is in private schools. complete grade 5. At the end of 6. School completion rates The political economy context the compulsory education cycle, are less satisfactory in the senior of Sri Lanka also makes it grade 9, completion rates are secondary cycle, with virtually impossible to invest in about 81% for boys and 84% for comparatively low examination private universities, although girls. The high primary pass rates at the GCE O/L (grade there is no explicit legal barrier.education (grades 1-5) and 11) and GCE A/L (grade 13) However, from the 1990s junior secondary education examinations. The average pass onwards it has been possible to (grades 6-9) enrolment rates are rate at the GCE O/L examination establish private degree the outcome of several for the country as a whole is awarding institutions, as long as complementary and mutually 37%, implying that only about they do not carry the title reinforcing policies, such as one out of every three "university". In preventing tuition free schooling, special candidates successfully formal private universities the education programs for completes the GCE O/L Sri Lankan education system disadvantaged students, free examination. Pass rates in the deviated from the model textbooks, free uniforms and poorer and more disadvantaged adopted by some of the highest subsidized transport, and of areas of the country, such as the performing education systems in strong household demand for North-Eastern, North-Central, the world, such as South Korea, education. The evidence also Uva and Central Provinces, which concentrated public shows that Sri Lanka has not yet range from 31%-32%. The resources on primary and basic achieved universal compulsory prosperous and advanced education, followed by education, with about 18% of Western Province alone stands secondary education, while children failing to complete out among the geographical leaving university education grade 9. Hence, there still exists regions, with GCE O/L pass largely to the private sector. a considerable challenge to meet rates of 48%, indicating that Recently, however, Sri Lankan the target of providing all about one out of every two education policy makers have children between ages 6-14 with candidates in this area recommended amending 9 years of schooling. Further, an successfully completes the GCE E 2 O/L examination. GCE A/L important challenge to increase legally prohibit private examination pass rates average the quality of education and investment at the tertiary level. about 56% for the country as a enable students to achieve the The time trend of tertiary whole, suggesting that about one standards set for the GCE O/L education enrolment shows that, out of every two candidates is and GCE A/L examinations. over the recent past, enrolment successful at this examination. has risen from about 8% in 1997 This is on the low side, given Tertiary education enrolment to 11% in 2002. Overall, tertiary that only the best students 8. The overall tertiary education enrolment rates have survive through to the GCE A/L education enrolment rate is expanded about 38% over the cycle. The pass rates across the about 11% of the eligible period 1997-2002. This growth provinces are fairly similar, population. This is slightly has been particularly rapid in ranging from 52% in the Uva above the South Asia average private tertiary education Province to 58% in the North- (10%), and approximately equal institutions in the most recent Western and North-Eastern to countries such as India, years. Provinces. The relatively even Morocco, Vietnam and distribution of GCE A/L Mauritius. It is also equal to Economic and Social examination pass rates across countries such as South Korea, the country can be attributed to Singapore, Hong Kong, Benefits of Investment in two key factors: (i) policy Malaysia and Thailand when Education initiatives to ensure a wide they were at the current level of External efficiency and rates of network of good quality economic development of Sri return to education secondary schools in all Lanka. The major proportion of 9. Investment in education provinces; and (ii) selectivity tertiary enrolment, about 6%, is produces a wide array of effects, as students in the GCE in courses outside the domestic economic and social benefits in A/L cycle are the most able university and formal technical Sri Lanka, including higher pupils in their age cohorts. education sector. These students human capital and earnings, are enrolled in the private sector 7. The time trend of GCE improved occupational in a variety of professional O/L and GCE A/L pass rates attainment and social mobility, courses, such as IT, shows that, over about the past increased female labor force management, accounting, ten years, there has been participation, and superior marketing, law, business and improvement in GCE O/L pass family health levels and child finance, or in overseas rates, but that GCE A/L pass nutrition outcomes. The social universities. University rates have been relatively rate of return to education is enrolment is approximately 3%, constant. GCE O/L pass rates high, especially at the and advanced technical have risen from about 22% in compulsory basic and senior education enrolment about 2%. 1993 to 37% in 2002, with much secondary education grade About 70% of tertiary education of the improvement occurring in cycles. Among men, social rates enrolment is in the private the mid-late 1990s. In the GCE of return to education are 20% at sector, and the balance in the A/L cycle, pass rates have the senior secondary schooling public sector. The high remained fairly steady between level and 15% at the compulsory proportion of private sector 1994 and 2002, except for one basic education level. Among enrolment at the tertiary level, in unusually high year, 1995 and women, social rates of return to contrast to the primary and one poor year, 1999. Sri Lankan education are 20% at the secondary levels, can be policy makers have recognized compulsory schooling level and attributed to the policy that the country faces an 18% at the senior secondary framework, which does not schooling level. These high E 3 returns to compulsory basic and enrolment, attendance and search among educated young senior secondary education school completion, especially at people has been the slow growth suggest that Sri Lanka under- primary and compulsory basic rate of the economy, which has invests in education at these education levels, have enjoyed prevented the demand for levels. Externality effects, such widespread success. And educated labor rising as health and nutrition benefits, popular and successful policies, sufficiently fast to absorb the are also strong among primary such as the norm-based unit cost increasing supply of educated and secondary educated resource allocation mechanism young people entering the labor mothers. Tertiary education to distribute public resources to market. Secondary causes of generates high private returns to schools, have greatly enhanced educated youth unemployment individuals, 26% for men and the equity of resource have included the production of 24% for women. However, distribution among schools. The school completers and graduates social returns to tertiary allocation of public education with low generic skills in education, at 11% for men and spending across economic demand within the labor market, 10% for women, are groups is progressive at the such as English language considerably below the private primary, basic and senior fluency and IT skills, the returns and smaller than for secondary education levels, with moderate quality of some compulsory basic and senior benefits relatively evenly university degree programs and secondary education. This distributed among all economic inadequate orientation of the suggests that the benefits of groups. However, at the tertiary education system to the world of tertiary education accrue chiefly education level the pattern of work, especially the to individuals as private gains. public education spending is development of skills such as a regressive, with benefits disciplined work ethic, good Education, equity and poverty accruing disproportionately to team work, creativity, flexibility reduction the highest economic class. and adaptability, effective 10. Education exerts a communication and a problem powerful effect on poverty Educated youth unemployment solving approach to issues. reduction and the economic 11. A major problem facing welfare of the poor. The poverty government policy makers is Public and Private rates of households fall sharply that of unemployed educated as the education level of the individuals, especially women. Investment in Education household head or principal Unemployment rates tend to be 12. Government education income earner rises. The highest among university expenditure in Sri Lanka improvement in poverty rates is graduates and GCE O/L and currently amounts to about LKR especially swift as household GCE A/L completers. The high 40,000 million (USD 415 heads or principal income unemployment rates of educated million) annually. In recent earners complete the basic labor force participants are years, the education budget has education, GCE O/L and GCE mainly caused by lengthy job accounted for approximately 3% A/L cycles. There is also a high search durations of new entrants of national income and 7%-9% degree of equity of government into the labor market. These of government spending. This education investment across lengthy periods of job search represents a comparatively provinces, with progressively have led to considerable social modest level of public education higher per student allocations unrest in the past, particularly investment by developing for educationally disadvantaged among university graduates. The country standards. There are regions. The broad range of main cause of high four main reasons for the policy measures to promote unemployment and long job relatively moderate volume of E 4 public education investment in capital or investment budget are to: Sri Lanka: (i) the broad range of expenditure in the school and a. rationalize construction public services, such as university systems, accounting activities in the school universal free health care and for over 80% of capital system and universities; wide-ranging access to poverty education investment, is on b. devote greater resources oriented safety nets, such as the construction activities, mainly to expanding and Samurdhi program, which are building of class room blocks in increasing urban schools; generally not available in most schools, and lecture halls, other developing countries, and administrative complexes and c. enhance the allocation of compete for government residential facilities in resources to high level resources; (ii) high defense universities. Only a relatively quality inputs, such as IT expenditure, which absorbs over small proportion of resources, centers, science 5% of GDP and crowds out less than 20%, is invested in laboratories, libraries, other investments; (iii) low quality inputs, such as workshops, activity public revenue, which has equipment, technology, furniture rooms, multi-purpose contributed to large budget and tools. The classroom rooms, computers, books, deficits and constrained construction activities in the journals, audio-visual government expenditures; and school system also appear ad aids, educational (iv) comparatively low teacher hoc, without sound forward software, equipment and salaries, with Sri Lankan planning based on enrolment tools in schools and teachers receiving salaries about needs. In consequence, many universities; and half or less, as a proportion of rural schools carry excess d. improve the supply of national income per capita, than capacity with empty classrooms, basic facilities, such as teachers in countries such as while urban schools are heavily water supply, sanitation India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, congested and over-crowded. and electricity, in rural Thailand and South Korea. Construction activities in the and estate schools. university system, too, are Capital expenditures: current Recurrent expenditures: current uncoordinated, with heavy spending and future priorities spending and future priorities expenditure on buildings 13. The tight budget without a clear plan based on 15. The recurrent education constraint in recent years has needs of the university system as budget has accounted for about fallen especially heavily on the a whole. As a result of the low 79%-84% of public education capital budget. The education investment in quality inputs, expenditure in the recent past. capital budget declined steeply such as equipment and The chief component of from 5% of government capital technology, the country could recurrent education expenditure, spending in 1999 to 2.5% in find itself on the wrong side of accounting for about 85%-90% 2002. In terms of shares of the the digital divide and be of the combined central and education budget, the capital seriously constrained in provincial recurrent education budget decreased from about equipping future generations budgets, is salaries and wages. 20% in 1998-2000 to 16% in with the knowledge, skills and The major share of the salary 2001-02. This fall in capital competencies required in the bill is on the salaries of teachers investment constrained modern global knowledge and university staff, followed by expansion and development of economy. the salaries of principals, the education system. In terms education administrators and of the composition of 14. The main challenges other staff grades. After salaries, expenditures, the main share of facing the education capital the next highest shares of E 5 recurrent education spending are average tertiary education such as free textbooks, school on textbooks, which receive expenditure per student as a uniforms and subsidized about 3% of the total recurrent share of national income per transport, to enroll and continue education budget, and school capita, at 100%, is slightly through the school system; and uniforms, which account for higher than India, and (iii) automatic promotion from about 2% of the total recurrent substantially above the level in grades 1-11, with no formal education budget. The balance East Asian countries such as mechanisms to fail pupils, funds are mainly used for South Korea, Singapore, unless students voluntarily administrative and operating Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia repeat grades. Repetition rates at costs such as electricity, and the Philippines. The main the key examination grades in communications, water and reason for the high share of the senior secondary education postal charges, and staff travel. public recurrent spending on cycle, grades 11 and 13, tertiary education is the large however, are high. In grade 11, 16. The principal challenges unit cost of government about 27% of students are facing the recurrent education universities. Overall, the pattern repeaters, with the proportion of budget are to: of average recurrent expenditure repeating boys and girls close to a. allocate sufficient funds, across education levels suggests even. This is a high percentage, once salaries and adminis- that, in contrast to high as it implies that about one in trative costs have been performing East Asian four students in grade 11 is in met, to support education countries, the balance of public the class for the second time. In quality processes, such as resources in Sri Lanka may be grade 13, the proportion of professional development tilted unduly in favor of tertiary students repeating rises further. of teachers and principals, education, at the expense of Among GCE A/L science and delivery of on-site primary and secondary students, 35% of students are academic and schooling. repeaters, among GCE A/L arts administrative support to students, 37% of students take Unit costs and internal education institutions; and the class for the second time; efficiency b. meet the operating costs and among GCE A/L commerce of capital education 18. The internal efficiency of students, 35% of students are investment in the school primary schooling (grades 1-5) repeaters. The repetition rates of and university systems. and junior secondary schooling boys and girls are very similar (grades 6-9), measured in terms across grades 11 and 13, and 17. By international of flow rates, are high. among types of subjects. The standards, average recurrent Repetition rates and drop out GCE A/L repetition rates show education expenditures per rates range from 2%-7%, with that about 1 in 3 students in student in Sri Lanka are modest slightly higher repetition and grade 13 is taking the class for at primary and secondary drop out among boys than girls. the second time. The high education levels, but high at the The high student flow rates can repetition rates at grade 11 and tertiary education level. Average be attributed to several policy grade 13 suggest the existence recurrent education expenditure measures: (i) the supply of of considerable cost per student as a share of national sufficient school places, through inefficiencies in the education income per capita on primary the island-wide network of system at these levels. The main and secondary education, at primary and secondary schools, reason for these high repetition about 9% and 11% respectively, to meet the demand for rates at grade 11 and grade 13 are among the lowest in South education from parents and are the low learning levels of Asia and East Asia. In contrast, students; (ii) incentive schemes, students through the primary E 6 and secondary cycle up to grade schools (17%) have student- University, which is the second 11, which are exposed at the teacher ratios less than 10:1, and largest university in terms of public examinations. about 6,000 schools (60%) have student numbers, but has unit student-teacher ratios of 15:1 or costs comparable to the small Size and distribution of schools less. Schools with such small South-Eastern University. A 19. Sri Lanka maintains a student-teacher ratios are far further important determinant of large and geographically widely more expensive to operate, and unit recurrent costs is the ratio of dispersed network of public typically have unit recurrent students to non-academic staff, schools, established over costs about 100% greater than as the latter strongly affects the successive past generations to large schools with student- university wage bill and hence serve a population residing teacher ratios of about 25:1. recurrent expenditures. The largely in rural areas. However, public universities have with economic development and 20. Public university extremely low student-non- expansion of the service and education in Sri Lanka is academic staff ratios: ranging industrial sectors, the proportion expensive, with high unit from 3:1 in universities such as of population living in cities and operating costs in comparison to Wayamba, Eastern, South- towns has been increasing in other developing countries. In Eastern and Peradeniya to 8:1 in recent years. In addition, better addition, there are wide Sri Jaywardenapura. The transport and communications differences in unit costs among average for student-non- networks have placed rural public universities, ranging from academic staff ratio for the 12 villages in touch with schools in about 40,000-120,000 rupees public universities which offer urban centers. In consequence, per student per year. Generally, on-site degree courses is only there has been sharply unit costs are related to student 4:1. In terms of academic staff to increasing demand for popular, enrolment size, with smaller non-academic staff, too, the prestigious urban schools and universities experiencing high ratio is 1:4. This suggests a cost decreasing demand for rural and costs and larger universities, inefficient system, with an less prestigious semi-urban which can reap economies of unduly large proportion of schools. This shift in demand scale, enjoying low unit costs. resources devoted to non- has led to the existence of a largeThe most expensive universities academic staff salaries. number of very small schools. tend to be small, new About 5,900 schools (60% of institutions such as the Private education expenditure schools) have less than 300 Wayamba, Eastern and South- 21. Households invest students. Further, about 2,700 Eastern Universities. Larger, considerable resources on schools (27% of schools) have older universities such as education. In 1995/96, the most under 100 students, and 1,360 Kelaniya, Sri Jayewardenapura, recent date for which schools (14% of schools) have Colombo and Jaffna have the information on household less than 50 students. This lowest unit costs, apart from the education expenditure is network of small schools is special case of the Open currently available, private expensive to maintain and University, which only offers expenditure in seven provinces operate. In particular, student- distance education courses and was about 4,688 million rupees. teacher ratios in small schools has high enrolment numbers and At 1995/96 public education tend to be low, resulting in high very low unit costs. The investment levels, this was equal unit recurrent costs. About 1,000 exception to the general rule to about 23% of government schools (10% of schools) have above of an inverse relationship education expenditure. It was student-teacher ratios as low as between unit costs and also greater than public capital 7:1 or less. Around 1,700 enrolment size is Peradeniya education expenditure by about E 7 13%. Based on certain opportunities for school (iv) inadequate managerial and assumptions concerning the principals, section heads and academic empowerment of income elasticity of demand for teachers, and university frontline education service education, total private academics; and conduct delivery institutions, such as household education examinations and provide schools, National Colleges of expenditure in 2002 can be certification that enjoys public Education (NCOEs) and estimated to be about 10,600 confidence. Legally defined Teacher Centers (TCs); (v) million rupees in 2002 prices. cadres exist for important administrative weaknesses, with This would be equal to about services, such as the teachers' technical and operational 26% of total public education service, teacher educators' constraints resulting from an expenditure, and is 62% higher service and education excessive reliance on manual than the public capital education administrators' service. The operations instead of automated budget. This volume of government also has reasonable and computerized systems, the household expenditure is in a financial management absence of basic internal legal and political economy procedures, with double entry mechanisms and insufficient environment unfavorable to bookkeeping and cash forward planning; (vi) external private investment in education. accounting, although not yet interference in administration The level of private investment accrual accounting. Further, which hampers decision could be substantially increased there is both a supreme audit making, rule compliance and if the NEC (2003) proposals are institution, the Auditor General's civil service morale; (vii) implemented and the legal Department and an internal audit procurement weaknesses, with restriction on private schools is within the education system. problems in drawing up lifted. Hence, the service delivery technical specifications, network of the education system preparing tender and bidding Quality and Efficiency of is built on a strong foundation. documents, slow execution of technical evaluations, and Service Delivery 23. However, the service weaknesses in producing clear 22. The quantity and pattern delivery network also faces a set and accurate technical of public expenditure on of major structural challenges, evaluation and tender board education is an extremely especially to support policy reports and minutes; (viii) low important determinant of initiatives to develop a high academic salaries, leading to education attainment and quality education system. These staffing difficulties in learning in a country. Equally challenges include: (i) weak universities, especially those important, however, is the teacher deployment, with located outside Colombo and quality and effectiveness of teacher surpluses in popular Kandy; (ix) university service delivery. In this context,urban schools and teacher administrative and management Sri Lanka enjoys important shortages in remote rural structures excessively weighted positive features. A network of schools; (ii) high teacher towards undergraduate teaching education institutions already absenteeism with, on the and insufficiently oriented to exists to formulate policy; staff,average, about one-fifth of support the full range of plan and administer the school teachers absent on a given university outputs, including and university systems; develop school day; (iii) Low teacher research, postgraduate curricula and syllabi for schools salaries and poor teacher programs, consulting and and degree programs in motivation, with teachers community services; and (x) universities; provide earning only about 85% of their student unrest in universities, professional development incomes in 1978, in real terms; leading to disrupted academic E 8 programs and delays in course poor. English language attaining mastery of their first completion. vocabulary skills are higher language, Sinhalese or Tamil, (35%), but show that two out of varies from 23% in the North- Education Quality and three children lack even this Eastern Province to 51% in the basic skill. Western Province. Similarly, Learning Outcomes mastery of primary mathematics 24. The Sri Lankan education 25. In mathematics ranges from 25% in the North- system contains islands of achievement, too, overall Eastern Province to 52% in the excellence. Students from the mastery is only 38%. Mastery of Western Province, and mastery best schools and university mathematical concepts is 45%, of English language programs enjoy high demand in procedures 51% and problem competencies varies from 5% in some of the world's leading solving only 34%. The low level the North-Eastern Province to universities and privateof cognitive achievement among 20% in the Western Province. corporations, and inprimary students is especially The Central, Uva and North- international organizations.worrying, from a policy Central Provinces, too, tend to However, the average level perspective, as primary perform poorly on language and education quality and learning education forms the foundation mathematics scores. These outcomes are considered upon which secondary and regional and urban-rural unsatisfactory by policy makers tertiary education and various differences can be attributed to a [see NEC (1997),(2003)]. types of skills training are built.combination of factors, such as Cognitive achievement tests Hence, the quality and the lower quality of education among primary school children performance of the entire services in disadvantaged show substantial shortfalls in education system is constrained provinces and rural areas, mastery of fundamental by the low achievement levels in weaker parental capability and language and numeracy skills the primary grades. support, and poorer towards the end of the primary 26. In addition to these low opportunities for child activities cycle. In first language overall achievement levels, that promote learning. (Sinhalese and Tamil), average there are also significant mastery is only 37%. Writing 27. The unsatisfactory state of disparities in achievement (28%) and syntax (30%) are the education quality is also evident between urban and rural areas. weakest mother tongue skills. at the level of secondary First language (Sinhalese or Comprehension (45%), too, is education. The proportion of Tamil) mastery in urban areas is poor. Vocabulary skills (70%) students passing the GCE O/L is 51%, but falls to 34% in rural are better, but even here one in low, only 37%, implying that areas. In English language skills, three children has an inadequate about two out of every three 23% of urban children achieve command of the language. students taking the examination mastery, but in rural areas only English language skills are fails. Further, this low pass rate 7% of children reach mastery. In extremely low. Only 10% of has been fairly constant over the mathematics, 52% of urban primary children achieve the period 1998-2002. A substantial children attain mastery, while targeted level of mastery. majority of students appear to just 35% of rural children English language writing skills struggle with subjects such as achieve the required level of are virtually non-existent, with mathematics, English language, competence. Average learning just 1% of children exhibiting science and social studies. At the achievements in the primary the required skill level. English GCE A/L examination, too, pass education cycle also show high language comprehension (16%) rates have been around the 50- regional variations. The and syntax (20%) are also very 55 percent level since 1998 over proportion of primary students E 9 the 1998-2002 period. This shows that education and Early Childhood implies that only about one out training are complements rather Development of every two students actually than substitutes in the Sri 31. Early childhood passes the GCE A/L Lankan labor market, development has begun to examination. These are low pass confirming the position of attract policy attention, rates at the GCE O/L and GCE education policy makers that the especially given the emphasis on A/L examinations, especially best foundation for the world of improving learning outcomes since successful completion of work is a high quality general among young children and these examinations is necessary education [see NEC (2003)]. rising awareness of the central for a variety of skills training Individuals with greater importance of the early pre- courses or access to tertiary education tend to receive more school years for brain education programs, or for training and enjoy higher development and cognitive entrance into a range of labor benefits from skills capability. There has been a market occupations. development. In particular, rapid growth of pre-schools and education and training interact 28. In addition to the problem nurseries in recent years. In the positively to reduce job search of poor education quality as 1970s, there were an estimated and increase earnings. Formal measured by low learning 2,000 pre-schools and nurseries. training receives larger returns achievement scores or high By 2003, this number had in the public sector, but the examination failure rates, policy increased to be between 11,000 return on formal and informal makers and employers have and 12,500, exceeding the training is about equal in the argued that other, non-cognitive quantity of schools in the private sector. dimensions of education quality country. Over 80% of pre- are also unsatisfactory and need 30. The skills development schools are in the private sector. urgent improvement [see NEC sector faces a number of critical The participation of children (1997), (2003)]. Education challenges. These include: (i) aged 3-5 in pre-school policy makers have stressed the expanding the coverage of service education, estimated to be about importance of producing provision to offer greater regional 20% in the 1980s, rose to 40% in characteristics such as a balance; (ii) stimulating private 1994 and to about 60% in 2001. disciplined work ethic, good investment and forging private- The Sri Lankan Draft Plan of team work, creativity and public partnerships in service Action for EFA sets a target of initiative, a problem solving delivery; (iii) training 80% coverage against a baseline approach, effective mismatches, with the presence of of 62% for the period 2004 to communication, good TEVT courses for which there is 2008 and home based provision leadership, flexibility, insufficient demand and a for the balance 20%. adaptability, initiative, drive and shortage of TEVT courses which 32. The pre-school system civic consciousness through the enjoy strong demand; (iv) faces several policy and education system [see NEC internal inefficiencies in the developmental challenges. (2003)]. sector with duplication of These include: courses, outdated equipment and Skills Development curricula, shortage of good a. widening service trainers and high dropout rates; provision; 29. Skills development and (v) sub-optimal use of through technical education and b. increasing participation to existing public sector workshops vocational training (TEVT) is an meet the EFA goals; and laboratories; and insufficient important dimension of national c. establishing quality stand- linkages between the education policy. Economic analysis ards and norms; and training sectors. E 10 d. creating awareness of education curriculum; and challenges. Also, in future appropriate curricula and g. creating an appropriate policy development, the pedagogical methods for administrative structure, government needs to build upon pre-school children; especially in the the broad foundation laid by the e. developing a system of provincial councils, to private sector in the pre-school teacher education and encourage, support and system, as this substantially training for pre-school develop pre-schools. increases the resources invested teachers; and creates a built-in mechanism Policy attention is urgently f. linking pre-school for quality development. needed to address these activities and the primary The Forward Flowing Tide of Time: Options for the Future Enhancing Equity in Access of initiatives to attract and organizations, could be tried out Achieving universal enrolment retain these students in school, among the most disadvantaged and completion of compulsory and achieve full enrolment and groups. Such demand side basic education (grades 1-9) completion of the universal initiatives have proved basic education cycle (grades successful in attracting and 33. Sri Lanka has nearly 1-9), including: retaining hard to reach groups of completed the first stage of children in several other education development, a. giving school children a countries, including South Asian providing universal access to choice of free textbooks; neighbors such as India, primary and basic education, b. awarding free school Pakistan and Bangladesh. with primary (grades 1-5) uniforms; completion rates of 97% and c. offering transport 34. Demand side actions to basic education (grades 1-9) subsidies to attend school;attract children from the most completion rates of 83%. The d. reconstructing damaged disadvantaged communities to final first generation challenge schools in conflictschool, based on successful left is to attract and retain the affected areas; and international experience from last 17% of students, who other countries, can include: currently drop out before e. providing special completing grade 9, either education, non-formal a. mobilizing local within the formal school education and catch-up communities to promote system or in non-formal education programs as school enrolment and education programs, until they alternatives outside the attendance; complete the basic education formal school system. b. creating a student-friendly cycle. These students belong These initiatives, especially environment, including to the poorest and most special education, non-formal producing attractive disadvantaged households in education and catch up school buildings, the country, including children education programs, need to be comfortable class-rooms, in remote rural villages, street strengthened and implemented and play areas; and children in cities, students in effectively. In addition, new c. reducing the opportunity isolated plantation demand-side initiatives, such as cost of schooling, among communities and children in the use of economic incentives working children in poor conflict affected areas. The and social mobilization families, by linking a part government has a broad range activities by local community of the income supplement E 11 of the government poverty e. developing the technical that are urgently needed to reduction program to capacity of education staff improve the quality of education school attendance or engaged in delivering and establish high performing participation in alternative these programs. schools, universities and education programs by technical education institutions children in the relevant Pursuing Excellence in in the country. age group. Education Quality Improving understanding, at Strengthening special education, Developing the quality of basic school level, of targeted non-formal education and and senior secondary education competencies in the primary catch-up education programs. education curriculum 36. The cardinal challenge 35. In addition, the facing Sri Lankan education 37. Currently, the government could consider policy makers is to develop and competencies, skills and strengthening the role of special sustain a high quality education expected learning outcomes of education, non-formal education system. At present, the the primary school curriculum and catch up education government has a wide array of are clearly specified. However, programs as alternatives to the development initiatives to understanding of these formal school system. Priority improve the quality of the achievement levels among development measures in this school system. These include: principals and teachers is limited area include: and inadequate. Further, the a. modernizing the school capabilities of principals and a. clarifying the comple- curriculum; teachers to translate these mentary role of these b. promoting child-friendly primary school achievement programs to formal edu- teaching methods; levels into effective teaching cation and on-the-job strategies in schools and training; c. improving the professional capabilities classrooms are weak. The b. specifying the curriculum, and skills of teachers; government could consider two learning outcomes and key initiatives to combat this targeted populations of the d. promoting effective various programs and school leadership and problem: installing a monitoring management; and a. ensure widespread and evaluation system to e. reforming examination dissemination and give feedback to policy systems to enable flexible understanding of the makers; and continuous competencies, skills and c. improving linkages to the assessment of student expected learning labor market, especially performance. outcomes of the primary providing skills in school curriculum among These measures provide a sustainable livelihoods principals and teachers, promising foundation upon and income generating including making printed which Sri Lanka can build a activities; versions of these high quality education system. d. increasing institutional The achievement levels education development capacity in the provincial literature, the education reform available to schools; and education departments experience of other countries, b. strengthen the capacity of and zonal education and the education experience of teachers to equip students offices to manage these Sri Lanka itself, suggest several up to the achievement levels programs; and further development initiatives specified in the curriculum. E 12 Clarifying and detailing the system. Sri Lanka invested c. developing the curricula secondary school curriculum heavily, over the past five years and instructional practices 38. Unlike in the primary or so, to construct, staff and of pre-service and school curriculum, theequip a complete network of continuing teacher competencies, skills and national colleges of education education programs to expected learning outcomes of (NCOEs) to provide pre-service equip teachers with the the secondary school curriculum teacher education and teacher pedagogical skills needed are not clearly specified. In centers (TCs) to deliver to promote child-centered consequence, the secondary continuing teacher education. and activity based curriculum is disorganized, with Virtually all school teachers are t e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n g poor sequencing across grade now trained, and enjoy approaches in the primary levels and cycles. In addition, opportunities for professional and secondary grade schools are unable to set goals development during their career. cycles; and targets for achievement The government can build on d. endowing teachers with levels in each grade, or organize this institutional foundation to the skills to forge their teaching methods and develop the professional partnerships with local learning strategies around a capabilities and skills of communities to improve clearly articulated curriculum. teachers. Key actions that would school quality; help achieve this objective are: Hence, two core development e. equipping teachers to initiatives that can be considereda. introducing continuing assume responsibility, by government to strengthen teacher training programs under the leadership of secondary education in the aimed at transforming and principals, to set and future are to: developing entire schools achieve high school through on-site training, performance standards; a. clarify and organize the to complement the off-site and secondary school curri- training activities f. strengthening the culum, specifying the currently offered through professional knowledge competencies, skills and teacher centers to enable and understanding of expected learning individual teachers to subject areas and the outcomes in each grade upgrade their skills; pedagogical skills of and subject; and b. modernizing the curricula teachers on a regular, b. ensure widespread and instructional practices continuing cycle over dissemination and of pre-service and their teaching careers. understanding of these continuing teacher achievement levels among training programs to equip Strengthening the leadership principals and teachers, teachers to utilizeand management capabilities of including making relevant equipment and technology principals, headmasters and printed material available in teaching activities, suchheadmistresses to schools. as course planning and 40. The central importance of organization, classroom high quality school leadership is Strengthening professional practice, student appreciated by Sri Lankan competencies and skills of assignments and education policy makers. A teachers homework, and principals' training center is 39. The quality of the assessment of student being developed to provide teaching force is of cardinal knowledge and skills; leadership and management importance in any education training to principals and school E 13 Box 1. On Site School Based Training Support for Teachers in Egypt School based training and support has been operating in several areas of Egypt since the mid-1990s for English teachers at the preparatory level. The main goal is to provide in-service training and support to increase the effectiveness of teachers through training and mentoring at the school site. The targets of the programs include: (a) effective use of instructional texts by teachers in the classroom; (b) unifying teachers in a school and actively encouraging them to work as a team; (c) improving communication among Ministry of Education inspectors, senior teachers, school principals, school directors and parents; (c) recognizing and rewarding individual creativity to increase job satisfaction, enhance self-worth and motivate professional pride in teaching; (d) providing a model for sharing effective problem solving strategies; (e) actively encouraging individuals who are models of excellence and potential leaders in their schools; (f) providing a forum for participatory inputs that affects the sense of investment and consequent ownership that all participants develop towards their school; (g) encouraging inspectors, teachers and administrators to develop conflict resolution strategies; (h) encouraging active and communicative pupil participation in the learning process; and (i) institutionalizing the model of using the school as a unit for ongoing professional development. The strengths of the program include the following: (a) receipt by teachers of teaching material on basic classroom techniques that can be used by teachers to make instructional texts and classroom practice more interesting and effective; (b) teachers are able to receive training without traveling long distances to a training site; (c) teachers can practice new techniques and discuss the new material with colleagues and senior teachers on a daily basis; (d) the principal (or other interested teachers) can give classroom demonstrations using SBT activities, or attend demonstrations given by other teachers in the school; (e) communication and sharing of ideas among staff improves; (f) the principal receives greater status and responsibility in the school; (g) teachers in schools which receive SBT develop a better rapport through working together; (h) all teachers in the school receive new material and observe demonstrations (rather than one or two teachers nominated to attend an off-site training session); (i) it provides a positive focus for school inspector visits, classroom observations and meeting with teachers; and (j) principals monitor teaching activities on a day-to-day basis and can thus better assist inspectors on their observation visits. Source: LeBlanc, 1997. section heads such as a. clearly articulate the e. motivate staff and headmasters and vision and educational students towards high headmistresses. Further, policy goals of schools; performance; measures are being introduced b. organize schools to f. deploy and utilize to empower principals and implement the curriculum physical resources to devolve considerable effectively; promote school goals; managerial power to schools. c. match the pedagogical g. develop close ties with Strengthening the leadership competencies of teachers community organizations, skills and managerial to the classroom and co- including parent-teacher competencies of school curricular needs of associations and past principals, headmasters and schools; pupils' associations; and headmistresses is a key area for d. appraise staff, especially h. maintain high visibility development. Important teachers, and and accessibility to pupils, leadership and management progressively improve teachers, parents and other skills required in the future their competencies and community members. include the abilities to: skills; E 14 Developing academic and education authorities and Improving the quality of administrative support systems zonal education offices. textbooks for schools Expanding the education capital 43. Textbooks constitute the 41. Support networks that stock and increasing the use of main learning resource in the provide academic and equipment and technology in education system. Further, for a administrative assistance and teaching and learning developing country such as Sri guidance to schools are at a Lanka, it is likely to remain the rudimentary stage in Sri Lanka. 42. As Sri Lanka stands chief quality input for many The existing system of in- poised on the threshold of the years into the future. As such, service advisors to provide second stage of education ensuring high quality textbooks support to schools is poorly development, the school system is vitally important. In recent developed. Strengthening this needs to advance from a low- years, the government has system is of strategic importance technology environment heavily implemented an important for future education dependent on "chalk and talk" to policy initiative to increase the development. Priority areas for a modern, equipment and quality of textbooks and widen future development include: technology intensive education the choice of textbooks available system. The education capital to schools by dismantling a state a. clearly articulating the stock of IT centers and monopoly and opening textbook roles and equipment, science laboratories, publication to competitive responsibilities of in- libraries, activity rooms, private firms. Future service advisors; instruments and tools, needs to development of private sector b. selecting and appointing be increased in stages.textbook publication could in-service advisors on the Concurrently, equipment and include the following key steps: basis of proven technology have to be awarded a professional competence prominent role in teaching a. enhancing the technical and performance; methods, learning approaches capacity of textbook c. equipping in-service advi- and examinations. For instance, writers, illustrators and sors to provide services, instructional time in science can editors in the country; including information and be weighted more in favor of b. strengthening quality training regarding good laboratory work, and lab-based control of manuscripts instructional practices, to assignments used as part of the and drafts, including schools to raiseassessment mechanism. checking factual accuracy performance; Similarly, teaching methods in and eliminating material d. utilizing in-servicesubjects such as mathematics that hurts different advisors effectively to and physics can include the use religious and ethnic evaluate and provide of educational software to groups, constructive feed-back on enable, inter alia, self-paced c. speeding up contracting the academic performance learning among children. Audio and delivery to ensure and efforts of school equipment can be utilized in timely distribution to principals and teachers; language instruction, especially schools prior to the and English, to develop vocabulary, commencement of the pronunciation and oral fluency. e. incorporating on-site academic year; and And increasing use of libraries support to schools into the d. developing technical and reading material provide an regular development capacity among writers to extremely effective method of activities of provincial produce supplementary enhancing learning outcomes. reading material, E 15 Box 2. School-Level Pilots in Civics and Citizenship - an Example from Northern Ireland The two-year 'Social, Civic and Political Education Project' was a partnership between the Council for Curriculum, Examinations & Assessment, and a university. The project included the development and trialing of curriculum resources, teacher training modules, and models of cooperation between schools, curriculum developers, NGOs and community organizations. Through a process of piloting different approaches, the project arrived at a model of teaching and learning where 'citizenship' concepts were designed to be investigated, rather than taught didactically: "In the attempt to move beyond 'polite exchange' and to avoid a compliance model of citizenship we have arrived at an investigatory curriculum driven by questions rather than answers." workbooks and textbook to ensure safe drinking groups, using the curriculum guides. water and adequate, clean and co-curricular activities to sanitation facilities; promote respect for diversity, Enhancing the health and introducing schools where nutrition status of children c. skills based health education to develop children from different ethnic 44. The analysis of the knowledge, attitudes, groups can study together and relationship between cognitive values and life skills to promoting the use of English as scores and school, household enable students to make a link language. These are useful and health variables show that and act on the most measures, although their impact poor health and low nutrition appropriate and positive clearly depends on the status among children are health related decisions; cooperation of different social negatively associated with and groups. In particular, the learning outcomes. In d. school-based health and cooperation of dominant groups consequence, attempts to nutrition services to in the conflict affected areas are improve education quality and address problems such as needed to promote these learning levels could benefit micronutrient deficiencies activities effectively. from actions to improve the and worm infestations, health and nutrition levels of Reconstructing damaged hunger, dental caries, poor children. The basic education institutions in conflict myopia and hearing framework for an effective affected areas impediments. school health and nutrition 46. Enrolment and learning program could contain the Promoting social cohesion levels are lowest in the conflict following core elements: through education affected areas, which experience special challenges a. health-related school 45. Enhancing civic policies that provide a safe knowledge and understanding caused by the destruction of education infrastructure. and secure physical among students is an important Government education environment, a favorable measure to promote respect for institutions in the conflict and affirmative psycho- diversity, democratic affected areas, especially social environment, and governance and civic liberties in schools, suffered damaged address issues such as the backdrop of the 20 year long during the conflict period. An student abuse, sexual secessionist conflict in the assessment of the harassment, school country. Additional measures to reconstruction, rehabilitation violence, and bullying. promote social cohesion through and developmental needs of the b. good school construction education include producing region [see UNICEF-World and maintenance practices textbooks that are sensitive to the cultures of different social Bank (2003)] estimated that E 16 about USD140 million is especially of the older initiatives Developing and implementing required to restore the education such as the introduction of an activity based curriculum capital stock in the region. course unit systems and 49. The activity based Technical capacity, however, is a continuous assessment curriculum approach advocated major challenge in mechanisms, could be helpful to by Sri Lankan policy makers for implementing education policy makers and academics. secondary education is explicitly reconstruction and rehabilitation designed to develop a sound work in the conflict affected Orienting the Education work ethic among school regions. In particular, there are children [see NEC (2003)]. As shortages of material and skilled System to the World of such, it can play a key role in labor. Also, as funds have Work orienting the education system poured into the region for 48. The Sri Lankan education to the world of work. The future reconstruction work, prices of policy framework stresses the development and goods and wages have risen. importance of orienting the implementation of the activity Long-term support to restore the education system to the world of based curriculum approach education system in the conflict work [see NEC (2003)]. Policy depends on key initiatives to: affected areas requires makers are aware that the best considerable capacity building foundation for the world of work a. train teachers in activity activity. is a high quality school system based pedagogy; which can supply the labor b. train principals to Improving the quality of market with trainable organize schools for an university education individuals and provide a strong activity based curriculum; 47. The university system has spring board for technical, c. provide sufficient not experienced the same professional and university classroom space and intensive process of consultative education. The school system activity rooms to policy development as the plays a pivotal role in producing implement activity based school system. However, the knowledge and generic skills, learning; and UGC and individual universities such as team work, decision d. make adequate have developed several making, initiative, problem equipment, technology initiatives to enhance quality. solving, responsibility, and reading material These include reforming leadership and communication, available in schools to curricula and examination which are important in the world support activity based systems, especially organizing of work. The school system also teaching and learning. degree programs around course constitutes the basic curriculum unit systems and introducing framework for the acquisition of Increasing IT literacy and skills continuous assessment systems, knowledge and specific and introducing IT based developing corporate plans for capabilities in demand in the teaching and learning universities, introducing labor market. Plans to improve 50. IT literacy and skills are performance appraisal systems the orientation of the Sri Lankan fundamental in the modern for staff, setting up an education system to the world of world, and vastly increase the accreditation process under an work needs priority national and global labor market independent board, and development initiatives in prospects of school completers introducing an element of curricula, use of IT and and university graduates. performance based funding. technology in education, Education policy makers are These initiatives have yet to be language skills and fluency, and aware of the cardinal importance tested, and good evaluations, career guidance and counseling. of IT, and advocate expanding E 17 and deepening the use of IT in a. allowing private schools Education Commission the education system. This is an to provide students a (TVEC) as the apex body extremely important, high choice of English as a for TEVT; priority policy measure. Key medium of instruction, b. developing the role of initiatives to develop the use of along with Sinhalese and government to function as IT in the school system and Tamil, from grade 1 a facilitator, standard implement IT based teaching upwards; setter and regulator of and learning include: b. introducing English as a training; a. equipping schools with IT medium of instruction in c. fostering private sector facilities and connectivity government schools in participation in training; in stages; stages, as and when d. promoting government- adequate teachers become b. establishing a national industry partnerships in available; education network to skills development; maximize access to IT c. training teachers, e. accrediting and based education material; including re-training " monitoring the quality of excess teachers " in the c. training teachers in IT public and private training system, to teach English equipment, educational institutions; as a subject; software and on-line f. rationalizing the public education resources; d. training teachers, sector TEVT system; including re-training " d. creating awareness among g. improving the linkages of excess teachers " in the school principals on the the TEVT system with the system, to teach in use of IT in education; and school and university English as a medium of e. making provision for IT systems; including instruction; equipment and IT based establishing career e. utilizing audio-visual educational resources in guidance and counseling educational resources and school quality input in schools and IT based education allocations. universities; material widely for h. promoting vocational Improving English language English language teaching training for the informal skills and learning. sector; and 51. English language skills Strengthening skills i. providing financial and fluency enjoy strong development and training incentives for training demand in the national labor 52. Skills development targeting the corporate market. In addition, English constitutes the chief active labor sector. language competency opens job market strategy of the These are rational and prospects in the global economy. government to promote the job potentially productive ideas, In consequence, developing prospects and labor productivity reflecting international thinking English language skills of school leavers. Several and practice. The actual stage of constitutes a central element of promising development development of these various the education policy framework initiatives and policy measures policy initiatives is modest, with to improve the labor market have been proposed by policy many ideas still at the level of orientation of the school system. makers, including: blue prints. Translating these Important development policy ideas into development initiatives for the future include: a. strengthening the strategies and implementing Technical and Vocational them constitute the next major E 18 challenges faced by the TEVT cycle (grade 1-9), enhance the unit cost resource allocation sector. quality of education, orient the mechanism. This would involve: education system to the world of Developing career guidance and work, improve equity of public a. allowing variation in the counseling spending, strengthen service funding formula to 53. An important government delivery within the system, and incorporate provincial and recommendation to link develop the economic and social zonal differences in education to the world of work relevance of the education and education needs and is the development of effective training system. These s o c i o - e c o n o m i c career guidance and counseling. challenges exist at a time when development; Universities have commenced public investment in education b. refining the formula to career guidance and counseling is modest by developing country allocate resources for activities. However, in the standards, government curriculum enhancement school system, career guidance education spending has been in schools selected, over and counseling is virtually non- declining in real terms and the successive development existent. Developing career state experiences a heavy fiscal stages, to increase the guidance and counseling in deficit which compels a equipment and technology schools is an important initiative conservative budgetary policy. intensity of the for future implementation. Key In this context, it is extremely curriculum, and offer IT actions to promote this initiative important that the education based education and include: system uses the limited public English medium resources available equitably education; a. training a core cadre of and efficiently. c. strengthening the school staff in career technical and institutional guidance and counseling; Improving equity and quality capacity of central and b. prioritizing schools in through future development of provincial education and poor regions in the the norm-based, unit cost finance authorities to development of guidance resource allocation mechanism allocate and distribute and counseling, as 55. The norm-based, unit cost resources according to the students in such areas resource allocation mechanism more advanced model of have less access to labor used to allocate public resources the norm-based, unit cost market information; and to schools during the last 4-5 resource allocation c. developing information years has considerably increased mechanism. networks between the equity of resource allocation vocational training and and distribution in the education Enhancing the efficiency and technical education system. The first stage of equity of public education institutions and guidance implementation of this formula spending across education counselors in schools. treated all schools similarly, cycles with adjustments only for school 56. The social benefits of Education Resource size to accommodate economies education are highest at the Allocation and Distribution of scale, poverty levels of the compulsory basic education and most disadvantaged schools, and senior secondary education 54. The government faces variations in subjects taught and cycles. This suggests that the several cardinal challenges to grade cycles covered. The best return to education ensure universal completion of country can now move on to the investment is at the basic the basic compulsory education second stage of the norm-based, education and senior secondary E 19 Box 3. Components of an Education Resource Allocation Formula and Some Examples from Developed Economies. An education resource allocation formula typically has four components: I. A basic allocation, based on the numbers of students in a school, and a grade level supplement to cover the differential resource of different grades. The norm-based unit cost resource allocation mechanism developed for schools in Sri Lanka over the past 6 years focuses on this component. II. Curriculum enhancement, where additional resources are provided for selected groups of students, with the choice based on ability or aptitude. For instance, in Australia, the State of Victoria provides funds for a number of state wide initiatives to enable schools to participate in specific-purpose programs such as instrumental music programs and languages other than English. In New Zealand, additional staffing is provided to operate manual training centres to support the delivery of technology programmes and extra resources are awarded to facilitate school-to-work transition. III. Supplementary educational needs, especially to promote equity by accommodating special groups such as children with learning impediments. For instance, in the U.S.A. school districts in Cincinnati and Seattle provide supplementary resources for special education and school health programs, while in Edmonton, Canada special resources are provided for children with mild, moderate and special disabilities. IV. School site allocations, to take into account differential school costs, based on location, that are caused by structural factors outside the managerial control of the school. Typically, such factors include physical isolation from population centers, regional differences in the prices of educational resources and environmental features such as altitude and temperature. In the United Kingdom, for instance, small schools receive supplementary resources to protect them from losing on the basis of diseconomies of scale. The formula implemented in Sri Lanka, too, has special provision for small schools and for schools located in cold temperatures above 5,000 feet. education levels. The pattern of university system and allowing literacy and IT based education, student enrolment over major enrolment expansion in tertiary and expanding English language grade cycles, and the unit costs education take place mainly in fluency and skills, will require of education by grade level, the private sector. Opportunities substantial investment in the show that investment in basic for poorer students to access education capital stock. Hence, and senior secondary education tertiary education could be over time, the balance of capital are relatively progressive and expanded through schemes such and recurrent spending within benefit students from low and as student vouchers and student the education budget needs to middle income households loans, rather than through direct shift to allocate a greater share substantially, whereas provision. of resources to capital investment in tertiary education expenditure. Within the capital mainly tends to benefit students Intra-budget shifts in resource budget, a higher proportion of from upper-income households. allocation to enhance education resources needs to be invested in In consequence, there is a strong quality quality inputs such as IT centers, case for allocating the major 57. Development initiatives to science laboratories, libraries, share of any increase in public improve the quality of education activity rooms, multi-purpose resources for the education and orient the education system rooms, books, journals, sector to basic and senior to the world of work, such as computers, educational secondary education, while increasing the equipment and software, equipment, carefully controlling the technology intensity of the technology and tools. The expansion of the public curriculum, promoting IT construction and expansion of E 20 buildings, which absorbs the urgent in an unfavorable has been artificially highest share of the capital macroeconomic environment restricted and contribute budget, needs to be rationalized, with a large and persistent to higher growth, and prioritizing the urban school budget deficit. Relaxing legal d. it would provide an system which is experiencing obstacles to the establishment of alternative model of rising demand. Within the private schools and introducing service delivery, with recurrent budget, too, resources strategic initiatives to counter considerable power and need to be reallocated from the adverse political economy responsibility at the level salaries and administrative environment to private sector of the individual expenses to quality processes, participation in education could education institutions, such as teacher education and produce several benefits: such as private schools training, management and academic training of school a. it would increase the and institutes. These private education principals, the purchase of overall volume of institutions would be teaching material and learning resources invested in the compelled to offer high resources, and to meet the education sector, quality services to remain operating expenses of higher b. since the students viable in an economic capital investment. attending private schools context where they are in and education institutions Increasing private sector competition with free are likely to be drawn investment and participation in public education from upper income education institutions. families, it would release 58. As the country advances more public resources, on 59. The establishment of to higher levels of education a per student basis, for private universities has been an quality the education system students from poorer extremely contentious issue, needs to supplement the families, with several past attempts government budget by raising c. it would stimulate resulting in student violence and alternative sources of revenue. economic activity in a social unrest. Hence, it is highly This is especially important and sector where investment unlikely that private universities Box 4. Tertiary Education Strategy in the Republic of Korea The Republic of Korea is one of the outstanding economic success stories of modern times. The Republic of Korea also has an education system that consistently comes among the top achievers in numerous global studies of education performance. As the country grew rapidly from the 1960s onwards, reaching a per capita income level that now places it among the ranks of high income countries, the education system also expanded to keep pace with the growth of the economy and the rising demand for educated labor. The tertiary education system made a key contribution to growth at the higher industrial and service levels. Key stages in the development of tertiary education in Korea were: (a) in the 1960s, encouragement of private institutions, with limited public funding for capital costs and scholarships; (b) in the 1970s and 1980s, the expansion of engineering and technical education to meet human resource requirements; and (c) in the 1990s, a focus on quality, research and development capacity, accountability, deregulation, and performance-based funding. Two key outcomes of the tertiary education strategy in Korea are: (i) the proliferation of private tertiary education institutions in Korea, enrolling 85% of the total student population by 2000; and (ii) active promotion of university-industry partnerships by the government. The predominance of the private sector in tertiary education financing and provision has enabled Korea to increase the supply of highly educated labor rapidly enough to exploit the growth opportunities enjoyed by the economy. Source: World Bank (2002). E 21 can be established in Sri Lanka introduce cost sharing into free and most disadvantaged in the medium-term. The public university systems, which economic groups, improve government has responded to have resulted in strong education quality and learning the opposition to private resistance, especially from outcomes, and orient the universities by encouraging the student groups. Hence, it is education system to the world of private sector to participate in unlikely that Sri Lanka will be work, also requires non-contentious areas. These able to introduce cost sharing strengthening the efficiency and have mainly been the into public undergraduate quality of service delivery establishment of private degree education anytime in the near within the education system. awarding institutions, usually future. However, over the long- Government strategy to improve linked to foreign universities, term, especially as the economy service delivery contains several and investment in tertiary level grows and the wealth of promising elements. programs such as professional households increases, cost courses and technical fields. The sharing will need to become a Empowering frontline service government needs to explore live policy option. In this delivery institutions, such as options to expand private context, an area which has schools and universities participation in tertiary level aroused considerable interest in 62. A key government policy non-university education, transition economies is that of initiative under consideration is especially in professional and income contingent student to devolve managerial power to technical fields where the loans. The government could frontline service delivery demand for labor, both within consider pilot testing some institutions, such as and schools and outside the country, is student loans of this type, and universities. In the school strong. perhaps to be used in private system, the aim of devolving tertiary institutions in the firstmanagerial authority is to Promoting cost sharing in instance. Meanwhile, an area empower principals, public university education where cost sharing is possible in headmasters and 60. The analysis clearly public university education is headmistresses, and teachers; shows that public university that of postgraduate degrees. enable schools to forge links undergraduate education yields The majority of postgraduate with local communities to high private returns, well in students in universities are improve resource mobilization excess of social returns, and employed and engage in part- and public accountability; and disproportionately benefits the time, fee paying courses. This is improve the speed and wealthiest quintile of an area that has considerable sensitivity of decision making households. Given these facts, potential for further expansion by decreasing administrative there is a strong case for to increase university incomes layers. In devolving managerial increasing the share of and improve the supply of well autonomy to schools, it is university income that is drawn educated human resources in the important that different models from private households. country. of school development boards Equally, it is important to take be pilot tested, as the into account the politicalImproving the Quality and governance capacity of schools economy context of Sri Lanka, varies significantly, depending where tuition free public Efficiency of Education on such factors as location, size university education has been Service Delivery and history. For instance, the the norm for decades, and the 61. Development initiatives main public schools in cities and international experience ofand strategies to widen towns are likely to possess countries that have sought to education access to the poorest vastly greater managerial E 22 Box 5. Alternative Models of School Based Management in Developed and Developing Countries School-based management can involve a variety of activities in which responsibility to make decisions about one or more of the following is devolved to the school level: the allocation of resources; choice of teaching materials; approval of school budgets; setting policies within centrally determined guidelines; drawing up a school development plan; preparation of an annual performance report; a mechanism for teachers to be involved in certain decisions; purchase of advisory services; hiring and firing of staff; staff development training; setting disciplinary policies; assigning students and staff to classes; paying teachers' salaries; and a role for parents, through a school-site management body, board, or council of teachers, parents, and other members of local communities, in an advisory or decision-making capacity. SBM systems vary in the degree of emphasis they accord to one or more of these activities. On the basis of the activities which are most prominent, four models have been identified: an administrative control model, a professional control model, a community control model, and a balanced control model. I. In the administrative control model, the principal teacher makes decisions about budget, personnel, and curriculum, following consultation with teachers, parents, students, and community representatives. An example of this model is to be found in Edmonton, Canada, where the head can make decisions in almost all areas of school administration (personnel, budget, curriculum). II. In the professional control model, teachers make decisions about budget and curriculum (and occasionally about personnel). The model is based on the assumption that professionals that are closest to students have the most relevant knowledge for decision-making. A council with decision-making powers that includes parents may be associated with this model; if this is the case, teachers will have the largest proportion of members. Examples of systems in which teachers assume leadership are to be found in Santiago, Chile and Columbus Ohio in the U.S.A. III. The community control model is based on the assumption that the school curriculum should directly reflect the values and preferences of parents and the local community, to which the school should be accountable. In this model, parents/ community will have the majority, or at least the greatest proportion, of membership on school councils and will be empowered to make decisions about curriculum, budget, and personnel. In the extreme case (e.g., in New Zealand), the council makes decisions about budgets, the appointment and dismissal of principal teachers, teachers, and other staff, building maintenance, and overall performance of the school. The community control model of SBM is also found in Australia and in El Salvador where it originated in rural areas during civil war when families got together to run schools in the absence of government services. The success of this experience moved the government to open the governance of schools to teachers, parents, and students. IV. The balanced control model attempts to balance professional and parental control. Teachers' knowledge is privileged in making key decisions in the school; the school, however, is accountable to parents and the local community. In one balanced control SBM model (in Spain), the school council is responsible for student admissions, curriculum, budget, school management, extra-curricular activities, supervision of administration and instruction. The mixed model is also found in Nicaragua. While the models provide a useful conceptual framework, it should be noted that considerable variation exists in how they are implemented from site to site. capabilities and sophisticated administrative staff, tailor authorities. These measures, community support than small academic salaries to individual however, may be controversial rural schools in remote villages. staff members, and decide on from a political economy student admissions, could perspective. For instance, 63. Universities already enjoy increase the motivation, providing universities freedom considerable autonomy, but responsibility and accountability to tailor academic salaries to further powers to recruit of university staff and individual staff members can be E 23 highly controversial in a context managerial autonomy and education administrators where academics are responsibility to NCOE's and service, principals service accustomed to a uniform salary TC's could increase the and the teacher educators scale. Similarly, devolving operational efficiency of the service, in close responsibility for student institutions and enhance the consultation with admissions to individual quality of service delivery. stakeholders, including universities has to be made the relevant unions; and consistent with the policy of Developing performance c. enhancing the technical allocating student quotas to appraisal systems and capacity of education disadvantaged districts. introducing fiscal incentives for performance institutions and education 64. The government could administrators to manage 65. The strengthening of also consider applying the and utilize performance performance appraisal systems principle of devolving appraisal systems. could contribute strongly to governance to other education higher quality service delivery. 66. Introducing financial institutions, such as National Within the university system, incentives for performance, Colleges of Education (NCOE's) performance appraisal has especially for key services, can and Teacher Centers (TC's). commenced, especially foralso be a promising initiative. Currently, the NCOE's have academic staff. However, For instance, poor teacher little managerial responsibility measures to introduce deployment and high teacher and autonomy. Curriculum performance appraisal to the absenteeism in difficult areas is design, assessment and school system have proved a key constraint on effective certification of teacher controversial, and leftservice delivery within the education courses offered by undeveloped. Three key education system. Further, the NCOE's are undertaken by the initiatives that could assist theimpact of weak teacher National Institute of Education government to introduce deployment falls (NIE). Recruitment of academic performance appraisaldisproportionately on poor staff is to a centralized teacher effectively into the school students, as the most unpopular educators service, and NCOE's system are: regions, where teacher rarely have a voice in the choice absenteeism is highest, are of academic staff allocated to a. communicating totypically remote, economically them. TC's operate in an stakeholders, especially disadvantaged, rural locations. inefficient administrative education unions, the To improve teacher deployment structure. The NIE designs the value of performance and attendance, the government curricula of continuing teacher appraisal systems ascould implement the NEC education programs offered by feedback mechanisms to (2003) proposals to offer TC's. The NCOE's act as strengthen servicefinancial incentives to teachers academic advisors to TC's. For delivery and reward good locating in schools in difficult administrative purposes, performance, rather than areas. In addition, to reduce including finances, the TC's as punitive measures for teacher absenteeism, teachers come under the zonal education poor performance; could be entitled to encash offices. This complex b. designing performance unutilized leave. The main administrative and academic appraisal systems for the constraint to introducing fiscal structure has badly hampered various education incentives for performance is the the development of TC's. services, such as the tight budget situation, which Devolving a greater degree of teachers service,precludes expensive new policy E 24 measures. However, if cost Human resource development of central, provincial and zonal savings could be generated central, provincial and zonal education authorities can within the education system, education authorities contribute significantly to the some of the resources obtained 68. The complex system of quality and efficiency of could be allocated to introduce education governance, with education planning, such performance incentives multiple tiers of administration administration and service measures. at the central, provincial and delivery in the future. Lessons from recent policy measures and Streamlining roles, responsi- zonal levels, requires a wide bilities and accountability range of administrative, development initiatives, including reforms supported by within the education system technical and operations skills and competencies from staff donors such as the World Bank 67. Many of the measures working at each tier. An overall and Asian Development Bank, suggested to improve education human resource strategy needs suggest some key areas where service delivery would require to be developed and institutional strengthening is government officials in the implemented, across the urgently required. central ministry, provincial different tiers of the education councils and zonal offices to Administrative processing system, to equip central, assume new and additional roles provincial and zonal education 70. The administrative and responsibilities, while staff with the necessary processes in central, provincial devolving some of their current administrative, technical and and zonal offices tend to be long powers to frontline service operations skills and and cumbersome, resulting in delivery institutions, such as competencies. In addition, this considerable delays in schools, national colleges of strategy needs to provide for operational activities. One major education and teacher centers. regular and continuous updating reason for these delays are the During this process of of skills and competencies as use of outdated manual systems decentralization and technical and operations skills for important administrative empowerment of local advance and develop. tasks, including correspondence, institutions, the current pattern filing, record keeping and of responsibility and Institutional strengthening of inventory control. Developing accountability and the future central, provincial and zonal computerized operating systems models required need to be education authorities for normal and routine analyzed carefully. 69. Strengthening the administrative tasks would operational procedures, substantially increase the capabilities and performance of efficiency of government operations. Box 6. Use of National Assessment Results in Argentina Following a national assessment of learning outcomes in Mendoza Province, each school received an individualized report at the beginning of the school year, which contained results for the school as well as provincial, departmental, and sectoral (urban, rural marginal and rural) average scores. Test scores for the school were disaggregated by classroom and by student, as well as skill area (geometry, probability etc.), and test item. Schools were assigned an overall ranking relative to all other schools within their sector. A series of analytical documents, videos and workshops about specific difficulties encountered by students and proposing pedagogical changes to address perceived shortcomings was provided. Patterns of student achievement in terms of gender, geographical location, and public/private management variables were described. E 25 Strengthening procurement generated intense controversy monitoring and evaluation, capabilities and delayed implementation for based on statistically valid 71. The ability of government several years. Again, central and procedures and measurable officials to draft bidding provincial education authorities indicators, is extremely valuable documents, prepare technical lacked the capability to for policy makers. In advanced specifications, praise proposals,communicate the policy education systems analytically and draw up technicaleffectively. The country also rigorous education research and evaluation reports and tender has, in the aggregate, a surplus evaluation, including national board recommendations to of school teachers, although assessments of learning international standards isthere are deficiencies in certain outcomes, constitutes the limited, resulting in lengthy subjects, especially English, and foundation for policy procurement processes. in the Tamil medium. However, formulation. The Sri Lankan Strengthening the procurement there is intense pressure to education system currently has capabilities of government employ more teachers, inter alia several promising initiatives, officials, hence, is an importantto reduce the pressure of such as the annual school area for future institutional unemployed educated young census, the assessment of grade development. people. Again, government 4 learning outcomes by NEREC, agencies have often found it and the NEREC qualitative Addressing political economy nearly impossible to withstand study of education management constraints this pressure. Hence, practices, that provide a basis for 72. Communicating the strengthening the ability of a rich and informative rationale for controversial but government education agencies, monitoring and evaluation important policy measures to at each level of the framework. This education stakeholders and beneficiaries administrative tier, to research, monitoring and and building stakeholder communicate the rationale for evaluation system could be participation in reforms is an potentially controversial policy developed with special emphasis important area where measures and build stakeholder on the analysis of education government capacity is still support is a vitally important performance and causal factors modest. For instance, the area for future institutional useful for policy making. government implemented astrengthening. Education research, monitoring school rationalization program and evaluation activities can be Capacity development to over 1998-2002, which achieved encouraged to utilize both undertake education research over 75% of its target. This was quantitative and qualitative and analysis, policy formulation a well-designed, successful methods, and use modern and planning rationalization program. research techniques such as However, it generated intense 73. There are three key experimental designs, controversy, and central and initiatives that would contribute randomized trials and provincial education authorities to the development of a high longitudinal surveys. were unable to explain the performing education system, Medium-term budgeting and a rationale for the program clearlyespecially at the level of multi-year planning horizon to local communities, resulting analysis, policy formulation and in its temporary suspension in planning. 75. An important initiative to 2003. Similarly, the government improve education planning and Promoting education research, commenced a multiple textbook resource management is the monitoring and evaluation policy, to widen choice and development of a medium-term improve quality, which 74. Sound research, budget framework to facilitate E 26 multi-year planning. The Public expenditure tracking education and teacher centers. It medium term budget could 76. A public expenditure would also increase the cover a period of about three tracking system would transparency of resource flows years, with provision for annualconstitute an important through the system. Such updating to take into account management tool for education information could then feed fresh information and needs. policy makers and finance back into policy formulation and The medium-term budget could officials and complement the resource allocation as education also be embedded in a long-term medium-term budgeting system. development needs evolve, and rolling plan for education It would provide the central central government and development. It would facilitategovernment and the provinces provincial plans are refined. education planning, and information on the flow of funds management by improving the through the education system predictability of resources and and the actual level of resources providing a longer-term reaching various service development horizon than is delivery points, such as schools, permitted by the current annual universities, national colleges of budgets. E 27 E 28 ldhH_idOl idrdxYh iudf,dapkh" m%Odk ks.uk yd wkd.; úl,am m%drïNh wOHdmkfhys ,d ;snqKq uq,a;ek .s,syS .sfhah' 1' Y%S ,xldfõ wOHdmk moaO;sh" m%d:ñl óg w;sf¾lj" ukao.dó j¾Ok fõ.h ;=< Y%u wOHdmkhg yd oaú;Shsl wOHdmkhg mq¿,a fj<|fmdq flfrk wvq .=re wdfhdack uÜgu fnfyúka jeäl< yelsh' jegqma l%uhla yd ÿ¾j, .=re Woafhda.h" 4& mdi,a" cd;sl wOHdmk mSG (NCOE) yd .=re uOHia:dk fiajd m%odkfha .=Kh yd ldhH_laIu;dj (TC) jeks uq,a fmf- NdId l=i,;d yd m%ùK;dj" jD;a;Sh ld,Sk msájy< i|yd YlH;d-j¾Ok ldhH_hka ud¾f.damfoaYkh yd wkqYdikh hk fuys,d fndfyduhla ;sfí' m%uqL;dkq.; ixj¾Ok fm%arl wjYHfõ' úYaj úoHd, wOHdmkfha .=Kh jeäÈhqKq lsÍu l%shdlrlï-mdol úIhud,djla ksujd l%shdjg keÕSu 47' úYaj úoHd, moaO;sh" mdi,a moaO;sh ;rïu ;shqKq ixjdod;aul m%;sm;a;s ixj¾Ok 49' Y%S ,xldfõ m%;sm;a;s iïmdolhska úiska l%shdj,shlg Ndckh ù ke;' tfia jqjo" úYaj oaú;Shsl wOHdmkh Wfoid m%ldYs; ls%hdldrlï- úoHd, m%;smdok fldñiu;a tla tla úYaj mdol úIhud,d m%fõYh b÷rdu ieliS we;af;a úoHd,h;a .=Kd;aul j¾Okh i|yd fm%arl mdi,a orejka ;=< hym;a Y%udpdr O¾u j¾Okh lsysmhla ilid ;sfí' úIhud,d yd úNd. l%u we;s lrkq msKsih' [NEC ^2003& n,kak'] tneúka" m%;sixialrKhla --úfYaIfhka mdGud,d tall ta uÕska wOHdmk moaO;sh Y%u f,dalhg keUqre moaO;s jgd Wmdê jev-igyka .e-ld,Skj --úfYaIfhkau wd¾Ól ixfõ§;dj;a jeäÈhqKq lssÍu fuys,d wruqKq j¾Okhla we;s ù rgjeis mjq,aj, Okh jeä jkafkah' mdi,aj,g ljQ msKsi fhdað; Wmdh fndfyduhlgu uOHu yeisrùu ÿIalr jQ uÕl hk fyhska fufyhqï wud;HdxYfha;a" m%dfoaYSh iNdj,;a" l,dmSh lghq;= fnfyúka m%udo fõ' fï m%udoj,g tla ldhH_d,j,;a rcfha ks,OdÍkag wNskj yd m%Odk fya;=jla jkafka ,sms f,aLk" ,sms f.dkq" w;sf¾l N+ñld yd j.lSï oeÍug;a Tjqkaf.a jd¾;d ;eîï yd NdKav f,aLk md,kh jeks we;eï j¾;udk n,;, iuyrla mdi,a" cd;sl lghq;= we;=¿ jeo.;a mßmd,kuh l¾;jHhka wOHdmk mSG yd .=re uOHia:dk jeks bÈß fmf ld,hla .;ùuh' tneúka" rcfha yd ksmqK;dj,ska iukaú; úh hq;=h' uOHu" ks,OdÍkaf.a imhd .ekSfï yelshd Yla;su;a lsÍu m%dfoaYSh yd l,dmSh wOHdmk ks,OdÍka wjYH wkd.; wdh;ksl ixj¾Okh msKsi fhda.H mßmd,k" ;dlaIKsl yd fufyhqï l=i,;dj,ska jeo.;a wxYhls' yd ksmqK;dj,ska ikakoaO lsÍu msKsi wOHdmk moaO;sfha úúO ia;r yryd iuia; udkj iïm;a foaYmd,k wd¾Ól ndOdj,g uqyqK §u Wmdh ud¾.hla ilid l%shdjg keÕSu wjYHh' Bg 72' újdodmkak jqj;a jeo.;a jQ m%;sm;a;s mshjr w;sf¾lj" ;dlaIKsl yd fufyhqï l=i,;d ms-ld,Sk m%j¾;k ie,iqula ;=< o we;=¿ l< j¾Okh yelsh' fuh iïm;a ms-ld,Sk ixj¾Ok oDIaá m:hla ilid idOk we;s wOHdmk moaO;shla j¾Okh lsÍug wOHdmk ie,iqïlrKh;a l Kf;fpakhd Ma;T KbTfSk; vjpHfhyj;jpw;fhd njhpTfSk; mwpKfk; njd;nfhhpah> rpq;fg;G+H> n`hq;n`hq;> kNyrpah kw;Wk; jha;yhe;J Nghd;w 1. ,yq;ifapd; fy;tp KiwikahdJ Muk;g kw;Wk; ,ilepiyf; fy;tpf;fhd ehLfs;Nghy fy;tpapy; NghjpasT KjyPL tha;g;Gf;fis gutyhf toq;Ftjpy; fz;l nra;Ak; tskpd;wp ,Ue;jJ. NkYk; ntw;wpf;fhfTk; Fiwepiy tUkhd fy;tpfw;w njhopyhsUf;fhd Nfs;tpapy; ehnlhd;wpNy caHkl;lj;jpyhd cz;lhd nkJthd tsHr;rp> kdpjtpUj;jpia mile;Jnfhz;likf;fhfTk; njhopw;re;ijapy; GFk; fw;w,isQHfspd; mgptpUj;jprhH nfhs;ifnewpf; FOf;fshYk; epuk;gYld; nghUe;Jk; tifapy; nghUshjhu Vl;Lj;njhFjpfshYk; Nghjpastpy; tphpthf;fk; ngwj;jtwptpl;lJ. Nghw;wg;gLfpd;wJ. 1990 fspd; Muk;gfhyk; ,J fw;w,isQH Ntiyapd;ikg; tiuapy; ,yq;ifahdJ rfy gpur;ridia epiyj;jpUf;fr; nra;jJ. mgptpUj;jpaile;JtUk; ehLfspilNa jw;fhy ,yq;ifapy; fy;tpf;nfhs;if jyhtUkhdk; njhlHghd caHe;j mbg;gilr; cUthf;FNthH> ehl;bd; ,oe;j fy;tp r%f mgptpUj;jpapd; gyhgyd;fis mD$yq;fisAk; gpur;ridfisAk; mDgtpj;Jf; nfhz;lJ. ,j;jifa mwpthHfs;. mjd; tpisthf ngWNgWfs; fy;tp> Rfhjhuk; kw;Wk; Vida mz;ikf;fhyj;jpy; fy;tpahdJ kf;fspd; r%f Nritfspy; gy jiyKiwfshf MHtj;jpw;Fupa> tpthjj;jpw;Fhpa kw;Wk; je;jpNuhgha Kiwapy; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l nfhs;if mgptpUj;jpf;Fhpa Jiwahf nghJf;nfhs;ifj; jPHkhdq;fspd; cUthapw;W. [ghHf;f NEC (1997)> (2003)] tpisthFk;. 1930 fspYk; 1940 fspYk; fy;tpKiwapd; mbg;gil mikg;gpid cUthf;Ftjpy; mur 2. mjp];ltrkhf fle;j 50 epjpaPl;lq;fspd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;jpidAk;> Muk;g Mz;Lfhykhf> ehl;bd; nghUshjhug; kw;Wk; ,ilepiyf; fy;tpia ngWNgWfs; fy;tprhH mgptpUj;jpapYk; KOr;rdj;njhiff;F toq;FtijAk; ghHf;fg; gpd;jq;fpaikahy; fy;tp Kiwapy; typAWj;jpw;W. 1930 fspYk; 1940 fspYk; gy gpujp$ykhd tpisTfs; Njhd;wpd. ,lk;ngw;w ,j;jifa Nehf;Fila typAWj;jy;fs;> mf;fhyr; re;jjpapdUf;Fj; ehl;bd; twpa nghUshjhu tsHr;rp Njitahd mstpypUe;Jk; Kd;Ndhf;fpajhf fhuzkhf> fhyg;Nghf;fpy; ,yq;ifahdJ mike;jd. ,uz;lhtjhf> ,yq;ifahdJ kpfj;Jhpjkhf tsHr;rp ngWk; ehLfshd %d;whk; epiyf; fy;tpf;F xJf;fpa mur T 1 tsq;fis kl;Lg;gLj;jpaJld; Muk;g kw;Wk; ngUksTf;F jdpahHJiwf;F tpl;Ls;sd. ,ilepiy tl;lq;fSf;fhd mz;ikf; fhyj;jpy; ,yq;ifapd; fy;tpf; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ijAk; nfhLj;jJ. ,j;jifa nfhs;ifia cUthf;FNthH jdpahH nfhs;iffspd; gyhgyd;fis mLj;Jte;j gy;fiyf;fofq;fisAk; jdpahH re;jjpapdh; mDgtpj;Jf; nfhz;ldH. Muk;gf; ghlrhiyfisAk; mDkjpf;Fk; rl;lq;fis fy;tpailTfSk;> Muk;g Rfhjhu ,izg;gjw;Fg; ghpe;Jiu tpisTfSk; r%f mgptpUj;jpf; nra;Js;sd.[ghHf;f NEC (1997 - 2003)] ,J Fwpfhl;bfSk; caH kj;jpa tUkhd topia khw;wpaikf;Fk; gupe;Jiuahf kl;lj;jpw;Fk; tsHr;rpaile;j ehLfSf;Fk; cs;sJ> ,J eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gl;lhy; mz;kpajhf ,Ue;jd. fy;tpKiwapYs;s gpujhd Rakhfj; 4. ,yq;ifAk; mjd; gioa jpzpf;fg;gl;l jlq;fy; ePf;fg;gLtJld; KiwapypUe;J xU Kf;fpakhd tplaj;jpy; ,yq;ifahdJ Vida ehLfSld; NtWgl;bUe;jJ. xd;W njhlf;fk; xd;gjhk; kpff;$Ljyhd mstpYk; Nghl;baplKbAk;. juk; tiuapyhd jdpahH ghlrhiyfspd; cUthf;fk; 1960 fspd; Muk;gj;jpy; Ml;NrHTf; Nfhyq;fSk; nry;newpfSk; jilnra;ag;gl;bUe;jJ. ,j;jifa rl;l fl;lhaf; fy;tp tl;lk; (juk; 1 - 9) hPjpahd jil ,d;Wtiu eilKiwapYs;sJ. ghlrhiyfis 5. Kjyhk; juj;jpy; Njwpa NrHTtPjk; cUthf;Ftjidr; rl;lhPjpahf jLj;J Mz;fSk; ngz;fSk; Vwf;Fiwa 97% epWj;Jk; ehLfs; rpytw;Ws; ,yq;ifAk; MFk;. mj;Jld; Vwf;Fiwa vy;yhg; xd;whf mlq;Fk;. Vida FiwtUkhd gps;isfSk; juk; 5 ,idg; g+Hj;jp ehLfSk; muRfSk; mtw;wpd; caH nra;fpd;wdH. fl;lhaf; fy;tp tl;lj;jpd; Muk;gf;fy;tp milTfspdhy; Kbtpy;> juk; 9 ,y;> g+Hj;jp nra;Ak; tPjkhdJ Mz;fspy; 81% khfTk; ngz;fspy; 84% gpugy;akile;j ehLfshd Nfh];Nlhwpf;fh khfTk; cs;sJ. caHMuk;gf; fy;tp (juk; 1- kw;Wk; ,e;jpahtpYs;s Nfuskhepyk; 5) ,ilepiyf;fy;tp (juk; 6-9) NrHTtPjkhdJ Nghd;wit ngUksTf;Fj; jdpahH gy $l;L kw;Wk; gu];gu kPstypAWj;jy; JiwapNyNa jq;fpAs;sd. Nfusj;jpy;> nfhs;iffshd gpd;jq;fpa khztHfSf;fhd cjhuzkhf ghlrhiyr; NrHtpy; tpN\l fy;tp epfo;r;rpj; jpl;lq;fs;> ,ytr miuthrpf;F Nkw;gl;ltHfs; jdpahH ghlE}y;fs;> ,ytr rPUil kw;Wk; khdpa ghlrhiyfspNyNa cs;sdH. mbg;gilapyhd Nghf;Ftuj;J> fy;tpf;Fhpa ,yq;ifapd; murpaw; nghUshjhu tYthd tPl;Lj;Njit vd;gdtw;wpd; epiyikfs;$l> ntspg;gilahd tpisthFk;. ,yq;ifahdJ vy;NyhUf;Fk; rl;lhPjpahd jilfs; ,y;yhjpUe;Jk; fl;lhaf; fy;tp vd;w ,yf;fpid jdpahH gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy; KjyPL milatpy;iy vd;gjidr; rhd;Wfs; nra;tjidr; rhj;jpakhf;fpaJ. MapDk;> vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wd. 18% khd gps;isfs; 1990 fspypUe;J jdpahH gl;lq;fis kl;Lk; juk; 9 ,id epiwTnra;tjpy; toq;Fk; epWtdq;fis cUthf;Fjy; jtwptpLfpd;wdH. ,jdhy;> 6-14 tajpw;F rhj;jpakhapw;W. vdpDk; mit ,ilg;gl;l rfy gps;isfSf;Fk; 9 tUlf; gy;fiyf;fofk; vd;w ngaiug; fy;tpia toq;Fk; ,yf;fpid miltjpy; ngw;wpUf;ftpy;iy. ,yq;ifapd; fzprkhd rthy; ,d;Dk; epyTfpwJ. NkYk; fy;tpKiwapy; KiwrhH jdpahH ,d;DnkhU Kf;fpakhd epahaj;jd;ikg; gy;fiyf;fofq;fisj; jLj;jyhdJ> njd; gpur;rid cs;sJ. twpa FLk;gq;fs;> nfhhpah Nghd;w cyfpy; cah; gpd;jq;fpa fpuhkpag;Gwq;fs;> gpzf;Ffshy; tpidahw;wy; nfhz;l rpy ehLfs; ghjpf;fg;gl;l gFjpfs; kw;Wk; ngUe;Njhl;lj;Jiw Nghd;w gpd;jq;fpa gpd;gw;Wk; khjphpapypUe;J tpyfpapUe;jJ. Gtpapaw; gpuNjrq;fs; my;yJ Mw;wy; mit mur tsq;fis Muk;g kw;Wk; Fiwe;j kw;Wk;; FiwghLila gps;isfs; mbg;gilf;fy;tpapYk; mjidj; njhlHe;J 18% jpdH 9 Mk; juj;jpidg; G+Hj;jp nra;aj; ,ilepiyf; fy;tpapYk; vd;w ,yf;fpidAk; miltjw;F tYthd Mdhy; f.ngh.j caHjuj;jpd; rpj;jp tPjk; nfhs;ifr; nraw;ghLfs; mtrpakhfpd;wd. ngUk;ghYk; khwhky; ,Ug;gjidAk; vLj;Jf; fhl;Lfpd;wd. f.ngh.j rhjhuz jur; rpNu\;l ,ilepiyf; fy;tp> f.ngh.j rhjhuz rpj;jptPjq;fs; 1993 ,y; 22% ,Ue;J 2002 ,y; juk; kw;Wk; f.ngh.j caHju tl;lq;fs; 37% khf caHe;Js;sd. ,tw;Ws; mNefkhd 6. rpNu\;l ,ilepiy tl;lj;jpy; Kd;Ndw;wq;fs; 1990 fspd; eLf;$w;wpd; ghlrhiyg; G+Hj;jp tPjkhdJ> Fiwe;j gpw;gFjpapy; epfo;e;Js;sd. f.ngh.j caHju jpUg;jpiaNa jUfpwJ. f.ngh.j rhjhuz ju tl;lj;jpy; rpj;jptPjq;fs; 1994 f;Fk; 2002 w;Fk; (juk; 11) f.ngh.j caHjug; (juk; ,ilg;gl;l fhyj;jpy; kpf caHe;j tUlkhd 13)ghPl;irfspyhd rpj;jp tPjKk; xg;gPl;lstpy; 1995 ,idAk; kpff; Fiwe;j tUlkhd 1999 Fiwthf cs;sJ. f.ngh.j rhjhuz jug; IAk; jtpu Vwf;Fiwa xUrPuhf ,Ue;Js;sd. ghPl;irapy; ruhrhpr; rpj;jp tPjk; 37 MFk;. ,yq;ifapd; nfhs;if cUthf;FNthH> xt;nthU 3 ghPl;rhj;jpf;Fk; Vwf;Fiwa ehlhdJ fy;tpj;juj;jpid mjpfhpg;gjw;fhd xUtNu f.ngh.j rhjhuz jug; ghPl;iria rthiy vjpHNehf;Ffpd;wJ vd;gjid ntw;wpfukhfg; G+Hj;jp; nra;fpd;whH. ehl;bd; mq;fPfhpg;gJld;> f.ngh.j rhjhuzjuk; kw;Wk; kpf twpa kw;Wk; kpfg;gpd;jq;fpa f.ngh.j caHjug; ghPl;rhj;jpfSf;fhd gpuNjrq;fshd tlfpof;F> tlkj;jpa> Cth juhjuq;fis miltjw;Fk; khztHfis kw;Wk; kj;jpa khfhzq;fspd; rpj;jptPjk; 31% Maj;jk; nra;jy; Ntz;Lk;. - 32% w;Fk; ,ilapYs;sJ. kpftskhd> Kd;Ndwpa Nky; khfhzkhdJ Vida %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpapy; NrHT Gtpapay; gpuNjrq;fspd; kj;jpapy; f.ngh.j 8. jFjp ngw;w rdj;njhifapy; rhjhuz juj;jpy; 48% j;jpid ngw;Ws;sJ. Vwf;Fiwa 11% %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpapy; ,q;F xt;nthU ,uz;L ghPl;rhj;jpf;Fk; xUth; cs;s NrHTtPjkhFk;. ,J njd;dhrpahtpd; ghPl;iria ntw;wpfukhfg; G+Hj;;jp nra;fpd;whH. ruhrhpapYk; (10%) ghHf;fr; rw;Wf; f.ngh.j caHjug; ghPl;irapy; ruhrhpr; rpj;jp $LjyhdJ. ,e;jpah> nkhwf;Nfh> tPjk; 56% MFk;. ,g;ghPl;irapYk; ,uz;L tpal;ehk;> nkhwp]pa]; Nghd;w ehLfSf;F khztHfSf;F xUtH rpj;jpailfpd;whH. ,J Vwf;Fiwa ,izahfTKs;sJ. Fiwe;j gf;fj;jpy; cs;sJ vd;ifapy;> njd;nfhhpah> rpq;fg;G+H> n`hq;nfhq;> f.ngh.j caHju tl;lj;jpD}lhf rpwe;j kNyrpah kw;Wk; jha;yhe;J Nghd;w ehLfs; khztHfNs jg;gpj;Jf;nfhs;fpd;whHfs;. ,yq;ifapd; jw;Nghija nghUshjhu khfhzhPjpahfg; ghHf;Fk;NghJ rpj;jptPjk; mgptpUj;jp epiyf;Fr; rkdhf ,Ue;j Xustpw;F xj;jj; jd;ikahdjhf ,Ug;gJld; Cth khfhzj;jpy; 52% njhlf;fk; tlNkw;F fhyj;jpy; me;ehLfSf;F ,izahfTk; kw;Wk; tlfpof;F khfhzq;fspy; 58% tiu ,Ue;jJ. %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpr; NtWgLfpd;wJ. Xg;gPl;lstpy; f.ngh.j NrHTtPjj;jpd; gpujhd tpfpjk; cs;ehl;Lg; caHjug; ghPl;irr; rpj;jptPjk; ehlhshtpa gy;fiyf;fofq;fSf;F ntspapYs;s hPjpapy; xj;jjd;ikahff; fhzg;gLtjw;F fw;if newpfspYk; KiwrhH njhopEl;gf; ,uz;L Kf;fpakhd fhuzpfs; gq;fspg;Gr; fy;Y}hpfspYk; Vwf;Fiw 6% khFk;. nra;Js;sd. (1) rfy khfhzq;fspYk; ,t;thwhd khztHfs; jfty; njhopEl;gk; jukhd ,ilepiyf; fy;tp (IT)> Kfhikj;Jtk;> fzf;fpay;> tiyg;gpd;dyikg;ig cWjpnra;Ak; re;ijg;gLj;jy;> rl;lk;> tHj;jfKk; epjpAk; nfhs;if Mf;fq;fs;. (2) njhptpw;Fhpa Nghd;w jdpahH JiwapYs;s gy;tifg;gl;l tpisTfs;: f.ngh.j caHju tl;lj;jpy; njhopd;ikf; fw;ifnewpfspy; my;yJ cs;s khztHfs;> mtuJ taJg;gphptpdUs; Nkiyehl;Lg; gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy; NrHe;J kpfTk; Mw;wy; tha;e;jtHfshf cs;sdH. nfhs;fpd;wdH. gy;fiyf;fofr; NrHTtPjk; Vwf;Fiwa 3%; caHju njhopEl;gf;fy;tp 7. f.ngh.j rhjhuz juk; kw;Wk; f.ngh.j NrHTtPjk; Vwf;Fiwa 2% Vwf;Fiwa 70% caHjur; rpj;jptPjq;fspd; fhyr; khd %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tp NrHTtPjk; nry;newpahdJ> fle;j 10 Mz;Lfhyj;jpy;> jdpahH Jiwapy; cs;sJld; kpFjp T 3 nghJj;JiwapYk; cs;sJ. fw;w jha;khhpilapy; tYthfTs;sJ. %d;whk;epiyapy; jdpahH Jiwapyhd %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpahdJ> jdpahSf;Fhpa NrHTtPjk; caH epiyapy; ,Ug;gJ> Muk;g caH jdpahH tpisTfisg; gpwg;gpf;fpd;wJ. kw;Wk; ,ilepiyapypUe;J ,J Mz;fspy; 26% khfTk; ngz;fspy; 24% NtWgl;bUj;jYld;> %d;whk;epiyapy; khfTk; cs;sJ. MapDk; %d;whk; jdpahH KjyPlhdJ rl;lhPjpahfj; epiyf;fy;tpf;fhd r%f tpisTfs; jilnra;ag;gltpy;iy vd;w nfhs;ifr; Mz;fspy; 11% khfTk; ngz;fspy; 10% rl;lfnkhd;wpw;Ff; fw;gpjk; khfTk; fhzg;gLjy; jdpahs; tpisTfSk; $WtjhfTs;sJ. mz;ika fhyq;fspy; fzprkhd mstpy; Fiwthf ,Ug;gJld; fl;lha kw;Wk; rpNu\;l ,ilepiyf; %d;whk;epiyf; fy;tpapy; cs;s NrHtpy; fy;tpapYk; ghHf;f FiwthfTk; cs;sJ. fhyr;nry;newp vLj;Jf;fhl;LtJ ahnjdpy; NrHTtPjkhdJ 1997 ,y; 8% ,ypUe;J 2002 fy;tp> epahaj;jd;ik kw;Wk; tWikf;Fiwg;G ,y; 11% khf caHe;Js;sJ vd;gjhFk;. 10. fy;tpahdJ tWikf;Fiwg;gpYk; 1997 - 2002 ,ilg;gl;l fhyj;jpy; twpNahhpd; nghUshjhu eyd;fspYk; %d;whk;epiyf; fy;tpr; NrHTtPjk; rf;jptha;e;j ghjpg;ig cz;Lgz;Zfpd;wJ. Vwf;Fiwa 38% khf tphptile;jJ. ,t; FLk;gj;jiythpd; my;yJ gpujhd tUkhdk; tsHr;rptPjkhdJ kpf mz;ikf;fhyj;jpy; FLk;gj;jiythpd; my;yJ fy;tpapy; KjyPL nra;tjdhy; gpujhd tUkhdk; f.ngh.j rhjhuzjuk; kw;Wk; f.ngh.j caHju cz;lhFk; nghUshjhu kw;Wk; tl;lj;ijg; g+Hj;jpnra;Ak;nghOJ Jhpjg; r%fed;ikfs;. gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. khfhz thhpahf mur fy;tp Gwepiy tpisjpwDk; fy;tpf;Fhpa tpisT %jyPLfspy; caHkl;lj;jpyhd epahaj;jd;ik tPjKk; epyTfpwJ. fy;tphPjpahfg; gpd;jq;fpa gpuhe;jpaq;fspy; khztd; xUtDf;fhd 9. fy;tpapy; KjyPL nra;jy; ,yq;ifapy; xJf;fPLfs; caHthf fhzg;gLfpd;wd. caH kdpj KjyPL> Cjpak;> Kd;Ndw;wkhd ghlrhiyr; NrHT> tuT kw;Wk; njhopy;rhH milTfSk; r%f efHTk;> ghlrhiyiag; G+Hj;jpnra;jy; tpN\lkhf mjpfhpj;j ngz;fs; Ntiyg;gilg; gq;Nfw;G> Muk;g kw;Wk; fl;lha mbg;gilf;fy;tp caHe;j FLk;g Rfhjhu epiy> kw;Wk; epiyfspy; fhzg;gLk; gutyhd nfhs;if Foe;ijg; Ngh\hf;F tpisTfs; cs;spl;l eltbf;iffs; gue;jstpyhd ntw;wpia thpirahd nghUshjhu> r%f ed;ikfis mDgtpj;jd. mj;Jld; ntFrd kw;Wk; cUthf;FfpwJ. fy;tpf;fhd r%f ntw;wpfukhd nfhs;ifahd epakmbg;gil tpisTtPjk; caHthdJ. Fwpg;ghf fl;lha myFr; nryT xJf;fPl;Lg; nghwpKiwahdJ mbg;gil kw;Wk; rpNu\;l ,ilepiyf;fy;tp ghlrhiyfSf;Fupa tsq;fisg; gfpHjypy;> epiyfspy; caHthfTs;sJ. Mz;fs; ngUkstpy; epahaj; jd;ikia kj;jpapy;> rpNu\;l ,ilepiyf;fy;tp epiyapy; fy;tpf;fhd r%f tpisTtPjk; 20% MFk;. cWjpg;gLj;jpaJ. nghUshjhuf; mj;Jld; ,J fl;lha Muk;gf;fy;tpapy; 15% FOf;fspilNa nghJf;fy;tpr; nryTfSf;fhd xJf;fPL Muk;g> mbg;gil MFk;. ngz;fs; kj;jpapy;> fy;tpf;fhd r%f tpisTtPjk; fl;lhaf; fy;tp epiyapy; 20% kw;Wk; ,ilepiyf;fy;tp epiyfspy; rpy khfTk; rpNu\;l ,ilepiyapy; 18% khfTk; ed;ikfSld; rhHgstpy; rfy nghUshjhuf; FOf;fspilNaAk; gfpug;gl;bUe;jJ. MapDk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. fl;lha mbg;gilepiyapYk; %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpapy; nghJf;fy;tpr; rpNu\;l ,ilepiyapYk; fhzg;gLk; nryTfspd; Nfhyk; gpd;Ndhf;fpajhf caHtpisTfshdJ ,yq;if ,e;j ,Ue;jJld; caH nghUshjhu tFg;gpdH epiyfspy; Fiwthf KjyPL nra;fpwJ tpfpjrkdw;w Kiwapy; ed;ikfisAk; vd;gjid vLj;Jf;fhl;LfpwJ. Gwtakhd mDgtpj;jdH. tpisTfshd Rfhjhuk; kw;Wk; Ngh\hf;F ed;ikfs; Muk;g kw;Wk; ,ilepiyf;fy;tp T 4 fw;w ,isQH Ntiyapd;ik kpy;ypad; (415 kpy;ypad; If;fpa mnkhpf;f 11. mur nfhs;if Mf;FNthH nlhyH) ,yq;if &ghthFk;. mz;ika vjpHnfhs;Sk; gpujhd gpur;rpid tUlq;fspy;> fy;tpf;fhd ghjPL Njrpa tUkhdj;jpy; Vwf;Fiw 3 rjtPjkhfTk; mur Ntiyaw;w fw;w jdpahl;fs;> Fwpg;ghf nrytpy; 7% - 9% MFk;. xg;gPl;lstpy;> ,J ngz;fshf ,Uj;jyhFk;. Ntiyapd;ik mgptpUj;jpaile;JtUk; ehLfspd; tPjkhdJ> gy;fiyf;fofg; gl;ljhhpfs; juhjuq;fspd;gb> nghJf;fy;tp KjyPl;by; kj;jpapYk; f.ngh.j rhjhuzjuk;> f.ngh.j kpjkhd epiyia vLj;Jf;fhl;LfpwJ. caHjuj;ijg; G+Hj;jpnra;NjhH kj;jpapYk; ,yq;ifapy; nghJf;fy;tp KjyPl;bd; kpjkhd caHthfTs;sJ. fw;w Ntiyg;gilapy; mstpw;F ehd;F Kf;fpa fhuzpfisf; gq;Nfw;gtHfspd; caH Ntiyapd;ik Fwpg;gplyhk;. (1) vy;NyhUf;Fk; ,ytr tPjkhdJ njhopw;re;ijapy; Gjpjhf Rfhjhug; guhkhpg;Gg; Nghd;w gue;jstpyhd EioNthhpd; njhopy;NjLk; fhy nghJr; Nritfs;> rKHj;jp epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lk; ePl;rpapdhy; cz;lhdJ. ,j;jifa Nghd;w tWikrhHe;j ghJfhg;gpw;fhd gue;j njhopy;NjLk; fhyePl;rp Fwpg;ghfg; tha;g;Gf;fs; Nghd;wit Vida gy gy;fiyf;fofg; gl;ljhhpfs; kj;jpapy; mgptpUj;jpaile;JtUk; ehLfspy; fle;jfhyq;fspy; fzprkhd mstpy; r%f nghJthff; fpilg;gjpy;iy. (2) caH mikjpapd;ikiaj; Njhw;Wtpj;Js;sJ. ghJfhg;Gr; nrytpdq;fs;: ,it nkhj;j fw;w ,isQhpilNa cs;ehl;L cw;gj;jpapy; 5 tPjj;jpid caHNtiyapd;ikf;Fk; ePz;lfhy cl;nfhs;tJld; Vida KjyPLfisAk; NtiyNjlYf;Fkhd Kf;fpa fhuzpahf> ftHe;JtpLfpd;wd. (3) Fiwthd nghJ nghUshjhuj;jpd; nkJthd tsHr;rptPjk; tUkhdk;: ,J ghhpa ghjPl;Lg; ,Ue;jJld;> mJ tpiuthf mjpfhpf;Fk; gw;whf;Fiwf;Ff; fhuzkhf ,Ug;gJld;> mur fw;w ciog;gpw;fhd Nfs;tpiaAk; nrytpdq;fisAk; fl;Lg;gLj;Jfpd;wJ. (4) jilnra;jJ. njhopw;re;ijap;y; EioAk; xg;gPl;lstpy; Fiwthd MrphpaH rk;gsk;: ,yq;ifapYs;s MrphpaHfs; ,e;jpah> fw;w ,isQhpd; mjpfhpj;JtUk; epuk;giy tq;fshNjrk;> kNyrpah> jha;yhe;J kw;Wk; cs;thq;FtjidAk; ,J jilnra;jJ. njd;nfhhpah Nghd;w ehLfspYs;s MrphpaH fw;w ,isQu; Ntiyapd;ikf;fhd ngWk; rk;gsj;jpYk; ghHf;f miuthrp my;yJ ,uz;lhtJ fhuzpahf ghlrhiyiag; mjdpYk; Fiwe;j rk;gsj;ijNa G+Hj;jp nra;Nthupd; ngUf;fj;ijAk; njhopw; ngWfpd;wdH. re;ijap;y; Nfs;tpAs;s jpwd;fshd Mq;fpynkhopia ruskhfg; NgRjy;>kw;Wk; jfty; njhopEl;gj;jpwd;fisf; Fiwthff; %yjdr; nryTfs;: jw;nghOJs;s nryTfSk; vjpHfhy Kd;DhpikfSk; nfhz;l gl;ljhupfisAk; Fwpg;gplyhk;. rpy gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy; cs;s gl;lg;gbg;G 13. mz;ikf;fhyq;fspYs;s ,Wf;fkhd epfo;r;rpj; jpl;lq;fspd; kpjkhd ghjPl;Lj; jilfs;> %yjdr; nrytpid juhjuq;fs;>NtiyAyFf;Fj; ghuJ}ukhfg; ghjpj;Js;sd. fy;tpf;fhd jpirKfg;gLj;Jtjpy; fy;tpapd; Nghjhik> %yjdg; ghjPLfs; mur %yjdr; Fwpg;ghFk; rpy mgptpUj;jpj; jpwd;fshf nrytpdq;fspy; 1999 ,y; 5% j;jpypUe;J 2002 fl;Lg;ghLila Ntiy xOf;fq;fs;> rpwe;j ,y; 2.5% khf ntFthf tPo;rpaile;jJ. fy;tpg;ghjPl;bd; gq;Ffs; vd;w mbg;gilapy; FOg;gzp> Mf;fj;jpwd;> %yjdg; ghjPLfs; 1998 -2000 ,y; 20% khf nefpo;r;rpj;jd;ikAk; ,zq;fpr; nry;yYk;> ,Ue;J> 2001 - 2002 ,y; 16% khff; tpidj;jpwd;kpf;f njhlHghly;> gpur;rpid Fiwe;Js;sJ. %yjd KjyPl;byhd jPHj;jy; vd;gtw;iwAk; Fwpg;gplyhk;. ,j;jifa tPo;r;rpahdJ> fy;tpKiwapd; tphpthf;fj;jpidAk; mgptpUj;jpiaAk; fy;tpapy; mur kw;Wk; jdpahH jilnra;jd. nrytpdq;fspd; njhFg;Gj; KjyPLfs; njhlHghf ghlrhiyfspy; my;yJ gy;fiyf;fof Kiwapyhd %yjdj;jpd; 12. ,yq;ifapy; mur fy;tpr; nryTfs; gpujhd gq;Ffs; my;yJ KjyPl;Lr; jw;nghOJ tUlhe;jk; Vwf;Fiw 40>000 T 5 nrytpdq;fs; %yjdf; fy;tp KjyPl;by; 80% gyNehf;F miwfs;> fzpdpfs;> epUkhzg;gzpfSf;fhf gpujhdkhf ghlrhiy E}y;fs;> rQ;rpiffs;> nrtpg;Gy fl;Gy tFg;giwf;fl;blq;fs; tphpTiu kz;lgq;fs;> rhjdq;fs;> fy;tprhH nkd;nghUl;fs;> epUthfj; njhFjpfs;> gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy; rhjdq;fSk; fUtpfSk; Nghd;w tjptpltrjpfisf; mjpfhpj;jy; caHkl;l ju cs;sPLfSf;Fhpa Nghd;wtw;wpd;kPJ cs;sd. xg;gPl;lstpy; rpwpa tsxJf;fPLfis cWjpnra;jy;. tpfpjj;jpyhd %ytsq;fs; kl;LNk juhju (<) mbg;gil trjpfshd ePH toq;fy;> cs;spLiffshd rhjdq;fs;> njhopy;El;gk;> Rj;jk; Ngzy;> kpd;rhuk; Nghd;wtw;iw jsghlq;ffs; kw;Wk; fUtpfSf;Fk; nryT fpuhkpa kw;Wk; ngUe;Njhl;lg; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sd. ,J 20% j;jpYk; ghlrhiyfspy; Nkk;gLj;Jjy;. FiwthFk;. ghlrhiy Kiwapy; cs;s tFg;giw epUkhz nraw;ghLfSk; kPz;nlOk; nrytpdq;fs;: eilKiwr; re;jHg;gj;jpw;Fhpa gzpahf cs;sdNtjtpu> nryTfSk; vjpHfhy Kd;DhpikfSk; NrHTj; Njitfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l 15. fle;j fhyj;jpy;> nghJf;fy;tpr; jpl;lq;fs; ,d;wpNa eilngWfpd;wd. ,jd; nrytpdj;jpy; Vwf;Fiwa 79% - 84% tpisthf> gy fpuhkg;Gwg; ghlrhiyfs; kPz;nlOk; fy;tpg; ghjPl;Lf;nfd ntWikahd tFg;giwfis Nkyjpfkhff; xJf;fg;gl;bUe;jJ. kPz;nlOk; fy;tpr; nfhz;Ls;sd. mNjNtisapy; efHg;Gwg; nrytpdq;fspd; Kf;fpa $whdJ kj;jpa ghlrhiyfs; kpfneUf;fkhf cs;sd. kw;Wk; khfhz kPz;nlOk; ghjPLfspy; gy;fiyf;fofq;fspYs;s epUkhzr; Vwf;Fiw 85% - 90% rk;gsk; kw;Wk; nraw;ghLfSk; ,iaGgLj;jg;glhky; Ntjdkhff; ,Ue;jd. rk;gsj;jpd; gpujhd ,Uf;fpd;wd. gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; KOtjpYk; gq;F> MrphpaHfs; kw;Wk; gy;fiyf;fof Njitfis mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l cj;jpNahfj;jpdhpd; rk;gskhfTk; mjidj; njspthd jpl;lq;fs; vitAkpd;wpf; njhlHe;J mjpgHfs;> fy;tp epUthfpfs; fl;blq;fSf;fhfg; ngUk;nryTfs; kw;Wk; Vida juq;fspYs;s nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. rhjdq;fs; kw;Wk; cj;jpNahfj;jHfspd; rk;gskhhfTk; njhopy;El;gk; Nghd;w juhju KjyPLfs; ,Ue;jd. kPz;nlOk; fy;tpg;ghjPl;by; Fiwe;j mstpyhd KjyPL fhuzkhf> rk;gsq;fis mLj;J caHe;j nrythdJ ,yf;fKiw NtWghLfs; (Digital Devide) ghlE}y;fSf;FhpajhFk;. nkhj;j kPz;nlOk; gw;wpa jtwhd gf;fj;jpy; ehL ,Ug;gJld; ghjPl;by; ,J 3% khFk;. ghlrhiyr; mwpT> jpwd;> NjHr;rpfs; Nghd;w jw;fhy rPUilf;F 2% nrythfpwJ. kpFjpg;gzk; cyfshtpa mwpTg; nghUshjhuj;jpw;Fj; Kf;fpakhf epHthf kw;Wk; eilKiwr; Njitahdtw;iw vjpHfhyr; re;jjpapdUf;F nrytpdq;fshd kpd;rhuk;> njhlHghly;> ePH> toq;Ftjpy; nghpJk; rpukq;fisf; jghw;fl;lzq;fs; kw;Wk; cj;jpNahfg; nfhz;Ls;sd. gazq;fSf;Fk; nrythfpd;wd. 14. fy;tp %yjdg; ghjPL vjpHnfhs;Sk; 16. kPz;nlOk; fy;tpg; ghjPL vjpHNehf;Fk; gpujhd rthy;fs; Kf;fpa rthy;fs; ((m) ghlrhiy KiwapYk; (m) rk;gsq;fSk; epUthfr; nryTfSk; gy;fiyf;fofq;fspYk; G+Hj;jpnra;ag;gl;l gpd;dH MrphpaHfs;> epUkhzr;nraw;ghLfis mjpgHfspd; njhopd;ik mgptpUj;jp> epahag;gLj;jy;. fy;tp epWtdq;fSf;Fhpa fy;tprhuh (M) tphpthf;fk; ngWk; kw;Wk; kw;Wk; epHthf cjtpfis toq;Fjy;. mjpfhpj;JtUk; efHg;Gw (M) ghlrhiyfspYk; ghlrhiyfSf;Fhpa tsq;fisg; gy;fiyf;fofq;fspYk; %yjdf; fy;tp ngUkstpy; xJf;Fjy;. KjyPl;L eilKiwr; nryTfis (,) ghlrhiyfspYk; epiwT nra;tjw;Fk; Nghjpa epjpia gy;fiyf;fofq;fspYk; jfty; xJf;fPL nra;jy;. njhopy;El;g epiyaq;fs;> tpQ;Qhd Ma;T$lq;fs;> E}yfq;fs;> gapw;rpg; 17. rHtNjrj; juhjuq;fspd;gb> ,yq;ifapy; gl;liwfs;> nraw;ghl;L miwfs;> xU khztDf;Fhpa ruhrhp kPz;nlOk; fy;tpr; T 6 nrytpdq;fs; Muk;g kw;Wk; ,ilepiyfspy; ghlrhiy Kiwapy; NrHjy; kw;Wk; njhlHjy; rhjhuzkhfTs;sd. Mdhy;> %d;whk; Mfpatw;Wf;fhf toq;fg;gLfpd;wd. (3) 1 Mk; epiyapy; caHthf cs;sd. Muk;g kw;Wk; juj;jpypUe;J 11 Mk; juk; tiu ,ilepiyf; fy;tp kPjhd xU khztDf;Fhpa jd;dpr;irahd tFg;Ngw;wk;. khztHfs; ruhrhp kPz;nlOk; fy;tpr; nryT jyh jhkhf tFg;Gfspy; fw;ftpUk;gpdhyd;wp> NjrpatUkhdj;jpd; gq;F vd;w tifapy; mtHfspd; rpj;jpia jilnra;tjw;F KiwrhH Vwf;Fiwa 9% khfTk;; 11% khfTk; nghwpKiwfs; vitAkpy;iy. ,ilepiy cs;sJld; ,it njd;dhrpah kw;Wk; tl;lj;jpy; fhzg;gLk; gpujhd Nrhjidf;Fhpa fpof;fhrpah ehLfs; kj;jpapy; kpff;Fiwe;j juq;fspy; (juk; 11 kw;Wk; 13) kPsf;fw;NghH mstpdjhFk;. ,jw;F Kuzhf xU tPjk; mjpfkhFk;. 11 Mk; juj;jpy; Vwf;Fiwa khztDf;Fhpa ruhrhp %d;whk; epiyf; 27% khNdhH kPsf;fw;NghuhtH. kPsf;fw;NghH fy;tpr; nryT> jyh NjrpatUkhdj;jpy; 100% tpfpjk; Mz;fs; kw;Wk; ngz;fspilNa khf ,Ug;gJld;> ,e;jpahtpYk; ghHf;fr; rw;W fpl;ba mstpy; fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,J kpf caHthfTk; njd;nfhhpah> rpq;fg;G+H> caHthf ,Ug;gJld; 11 Mk; juj;jpy; kNyrpah> jha;yhe;J> ,e;NjhNdrpah> xt;nthU ehd;F khztUf;Fk; xUtH gpypg;igd;]; Mfpa fpof;fhrpa ehLfspYk; mt;tFg;gpy; ,uz;lhk; Kiw fw;fpwhH. 13 ghHf;f kpff;$LjyhfTk; fhzg;gLfpwJ. Mk; juj;jpy;> kPsf;fw;Fk; khztH njhif %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpapy; nghJ kPz;nlOk; ,d;Dk; mjpfhpf;fpwJ. f.ngh.j caHju nrytpd; gq;F caHthff; fhzg;gLtjw;Fhpa tpQ;Qhd khzthpilNa 35% khNdhH Kf;fpakhd fhuzk; murhq;fg; kPsf;fw;NghH Mth;. f.ngh.j caHjuf;fiy gy;fiyf;fofq;fspd; ghhpa myFr; khztH kj;jpapy; 37% khd khztHfs; nrythFk;. xl;Lnkhj;jkhfg; ghHf;Fk;NghJ> ,uz;lhk;Kiw fw;fpd;wdH. f.ngh.j caHju fy;tpepiyfs; KOtjw;Fkhd ruhrhp tzpf khzthpy; 35% khNdhH kPz;nlOk; nrytpdq;fspd; NfhykhdJ> ,uz;lhk;Kiw fw;fpd;wdH. ,uz;lhk;Kiw caH ngWNgWfisf; nfhz;l fpof;fhrpa fw;Fk; Mz;fSf;Fk; ngz;fSf;Fkhd tPjk; ehLfspypUe;J NtWgl;L ,yq;ifapd; nghJ 11 Mk; 13 Mk; juq;fspy; xj;jitahf tsr;rkepiyahdJ Muk;g kw;Wk; cs;sJ. ghlq;fspilNaAk; mt;thNw ,ilepiyfspd; nryTfSf;Fg; nghUe;jhj f.ngh.j caHju kPsf;fw;NghH tPjg;gb tifapy; %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpf;Fr; rhHghf xt;nthU %d;W khztUf;Fk; xUtH ,Uf;fpd;wJ. ,uz;lhk;Kiw tFg;gpy; fw;fpwhH. 11 Mk; 13 Mk; juq;fspyhd caH kPsf;fw;wy; myFr; nryTk; cs;sf tpidj;jpwDk;. tPjkhdJ> fy;tpKiwapy; ,j;jifa 18. Muk;gg; ghlrhiy nry;yy; (juk; 1 - 5) epiyfspy; fzprkhd mstpy; fhzg;gLtJ fdp\;l ,ilepiyg;ghlrhiy nry;yy; (juk; nryTg;gad; Fiwghl;bid 6 - 9) cl;gha;r;ry; tPjq;fspd; mbg;gilapy; vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wJ. 11 Mk; 13 Mk; mstplg;gLtJld; mit caHthfTk; juq;fspy; kPsf;fw;NghH tPjk; caHthff; cs;sd. kPz;Lk; fw;Fk; tPjq;fSk; fhzg;gLtjw;Fhpa gpujhd fhuzk; Muk;g ,iltpyfy; tPjq;fSk; 2% - 7% tiuapy; kw;Wk; 11 Mk; juk; tiuapyhd ,ilepiy NtWgLtJld;> ngz;fspYk; ghHf;f Mz;fs; tl;lk; tiuapy; khzthpd; fw;Fk; epiy kj;jpapy; ,it rpwpjsT $LjyhfTk; Fiwthf ,Ug;gJld;> ,it ghPl;irfspYk; cs;sd. khztH cl;gha;r;rypd; ntspg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. cau;tPjj;jpw;Fg; gy nfhs;ifrhH eltbf;iffs; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Js;sd. (1) ghlrhiyfspd; gUkDk; guk;gYk; Muk;g kw;Wk; ,ilepiyg;ghlrhiyfspy; 19. ,yq;ifahdJ ghhpa kw;Wk; Gtpapay; elhshtpa tiyg;gpd;dyikg;gpd; %yk; hPjpahf kpfg;gue;j tiyg;gpd;dyikg;igf; khztH kw;Wk; ngw;Nwhhpd; nfhz;l murhq;fg; ghlrhiyfisf; fy;tpj;Njitfisg; G+Hj;jp nra;Ak; tifapy; nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,it fpuhkg; Gwq;fspy; ghlrhiyfSf;F NghJkhd tsq;fis trpg;NghUf;Fr; Nritahw;wntd fle;j gy toq;Fjy;. (2) Cf;Ftpg;Gj;jpl;lq;fs;> ,ytr Mz;Lfshf Muk;gpf;fg;gl;ld. MapDk;> ghlE}y;fs;> ghlrhiyr; rPUilfs;> khdpa nghUshjhu mgptpUj;jp kw;Wk; Nrit> mbg;gilapyhd Nghf;Ftuj;J Nghd;wit ifj;njhopy; Jiwfspy; Vw;gl;l tphpthf;fk; T 7 fhuzkhf ngUefuq;fspYk; efuq;fspYk; - 120>000 &gh tiuapy; cs;sJ. nghJthf trpf;Fk; ;kf;fspd; tpfpjhrhuk; myFr; nrythdJ> khztH NrHTj; mz;ikf;fhyq;fspy; mjpfhpj;J te;Js;sJ. njhifAld; njhlHGilaJ. rpwpa NkYk;> rpwe;j Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; ngUQ;nryTfis njhlHghly; tiyg;gpd;dyhdJ efu mDgtpf;fpd;wNghJ nghpa ikaq;fspy; cs;s ghlrhiyfSld; gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; nghUshjhu ed;ikfis fpuhkq;fisAk; ,izj;Js;sJ. ,jd; mDgtpg;gJld; Fiwe;j myFr; tpisthf> efuq;fspYs;s kpfg;gpugy;akhd nrytpidAk; nfhz;Ls;sd. kpff;$ba ghlrhiyfSf;fhd Nfs;tp ntFthf nryTf;Fhpa gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; mjpfhpf;fpd;w Ntisapy;> fpuhk kw;Wk; kpff;Fiwthf cs;sd. Gjpa epWtdq;fshd cgefHg;Gwq;fspYs;s gpugy;akw;w tak;g> fpof;F kw;Wk; njd; fpof;Fg; ghlrhiyfSf;Fhpa Nfs;tp Fiwe;Jk;; gy;fiyf;fofq;fis ,q;F Fwpg;gplyhk;. nry;fpwJ. Nfs;tpapy; Vw;gl;Ls;s ,j;jifa fsdp> = n[tHj;jdGu> nfhOk;G kw;Wk; khw;wk; kpfr;rpwpa ghlrhiyfspd; njhif aho;g;ghzk; Nghd;w gioa mjpfhpf;ff; fhuzkhapw;W. Vwf;Fiwa 5>900 gy;fiyf;foq;fspd; myFr; nryTfs; ghlrhiyfs; (60% ghlrhiyfs;) 300 kpff;Fiwe;jit. tpN\lkhfj; jpwe;j khzthpYk; Fiwe;j njhifiaf; gy;fiyf;fofj;ij nghWj;jtifapy;> ,J nfhz;Ls;sd. NkYk; Vwf;Fiwa 2>700 njhiyf;fy;tpia toq;Ftjhy;> caH ghlrhiyfs; (27% ghlrhiyfs;) 100 NghpYk; NrHTtPjj;jpidAk; kpff;Fiwe;j myFr; FiwthfTk; 1>360 ghlrhiyfs; (14% nrytpidAk; nfhz;bUf;fpwJ. ,tw;Wf;Fg; ghlrhiyfs;) 50 ,Yk; Fiwthd Gwk;ghf Nguhjidg; gy;fiyf;fofj;jpy; khztiuAk; nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd. ,t;thwhd myFr; nryTf;Fk; NrHTtPjj;jpw;Fkpilapy; rpwpa ghlrhiyfisg; guhkhpg;gJk; vjpHkiwahd njhlHG fhzg;gLtJld;> ,jd; elj;JtJk; nryTf;FhpaJ. Fwpg;ghf> rpwpa myFr; nryTfs; rpwpa njd;fpof;Fg; ghlrhiyfspy; MrphpaH khztH tpfpjk; gy;fiyf;fofj;Jld; xg;gplf;$batifapy; Fiwthf ,Ug;gJld;> myFf;fhd cs;sd. Nguhjidg; gy;fiyf;fofk; kPz;nlOk; nryTk; $LjyhfTs;sJ. khztH NrHTj;njhifapy; ,uz;lhtJ nghpa Vwf;Fiwa 1>000 (10% ghlrhiyfs;) gy;fiyf;fofk; MFk;. myFf;fhd ghlrhiyfspd; MrphpaH khztH tpfpjk; 1:7 kPz;nlOk; nrytpidj; jPHkhdpf;Fk; my;yJ mjdpYk; FiwthfTs;sJ. ,d;ndhU Kf;fpakhd fhuzp> Vwf;Fiwa 1>700 ghlrhiyfspy; (17% khztHfSf;Fk; fy;tprhuh CopaUf;FKs;s ghlrhiyfs;) MrphpaH khztH tpfpjk; 1:10 tpfpjkhFk;. gy;fiyf;fofr; rk;gsj;jpw;fhd Mf cs;sJ. 6>000 ghlrhiyfspy; (60% xJf;fPLfs; fy;tprhuh CopaHfshy; ed;F ghlrhiyfs;) MrphpaH khztH tpfpjk; 1:15 ghjpf;fg;gl;lJld;> mjdhy; kPz;nlOk; my;yJ mjdpYk; Fiwthff; fhzg;gLfpwJ. nryTk; ghjpf;fg;gLfpwJ. murhq;fg; MrphpaH khztH tpfpjk; Fiwthf cs;s gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy; khztH fy;tprhuh ghlrhiyfis elhj;Jjy; kpfTk; CopaH tpfpjk; kpfkpff;FiwthdJ. nryTf;FhpajhFk;. khztH MrphpaH tPjk; ,t;tpfpjk; tak;g> fpof;F> njd;fpof;F Vwf;Fiwa 25:1 MfTs;s ghlrhiyfspd; kw;Wk; Nguhjidg; gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy; 3:1 myFf;Fhpa kPz;nlOk; nrytpYk; ghHf;f ,ypUe;J = n[tHj;jdGuj;jpy; 8:1 tiu rpwpa ghlrhiyfspy; nryT 100% NtWgLfpwJ. khztH fy;tprhuh $LjyhdjhFk;. cj;jpNahfj;jH tpfpjk; gl;lq;fis toq;Fk; 12 gy;fiyf;fofq;fspYk; 4:1 MFk;. 20. ,yq;ifapy; nghJg; gy;fiyf;foff; fy;tprhH - fy;tprhuh cj;jpNahfj;jiug; fy;tpAk; nryTf;FhpajhFk;. Vida nghWj;jkl;by; ,t;tpfpjk; 1:4 MFk;. mgptpUj;jpaile;JtUk; ehLfSld; ngUksthd tsq;fs; fy;tprhuh xg;gpLk;nghOJ myFf;Fhpa eilKiwr; cj;jpNahfj;jhpd; rk;gsj;jpw;fhf nryT caHthdJ. NkYk; murhq;fg; nghUj;jkw;wtifapy; xJf;fg;gLtJld;>,it ghlrhiyfspd; myFr; nrytpdq;fspYk; nryT tpidj;jpwd; Fd;wpa mikg;G NtWghLfs; epyTfpd;wd. ,t;NtWghL xU vd;gjidAk; vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wd. khztDf;F xU tUlj;jpy; Vwf;Fiw 40>000 T 8 jdpahH fy;tpr; nrytpdq;fs; epUtfpj;jYk;> ghlrhiyf;Fhpa 21. fy;tpapd;kPJ fzprkhd tsq;fisf; fiyj;jpl;lKk; ghlj;jpl;l tpUj;jpAk;> FLk;gq;fSk; %jyPL nra;fpd;wd. FLk;gf; gy;fiyf;fofg; gl;lg;gbg;Gf;fhd epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fSk>; ghlrhiy mjpgHfs;> fy;tpr; nrytpdk; vd;w tifapy; jw;NghJ fpilf;fpd;w kpf mz;ikf; fhykhd 1995/96 gFjpj; jiytHfs; kw;Wk; MrphpaHfs;> gy;fiyf;foff; fy;tprhHe;jtHfspd; Mk; Mz;Lfspd; jftypd; gb> 7 njhopd;ik mgptpUj;jpf;fhd tha;g;Gf;fis khfhzq;fspd; jdpahH nrytpdk; toq;Fjy;;> Nrhjidfis elj;JjYk; Vwf;Fiwa 4>688 &ghthFk;. 1995/96 ,y; nghJkf;fspd; ek;gpf;iff;Fhpa rhd;wpjo;fis nghJf;fy;tp KjyPl;L epiy> murhq;ff; toq;FjYk;> MrphpaH Nrit> MrphpaH fy;tp nrytpd; Vwf;Fiwa 23% Fr; fy;tpapayhsH Nrit> fy;tp epUthfr; Nrit rkdhf ,Ue;jJ. nghJ %yjdf; fy;tpr; Nghd;w Kf;fpakhd NritfSf;Fhpa nryTfspYk; ghHf;f 13% j;jpw;Ff; njhopw;gilia rl;lhPjpahf tiuaiw $LjyhfTk; fhzg;gl;lJ. fy;tpf;fhd nra;jYk; Ntz;Lk;. murhq;fKk; epahakhd Nfs;tpapd; tUkhd nefpo;r;rpiaf; epjpKfhik xOq;F tpjpfisf; fUj;jpw;nfhz;l rpy vLNfhs;fspd; nfhz;bUg;gJld; ,ul;ilg; gjpTKiwfSld; mbg;gilapy;> 2002 Mk; Mz;byhd $ba fhRf; fzf;fpidAk; NgZjy; jdpahH FLk;gf; fy;tpr; nrytpdk; 2002 Ntz;Lk;. NkYk; kPAaH fzf;fha;T Mk; Mz;L tpiyapy; Vwf;Fiwa 10>600 epWtdk;> fzf;fha;thsu; ehafk; kpy;ypad; vd kjpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ. nkhj;j jpizf;fsKk; cs;sff; fzf;fha;T nghJf;fy;tpr; nrytpdj;jpy; ,J 26% vd;gdTk; fy;tpKiwapy; ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. j;jpw;Fr; rkkhdJ vd;gJld; nghJ ,Ug;gpDk; fy;tpKiwapd; NrittpepNahf %yjdf; fy;tpg; ghjPl;by; 62% j;jpw;F tiyg;gpd;dyhdJ cWjpahdnjhU Nkw;gl;lJkhFk;. ,j;jifa mj;jpthuj;ijf; fl;bnaOg;GjYk; Ntz;Lk;. ngUe;njhifahd FLk;gr; nrytpdq;fs; 23. MapDk;> Nrit tpepNahf rl;lhPjpahd kw;Wk; murpay; nghUshjhur; tiyg;gpd;dYk; gpujhd mikg;Gr; rhHe;j #oypy; fy;tpapd;kPjhd jdpahH rthy;fis> Fwpg;ghf caH juhjuj;ijf; KjyPLfSf;Fr; rhjfkw;witahFk;. Njrpa nfhz;l fy;tpKiwf;fhd nfhs;if fy;tp Mizf;FOtpd; (2003) Kaw;rpfSf;F MjuT toq;Fjiy MNyhridfs; eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gl;lhYk; vjpHnfhs;sNtz;bAs;sJ. ,j;jifa jdpahH ghlrhiyfs; kPjhd rl;lhPjpahd rthy;fs; gpd;tUtdtw;iw cs;slf;Fk;. jilfs; ePf;fg;gl;lhYk; jdpahH (1) kypdkhd MrphpaH mkHj;Jif: KjyPLfspd; kl;lk; ngUkstpy; gpugy;akhd efHg;Gw ghlrhiyfspy; mjpfhpf;ff;$Lk;. MrphpaH kpifAk;> gpd;jq;fpa fpuhkg;Gwg; ghlrhiyfspy; MrphpaH gw;whf;FiwAk; Nrit tpepNahfj;jpd; juhjuKk; epyTjy; (2) caH MrphpaH tutpd;ik: tpisjpwDk; ruhrhpahf xU ghlrhiy ehspy; Ie;jpy; xU gq;fpdH tUtjpy;iy. (3) Fiwe;j 22. fy;tpapd; kPjhd nghJr;nrytpd; msTk; MrphpaH rk;gsKk; Fiwe;j MrphpaH NfhyKk; xU ehl;bd; fy;tpailTfisAk; Cf;Ftpg;Gk;> 1978 ,y; ,Ue;j rk;gsj;jpy; fw;wiyAk; jPHkhdpf;Fk; Kf;fpakhd Vwf;Fiw 85% kl;LNk juhjuKk; Nrit tpepNahfj;jpd; juhjuKk; ghlrhiyfs; Njrpa fy;tpf; fy;Y}hpfs; tpisjpwDk; rk msthd (NCOEs) kw;Wk; MrphpaH kj;jpa Kf;fpaj;JtKilait. ,t;tplaj;jpy; epiyaq;fs; (TCs) Nghd;w Kjy;epiyf; ,yq;if rhjfkhd mk;rq;fisf; fy;tpr; Nrit tpepNahf epiyaq;fspy; nfhz;Ls;sJ. nfhs;if cUthf;fj;jpw;nfd Kfhikj;Jtk;rhH kw;Wk; fy;tprhH Vw;fdNtAs;s fy;tp epWtdq;fspd; tiyg; tYT+l;ly; Nghjhik (5) epUthff; gpd;dyikg;ghdJ> gy;fiyf;fofKiw kw;Wk; FiwghLfs;> jhdpaq;ff;$ba> ghlrhiy cj;jpNahfj;jUk;> jpl;lKk; fzpdpkakhd KiwfSf;Fg; gjpyhf T 9 clYiog;gpy; mjpfstpy; jq;fpapUg;gjhy; Nghd;wtw;wpy; Muk;gtl;lj;jpd; KbtpNy Vw;gLk; njhopy;El;g kw;Wk; elj;ijf;Fhpa NjHr;rpapy; tPo;r;rpapid vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wd. jilfSk;> mbg;gil cs;sfg; Kjd;nkhopapy; (rpq;fsKk; jkpOk;) ruhrhpg; nghwpKiwfs; ,y;yhikAk; (6) ghz;bjpa epiy 37% khFk;. vOJjy; epUthfj;jpy; ntspthhpahd jiyaPL ,it ,yf;fzk; (30%) vd;gd kpff;Fiwthd jPHkhdk; Nkw;nfhs;sy; rk;kjtpjp> jha;nkhopj;jpwd;fshFk;. fpufpj;jy; (45%) rptpy;Nrit kdTWjp vd;gtw;iwj; jpwDk; kpff;FiwT. nrhw;fsQ;rpaj; jpwd;fs; jilnra;fpwJ. (7) nfhs;tdTf; (70%) ed;W. Mq;fpy nkhopj;jpwd;fs; FiwghLfs;> njhopy;El;g tpguq;fis kpff;FiwT. 10% khd Muk;gepiyg; gps;isfs; kl;LNk ghz;bj;jpa epiyf;Fhpa toq;fy;> xg;ge;jj;ij Maj;jk; nra;jy;> ,yf;Fkl;lj;ij milfpd;wdH. Mq;fpy Mtzq;fis Vyk; tpLjy;>njhopEl;g nkhop vOJk; jpwd; ,y;yNtapy;iy. 1% kjpg;gPLfis nkJthf epiwNtw;Wjy;> khd gps;isfs; kl;LNk Njitahd njspthdJk; kpfr;rhpahdJkhd jpwd;fis ntspg;gLj;Jfpd;wdH. Mq;fpy kjpg;gPLfisr; nra;tjpYk; xg;ge;jr; rig nkhopf;fpufpj;jy; (16%) ,yf;fzk; (20%) mwpf;if kw;Wk; Fwpg;GfspYKs;s vd;gdTk; FiwthfTs;sd. Mq;fpy FiwghLfs; (8) fy;tprhH Copahpd; nrhw;fsQ;rpaj; jpwd;fs; (35%) Fiwe;j rk;gsq;fs;> gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy; caHthfTs;sd. %d;W Nghpy; xUth; Ml;fis mkHj;Jk; gpur;ridfSf;F ,l;Lr; ,j;jifa jpwd;fspYk; gpd;jq;fpAs;sdH. nry;fpd;wd. Fwpg;ghf nfhOk;G kw;Wk; fz;bf;F ntspNa cs;stHfs; (9) 25. fzpjj;jpYk; ghz;bj;jpaepiy 38% gy;fiyf;fof epUthf kw;Wk; kl;LNk. fzpj vz;zf;fUtpyhd Kfhikj;Jt mikg;Gf;fs; gl;lg;gbg;G ghz;bj;jpak; 45%> xOq;F Kiwfs; 51% fw;gpj;jYf;F kpff;$ba Kf;fpaj;Jtk; gpur;rid jPHj;jy; 34% Muk;gepiy khzthpd; mwpifrhH milTfspy; fhzg;gLk; fPo;epiy nfhLg;gJld; KOikahd gy;fiyf;fof ftiyjUtjhf ,Uf;fpwJ. nfhs;ifrhH ntspaPLfs; vd;wtifapy; mlq;Fk; Nehf;fpy; Muk;gf; fy;tp> ,ilepiyf;fy;tp Muha;r;rp> gl;lg;gbg;G epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lk;> kw;Wk; %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpf;Fhpa MNyhrid fyj;jy; kw;Wk; rKjha mbg;gilfSk; gy;NtW tifahd Nritfs; Nghd;wtw;wpd; MjuT jpwd;gapw;rpAk; fl;bnaOg;gg;gLfpd;wd. Nghjpastpy; jpirKfg;gLj;jg;gltpy;iy ,Ug;gpDk; KOf;fy;tpapdJk; juhjuKk; (10) gy;fiyf;fofq;fspy; khztH ngWNgWfSk; Muk;gj;juq;fspy; fhzg;gLk; mikjpaPdkhdJ> fy;tprhh; epfo;r;rpj; Fiwe;j milTkl;lq;fshy; jilg;gLfpd;wd. jpl;lq;fSf;Fj; jilahf tpsq;FtJld;> fw;ifnewpia epiwTnra;jiyAk; 26. ,j;jifa fPo;epiy milT kl;lj;jpw;F jilnra;fpd;wJ. Nkyhf> fpuhk kw;Wk; efHg;gpuNjrg; ghlrhiyfSf;fpilNa milTkl;lj;jpy; Kf;fpakhd NtWghLfSk; epyTfpd;wd. fy;tpj; juhjuKk; fw;wy; tpisTfSk; Kjy; nkhopapyhd (rpq;fsk; kw;Wk; jkpo;) 24. ,yq;ifapd; fy;tpKiw cd;djkhdJ. ghz;bj;jpakhdJ efHg;Gwg; ghlrhiyfspy; rpwe;j ghlrhiyfspYk; gy;fiyf;fof 51% khfTk; fpuhkg;gpuNjrq;fspy; 34% epfo;rpj;jpl;lq;fspYk; ,Ue;JtUk; khztHfs; khfTk; cs;sJ. Mq;fpy nkhopj;jpwd;fspy; cyfpd; Kjw;jukhd rpwe;j efHg;Gw gps;isfs; ghz;bj;jpa epiyia gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; jdpahH milAk;NghJ fpuhkg;gpuNjrq;fspy; 7% $l;Lj;jhgdq;fspd;> rHtNjr mikg;Gf;fspd; khNdhH kl;LNk ,jid milfpd;wdH. caH Nfs;tpiag; gad;gLj;Jfpd;wdH. fzpjj;jpy; 52% khd efHg;gpuNjr khztHfs; MapDk; nfhs;if cUthf;FNthH fy;tpapd; ghz;bj;jpaepiyia milAk;NghJ> 35% khd ruhrhp epiyAk; fw;wy; tpisTfSk; fpuhkpag; gps;isfNs Njitahd jpUg;jpaw;wd vd;Nw fUJfpd;wdH. [ghHf;f NjHr;rpkl;lj;ij milfpd;wdH. Muk;gf; NEC (1991)> (2000)] Muk;gg; ghlrhiyfs; fy;tptl;lj;jpd; ruhrhpf; fw;wy; milTfSk; kj;jpapyhd mwpifrhH milTr;Nrhjidfs; gpuhe;jpahPjpahd NtWghLfisf; mbg;gilnkhop> vz;rhHjpwd;fs; nfhz;Ls;sd. Kjy; nkhopapy; T 10 ghz;bj;jpaj;ij milAk; Muk;gepiy mwpifrhuhg; ghpkhzq;fSk; khztHfspd; tpfpjk; (rpq;fsk; kw;Wk; jkpo;) jpUg;jpfukw;witahf ,Ug;gNjhL mit tlf;F fpof;F khfhzj;jpy; 28% cldbahf Nkk;gLj;jg;gl Ntz;Lnkd tPjj;jpypUe;J Nky; kfhzj;jpy; 52% tiu nfhs;ifahf;FNthUk;> njhopy; NtWgLtJld; Mq;fpy nkhopj;NjHr;rpapy; toq;FeUk; tpthjpj;Js;sdH [ghHf;f NEC ghz;bj;jpakhdJ tlf;F fpof;F kfhzj;jpy; (1997)> (2003)]. fy;tpf;nfhs;if Mf;FNthH 5 tPjj;jpypUe;J Nky; kfhzj;jpy; 20% tiu fl;Lg;ghLila Ntiy xOf;fk; rpwe;j NtWgLfpd;wJ. kj;jpa> Cth kw;Wk; tl FOg;gzp> Mf;fj;jpwd; kw;Wk; kj;jpa kfhzq;fs;$l nkhop> fzpjg; njhlq;Fjpwd;> gpur;rpid jPHj;jy; Gs;spfis Fiwe;jstpNy ngWfpd;wd. mZFKiw> tpidj;jpwd;kpf;f rpwe;j ,j;jifa gpuhe;jpa hPjpahd kw;Wk; efu fpuhk njhlHghly;> nefpo;r;rpj;jd;ik> ,zq;fpr; NtWghLfSf;F gpd;jq;fpa khtl;lq;fspYk; nry;yy;> ce;Jif kw;Wk; FbrhH fpuhkg; Gwq;fspYKs;s Fiwe;j juhjuKila fy;tpr;Nritfs; kypdkhd czHTfs; Nghd;w gz;Gfis ngw;NwhH Mw;wYk; cjtpfSk; fw;wiy fy;tpKiwapd; %yk; cUthf;fNtz;Lk; Nkk;gLj;Jk; gps;isfspd; nraw;ghLfSf;fhd vd;gij typAWj;jp cs;sdu;. [ghHf;f NEC twpjhd re;jHgq;fSk; Nghd;w fhuzpfs; (2003)] $l;lhf gq;fspg;Gr; nra;Js;sd. jpwd; mgptpUj;jp 27. ,ilepiyf; fy;tpapYk; fy;tpj;; juhjuk; jpUg;jpfukhf ,y;iy vd;gjw;fhd 29. njhopy;El;gf;fy;tp kw;Wk; rhd;WfSk; cs;sd. f.ngh.j njhopw;gapw;rpapD}lhf jpwd;fis mgptpUj;jp rhjhuzjuj;jpy; rpj;jpailAk; khztH nra;jy; (TEVT) Njrpa nfhs;ifapd; tPjKk; FiwthfTs;sJ. ,J 37% kl;LNk. Kf;fpakhdnjhU ghpkhzkhFk;. fy;tpAk; ghPl;irf;F Njhw;Wk; %d;W khztHfSf;F gapw;rpAk; ,yq;ifapd; njhopw;re;ijapy ,Uth; rpj;jpailtjpy;iy vd;gjpid ,J gpujpaPLfs; vd;gjpYk; ghHf;f vLj;Jf;fhl;LfpwJ. NkYk; ,j;jifa Fiwe;j Fiwepug;gpfshf cs;sd vd nghUshjhug; rpj;jptPjkhdJ 1998 - 2002 fhyg;gFjpapy; gFg;gha;Tfs; %yk; vLj;Jf;fhl;Ljy; Ntiy epiyahff; fhzg;gl;lJ. khztUs; cyfpw;fhd rpwe;j mbj;jskhf miktJ ngUe;NjhifahNdhH fzpjk;> Mq;fpy nkhop> caHjuhjuKila nghJf;fy;tpNa vd;Dk; tpQ;Qhdk; kw;Wk; r%ff; fy;tp Mfpa fy;tpf; nfhs;if cUthf;FNthhpd; ghlq;fspy; rpukg;gLfpd;wdH. f.ngh.j epiyg;ghl;bid cWjp nra;tjhf caHjuj;jpy; Vwf;Fiw 50% - 55% mike;Js;sJ [ghHf;f NEC (2003)]. ngUksT tPjkhdth;fNs 1998 - 2002 fhyg;gFjpapy; fy;tp fw;w jdpahl;fs; mjpfstpy; rpj;jpaile;Js;sdH. xt;nthU ,uz;L gapw;rpiag; ngWtNjhL jpwd; mgptpUj;jpapd; khztUf;Fk; xUtNu ,g;ghPl;irapy; %yk; mjpf ed;ikfisAk; ngwyhk;. rpj;jpaile;Js;shH vd vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;wJ. Fwpg;ghf fy;tpAk; gapw;rpAk; rhjfkhd f.ngh.j rhjhuzjuk;> f.ngh.j caHjuj;jpy; Kiwapy; ClhLtjdhy; NtiyNjLjy; epyTk; Fiwe;j rpj;jptPjkhdJ> Fwpg;ghf Fiwf;fg;gLtJld; rk;ghj;jpaj;ijAk; ,j;jifa ghPl;irfis ntw;wpfukhfg; G+Hj;jp mjpfhpf;fpwJ. KiwrhH gapw;rpahdJ jdpahH nra;jyhdJ gy;NtW jpwd;fspy; gapw;rp Jiwapy; ghhpa tUkhdj;ij jUfpwJ. ngWk; fw;if newpfSf;Fk; my;yJ %d;whk; Mdhy; KiwrhH kw;Wk; Kiwrhuh gapw;rpfs; epiyf;fy;tp epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fspd; kPjhd tpisTfs; jdpahH Jiwapy; tha;g;Gf;fis ngWtjw;Fk; my;yJ Vwf;Fiwa rkdhf cs;sd. njhopw;re;ijapy; gy njhopy;fisg; ngwtjw;Fk; mtrpakhdJ. 30. jpwd;fs; mgptpUj;jpj; JiwahdJ gy Kf;fpakhd rthy;fis vjpHnfhs;fpwJ. 28. Fiwe;j fw;wy; milTg; Gs;spfs; ,it gpd;tUtdtw;iw cs;slf;Fk;. (m) %yk; mstplg;gl;lJ Nghd;w Fiwe;j ngUkstpy; gpuhe;jpa hPjpahf fy;tpj; juhjug; gpur;rpid my;yJ caH toq;Ftjw;fhd Nrit Vw;ghLfis ghPl;irr; rpj;jpapd;ik tPjk; vd;gtw;wpw;F tphpTgLj;jy; (M) Nrit tpepNahfj;jpy; Nkyhf Vida fy;tpj; juhjuj;jpd; jdpahH KjyPLfisAk; ntspehl;Lj; T 11 jdpahH - nghJ gq;FjhuHfisAk; vy;NyhUf;Fk; fy;tpf;fhd (EFA) Cf;Ftpj;jy; (,) TEVT fw;ifnewpfSld; ,yq;ifapd; nray;epiy tiuTj;jpl;lkhdJ gapw;rpfs; nghUe;jhjpUj;jy; ,tw;wpw;fhd 2004 njhlf;fk; 2008 tiuAs;s fhyj;jpy; 80% Nfs;tp Nghjpastpy; ,y;iy vd;gJld; khztHfis cs;slf;Fk; ,yf;fpid Fiwe;j mstpyhd TEVT fw;ifnewpfs; cUthf;FtJld; kpFjp 20% tPl;bid tYthd Nfs;tpia mDgtpf;fpd;wd. (<) mbg;gilahfTk; nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,j;Jiwapy; fhzg;gLk; fw;if newpfs; 32. Kd;gs;sp KiwahdJ gy ,Ukbahf cs;sJld; cs;sf tpisjpwd; nfhs;ifrhHe;j mgptpUj;jprhHe;j> rthy;fis ,d;wpAk; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. rhjdq;fSk; vjpHNehf;FfpwJ. ,it gpd;tUtdtw;iw fiyj;jpl;lq;fSk; tof;nfhope;jit> rpwe;j cs;slf;Fk;. gapw;rpahsUf;fhd gw;whf;FiwAk; caH ,iltpyfy; tPjKk; (c) jw;nghOJs;s (m) Nrit Vw;ghLfis tphpthf;Fjy; nghJj;Jiw Ntiyj;jsq;fspdJk; Ma;T (M) vy;NyhUf;Fk; fy;tp vd;Dk; ,yf;fpid $lq;fspdJ cg cj;jk gad;ghLk; fy;tp milAk; tifapy; gq;Nfw;gpid kw;Wk; gapw;rpj; JiwfspilNa cs;s mjpfhpj;jy; ,izg;GfSk; NghjhJ ,Uj;jy;. (,) ju Nkk;ghl;bw;fhd juhjuq;fisAk; epakq;fisAk; cUthf;Fjy; Muk;g gps;isg;gUt tpUj;jp (<) Kd;gs;spg; gps;isfSf;Fg; nghUj;jkhd fiyj;jpl;l kw;Wk; 31. Muk;g gps;isg;gUt tpUj;jpahdJ fw;gpj;jy; gw;wpa tpopg;GzHit nfhs;ifapd;ghy; ftdj;ij cUthf;Fjy; %istpUj;jp Fwpj;J Muk;g tpUj;jpnra;jy; Kd;gs;sp taJfspy; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; kw;Wk; (C) Kd;gs;spr; nraw;ghLfisAk; mwpifrhH Mw;wy; kPjhd tpopg;GzHT Muk;gf;fy;tpf; fiyj;jpl;lq;fisAk; gw;wpAk; ,q;F typAWj;jg;gLfpd;wd. ,izj;jy.; mz;ika tUlq;fspNy Kd;gs;spYk; kw;Wk; ghyHghlrhiyfspYk; Jhpjkhd tsHr;rp (v) nghUj;jkhd epUthf mikg;gpid Vw;gl;Ls;sJ. 1970 fspy; 2000 Kd;gs;spfSk; cUthf;Fjy; Fwpg;ghf ghyHghlrhiyfSk; ,Ue;jd vd khfhzrigfspy; Kd;gs;spfis kjpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ. 2003 Mk; Mz;by; Cf;Ftpj;jYk;; mgptpUj;jp nra;jYk;. ,j;njhifahdJ 11>000 - 12>500 mstpy; ,j;jifa rthy;fSf;F Kfq; mjpfhpj;jNjhL ehl;bYs;s ghlrhiyfspd; nfhLg;gjw;fhd nfhs;ifrhH ftdq;fSk; njhifiaAk; kpQ;rpAs;sJ. 80% w;Fk; mtrpak; Njitg;gLfpd;wd. vjpHfhyf; Nkw;gl;l Kd;gs;spfs; jdpahH Jiwapy; nfhs;if mgptpUj;jpapy; Kd;gs;sp Kiwapy; cs;sd. Kd;gs;spfspy; gq;Fgw;Wk; 3 - 5 jdpahH Jiwapduhy; ,lg;gl;l gue;j taJg;gps;isfspd; njhif 1980 fspy; mbj;jsj;ij murhq;fKk; 20%,y; ,Ue;J 1994 ,y; 40% MfTk; 2001 fl;bnaOg;gNtz;baJ mtrpakhFk;. ,y; 60% MfTk; caHe;Js;sJ. T 12 Kd;Ndhf;fpg; ghAk; fhynts;sk;: vjpHfhyj;jpw;fhd njhpTfs; rktha;g;gpy; epahaj;jd;ikia (c) KiwrhH ghlrhiy Kiwf;F mg;ghy;> cWjpnra;jy; khw;W topKiwahf> tpN\l fy;tp> Kiwrhuhf; fy;tp kw;Wk; tpLgl;l fl;lha Muk;gf; fy;tpapy; vy;NyhUk; fy;tpia ngWk; (Catch Up) fy;tp NrHtjid miljYk; fl;lha epfo;r;rpfis toq;Fjy;. Muk;gf;fy;tpiag; G+h;j;jpnra;jYk; (juk; 1-9) 33. ,yq;ifahdJ fy;tp mgptpUj;jpapd; ,t;thwhd Kaw;rpfs; Fwpg;ghf tpN\l fy;tp> KjyhtJ fl;lj;jpid Vwf;Fiwa Kiwrhuhf; fy;tp kw;Wk; tpLgl;l fy;tpia epiwTnra;Js;sJ. Muk;g kw;Wk; ngWk; (Catch Up) fy;tp epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fisg; mbg;gilf; fy;tp tha;g;Gf;fis gyg;gLj;jTk; mtw;iw vy;NyhUf;Fk; toq;Fjy;> tpidj;jpwd;kpf;fdthf eilKiwg;gLj;jTk; Muk;gf;fy;tpiag; G+h;j;jpnra;NthH 97%. Ntz;Lk;. NkYk;> Gjpa Nfs;tpg; gf;fKs;s mbg;gilf;fy;tp (juk; 1-9) G+h;j;jpnra;NthH Kaw;rpfshd nghUshjhu Cf;Ftpg;Gf;fspd; 83% vd;w mbg;gilapy; epiwTnra;Js;sJ gad;ghL> cs;SHr; rKjha epWtdq;fshy; vdyhk;. filrp 17% khd khztHfs; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; r%f mirTr; ,WjpahdJk; KjyhtJ re;jjpapdhpd; nraw;ghLfs; Nghd;wtw;iw kpfTk; gpd;jq;fpa rthyhfTk; tplg;gl;Ls;sdH. ,tHfs; r%fq;fspilNa gad;gLj;jpg; ghHf;fyhk;. ,g;nghOJ 9Mk; juj;jpidg; ,j;jifa Nfs;tprhH Kaw;rpfs; Vida gy G+h;j;jpnra;tjw;FKd; KiwrhH ehLfshd ,e;jpah> ghfp];jhd;> fy;tpaikg;gpy; my;yJ Kiwrhuhf; fy;tp tq;fshNjrk; Nghd;w njd;dhrpa may; epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lj;jpypUe;J ,ilapy; ehLfspYk; ntw;wpfz;Ls;sd. tpyfptplhky; mbg;gilf; fy;tp 34. kpfTk; gpd;jq;fpa rKjhaq;fspypUe;J tl;lj;jpidg; G+Hjpnra;Ak; tiu mtHfisf; ghlrhiyfSf;Fg; gps;isfis efuq;fspYs;s njUNthur; rpWtHfs;> jdpikahd (m) ghlrhiyr; Nrh;tpidAk; tutpidAk; ngUe;Njhl;;lr; r%fq;fisr; NrHe;j Cf;Ftpf;Fk; tifapy; cs;SHr; gps;isfs;> gpzf;Ffshy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l r%fq;fis mirar; nra;jy;. gpuNjrq;fspYs;s gps;isfs; mlq;Fth;. (M) khztH Near; #oiy cUthf;Fjy;. murhq;fkhdJ ,j;jifa gps;isfis ,it ftHr;rpfukhd ghlrhiyf; ghlrhiyfspy; ftHe;J> njhlHe;J fl;lq;fis cUthf;Fjy;> itj;jpUg;gJld; G+uz NrHtpid nrsfhpakhd tFg;giw> tpisahl;L va;Jtjw;Fk; vy;NyhUk; Muk;gf;fy;tp ,lq;fs; vd;gdtw;iw cs;slf;Fk;. tl;lj;ij (juk; 1-9) epiwTnfhs;sr; (,) twpa FLk;gq;fspYs;s Ntiy nra;Ak; nra;tjw;Fk; gutyhd Kaw;rpfis gps;isfs; kj;jpapy; ghlrhiy Nkw;nfhz;Ls;sd. ,it nry;tjw;fhd re;jHg;gr; nrytpidf; gpd;tUtdtw;iwAk ;cs;slf;Fk;. Fiwj;jy;> tUkhdj;jpd; xU gFjpia (m) ghlrhiyg; gps;isfs; njhpTnra;j ghlrhiy tuTf;F my;yJ ,ytr ghlE}y;fis toq;Fjy;. khw;Wf; fy;tp epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fspy; nghUj;jkhd taJg;gphptpdH (M) ,ytr rPUilfis toq;Fjy; gq;Nfw;gjw;fhf murhq;f tWikf; (,) ghlrhiyfSf;Fr; nry;y Nghf;Ftuj;J Fiwg;G epfo;r;rpj; jpl;lq;fspDlhf khdpaq;fisf; nfhLj;jy; ,izj;jy; %yk; ,jidr; (<) gpdf;Ffshy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l nra;ayhk;. gpuNjrq;fspy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l (<) tpN\l fy;tp>Kiwrhuhf; fy;tp kw;Wk; ghlrhiyfisg; Gduikj;jy;. tpLgl;l fy;tpia ngWk; (Catch Up) T 13 fy;tp epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fq;fis (m) ghlrhiyf; fiyj;jpl;lj;ij tYg;gLj;Jjy;. etPdkag;gLj;Jjy; (M) gps;isNeaf; fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfis 35. NkYk; murhq;fkhdJ KiwrhH Nkk;gLj;Jjy; ghlrhiy Kiwf;F khw;whf tpN\l fy;tp> Kiwrhuhf; fy;tp kw;Wk; fy;tp (,) Mrphpahpd; njhopd;ik Mw;wy;fs; epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fspd; tfpgq;fpidg; kw;Wk; jpwd;fis Kd;Ndw;Wjy; gyg;gLj;Jjy; gw;wpf; ftdj;jpy; nfhs;syhk;. (<) tpidj;jpwd;kpf;f ghlrhiyj; ,j;Jiwapyhd Kd;Dhpikf;Fhpa mgptpUj;jp jiyikj;Jtk; kw;Wk; eltbf;iffs; gpd;tUtdtw;iw cs;slf;Fk;. Kfhikj;Jtj;jpid Nkk;gLj;Jjy;. (c) ghPl;ir Kiwfis nefpo;r;rpahdjhfTk; (m) KiwrhH fy;tp kw;Wk; Ntiyf;fhyg; khztH tpidahw;wy; gw;wpa njhlH gapw;rpfspy; ,t;thwhd tfpgq;fpidj; fzpg;gPLfisAk; rPHjpUj;Jjy;. njspTgLj;Jjy;. (M) fiyj;jpl;lj;ijf; Fwpg;gpLjy; gy;NtW ,t;thwhd eltbf;iffs; %yk; ey;y epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fspd; tpisTfs; kw;Wk; vjpHfhyj;jpw;fhd mbg;gilia ,yf;Fr; rdj;njhifiaf; Fwpg;gpLjy;. toq;FtNjhL ,yq;ifapy; nfhs;ifahf;FNthUf;Fg; gpd;D}l;liy caHjuhjuKila fy;tpKiwiaAk; toq;Ftjw;F fz;fhzpg;G kw;Wk; fl;bnaOg;gyhk;. fy;tp mgptpUj;jp gw;wpa kjpg;gPl;L Kiwapid epWTjy;. E}y;fs;> Vida ehLfspd; fy;tpr; rPHjpUj;jk; (,) njhopw;re;ijAldhd njhlHGfis gw;wpa mDgtq;fs;> ,yq;ifapd; fy;tprhH Nkk;gLj;Jjy; Fwpg;ghf> ePbj;J mDgtq;fs; mgptpUj;jpw;fhd Kaw;rpfs; epiyf;ff; $ba gytw;iw tpje;Jiuf;fpd;wd. mit fy;tpj; capNuhl;lKs;s tho;f;if kw;Wk; juhjuj;ij Nkk;gLj;jTk; ehl;by; caH tUkhdk; jUfpd;w nraw;ghLfis tpidahw;wy; nfhz;l ghlrhiyfs;> Nkk;gLj;Jjy;. gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; kw;Wk; njhopy;El;gf;fy;tp epWtdq;fis cUthf;fTk; kpfTk; (<) ,j;jifa epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fis mtrpakhdit. Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;tjw;F> khfhzf; fy;tpj;jpizf;fsq;fs; tyaf; fy;tp Muk;gf; fy;tpf; fiyj;jpl;lj;jpy; mYtyfq;fspd; epWtd Mw;wiy milaNtz;ba NjHr;rpfis mjpfhpj;jy;. tpsq;fpf;nfhs;tijg; ghlrhiy kl;lj;jpy; (c) ,t;thwhd epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fis Nkk;gLj;Jjy; toq;Ftjpy; rpNu\;l Muk;gg; ghlrhiy milTkl;lq;fis ,ilepiyf;fy;tpapd; juhjuj;ij mgptpUj;jp khw;WjYf;Fhpa Mw;wy;fs; mjpgHfsplKk; nra;jy; MrphpaHfsplKk; Fiwthf cs;sd 36. ,yq;ifapd; fy;tpf; ,g;gpur;rpidia vjpHj;Jg; NghuhLtjw;F nfhs;ifahf;FNthH vjpHnfhs;Sk; murhq;fk; ,uz;L Kf;fpa Kaw;rpfis mbg;gilahd rthy; caHjukhd ftdj;jpy; nfhs;sKbAk;. fy;tpKiwia tpUj;jpnra;jYk; NgDjYk; MFk;. jw;nghOJ ghlrhiy Kiwapd; (m) Muk;g ghlrhiyf; fiyj;jpl;lj;jpd; juNkk;ghl;bw;fhd gue;jstpyhd mgptpUj;jp NjHr;rpfisAk; jpwd;fisAk; Kaw;rpfis murhq;fk; Nkw;nfhz;Ls;sJ. vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; fw;wy; tpisTfisAk; gpd;tUtd mtw;Ws; mlq;Fk;> mjpgHfs; kw;Wk; MrphpaHfs; kj;jpapy; gutr;nra;jYld; mtw;iw tpsq;fpf; T 14 nfhs;tijAk; cWjpnra;jy;. ,t; fy;tpapay; fy;Y}hpfis epWTtjw;Fk; tplakhdJ milTkl;lq;fspd;; cj;jpNahfj;jHfisAk; G+uzkhd mr;;Rg;gpujpfs; ghlrhiyf;F tiyg;gpd;dy; mikg;ig cUthf;Ftjw;Fk;> fpilg;gijAk; cs;slf;Fk;. Kd;Nrit MrphpaH fy;tpia toq;Ftjw;Fk;> (M) fiyj;jp;l;lj;jpy; Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s njhlUW MrphpaH fy;tpia toq;Ftjw;Fk; milTkl;lq;fis khztHfs; chpa MrphpaH kj;jpa epiyaq;fis miltjw;F Ntz;ba MrphpaHfspd; mikg;gjw;Fk; ngUkstpy; KjyPL Mw;wy;fis tYg;gLj;Jk;. nra;Js;sJ. eilKiwapy; rfy ghlrhiy MrphpaHfSk; ,g;nghOJ gapw;wg;gl;Ls;sdH. ,ilepiyg;ghlrhiy fiyj;jpl;lj;jpid jkJ njhopy; tho;f;ifapd; NghJ njhopd;ik njspT gLj;jYk; tpgukhff; $WjYk;. tpUj;jpf;fhd tha;g;Gf;fis mDgtpf;fpd;wdH. 38. Muk;g ghlrhiyf; fiyj;jpl;lk; murhq;fkhdJ MrphpaHfspd; njhopd;ik Nghyd;wp ,ilepiyf; fiyj;jpl;lj;jpy; Mw;wy;fisAk; jpwd;fisAk; mgptpUj;jp NjHr;rpfSk; jpwd;fSk; kw;Wk; nra;tjw;F ,j;jifa epWtd vjpHghHf;fg;gLk; fw;wy; tpisTfSk; mbg;gilfisf; fl;bnaOg;gyhk;. ,j;jifa njspthff; Fwpg;gplg;gltpy;iy. ,jd; Nehf;fq;fis miltjw;Fhpa gpujhd nray; tpisthf ,ilepiy fiyj;jpl;lkhdJ Kiwfs; gpd;tUkhW> Kiwahf xOq;FgLj;jg;gltpy;iy. tFg;G (m) njhopyplg; gapw;rpapD}lhf epiyapYk; tl;lj;jpYk; njhlHr;rp Fiwthf KOg;ghlrhiyfisAk; kw;wpaikj;jy; cs;sJ. NkYk; ghlrhiyfs; xt;nthU kw;Wk; mgptpUj;jp nra;jiy juj;jpw;Fk; chpa ,yf;FfisAk; ,yf;fhff; nfhz;L njhlUW MrphpaH Nehf;fq;fisAk; cUthf;f Kbatpy;iy gapw;rp epfo;r;rpj; jpl;lq;fis mwpKfk; my;yJ njspthf ,izf;fg;gl;l nra;jy;> jdpg;gl;l MrphpaHfs; jkJ ju fiyj;jpl;lj;jpw;F Vw;w jkJ fw;gpj;jy; cah;it cWjpnra;tjw;F MrphpaH KiwfisAk; fw;gpj;jy; cghaq;fisAk; epiyaq;fspD}lhf jw;nghOJ xOq;FgLj;j Kbatpy;iy ,Ue;jhYk; toq;fg;gLk; njhopyplj;jpw;F ntspNa ,ilepiyf;fy;tpia tYg;gLj;Jtjw;F As;s gapw;rpr; nraw;ghLfisj; murhq;fkhdJ ,uz;L Kf;fpakhd Jizahff; nfhs;SjYk;. mgptpUj;jp Kaw;rpfis ftdj;jpy; (M) fw;if newpia jpl;lkplYk; nfhs;syhk;. mitahtd xOq;fikj;jYk;> tFg;giw (m) ,ilepiyg;ghlrhiyf; fiyj;jpl;lj;ij eilKiwfs;> khztH xg;gilfSk; njspTgLj;jYk; xOq;FgLj;jYk;: tPl;LNtiyfSk; khztH mwpitAk; ,it xt;nthU juj;jpw;Fk; jpwd;fisAk; fzpg;gpLjy; Nghd;w ghlj;jpw;Fk; chpa Njh;r;rpfs;> fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfisAk; jpwd;fisAk; vjpHghHj;j fw;wy; rhjdq;fisAk; njhopy; El;gq;fisAk; tpisTfisAk; Fwpg;gdthf ,Uj;jy; gad;gLj;Jtjw;F MrphpaHfis Ntz;Lk;. Maj;jk; nra;tjw;fhd Kd;Nrit kw;Wk; njhlUW MrphpaH gapw;rp (M) mjpgHfs; kw;Wk; MrphpaHfs; kj;jpapy; epfo;r;rpj; jpl;lq;fisAk; Nghjid ,j;jifa milT kl;lq;fisg; gutr; eilKiwfisAk; etPdkag;gLj;jy;. nra;jy;> Ghpe;JzHit cWjpnra;jy;. (,) Muk;g kw;Wk; ,ilepiy tFg;G ,it nghUj;jkhd mr;Rr; rhjdq;fs; tl;lj;jpy; khztHikar; ghlrhiyf;F fpilg;gij cWjpnra;Ak;. nraw;ghl;bid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l fw;gpj;jy; fw;wy; mZFKiwfis MrphpaHfspd; njhopd;ikj; NjHr;rpfisAk; Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;F Njitahd jpwd;fisAk; tYg;gLj;jy; fw;gpj;jypay; jpwd;fSld; 39. fw;gpj;jypy; Fwpg;ghf (<) ghlrhiyfspd; juhjuj;jpid MrphpaHfis kjpg;gpLtJld; Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;F cs;SH mtHfSila NjHr;rpfisAk; r%jhaq;fSld; jpwd;fisAk; Kd;Ndw;Wjy;. gq;Nfw;gjw;fhd jpwd;fSld; (c) caHngWNgWfis Nehf;fp $batHfshf MrphpaHfis cj;jpNahfj;jiuAk; khztHfisAk; cUthf;Fjy;. Cf;Ftpj;jy;. (c) mjpgHfspd; jiyikj;Jtj;jpd; fPo; (C) ghlrhiyapd; ,yf;Ffis MrphpaHfs; nghWg;Gffis Vw;gjw;F Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;F ngsjPf tsq;fisg; tha;g;Gfs; nfhLj;jYld; gfpHjYk; gad;gLj;jYk;. caHjukhd ghlrhiy ngWNgw;Wj; (v) ngw;NwhH Mrphpa rq;fq;fs;> gioa juhjuq;fis miljYk;. khztH rq;fq;fs; cs;spl;l rKjha (C) ghltplaq;fspYk; fw;gpj;jypay; mikg;GfSld; neUq;fpa cwTfis jpwd;fspYk; MrphpaHfspd; njhopd;ik tpUj;jp nra;jy;. mwpT kw;Wk; Ghpe;JzHit xOq;fhfTk; (V) khztHfs;> MrphpaHfs;> ngw;NwhHfs; tl;l mbg;gilapYk; MrphpaH kw;Wk; Vida rKjha cWg;gpdHfspd; njhopypYs;s fhyk; tiu tYT+l;Ljy;. caHe;j Nehf;fpid Vw;Wf;nfhs;sf;$ba jd;ikiag; mjpgHfs;> jiyik MrphpaHfs;> jiyik NgZjy;. Mrphpiafspd; jiyikj;Jt kw;Wk; Kfhikj;Jt Mw;wiy tYg;gLj;jy; ghlrhiyf;fhd fy;tprhH kw;Wk; epUthf 40. caHjuj;jpyhd ghlrhiyj; cjtpfis mgptpUj;jp nra;jy; jiyikj;Jtj;jpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; 41. ,yq;ifapy; ghlrhiyfSf;fhd ,yq;ifapd; fy;tpf;nfhs;if Mf;FNthuhy; fy;tprhHe;j kw;Wk; epHthfk; rhHe;j n;ghpJk; kjpf;fg;gLfpwJ. mjpgHfs;> topfhl;liy toq;Fk; cjtp tiyg;gpd;dy; ghlrhiyg; gphpTj; jiytHfshd jiyik mikg;ghdJ mbepiyapNyNa cs;sJ. MrphpaHfs;> jiyik MrphpiafSf;fhd ghlrhiyfSf;F cjtp toq;Fk; jiyikj;Jt kw;Wk; Kfhikj;Jt jw;NghJs;s Nritf;fhy MNyhrfH Kiw gapw;rpfis toq;Ftjw;fhd mjpgHfs; gapw;rp Fiwe;jstpNyNa mgptpj;jpaile;Js;sJ. kj;jpa epiyankhd;W cUthf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,e;j Kiwikia tYT+l;Ljy; vd;gJ NkYk; mjpgHfSf;F tYT+l;Ltjw;Fk; vjpHfhyf; fy;tp mgptpU;j;jpf;fhd ghlrhiyfSf;Ff; fzprkhd mstpy; Kd;DhpikrhHe;j tplaq;fs; Kfhikj;Jt mjpfhuq;fis gpd;tUtdtw;iw cs;slf;Fk;. gutyhf;FjYf;Fk; ghlrhiy mjpgHfs;> jiyik MrphpaHfs;> jiyik (m) Nritf;fhy MNyhrfHfspd; Mrphpiafspd; jiyikj;Jtj; jpwd;fisAk; tfpgq;fpidAk; nghWg;Gf;fisAk; Kfhikj;Jtj; NjHr;rpfisAk; tYg;gLj;Jjy; njspthf vLj;Jf;fhl;Ljy;. mgptpUj;jpapd; Kf;fpa mk;rkhFk;. (M) Nritf;fhy MNyhrfHfis njhpT vjpHfhyj;jpy; Njitg;gLk; Kf;fpakhd nra;jYk; gzpf;fkHj;jYk; njhopd;ikj; jiyikj;Jt> Kfhikj;Jtj; jpwd;fs; NjHr;rpapd; mbg;gilapy; ,Uj;jy; gpd;tUk; Mw;wy;fis cs;slf;Fk;. Ntz;Lk;. (,) Fwpg;gpl;l Nritf;F Nritf;fhy (m) ghlrhiyfspd; njhiyNehf;fpidAk; MNyhrfHfis mkHj;Jjy;. ,J rpwe;j ,yf;FfisAk; njspthf ,izj;jy;. Nghjid eilKiwfs; njhlHghd (M) fiyj;jpl;lj;ij jfty; kw;Wk; gapw;rpg; ngWNgWfis eilKiwg;gLj;Jtjw;F ghlrhiyia caHj;JjiyAk; cs;slf;Fk;. rpwe;jKiwapy; xOq;fikj;jy;. (<) Nritf;fhy MNyhrfHfis (,) tFg;giw kw;Wk; ghlrhiyapd; tpidj;jpwd; kpFe;jthW ghlrhiy ,ize;j fiyj;jpl;lj; NjitfSld; mjpgHfs; kw;Wk; MrphpaHfspd; MrphpaHfspd; fw;gpj;jypay; NjHr;rpfis fy;tprhH ngWNgWfis kjpg;gplTk; ,izj;jy;. T 16 Mf;fG+Htkhd gpd;D}l;ly;fis Kf;fpakhdJ. mz;ikf;fhyq;fspNy toq;Ftjw;Fk; gad;gLj;jy;. ghlE}y;fspd; juhjuj;ij mjpfhpg;gjw;fhd (c) ghlrhiyf;Fhpa njhopypl cjtpfis> Kf;fpakhd nfhs;ifrhH Kaw;rpfis khfhzf; fy;tp mjpfhuq;fs;> tyaf; murhq;fk; eilKiwg;gLj;jpAs;sJld; fy;tp mYtyfq;fspd; toikahd ghlrhiyfSf;F fpilf;fNtz;ba mgptpUj;jpr; nraw;ghLfSld; ghlE}y;fspd; njhpitAk; VfNghf ,izj;jy;. chpikapy; ,Ue;J tpyf;fpaJld; Nghl;b mbg;gilapyhd jdpahH epWtdq;fsplk; 42. ,yq;ifahdJ fy;tp mgptpUj;jpapy; ghlE}y; gpuRuj;jpid xg;gilj;Js;sJ. ,uz;lhtJ fl;lj;jpd; Muk;g epiyapy; jdpahH Jiwg; ghlE}y; gpuRuj;jpd; vjpHfhy ,Uf;fpd;wnghOJ ghlrhiy KiwahdJ mgptpUj;jpahdJ gpd;tUk; Kf;fpakhd ntz;fl;bAk; Ngr;Rk; (Chalk and Talk) vd;gjpy; eltbf;iffis cs;slf;Fk;. ngUkstpy; jq;fpapUf;fpwJ. ,J Fiwe;jgl;r njhopy;El;gr;#oypUe;J njhopy;El;gr; (m) ehl;bYs;s ghlE}y; vOj;jhsHfs;> nrwpthd fy;tpKiwf;F Kd;NdWjy; glq;fs; tiuNthH kw;Wk; Ntz;Lk;. jfty; njhopy;El;g epiyaq;Sk; gjpg;ghsHfspd; njhopy;El;g rhjdq;fSk; tpQ;Qhd Ma;T $lq;fs; Mw;wiy cWjpnra;jy;. E}yfq;fs; nraw;ghl;L miwfs; (M) ifnaOj;Jg; gpujp kw;Wk; tiuGfspd; cgfuzq;fSf;Fk; fUtpfSf;Fkhd fy;tp juf;fl;L;g;ghLfis tYg;gLj;jy;. ,it %yjd ,Ug;G fl;lq;fshf mjpfhpf;fg;gLjy; tplaq;fspd; cz;ikj; jd;ikiar; Ntz;Lk;. fw;gpj;jy; Kiwfs;> fw;wy; rhpghHj;jy;> gy;NtW rka kw;Wk; mDFKiwfs; kw;Wk; ghPl;irfspy; ,df;FOf;fis Gz;gLj;Jk; rhjdq;fSf;Fk; njhopy;El;gj;jpw;Fk; tplaq;fis tpyf;Fjiyf; fUJk;. Kjd;ikahd tfpgq;F toq;fg;gLjy; (,) xg;ge;jg; gzpfis tpiuTgLj;jYk; Ntz;Lk;. cjhuzkhf tpQ;Qhdk; fy;tpahz;L epfo;tjw;F Kd;dH Nghjpf;Fk; fhyj;jpy; mjpfkhd gq;fpid Gj;jfq;fisf; fhyNeuj;Jld; Ma;T$l NtiyfSf;F toq;FtJld; gfpHe;jspj;jiy cWjpnra;jYk;. Ma;T$lj;ij mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l (<) Jiz thrpg;G E}y;fs;> nray;E}y;fs; xg;gilfisf; fzpg;gPl;Lg; nghwpKiwapd; xU kw;Wk; ghlE}y; topfhl;bfs; gFjpahfTk; gad;gLj;jyhk;. mt;thNw Mfpatw;iw vOJNthhpilNa fzpjk;> ngsjPfk; Nghd;w ghlq;fisf; njhopy;El;g Mw;wiy mgptpUj;jp fw;gpf;Fk; Kiwfspy; fy;tprhH nra;jy;. nkd;nghUl;fisg; gad;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; gps;isfspd; Rafw;wYf;F cjtyhk;. nkhop gps;isfspd; Rfhjhuk; kw;Wk; Nghrhf;F fw;gpj;jypy; Fwpg;ghf Mq;fpyk; fw;gpj;jypy; epiyikfis cWjpg;gLj;jy;. nrhw;fsQ;rpak;> cr;rhpg;G> ruskhd 44. mwp;ifrhH Gs;spfSf;Fk; tha;nkhop Mfpatw;iw tpUj;jpnra;tjw;F ghlrhiyf;Fk;> tPl;bw;Fk; Rfhjhu Nfl;ly; rhjdq;fisg; gad;gLj;jyhk;. khwpfSf;Fk; ,ilNaAs;s njhlHGfs; E}yfq;fisAk; thrpg;Gr; rhjdq;fisAk; gw;wpa gFg;gha;thsHfs; Rfhjhuf; FiwTk; mjpfstpy; gad;gLj;Jjy; fw;wy; Ngh\hf;F FiwTk; nfhz;l gps;isfs; tpisTfis cWjp nra;Ak; tpidj;jpwd; fw;wy; tpisTfSld; vjpHkiwahd kpf;f KiwahfTk; tpsq;Fk;. njhlHGfisf; nfhz;bUf;fpd;whHfs; ghlE}y;fspd; juhjuj;jpid Nkk;gLj;Jjy; vd;gij vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfpd;whHfs;. ,jd; tpisthf fy;tpapd; juhjuj;ijAk; fw;wy; 43. ghlE}y;fs; fy;tp Kiwapy; Kf;fpakhd kl;lj;ijAk; Nkk;gLj;Jk; Kaw;rpfs; twpa fw;wy; tskhFk;. NkYk; ,yq;if Nghd;w gps;isfspd; Rfhjhuj;ijAk; Ngh\hf;F xU mgptpUj;jp mile;JtUk; ehl;bw;F epiyikfisAk; Nkk;gLj;j vLf;fg;gLk; vjpHfhyj;jpy; gy tUlq;fSf;fhd eltbf;iffspshYk; ed;ik ngwKbAk;. xU Kf;fpakhd juhju cs;spLif tpidj;jpwd; kpf;fghlrhiyapd; Rfhjhuk; Nghd;wJkhFk; mjdhy; caHjukhd kw;Wk; Ngh\hf;F epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lj;jpd; ghlE}y;fis cWjpnra;jy; kpf mbg;gilr; rl;lfkhdJ gpd;tUk; Kf;fpakhd T 17 $Wfisf; nfhz;bUj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. eltbf;iffs; gaDilaitahf ,Ue;jhYk;> mtw;wpd; ghjpg;Gf;fs; gy;NtW r%ff; (m) ghJfhg;ghdJk; cWjpahdJkhd FOf;fspd; xj;Jiog;gpNyNa jq;fpapUf;Fk;. ngsjPfr; #oiy toq;Fk; Rfhjhuk; Fwpg;ghf gpzf;Ffshy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l njhlHghd ghlrhiyf; nfhs;if> gpuNjrq;fspy; cs;s Kf;fpa FOf;fspd; rhjfkhd kw;Wk; cld;ghlhd xj;Jiog;G ,e;eltbf;iffis csr;#oiyAk; khztH Nkk;gLj;Jtw;F mtrpakhFk;. J\;gpuNahfk;> ghypay; Jd;GWj;jy;fs; ghlrhiy td;Kiwfs; nfhLikg; gpzf;Ffshy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l gpuNjrq;fspy; gLj;jy; Nghd;w gpur;ridfSf;F Kfk; rpije;JNghd fy;tp epWtdq;fis nfhLj;jiyAk; cUthf;Fjy;. GzHepHkhdpj;jy; (M) rpwe;j epHkhzg;gzpfSk; guhkhpg;G 46. NrHT kw;Wk; fw;wy; kl;lq;fs; vd;gd eilKiwfSk;: ,jdhy; gpzf;Ffshy;; ghjpf;fg;gl;l gpuNjrq;fspy; ghJfhg;ghdJk; NghjpastpyhdJkhd kpff;FiwthFk;. ,it fy;tp epWtdq;fs; FbePH> Rj;jkhd Rfhjhu trjpfis mope;jikahy; Vw;gl;l tpN\l rthy;fis cWjpnra;jy;. cUthf;fpAs;sd. gpzf;Ffshy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l (,) mwpT> kdg;ghq;F tpOkpaq;fs; kw;Wk; gpuNjrq;fspy; cs;s murhq;ff; fy;tp tho;f;ifj; jpwd;fs; vd;gdtw;iw epWtdq;fs; Fwpg;ghfg; ghlrhiyfs;> tpUj;jpnra;jy; Rfhjhuj;ij gpzf;Ff; fhyq;fspy; mopTf;Fs;shapd. mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l jpwd;fis ,g;gpuNjrq;fspd; Gzuikg;G> GzUj;jhuzk; toq;fp kpfg;nghUj;jkhdJk; Rfhjhuk; kw;Wk; mgptpUj;jpj; Njitfs; gw;wpa njhlHghd rhjfkhd jPHkhdq;fis kjpg;gPLfs;> ,g;gpuNjrj;jpd; %yjd ,Ug;Gf; khztHfs; Nkw;nfhs;sTk; mjd;gb fzf;fpid 140 If;fpa mnkhpf;f xOfTk; cjTjy;. nlhyHfshf kjpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ. [ghHf;f (<) Ez;ghfg; Ngh\hf;F FiwghLfs;> UNICEF-WORLD BANK (2003)]. MapDk; Gwj;njhw;W> grp> gy;rhHe;j gpzf;fpdhy; ghjpf;fg;gl;l gpuNjrq;fspd; FiwghLfs;> FWk;ghHit fy;tpg;GzHepHkhz> Gzuikg;Gg; gzpfis Nehahsh;> Nfl;ly; FiwghL Nghd;w eilKiwg;gLj;Jjy; xU ngUQ;rthyhf gpur;ridfisj; jPHf;Fk; ghlrhiykl;lr; mike;Js;sJ.Fwpg;ghfg; nghUl;fSf;Fk; Rfhjhu kw;Wk; Ngh\hf;F Nritfs;. NjHr;rpngw;w njhopyhsUf;Fk; ngUe;jl;Lg;ghLfs; epyTfpd;wd. fy;tpapd; %yk; r%f xl;Lwit ,g;gpuNjrq;fspy; Gzuikg;Gg; gzpfSf;fhd Nkk;gLj;Jjy; epjp fpilf;fpwJ. nghUl;fspd; tpiyfSk; 45. khztH kj;jpapy; FbrhH mwpitAk; $ypfSk; caHe;Js;sd. gpzf;Fshy; Ghpe;JzHitAk; tsHj;jy;: ehl;by; 20 ghjpf;fg;gl;l gpuNjrq;fspy; fy;tpKiwiag; tUlfhy ePz;l Aj;jj;jpd; tpisthf Ngzpg;ghJfhf;fTk; ePz;lfhy Mw;wiy [dehaf MSif kw;Wk; FbrhH Rje;jpuk; fzprkhdstpy; fl;bnaOg;Gtjw;Fk;; gy vd;gtw;wpd; gy;tifikia Nkk;gLj;Jk; nraw;ghLfis Ntz;bepw;fpd;wd. Kf;fpakhdnjhU eltbf;ifahfTk; r%f gy;fiyf;foff; fy;tpapd; juhjuj;jpid xl;Lwit fy;tpapd; %yk; Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;Fk; Nkk;gLj;jy; chpa Nkyjpf eltbf;ifahf gy;NtW FOf;fspd; fyhrhuj;ij kjpf;Fk; 47. gy;fiyf;fof KiwikahdJ> ghlE}y;fis cUthf;Fjy; gy;tifikia ghlrhiyKiwik Nghy MNyhridf; kjpf;Fk; fiyj;jpl;lj;ijAk; nfhs;if mgptpUj;jpr; nray;Kiwfisr; ,izf;fiyj;jpl;lr; nraw;ghLfisAk; nrwpthd Kiwapy; mDgtpf;ftpy;iy. gad;gLj;jy;> gy;NtW ,df;FOf;fisr; MapDk; gy;fiyf;fof khdpa NrHe;j gps;isfs; xd;W NrHe;J gbf;Fk; Mizf;FOTk; jdpg;gl;l ghlrhiyfis mwpKfk; nra;jy;> gy;fiyf;fofq;fSk;> juhjuj;jpid Mq;fpyj;ij ,izg;G nkhopahf cWjpg;gLj;Jk; gy Kaw;rpfis mgptpUj;jp gad;gLj;Jtjid Cf;Ftpj;jiyAk; nra;Js;sd. ,it fiyj;jpl;lr; rPh;jpUj;jk;> Nkk;gLj;Jjy; Ntz;Lk; ,j;jifa ghPl;ir Kiwfs;> Fwpg;ghf fw;if Kiw T 18 rhHe;Js;s gl;lg;gbg;G epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lq;fis nraw;ghl;L mbg;gilf; fiyj;jpl;lj;ij xOq;fikj;jy;> njhlH kjpg;gPl;L Kiwia mgptpUj;jp nra;jYk; eilKiwg;gLj;jYk; mwpKfQ;nra;jy;> gy;fiyf;fofq;fSf;fhd 49. ,ilepiyf;fy;tpf;fhd ,yq;ifapd; xj;Jiog;Gj; jpl;lq;fis mgptpUj;jpnra;jy;> fy;tpf; nfhs;if Mf;FNthuhy; cj;jpNahfj;jHfSf;fhd ngWNgw;W Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l nraw;ghl;L mbg;gilf; kjpg;gPl;bid mwpKfg;gLj;jy;> Rje;jpukhd fiyj;jpl;l mZFKiwahdJ rigapd;fPo; rhd;wpjo; toq;Fk; ghlrhiyg;gps;isfs; kj;jpapy; rpwe;j Ntiy nray;Kiwfis cUthf;Fjy;. ngWNgw;W xOf;fj;ij mgptpUj;jp nra;tjw;fhf mbg;gilapy; epjp toq;Fk; %yfq;fis tbtikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ [ghHf;f NEC (2003)]. mwpKfg;gLj;Jjy; vd;gdtw;iw cs;slf;Fk;. ,J fy;tpKiwia Ntiy cyfpw;F ,e;j Kaw;rpfs; ghPl;rpf;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;@ ed;F jpirKfg;gLj;Jtjpy; Kf;fpa gq;fpid tfpf;f kjpg;gplg;glNtz;Lk;;; tpN\lkhf> gioa KbAk;. nraw;ghl;L mbg;gilf; fiyj;jpl;l Kaw;rpfshd fw;if myF KiwikfisAk; mZFKiwapd; vjpHfhy mgptpUj;jpAk; njhlHkjpg;gPl;Lg; nghwpKiwfisAk; eilKiwg;gLj;jYk; gpd;tUk; Kf;fpa mwpKfg;gLj;jy; Nghd;wit nfhs;if Kaw;rpfspy; jq;fpapUf;fpwJ> tFg;NghUf;Fk; fy;tprhHe;NjhUf;Fk; cjtpahf ,Uf;Fk;. (m) nraw;ghl;L mbg;gilf; fw;gpj;jYk; Mrphpaiug; gap;w;Wtpj;jYk; fy;tp Kiwikia NtiyAyFf;Fj; (M) ghlrhiyia mbg;gilahff; ihz;l jpirKfg;gLj;jy; fiyj;jpl;lj;jpw;fhf ghlrhiyfis 48. ,yq;ifapd; fy;tpf;nfhs;ifr; xOq;FgLj;Jtjw;F mjpgHfisg; rl;lfkhdJ fy;tp Kiwikia gapw;Wtpj;jy; NtiyAyfpw;Fj; jpirKfg;gLj;Jtjd; (,) nraw;ghl;L mbg;gilf; fw;wYf;Fg; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;jpid typAWj;Jfpd;wJ [ghHf;f NghjpasT tFg;giw ,ltrjpiaAk; NEC (2003)] Ntiy cyFf;fhd rpwe;j nraw;ghl;L miwfisAk; mj;jpthukhf caH juj;jpyhd ghlrhiy toq;Fjy;. KiwikahdJ gapw;wg;glf;$ba (<) nraw;ghl;L mbg;gilf;fw;gpj;jy; kw;Wk; jdpegHfis njhopw;re;ijf;F fw;wYf;F cjt ghlrhiyfspy; toq;Fnkd;Wk; njhopy;El;g> njhopd;ik Njitahd rhjdq;fs; kw;Wk; gy;fiyf;fof fy;tpf;fhd njhopy;El;gk; kw;Wk; thrpg;G E}y;fs; njhopw;re;ijia toq;Fnkd;Wk; fpilf;fr; nra;jy;. nfhs;ifahf;FNthH mwptH. ghlrhiy KiwikahdJ mzpahfg; gzpapy; jfty; njhopy;El;g gbg;gwptpidAk; jPHkhdk; Nkw;nfhs;sy;> njhlf;fpitj;jy;> jpwidAk; mjpfhpj;jy; kw;Wk; jfty; gpur;rid jPHj;jy;> nghWg;Ngw;wy;> njhopy;El;g mbg;gilapyhd fw;gpj;jiyAk; jiyikj;Jtk;> njhlHghly; Nghd;w fw;wiyAk; mwpKfg;gLj;jy;;. jpwd;fisAk; mwpitAk; cUthf;FtjpYk; 50. jfty; njhopy;El;g gbg;gwpTk; Kf;fpakhd tfpgq;fpid Vw;fpd;wd. ,it jpwd;fSk; etPd cyfpw;F mbg;gilahdit. NtiyAyfpw;F kpfTk; Kf;fpaj;Jtk; mj;Jld; ghlrhiyiag; G+Hj;jp tha;e;jit. ghlrhiy Kiwik$l mwpT nra;NthUf;Fk; gy;fiyf;fofg; kw;Wk; njhopw; re;ijf;Fj; Njitahd gl;ljhhpfSf;Fkhd Njrpa kw;Wk; Fwpg;ghd Mw;wy;fSf;fhd cyfshtpa njhopw;re;ij tha;g;Gfs; rl;ljpl;lj;jpidAk; cs;slf;Fk;. ,yq;ifapd; ngUkstpy; mjpfhpf;fpd;wd. fy;tpf; Ntiy cyfpw;fhd fy;tpKiwapd; nfhs;ifahf;FNthH jfty; njhopy;El;gj;jpd; jpirKfg;gLj;jy;fis Nkk;gLj;Jk; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;jpid ed;F mwpe;jpUg;gJld; jpl;lq;fs;> fiyj;jpl;lj;jpy; mjd; fy;tpKiwapNy jfty; njhopy;El;gj;jpd; mgptpUj;jpf;fhf Kd;Dhpik> fy;tpapy; gad;ghl;bid tphpTgLj;jpAk; Mog;gLj;jpAk; njhopEl;gg; gad;ghL> nkhopj;jpwd;fSk; tUfpd;wdH. ,J Kf;fpakhdJk; caH ruskhf nkhopiag; gad;gLj;JjYk;> njhopy; Kd;Dhpik toq;fg;glNtz;baJkhd topfhl;lYk; MNyhridAk; vd;gdtw;wpw;F nfhs;if eltbf;if MFk;. ghlrhiy Kd;Dhpikaspj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. T 19 Kiwikapy; jfty; njhopy;El;gg; murhq;fg; ghlrhiyfspy; gad;ghl;bid mgptpUj;jp nra;tjw;fhd fl;lq;fl;lkhf Nghjpastpy; Kf;fpa Muk;gpg;Gf;fSk; jfty; MrphpaH fpilg;ghuhapd; mwpKfQ; njhopy;El;gj;jpid mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l nra;jy;. fw;gpj;jy; kw;Wk; fw;wiy (,) fy;tpKiwikapy; cs;s eilKiwg;gLj;JjYk; gpd;tUtdtw;iw MrphpaHfSfLk;> Nkyjpf cs;slf;Fk; MrphpaHfSf;Fk; kPs; gapw;rp toq;Fjy; cl;gl Mq;fpyj;ij xU ghlkhf (m) jfty; njhopy;El;g trjpfs; kw;Wk; fw;gpf;f gapw;rpaspj;jy;. fl;lq;fl;lkhd ,izg;G Mfpatw;iw ghlrhiyfs; nfhz;bUj;jy;. (<) Mq;fpyj;ijg; Nghjdh nkhopahff; nfhz;L fw;gpg;gjw;F MrphpaHfisg; (M) jfty; njhopy;El;g mbg;gilapyhd gapw;Wtpj;jy; "Nkyjpf fy;tpr; rhjdq;fSf;F chpa MrphpaHfSf;fhd" kPs; gapw;rpAk; ,jpy; tha;g;Gf;fis mjpfg;gLj;Jk; Njrpa mlq;Fk;. fy;tp tiyg;gpd;dy; mikg;ig cUthf;Fjy;. (c) Mq;fpynkhop fw;gpj;jy;> fw;wYf;fhf fl;Gy nrtpg;Gy rhjdq;fisAk; fy;tp (,) MrphpaHfis jfty; njhopy;El;g tsq;fisAk; jfty; njhopy;El;g rhjdq;fs;> fy;tprhH nkd;nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; On line mbg;gilf; fy;tpr; rhjdq;fisAk; fy;tp; Mfpatw;wpw;Fg; gutyhfg; gad;gLj;Jjy;. gapw;Wtpj;jy;. (<) ghlrhiy mjpgHfs; kj;jpapy; jfty; jpwd; mgptpUj;jpiaAk; gapw;rpiaAk; njhopy;El;gj;jpid fy;tpapy; tYg;gLj;jy; gad;gLj;Jk; tpopg;GzHit 52. jpwd; mgptpUj;jpahdJ murhq;fk; cUthf;Fjy;. Ntiy tha;g;Gf;fis Cf;Ftpg;gjw;fhd (c) ghlrhiyfspd; jucs;sPLfSf;fhd gpujhd njhopw;re;ij cghaq;fisAk; xJf;fPLfspy; jfty; njhopy;El;g ghlrhiyiatpl;L tpyFNthhpd; Ntiyg;gil rhjdq;fisAk; jfty; njhopy;El;g cw;gj;jpj;jpwidAk; nfhz;bUf;fpwJ. mbg;gilf; fy;tprhH tsq;fisAk; nfhs;ifahf;FNthuhy; gy mgptpUj;jp toq;f Vw;ghL nra;jy;. Kaw;rpfSk; nfhs;ifrhH eltbf;iffSk; Kd;itf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. mit gpd;tUkhW> Mq;fpy nkhopj;jpwd;fis Nkk;gLj;jy; 51. Mq;fpy nkhopj;jpwd;fSk; mjd; (m) TEVT f;fhd jiyik mikg;ghd rusKk; Njrpa njhopw;re;ijapy; tYthd njhopy;El;g kw;Wk; njhopw;fy;tp Nfs;tpiaf; nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd. NkYk; Mizf;FOtpid (TVEC) Mq;fpy nkhopj; NjHr;rpahdJ cyfshtpa tYg;gLj;jy;. nghUshjhuj;jpy; njhopy; tha;g;Gf;fisj; (M) murhq;fk; xU topfhl;bahf> jpwe;JtpLfpwJ. ,jd; tpisthf Mq;fpy juhjuq;fis cUthf;FNthuhf> nkhopj;jpwd;fis tpUj;jp nra;jy; ghlrhiy gapw;rpfis xOq;F gLj;JNthuhfj; Kiwikapy; njhopw;re;ijapd; njhopw;gLtjw;F mjd; tfpghfj;jpid jpirKfg;gLj;jiy Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;Fhpa tpUj;jp nra;jy;. fy;tprhH nfhs;ifr; rl;lj;Jf;fhd gpujhd (,) gapw;rpfspy; jdpahH Jiwapd; %yfkhf tpsq;FfpwJ. vjpHfhyj;jpw;fhd gq;Nfw;gpidg; NgZjy;. Kf;fpakhd mgptpUj;jp Kaw;rpfs; (<) jpwd; mgptpUj;jpapy; murhq;ff; gpd;tUkhW> ifj;njhopy;fisg; gq;Fjhuuhf (m) Nghjdhnkhopahf Mq;fpyj;ij Cf;Ftpj;jy;. khztHfs; njhpTnra;tjw;F jdpahH (c) mur kw;Wk; jdpahH gapw;rp ghlrhiyfis mDkjpj;jy;. ,jid epWtdq;fspd; juhjuj;jpid rpq;fs kw;Wk; jkpo; nkhopNahL cWjpg;gLj;JjYk; Cf;Ftpj;jYk;. Kjyhk; tFg;gpypUe;Nj Muk;gpj;jy;. (C) nghJj;Jiwapy; TEVT Kiwikia (M) Mq;fpyj;ij Nghjdhnkhopahf epahag;gLj;jy;. T 20 (v) TEVT Kiwikapd; njhlHGfis MNyhrid mgptpUj;jpf;F Kd;Dhpik ghlrhiy kw;Wk; gy;fiyf;fof nfhLj;jy;. Vnddpy; ,j;jifa KiwikAld; Nkk;gLj;Jjy;. gpuNjrq;fspy; cs;s khztHfs; ghlrhiyfspYk; njhopw;re;ij njhlHghd jfty;fisg; gy;fiyf;fofq;fspYk; njhopy; ngwf;$ba tha;g;G FiwthfTs;sJ. topfhl;ly; kw;Wk; MNyhridia (,) njhopw;gapw;rp kw;Wk; njhopy;El;gf;fy;tp cUthf;Fjy;. epWtdq;fSf;Fk; ghlrhiyfspy; (V) Kiwapy; JiwfspYk; njhopw;gapw;rpia cs;s topfhl;ly; MNyhrfUf;Fk; Cf;Ftpj;jy; ,ilNa jfty; tiyg;gpd;dy; (I) nghJj;Jiwia ,yf;fhff; nfhz;l mikg;gpid mgptpUj;jp nra;jy;. gapw;rpfSf;F epjprhH Cf;Ftpg;Gf;fis fy;tp ts xJf;fPLk; gfpHe;jspg;Gk; toq;Fjy;. 54. murhq;fkhdJ mbg;gilf;fy;tp ,itahTk; epahakhd kw;Wk; cs;shHe;j tl;lj;ij vy;NyhUk; G+Hj;jpnra;jiy cw;gj;jprhH rpe;jidfshFk;. ,it cWjpnra;jy;> (juk; 1 - 9)> fy;tpapd; rHtNjr rpe;jidfisAk; juhjuj;jpid cWjpnra;jy;> eltbf;iffisAk; gpujpgypf;fpd;wd. fy;tpKiwikia NtiyAyfpw;Ff; ,j;jifa gy;NtW nfhs;ifrhH jpirKfg;gLjy;> nghJr;nryTfspy; Kaw;rpfspd; mgptpUj;jpapd; cz;ikahd epahaj;jd;ikia Nkk;gLj;jy;> Nrit epiy kpjkhdJ. ,it ,d;Dk; gy tpepNahfj;jpid Kiwikf;Fs; tYg;gLj;jy;> rpe;jidfSld; $baitahfg; G+Hthq;f fy;tp kw;Wk; gapw;rp Kiwikapd; epiyapNyNa cs;sd ,j;jifa nghUshjhu> r%fg;nghUj;jg;ghl;bid nfhs;ifrhH rpe;jidfis mgptpUj;jp tpUj;jpnra;jy; Nghd;w gy Kf;fpa cghaq;fshf khw;WjYk; mtw;iw rthy;fis vjpHnfhs;sNtz;bAs;sJ. eilKiwg;gLj;jYk; TEVT vjpHnfhs;Sk; fy;tpapy; nghJ KjyPlhdJ ,d;ndhU Kf;fpa rthyhFk;. mgptpUj;jpaile;JtUk; ehLfs;Nghy kpjkhfTk; cz;ik tUkhdj;jpy; murhq;f fy;tpr; nryTfs; tPo;r;rpaile;J nry;yy; njhopy; topfhl;liyAk; MNyhridAk; kw;Wk; ghhpanjhU gzg;gw;whf;;FiwAldhd tpUj;jp nra;jy; mur nrytpdq;fSk; ,Ue;j Ntisapy; 53. fy;tpia Ntiy cyFld; ,izf;Fk; ,j;jifa rthy;fs; Njhd;wpAs;sd. ,it Kf;fpakhd murhq;f ghpe;Jiuahf khw;wKwhj ghjPl;Lf; nfhs;ifia type;J tpidjpwd;kpf;f njhopy; topfhl;ly; kw;Wk; epiwNtw;Wfpd;wJ. ,r;re;jHg;gj;jpy; MNyhrid mgptpUj;jpiaf; Fwpg;gplyhk;. fy;tpKiwahdJ tiuaWf;fg;gl;l nghJ gy;fiyf;fofq;fs; njhopYf;F topfhl;ly; tsq;fis epahakhfTk; tpidj;jpwDlDk; kw;Wk; MNyhridr; nraw;ghLfisj; gad;gLj;Jjy; ,d;wpaikahjJ. njhlq;fpAs;sd. MapDk; ghlrhiy Kiwikapy; njhopy; topfhl;ly; kw;Wk; epak mbg;gilapyhd vjpHfhy mgptpUj;;jp> MNyhrid xOq;fhf ,lk;ngwtpy;iy. myFr; nryT ts xJf;fPl;Lg; nghwpKiw ghlrhiyfspy; njhopy; topfhl;lYk; vd;gdtw;wpDlhf epahaj;jd;ikAk; MNyhrid mgptpUj;jpAk; vjpHfhy juhjuj;ijAk; Nkk;gLj;jy;. eilKiwg;gLj;jYf;fhd xU Kf;fpakhd 55. murhq;fk;; fle;j 4 - 5 Mz;Lfshfg; Kaw;rp MFk;. ,e;j Kaw;rpia Cf;Ftpf;Fk; nghJ tsq;fis xJf;fPL nra;tjw;Fg; gpujhd nraw;ghLfs; gpd;tUtdtw;iw gad;gLj;jpa epak mbg;gil kw;Wk; cs;slf;Fk;. xJf;fPl;Lg; nghwpKiwahdJ fy;tp Kiwikapy; tsxJf;fPl;by; (m) ghlrhiyapd; Kf;fpa gjtpazpapdiu epahaj;jd;ikAk; gfph;e;jspg;igAk; njhopy; topfhl;ly; kw;Wk; fzprkhdstpy; mjpfhpf;fr; nra;jJ. ,e;jr; MNyhridf;F gapw;Wtpj;jy;. rkd;ghl;bd; mbg;gilapy; Kjyhk; fl;l (M) gpd;jq;fpa gpuNjrq;fspy; cs;s eilKiwg;gLj;jy;fs; rfy ghlrhiyfspy; topfhl;ly; kw;Wk; ghlrhiyfisAk; xNutpjkhff; fUjpd. T 21 nghUshjhur; rpf;fd msTj;jpl;lj;jpw;F nghJg; gy;fiyf;fof Kiwikapd; ,lkspf;Fk; tifapy; ghlrhiyapd; tphpthf;fk; ftdkhff; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLtJld; gUkidg; nghWj;Jr; rpy rPuhf;fq;fisAk; jdpahHJiwapYs;s %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpapy; Nkw;nfhs;Sjy;> kpfg; NrHTtPjj;jpid tphpTgLj;Jfpd;wJ. twpa gpd;jq;fpaghlrhiyfspd; tWik kl;lq;fs;> khztHfspd; %d;whk; epiyf;fy;tpf;fhd fw;gpf;fg;gLk; ghlq;fspYs;s NtWghLfs; tha;g;Gf;fis khztH cWjpg;gj;jpuq;fs;> kw;Wk; mit nfhz;bUf;Fk; juhju khztH fld;fs; vd;gdtw;wpd; %yk; tl;lq;fs; vd;gdTk; ftdj;jpy; tphpTgLj;jyhk;. nfhs;sg;gl;ld. jw;nghOJ ehL ,uz;lhtJ fl;lkhd epak mbg;gil myFr; nryT ts fy;tpj;juhjuj;ij cWjpg;gLj;Jk; ts xJf;fPl;Lg; nghwpKiwf;F efh;fpd;wJ. ,it xJf;fPl;by; ghjPLfSf;Fs; fhzg;gLk; gpd;tUtdtw;iw cs;slf;Fk;. ngaHTfs; 57. fy;tpj;juhjuj;ij Nkk;gLj;Jk; (m) fy;tpj; Njitfspd; khfhz kw;Wk; mgptpUj;jprhH Kaw;rpfisAk; fy;tpKiwia r%f nghUshjhu mgptpUj;jpiaAk; NtiyAyfpw;F jpirKfg;gLj;Jk; cs;slf;Fk; epjpg;gLj;jypy; fiyj;jpl;lr; rhjdk;> kw;Wk; njhopy;El;gr; NtWghLfSf;F ,lkspj;jy;. nrwpitAk; mjpfhpj;jy;> jfty; njhopy;El;g (M) njhpTnra;ag;gl;l ghlrhiyfspy; gbg;gwpT> jfty; njhopy;El;g fiyj;jpl;lj;ij NkYk; mbg;gilapyhd fy;tp> Mq;fpy nkhop gad;gLj;Jtjw;Fhpa tsxJf;fPl;L tphpthf;fk;> ruskhfg; NgRjy;> jpwd;fs; Kiwfisj; njspthf;Fjy;. 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Njrpa fy;tpf; fy;Y}hpfSf;Fk; Mrphpah; kj;jpa 66. ngWNgWfSf;fhd epjprhH epiyaq;fSf;Fk; ngUkstpyhd Cf;Ftpg;Gf;fis Fwpg;ghf Kf;fpakhd Kfhikj;Jt jd;dhjpf;fj;ijAk; Nritfspy; mwpKfg;gLj;JjyhdJ> njhopEl;gj;ijAk; gutyhf;fk; nra;tJ Kf;fpakhd Kaw;rpahfTk; ,Uf;Fk;. epWtdq;fspd; eilKiwrhH tpidj;jpwid cjhuzkhf f\;lg;gpuNjrq;fspy; fhzg;gLk; mjpfhpg;gJld; Nrit tpepNahfj;jpd; FiwghLila MrphpaH mkHj;JifAk; juhjuj;jpidAk; cWjpg;gLj;Jk;. $Ljyhf MrphpaH tutpd;ikAk; fy;tpKiwapy; tpidj;jpwd;kpf;f ngWNgWfis kjpg;gpLk; Kiwfis NrittpepNahfj;jpw;fhd gpujhd jilahFk;. mgptpUj;jp nra;jYk; ngWNgWfSf;fhf NkYk; kypdkhd MrphpaH mkHj;Jif epjprhH Cf;Ftpg;Gf;fis mwpKfQ; nra;jYk; tpfpjrkdw;w Kiwapy; twpa khztHfisNa 65. ngWNgWfis kjpg;gpLk; Kiwikia ghjpf;fpd;wJ. mit gpugy;akw;w gpuNjrq;fs; tYg;gLj;jyhdJ> caHjukhd Nrit vd;w fhuzj;jhy; mq;F MrphpaH tutpd;ik tpepNahfj;jpw;F ed;F gq;fspg;Gr; $Ljyhf ,Uf;fpd;wJ. ,it cs;SHg; nra;aKbAk;. gy;fiyf;fof Kiwikapy; gpuNjrq;fisAk; nghUshjhu hPjpahfg; NgWNgw;W kjpg;gPLfs; Fwpg;ghf fy;tprhH gpd;jq;fpa fpuhkq;fisr; rhHe;jitAkhFk;. cj;jpNahfj;jHfSf;Fk; ,lk;ngw;Ws;sd. 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MapDk; mjpfhurigfspd; epWtdhPjpahd fy;tpKiwapy; nryTr; Nrkpg;Gf;fs; tYg;gLj;jy;fs; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLkhdhy;> mjd; %yk; 69. kj;jpa kw;Wk; khfhz mjpfhurigfspd; ngwg;gLk; rpy tsq;fis mj;jifa eilKiw xOq;Ftpjpfs; Mw;wy;fs; kw;Wk; ngWNgw;W Cf;Ftpg;G eltbf;iffis ngWNgWfisg; tYg;gLj;jyhdJ mwpKfQ;nra;tjw;F xJf;fyhk;. fy;tpj;jpl;lkply; epUthfk; kw;Wk; vjpHfhyr; Nrit tpepNahfk; Mfpatw;wpd; fy;tpKiwapy; tfpgq;fpidAk; juhjuj;jpw;Fk; tpidj;jpwDf;Fk; Kf;fpa tifnrhy;yiyAk; xOq;fikj;jy; gq;fspg;ig toq;f KbAk;. mz;ikf;fhyf; 67. fy;tpr;Nrit tpepNahfj;ij nfhs;if eltbf;iffs; kw;Wk; mgptpUj;jp Nkk;gLj;Jtjw;nfdg; ghpe;Jiuf;fg;gl;l Kaw;rpfspypUe;J ngw;w gbg;gpidfs;> cyf eltbf;iffisg; gy kj;jpa mikr;R> tq;fp> Mrpa mgptpUj;jp tq;fp Nghd;w khfhzrigfs; kw;Wk; tya mYtyfq; cjtptoq;FNthuhy; Mjutspf;fg;gl;l fspYs;s murhq;f cj;jpNahfj;jiug; rPHjpUj;jq;fs; mlq;fyhf> epWtd hPjpahd nghWj;jtiuapy; mtHfSila jw;Nghija tYg;gLj;jy;fSf;F mtrukhfj; Njitg;gLk; mjpfhuq;fs; ,tw;iwg; ghlrhiyfs;> Njrpa rpy Kf;fpa gFjpfis fy;tpf; fy;Y}hpfs; kw;Wk; MrphpaH kj;jpa vLj;Jf;fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sd. epiyaq;fs; Nghd;w Kjy;epiyr; Nrit epWtdq;fSf;Fg; gutyhf;Fk;nghOJ epWtdhPjpahf epuw;gLj;jy;fs; GjpaJk; NkyjpfKkhd tfpgq;fpidAk; 70. kj;jpa> khfhz kw;Wk; tya nghWg;Gf;fisAk; Ntz;bepw;fpd;wd. cs;SH mYtyfq;fspd; epUthfr; nray;Kiwfs; epWtdq;fsJ ,j;jifa gutyhf;fy; ePz;litahfTk; ngUk;gSthdjhfTk; nrad;Kiwapd;NghJk; tYT+l;Lk;NghJk; ,Ug;gjhy;> mit eilKiwr; jw;NghJs;s nghWg;Gf;fSk; tifnrhy;Yk; nraw;ghLfspy; fzprkhd jhkjq;fis Nfhyq;fs; kw;Wk; vjpHfhy khjphpfSk; cz;lhf;Ffpd;wd. ,j;jifa kpff;ftdkhfg; gFg;gha;T jhkjq;fSf;fhd xU gpujhd fhuzkhf nra;ag;glNtz;Lk;. tof;nfhope;j Kiwfs; Kf;fpakhd epUthfg; gzpfspy;; gad;gLj;jg;gLjiyf; $wyhk;. kj;jpa> khfhz kw;Wk; tyaf; fy;tp ,it fbjj; njhlHGfs;> Nfhitg;gLj;jy;> mjpfhurigfspd; kdpjts mgptpUj;jp mwpf;iffs; NgZjy;> gjpNtl;Lf; fl;Lg;ghL 68. kj;jpa> khfhz kw;Wk; vd;gdtw;iwAk; cs;slf;Fk;. toikahd tyakl;lq;fspYs;s epUthfj;jpy; gy;epiy kw;Wk; rhjhuz epUthfg; gzpfSf;F fzdp mLf;FfSld; $ba fy;tp MSifapd; kag;gLj;jg;gl;l eilKiwfs; ngUkstpy; rpf;fyhd Kiwikapdhy; kpfg;gue;j epUthf tpidjpwid mjpfhpf;Fk; vdyhk;. njhopy;El;gk; kw;Wk; eltbf;ifj; jpwd;fSk; NjHr;rpfSk; xt;nthU mLf;fpYk; gzpahw;Wk; nfhs;tdTr; nray;ty;yikia tYg;gLj;jy; cj;jpNahfj;jHfSf;Fj; Njitg;gLfpd;wd. 71. murhq;f cj;jpNahfj;jhpd; fy;tp KiwikapYs;s gy;NtW mLf;Ffspy; tpiyf;Nfs;tp Mtzq;fis tiujy;> vy;yhk; tpUj;jpnra;ag;gLk;> njhopy;El;g tpguf;Fwpg;Gfis Maj;jk; eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk; kdpjts cghaq;fs; nra;jy;> MNyhridfis guhl;Ljy;> ahTk; kj;jpa> khfhz kw;Wk; tyaf; fy;tp njhopy;El;g kjpg;gPLl;L mwpf;iffisAk; cj;jpNahfj;jHfSf;F mtrpakhd epUthf Nfs;tpr;rigg; ghpe;JiufisAk; rHtNjr njhopy;El;g kw;Wk; eilKiwj; jpwd;fisAk; kl;lj;jpy; ghpe;Jiuj;jy; gw;wpa Mw;wy;fs; NjHr;rpfisAk; toq;fNtz;Lk;. NkYk; ,e;j kl;Lg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. murhq;f cghakhdJ toikahdJk; njhlHe;J cj;jpNahfj;jhpd; Mw;wy;fisg; gyg;gLj;Jjy; T 26 vjpHfhy epWtd mgptpUj;jpf;F kpfTk; kpfKf;fpakhd tplaq;fshFk;. Kf;fpakhd tplakhFk;. fy;tp Muha;r;rpg; gFg;gha;Tk; murpay; nghUshjhuj; jilfSf;F nfhs;ifahf;fKk; jpl;lkplYk; kw;Wk;; Kfk;nfhLj;jy; nghWg;Ngw;Fk; nray; ty;yikiaAk; 72. gad;ngWNthUf;Fk; tpUj;jpnra;jy; ed;ikngWNthUf;Fk; Kuz;;ghlhd Mdhy; 73. caHkl;lj;jpy; tpidahw;Wk; Kf;fpakhd nfhs;if eltbf;iffspd; fy;tpKiwapd;; mgptpUj;jpapy; Fwpg;ghf epahaq;fis vLj;Jf;$Wjy; rPHjpUj;jq;fspy; gFg;gha;T nfhs;if cUthf;fk; kw;Wk; gad;ngWNthhpd; gq;Nfw;gpidf; jpl;lkply; Mfpa epiyfspy; gq;fspg;Gr; fl;bnaOg;Gjy; vd;Dk; Kf;fpakhd nra;af;$ba %d;W Kf;fpa Kaw;rpfs; tplaq;fspy; murhq;f Mw;wy; ,g;nghOJk; cs;sd. kpjkhfNtAs;sJ. vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf> 1998-2002 fhyg;gFjpapy; murhq;fk; eilKiwg;gLj;jpa fy;tp Muha;r;rp fz;fhzpg;G kw;Wk; ghlrhiy mjpthh;w;j (rationalisation) kjpg;gPl;bid Nkk;gLj;jy; epfo;r;rpj;jp;l;lkhdJ mjd; ,yf;fpy; 75% Nky; 74. Gs;sptpguhPjpahfj; jFjpngw;w va;jpaJ. ,J ed;F tbtikf;fg;gl;l kw;Wk; xOq;FtpjpfisAk; kw;Wk; mstplf;$ba ntw;wpaspj;Js;s (rationalisation) Fwpfhl;bfisAk; mbg;gilahff; nfhz;l epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lkhFk;. MapDk; ,J gy rpwe;j Muha;r;rp> fz;fhzpg;G kw;Wk; kjpg;gPL nrwpthd Kud;ghLfisj; Njhw;Wtpj;jJld;> vd;gd nfhs;ifahf;FNthUf;F kj;jpa kw;Wk; khfhz mjpfhurigfshy;> ngWkjpahdit. Kd;Ndwpa fy;tpKiwfspy; me;epfo;r;rpj;jpl;lj;jpd; epahaq;fis cs;SHr; gFg;gha;T hPjpahf jPtpukhd fy;tp rKjhaq;fSf;F tpsf;fKbahky; Muha;r;rpAk; kjpg;gPLk; fw;wy; gw;wpa Njrpaf; Nghdikahy; 2003 ,y; mjidj; fzpg;gPLfs; cl;gl nfhs;ifahf;fj;jpw;fhd jw;fhypfkhf epWj;jNtz;bNaw;gl;lJ. mbg;gilfisf; nfhz;bUf;fpd;wd. mt;thNw murhq;fk; gy ghlE}y; nfhs;ifj; ,yq;ifapy; fy;tpKiwikahdJ jw;nghOJ njhpT kw;Wk; juhju Nkk;ghL Fwpj;J gy Kf;fpakhd Kaw;rpfshd tUlhe;j Nkw;nfhz;lnghOJ mJTk; gy ghlrhiy Fbkjpg;G> Njrpa fy;tp Muha;r;rp Kud;ghLfisj; Njhw;Wtpj;jJld;> mjid kjpg;gPl;L epiyaj;jpdhy; (NEREC) eilKiwg;gLj;JtjidAk; gy Nkw;nfhs;sg;gl;l 4Mk; juj;jpyhd fw;wy; Mz;LfSf;Fj; jhkjpj;jJ. kPz;Lk; kj;jpa tpisTfs; gw;wpa fzpg;gPL> NEREC ,d; kw;Wk; khfhz mjpfhhpfs; tpidj;jpwDld; fy;tp Kfhikj;Jt eilKiwfs; gw;wpa nfhs;ifis vLj;Jf;$Wk; mstwp Ma;T vd;gd nropg;ghd kw;Wk; nray;ty;yikapd;wpf; fhzg;gl;ldH. rpy jfty; tpsf;fKs;s fz;fhzpg;G kw;Wk; ghlq;fspy; gw;whf;Fiw epyTfpd;wNghjpYk; kjpg;gPl;Lr; rl;lfj;jpw;fhd mbg;gilfis Fwpg;ghf Mq;fpyk; kw;Wk; jkpo;nkhop toq;Ffpd;wd. fy;tp Muha;r;rp> fz;fhzpg;G %yj;jpYk; gw;whf;Fiw cs;sNghjpYk; kw;Wk; kjpg;gPl;L Kiwfshd fy;tprhH nkhj;jj;jpy; MrphpaH njhifia kpifahf; ngWNgWfspd; gFg;gha;T> nfhs;if nfhz;Ls;sJ. MapDk; ,d;Dk; Mf;fj;jpw;fhd fhuzpfs; vd;gdtw;wpw;F MrphpaHfis epakpg;gjw;fhd mOj;jk; tpN\l Kf;fpaj;Jk; nfhLj;J mgptpUj;jp $Ljyhf cs;sJ. mNjNtisapy; nra;ag;gLjy; Ntz;Lk;. fy;tp Muha;rp Ntiyaw;w fw;w,isQHfspd; fz;fhzpg;G kw;Wk; kjpg;gPl;L nraw;ghLfs; mOj;jq;fisAk; Fiwf;fNtz;bAs;sJ. msT kw;Wk; gz;G hPjpahd Kiwfisg; ,Ug;gpDk; epUthf mLf;fpy; xt;nthU gad;gLj;Jtjw;F Cf;Ftpf;fg;gLtJld; etPd khtl;lj;jpYKs;s murhq;ff; fy;tp Muha;r;rp El;gq;fshd ghpNrhjidrhH KftHfspdJk; nray;ty;yikia tbtikg;G vOkhw;wha; mike;j tYg;gLj;jy; rf;jptha;e;j Mdhy; NrhjidKiw kw;Wk; neLq;Nfhl;L mstPL Kuz;ghLila nfhs;if eltbf;iffspd; vd;gdtw;iwAk; gad;gLj;j Cf;Ftpj;jy; tpsf;fj;ij vLj;Jf;$wy;> gad;ngWNthhpd; Ntz;Lk;. Mjuitf; fl;bnaOg;Gjy; vd;gd vjpHfhy epWtdhPjpahd tYg;gLj;jy;fSf;F T 27 eLj;juf;fhy ghjPL jahhpj;jy; kw;Wk; gy nghJr; nrytpdj; jlk;gjpj;jy;. Mz;LfSf;fhd jpl;lkply; vy;iyfs;. 76. nghJr;nrytpdj; jlk;gjpj;jy; 75. fy;tpj; jpl;lkpliyAk; ts KiwikahdJ> fy;tpf; nfhs;if Kfhikj;Jtj;ijAk; Nkk;gLj;Jk; Kf;fpa Mf;FNthUf;Fk; epjp mYtyh;;f;Fkhd Kaw;rpahf gy Mz;Lj; jpl;lkpliy Kf;fpakhd Kfhikj;Jtf; fUtpfisf; ,yFgLj;Jk; eLj;jug; ghjPl;Lr; nfhz;bUg;gJld; eLj;juf;fhyg; ghjPl;L rl;lfnkhd;wpid Fwpg;gplyhk;. eLj;juf;fhyg; Kiwf;Fk; Fiwepug;gpahf tpsq;Fk;. ,J ghjPlhdJ %d;W tUl fhyj;jpidf; kj;jpa murhq;fj;Jf;Fk; khfhzq;fSf;Fk; nfhz;bUg;gJld; Gjpa jfty;fisAk;; fy;tpKiwapd; %yk; Vw;gLk; epjpg;gha;r;ry;> Njitfisf; ftdj;jpw; nfhz;l tUlhe;j ghlrhiyfs;> gy;fiyf;fofq;fs;> Njrpa ,w;iwepiyg;gLj;jy;fSf;fhd fy;tpf; fy;Yhhpfs; kw;Wk; Mrphpah; kj;jpa Vw;ghLfisAk; nfhz;ljhFk;. eLj;juf;fhyg; epiyaq;fs; Nghd;w gy NrittpepNahf ghjPlhdJ> fy;tp mgptpUj;jpf;fhd ePz;lfhy epiyaq;fis milAk; cz;ik tsepiy $l;Lj; jpl;lj;jpidAk; Nrh;j;Jf; nfhs;Sk;. gw;wpa jfty;fisAk; toq;fKbAk;. ,e;j ,J tsq;fspd; vjph;T$wiy Nkk;gLj;Jtjd; KiwfspD}lhd tsg;gha;r;rypd; %yk; Kfhikj;Jtj;ijAk; ,yFgLj;Jk; ntspg;gilahd jd;ikiaAk; mjpfhpf;fpwJ. .mj;Jld; jw;nghOJs;s tUlhe;jg; fy;tp mgptpUj;jpahdJ gbtsh;r;rp ghjPl;bdhy; ,lkspf;fg;gl;ljpYk; ghh;f;f ngwNtz;bajhYk; kj;jpa murhq;f kw;Wk; ePz;lfhy mgptpUj;jp mDgtq;fis khfhzj; jpl;lq;fisr; nrg;gdpl toq;fTk; cjTk;. Ntz;bajhYk; mj;jifa jfty;fs; nfhs;ifahf;fj;jpw;Fk; ts xJf;fPl;Lf;Fkhd gpd;D}l;lyhf mikAk;. T 28 Chapter One THE EDUCATION SYSTEM: POLICIES, ENROLMENT AND ORGANIZATION 1.0 Introduction The Sri Lankan policy makers were far ahead of their time in 1.1. The Sri Lankan education who designed the basic viewing human capital as a system has been celebrated in framework of the education promising investment with the development policy circles and system, in the 1930s and 1940s, potential to produce a wide the economic literature for its Figure 1.1. Adult Literacy Rates in Relation to National Income per success in providing widespread Capita, 1987-1990 access to primary and secondary education and 120 enabling the country to attain y = 17.58Ln(x) - 53.323 comparatively high human 100 development levels for a low Sri Lanka 9 13 income economy. Up to the % 80 early 1990s Sri Lanka enjoyed Rate 8 the highest basic social development outcomes relative 60 Literacy 1. Sri Lanka to per capita income among 2. India 2 3. Pakistan 2 virtually all developing Adult 4. Nepal 40 5. Bangladesh countries [see Kakwani (1993), 5 6. Maldives 3 7. Bhutan UNDP (1998),]. This 8. Malaysia 4 9. Thailand achievement was the result of 20 10. S. Korea 11. Hong Kong strategic public policy 12. Singapore decisions, over several 13. Costa Rica 0 successive 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 generations, to 4000 invest resources in education, National Income per Capita (US$) health and other social services. Source: World Bank estimates, calculated from UNDP (2003). 1 Figure 1.2. Adult Literacy Rates in Relation to National Income per education advantage, and are in Capita, 2001 the process of producing a set of wide-ranging policy initiatives 120 y = 12.819Ln(x) - 10.54 to advance and develop the education system to an 100 9 6 internationally prominent level 13 Sri Lanka again [see NEC (2003)]. 8 80 (%) Rate 1. Sri Lanka 1.1 The Policy 60 2. India 2 3. Pakistan Framework and 4. Nepal Literacy 5. Bangladesh 3 Organization of the 40 5 6. Maldives Adult 7. Bhutan Education Sector 8. Malaysia 9. Thailand 20 10. S. Korea Overarching policy objectives. 11. Hong Kong 12. Singapore 1.3. The education sector has 13. Costa Rica 0 three cardinal policy objectives. 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 National Income per Capita (US$) a. Providing universal access to primary and Source: World Bank estimates, calculated from UNDP (2003). secondary education, combined with full range of important economic income, with an actual literacy enrolment and completion and social benefits [see rate more than two standard of the compulsory basic Sumathipala (1968) Jayasuriya deviations above the predicted education cycle (grades 1- (1969)]. rate given by the regression line. 9). More recently, however, this 1.2. The leading position b. Attaining high levels of advantage in education and among developing countries education quality, literacy has been lost as other enjoyed by Sri Lanka in measured in terms of countries also invested heavily education, up to the early 1990s, cognitive achievement, in basic education and attained is illustrated in Figure 1.1, subject content mastery, high levels of literacy. The lost which shows the adult literacy and broader outcomes advantage is illustrated in Figure rates of developing economies such as good team work, a 1.2, which shows the adult against their per capita incomes. disciplined work ethic, a literacy rates of developing Actual literacy rates are plotted positive, solution oriented economies against their per on the graph, and the predicted approach to problems, capita incomes in 2001. At this literacy rates based on per capita ability to take initiative recent date, there are several incomes are shown by the and display dynamism, countries with higher actual regression line. Among all able leadership, effective literacy rates relative to their developing countries, as communication, and predicted rates than Sri Lanka1. recently as 1987-1990, Sri respect for diversity in the Sri Lankan policy makers are Lanka had the highest literacy context of a multi-ethnic, aware of the country's lost level relative to per capita multi-religious society. 1. Some of the low income countries above Sri Lanka in Figure 1.2 are former planned economies whose per capita income levels fell from much higher levels during their transition to market economies during the 1990s. Hence, the number of countries which have actually overtaken Sri Lanka is overestimated in Figure 1.2. However, the leading position occupied by Sri Lanka up to the early 1990s has indeed been eroded, as other countries have caught up and surpassed Sri Lanka. 2 c. Producing high quality highest level of senior secondary has made Sri Lanka one of the human capital and human education, or graduating from a few countries in the world to resources capable of technical institution. There is legally forbid the establishment making a powerful considerable horizontal mobility of schools. Other low income contribution to human at the tertiary education level, countries and states famous for development, economic with only entrance to public their high basic education growth and poverty universities restricted to GCE attainment levels, such as Costa reduction. A/L completers. Rica and the state of Kerala in India, rely heavily on the private Organization of the education Education organization in sector. In Kerala, for instance, and training system relation to development policy more than half of school 1.4. The education sector is models enrollment is in private schools. organized into four major stages 1.5. The Sri Lankan education The political economy context [see Figure 1.3]. The earliest system has followed the of Sri Lanka also makes it stage, catering to children aged classical recipe of development impossible to invest in private 3-5, is that of Early Childhood policy in two important respects. universities, although there is no Development. This stage is First, it has emphasized the explicit legal barrier. However, mainly outside the formal importance of public financing from the 1990s onwards it has government education system, and provision of primary and been possible to establish with virtually all pre-schools, basic education to the entire private degree awarding such as nurseries, kindergartens population. This visionary institutions, as long as they do and Montessories being in the emphasis, commencing in the not carry the title "university". private sector. The second stage 1930s and 1940s, was In preventing formal private is that of formal schooling, with generations ahead of its time. universities the Sri Lankan primary (grades 1-5), junior Second, Sri Lanka limited education system deviated from secondary (grades 6-9) and public resources devoted to the model adopted by some of senior secondary (grades 10-13) tertiary education, awarding the highest performing education cycles. Compulsory emphasis to the primary and education systems in the world, basic education covers the basic cycles. The fruits of these such as South Korea, which primary and junior secondary policies have been reaped in concentrated public resources on education cycles, grades 1-9. subsequent generations, with primary and basic education, The third stage is that of basic education attainment, followed by secondary vocational training and technical primary health outcomes and education, while leaving education. Entry is open to the social development indicators university education largely to vocational and technical levels close to levels observed in the private sector. Recently, of the training sector from two upper-middle income and however, Sri Lankan education points in the formal school developed countries. policy makers have system, at grade 9 upon recommended amending completing basic education and 1.6. Sri Lanka has also legislation to allow private at grade 11 upon passing the deviated from the classical schools and private universities GCE O/L examination. The recipe in one important respect.to be established [see NEC fourth stage is that of tertiary The establishment of private (2003)]. education and training, with schools from grades 1-9 was entry open to students legally banned in the early successfully completing the 1960s. This legal prohibition GCE A/L examination, the remains in force to date. This 3 Figure 1.3. Organizational Structure of the Sri Lankan Education and Training System Early Childhood Development Nursery Kindergarten, Montessori Primary and Secondary Education Primary Education Grades 1-5 Junior Secondary Education Grades 6-9 The Training System Senior Secondary Education GCE O/L Cycle (Grades 10-11) Vocational Training Technical Education Senior Secondary Education GCE A/L Cycle (Grades 12-13) Tertiary Education University Professional and Advanced Undergraduate Non-University Technical Education Tertiary Education Education Postgraduate Education 4 1.2 The Education policy framework, with the Western Province has 627 System: Enrolment, Grade establishment of new private students per school. Cycle Transition and schools forbidden by law since The compulsory education cycle Completion the early 1960s. (grades 1-9) The school system 1.8 The network of1.9. Net enrolment in grade 1 1.7. The public sector government schools has been is about 97% for both boys and dominates primary and laid to provide universal access girls, and nearly all children secondary education, accounting to primary and secondary complete grade 5 [see Figure for 93% of schools and 95% of education. This cardinal policy 1.4]. At the end of the student enrolment. Overall, objective has largely been compulsory education cycle, approximately 4 million school achieved, with a comparatively grade 9, completion rates are children are enrolled in about even distribution of schools and 81% for boys and 84% for girls. 9,800 public schools, around teachers, in relation to student The high primary education 97,000 students are enrolled in enrolment, across the country (grades 1-5) and junior about 80 private schools, and [see Table 1.1]. The average secondary education (grades 6- approximately 55,000 students student-teacher ratio for the 9) enrolment rates are the are enrolled in around 600 state country is low, 21:1, and ranges outcome of several funded pirivena (temple) from 19:1 in the North-Western complementary and mutually schools. These students follow Province to 23:1 in the Western reinforcing policies, such as the national school curriculum and North-Eastern Provinces. tuition free schooling, special and sit national examinations. In The average school size in Sri education programs for addition, about 70,000 students Lanka is about 410 students, disadvantaged students, free are enrolled in around 150-200 with the relatively rural and textbooks, free uniforms and international schools, which sparsely populated subsidized transport, and of offer foreign curricula and Sabaragamuwa, North-Eastern strong household demand for prepare students to sit overseas and North-Central provinces education. examinations. The main reason containing just under 350 for the dominance of the public students per school, while the 1.10 The evidence also shows sector in the school system is the largely urban, densely populated that Sri Lanka has not yet Table 1.1. Government Schools, Student Enrolment and Teachers, by Province, 2002. Province Number of Number of Number of Average Student Schools Students Teachers School Size Teacher Ratio Western 1,393 873,434 38,187 627 23 Central 1,483 539,262 27,447 364 20 Southern 1,151 544,109 26,984 473 20 North-Eastern 1,802 628,195 27,361 349 23 North-Western 1,250 481,510 24,839 385 19 North-Central 783 269,380 13,010 344 21 Uva 829 299,897 14,464 362 21 Sabaragamuwa 1,135 391,288 19,520 345 20 Sri Lanka 9,826 4,027,075 191,812 410 21 Source: World Bank estimates, based on Ministry of Education, School Census, 2002. 5 Figure 1.4. Net Compulsory Education Completion Rates, and completion in the Grades 1-9, 2001 compulsory education cycle. In this context, the government's 105 special education programs, non-formal education programs 100 and programs for disabled (%) children are likely to be Girls rates 95 particularly important. Boys The senior secondary 90 education, GCE O/L and GCE Completion A/L cycles 85 1.11 School completion rates are less satisfactory in the 80 senior secondary cycle, with 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Grade comparatively low examination pass rates at the GCE O/L Source: Ministry of Education, School Censuses, various years. (grade 11) and GCE A/L (grade achieved universal compulsory from poorer homes, 13) examinations [see Table education, with about 18% of economically disadvantaged 1.2]. The average pass rate at children failing to complete geographical regions such as the the GCE O/L examination for grade 9. Hence, there still exists rural hinterland, conflict the country as a whole is 37%, a considerable challenge to meet affected areas and the estate implying that only about one out the target of providing all sector, or are disabled and of every three candidates children between ages 6-14 with handicapped children. Strong successfully completes the GCE 9 years of schooling. Further, an policy action is needed to reach O/L examination. Pass rates in important equity issue exists, as these vulnerable socio- the poorer and more the 18% of children who fail to economic groups, and achieve disadvantaged areas of the complete grade 9 are drawn the target of universal enrolment country, such as the North- Table 1.2. GCE O/L and GCE A/L Examination Pass Rates, by Province, 2002 Province Number of Number of Proportion of Number of Number of Proportion of Students Students Students Students Students Students Appearing Completing the Successfully Appearing Completing the Successfully for the GCE O/L Examination Completing the for the GCE A/L Completing the GCE O/L and Qualifying for GCE O/L GCE A/L Examination GCE A/L Examination the GCE A/L Cycle Examination % Examination Examination % Western 78,832 37,674 48 49,051 26,543 54 Central 48,641 15,757 32 24,564 13,491 55 Southern 48,390 17,801 37 27,337 15,599 57 North-Eastern 41,659 13,088 32 28,088 16,254 58 North-Western 41,609 15,779 38 22,226 12,892 58 North-Central 22,180 6,769 31 10,305 5,413 53 Uva 26,262 8,104 31 11,684 6,120 52 Sabaragamuwa 34,743 11,842 34 18,681 10,597 57 Sri Lanka 342,316 126,814 37 191,936 106,909 56 Source: Ministry of Education, National Evaluation and Testing Service. 6 Figure 1.5. Time Trend of GCE O/L and GCE A/L Pass Rates, ranging from 52% in the Uva 1993-2002 Province to 58% in the North- Western and North-Eastern 70 Provinces. The relatively even distribution of GCE A/L 60 examination pass rates across GCE A/L 50 the country can be attributed to (%) two key factors: (i) policy 40 Rates initiatives to ensure a wide GCE O/L 30 network of good quality Pass secondary schools in all 20 provinces; and (ii) selectivity 10 effects, as students in the GCE A/L cycle are the most able 0 pupils in their age cohorts. 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Year 1.13. The time trend of GCE Source: Ministry of Education, National Evaluation and Testing Service. O/L and GCE A/L pass rates Eastern, North-Central, Uva and 1.12. GCE A/L examination shows that, over about the past Central Provinces, range from pass rates average about 56% for ten years, there has been 31%-32%. The prosperous and the country as a whole, improvement in GCE O/L pass advanced Western Province suggesting that about one out of rates, but that GCE A/L pass alone stands out among the every two candidates is rates have been relatively geographical regions, with GCE successful at this examination. constant [see Figure 1.5]. GCE O/L pass rates of 48%, This is on the low side, given O/L pass rates have risen from indicating that about one out of that only the best students about 22% in 1993 to 37% in every two candidates in this area survive through to the GCE A/L 2002, with much of the successfully completes the GCE cycle. The pass rates across the improvement occurring in the O/L examination. provinces are fairly similar, mid-late 1990s. In the GCE A/L Table 1.3. Tertiary Education Enrolment Rates, 2002 Province Total Tertiary University Professional and Technical Enrolment % Enrolment % Other Courses % Education % Western 16 5 9 3 Central 8 3 3 2 Southern 10 3 6 2 North-Eastern n/a n/a n/a n/a North-Western 7 2 4 1 North-Central 6 1 4 1 Uva 7 3 2 2 Sabaragamuva 9 3 4 2 Sri Lanka 11 3 6 2 Source: World Bank estimates, based on Department of Census and Statistics Labor Force Survey data. No estimates are presented for the North-Eastern Province as the survey did not cover this region. Note: Numbers may not add up due to rounding. 7 cycle, pass rates have remained such as India, Morocco, private and public sector is fairly steady between 1994 and Vietnam and Mauritius. The uncertain, but can be assumed to 2002, except for one unusually major proportion of tertiary be about evenly shared.2 On this high year, 1995 and one poor enrolment, about 6%, is in assumption, about 70% of year, 1999. Sri Lankan policy courses outside the university tertiary education enrolment is makers have recognized that the and formal technical education in the private sector, and the country faces an important sector. These students are balance in the public sector. The challenge to increase the quality enrolled in the private sector in a high proportion of private sector of education and enable students variety of professional courses, enrolment at the tertiary level, in to achieve the standards set for such as IT, management, contrast to the primary and the GCE O/L and GCE A/L accounting, marketing, law, secondary levels, can be examinations [see Wijesuriya business and finance. University attributed to the policy (2003), Perera et al (2003), enrolment is approximately 3%, framework, which does not Karunaratne (2003) and and advanced technical legally prohibit private Wijeratne et al (2003)]. education enrolment about 2%. investment at the tertiary level.3 Tertiary education enrolment 1.15. The majority of university 1.16. The regional distribution 1.14. The overall tertiary students, about four-fifths of of overall tertiary education education enrolment rate is enrolment, attend public enrolment shows that the about 11% of the eligible universities, while the balance Western Province enjoys higher population [see Table 1.3]. This attend private degree awarding levels than other provinces. This is slightly above the South Asia institutions. The exact can be attributed to the wealth of average (10%), and distribution of advanced the Western Province, which approximately equal to countries technical education between the contains a greater number of high income households who Box 1.1. Early Childhood Development: can afford to pay for private a Special Case of Private Service Delivery tertiary education. The Uva Province, which is one of the Early childhood development is not formally part of the Sri Lankan poorest regions of the country, education system. However, policy makers have shown interest in integrating early childhood development into the education system and has the lowest enrolment in linking it with the primary school curriculum [see NEC (1997), (2003), professional and other courses, Ministry of Social Welfare (2003)]. Further, there has been rapid growth which are mainly supplied by of pre-schools and nurseries in the private sector. In the 1970s, there private providers. This is were an estimated 2,000 pre-schools and nurseries. By 2003, this plausible, as private investment number had increased to be between 11,000 and 12,500, exceeding in is likely to be small in poor quantity the number of schools in the country [see Abhayadeva (2003), Wijetunge and Wickremaratne (2003)]. The participation of children regions. The North-Central aged 3-5 in pre-school education, estimated to be about 20% in the Province has the lowest 1980s, rose to 40% in 1994 and to 60% in 2001. The NEC (2003) enrolment in both university and recommends connecting learning activities for children aged 3-5 with technical education. This is the more formal school system from age 6 upwards and establishing consistent with other studies quality standards. This represents an important area for future analysis which show that the North- and policy development for Sri Lankan education policy makers. Central Province is one of the 2. There are over 900 registered private training institutions. While the majority of these institutions specialize in skills development activities for less educated individuals, some offer courses at tertiary level, too. 3. The political economy context has prevented private universities from being established, with violent opposition from some student groups and political forces. However, there is no such opposition to private non-university tertiary education programs. 8 most educationally education enrolment rates have and technical education. disadvantaged regions of the expanded about 38% over the However, provincial councils country [see NEC (2003)].4 period 1997-2002. play an important role in the flow of public education 1.17. The time trend of tertiary finances and in the education enrolment shows that, 1.3 The Governance administration of the school over the recent past, enrolment Framework of the system [see Figure 1.7]. In fact, has risen from about 8% in 1997 Education System education is the most to 11% in 2002 [see Figure 1.6]. 1.18. The education sector has a decentralized sector in the The increase has come, over complex governance country, with education budgets time, from all three components framework, combining elements typically accounting for over of tertiary education, of deconcentration, delegation half of all provincial professional and other courses, and devolution of functions and expenditures. universities and technical powers between the central education. The initial increase, government and the eight 1.19. Education policy makers in 2000, came from the provincial councils. The central and legislators have sought to university system, mainly due to government is responsible for combine the advantages of expansion of public universities national education policy at all centralized academic systems, and private degree awarding levels, covering pre-schools, which facilitate goals such as institutions. This was succeeded primary and basic education, nation-building, increasing by an increase in private non- secondary education, university social cohesion and establishing degree tertiary education education, vocational training quality standards, with the courses in 2002. Overall, tertiary advantages of delegated Figure 1.6. Tertiary Education Enrolment Trends, 1997-2002 management systems, such as increased proximity of administrative services to 12 Total Tertiary beneficiaries, especially students, parents and guardians. 10 Current policy thinking is to 8 further devolve education (%) management down to the level Private Tertiary 6 of individual education institutions, especially schools, Enrolment 4 to empower front line service Advanced Technical providers such as principals, 2 section heads and teachers, and Public University involve local communities - closely, to increase school 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 effectiveness and performance Years [See NEC (2003)].5 Source: World Bank estimates, based on Department of Census and Statistics Labor Force Survey data, various years. 4. Tertiary enrolment in the North-Eastern Province can be assumed to be about the same rate or slightly less than the North- Central and Uva Provinces. This region, which has been damaged by over 20 years of secessionist conflict, is the most disadvantaged in the country. 5. Sri Lanka has a long history of school based management and administration, going at least as far back as the Town Schools Ordinance of 1902. Centralization away from schools to higher levels of government, however, took place during the 1950s and 1960s, especially as the public education system became formalized and expanded rapidly. 9 Figure 1.7. Flow of Government Education Resources in the School System Ministry of Finance Ministry of Provincial Councils Finance Commission Provincial Council Own Revenues Provincial Council Chief Minister Chief Secretary Education Secretary Provincial Education Director Zonal Education Office Provincial Provincial School School Central government functions subsidies, to increase school library and reading habits 1.20. Within the school system, attendance; (v) administer development programs. The central government institutions professional development actual delivery of these services are responsible for: (i) programs and courses for often combine central establishing the school principals, section heads and government education staff and curriculum; (ii) setting the teachers; (vi) conduct provincial education staff, with curricula of teacher education examinations; (vii) administer the latter operating within a institutions; (iii) accrediting about 360 national schools; and matrix management structure of textbooks published by private (viii) conduct a range of central and provincial firms, publishing textbooks and education development responsibility. supplementary readers, and measures and initiatives, such as 1.21. Within the university distributing textbooks; special education programs, system, the central government (iv) providing incentives, such non-formal education programs, is responsible for national as school uniforms and transport adult education programs, and policy, financing, allocation of 10 Figure 1.8. Flow of Resources to Central Government Education Institutions Ministry of Finance Ministry of Education National Colleges National Institute of Education of Education National Schools Universities staff cadre to universities, training services come under the councils and their intermediary national level accreditation and central government. These education agencies, 94 zonal standards setting, and placement operate chiefly as government education offices and 365 of students among universities. departments, with responsibility divisional education offices. Within these broad parameters, for course and program Provincial councils develop however, individual universities development, curriculum education plans and budgets, enjoy considerable autonomy. design, standard setting, employ and deploy education The universities select and accreditation and certification administrators, principals and employ academic staff within under the central authorities. teachers at the provincial level. the approved cadre, produce However, as in the case of Zonal education authorities curricula and design syllabi, universities, vocational training transfer and deploy principals accredit courses, deliver degree and technical education and teachers within zones. programs and other tertiary level institutions enjoy considerable Provincial councils also support courses, conduct examinations, autonomy over academic small vocational training and certify graduates, and undertake activities within institutions, and technical education activities, research and consulting chiefly operate as semi- especially for school completers activities. In addition, funds autonomous agents within a at grade 9 and grade 11. raised by universities are used to deconcentrated framework. However, the relationship employ staff, conduct research Provincial councils, too, operate between the central and and engage in academic skills development institutions, provincial authorities in activities without needing although these are typically delivering vocational training sanction from external small and less developed than services tends to be less government authorities. central government institutions. organized and structured than in Essentially, universities operate the school education system. as highly autonomous agents Provincial council functions within a deconcentrated 1.23. The provincial councils Performance incentives within governance system. play an important role within the the public education system school system. About 9,500 1.24. The incentives faced by 1.22. In the vocational training schools (97% of public schools key agents within this and technical education system and 88% of all schools) are institutional framework, such as the main institutions delivering administered by eight provincial central education ministry 11 officials, provincial and zonal weakened by two key factors. education system, also exist. education staff, principals, First, financial incentives for The government is currently in school teachers, university performance are low within the the process of developing academics and administrators, public service. The government further important components of are critical factors affecting the wage and salary structure is a good quality service delivery performance of the education highly compressed, with small framework, such as: (i) a system. Within government annual increments. Hence, the medium-term program organizations, explicit and opportunity cost of non- budgeting framework with a implicit performance incentives performance is low. Second, multi-year planning horizon; exist through a reward system, promotions are mainly seniority and (ii) performance appraisal such as appointments to based, which further weakens systems for principals, teachers, positions of high status, performance incentives. These university academics and promotions, greater are system-wide problems education administrative responsibility, job security, more within the public service as a officials. interesting and stimulating whole, and not specific to the work, and decreased education sector. supervision. Such performance incentives exist, in principle, at The institutional foundation for all levels of the Sri Lankan education service delivery education system. For instance, 1.25. The basic institutional high performing teachers can foundation to deliver public become principals, teacher education services exists, in educators or curriculum principle, between the central developers; good school government and provincial principals can assume councils. Several characteristics responsible positions in zonal of good first stage public service education offices or provincial institutions, such as: (i) input- education offices; and provincial oriented line-item budgeting; (ii) and zonal officials can seek legal cadres of public education positions in the central officials, like principals, ministries. University lecturers teachers, education who acquire postgraduate administrators, teacher research degrees can get tenure educators and university and promotion as senior academics; (iii) opportunities for lecturers; senior lecturers with professional development and good publication and teaching career progress of academic and records can be promoted as administrative staff; and (iv) associate professors and cash accounting systems, are professors; and senior university already established. In addition, academics who demonstrate characteristics of good second good administration skills can stage public service institutions, become heads of departments, such as institutionalized deans of faculties and vice- performance auditing within a chancellors of universities. The supreme audit institution, the actual operation of this incentive Auditor General's Department, system, however, has been and an internal audit within the 12 Chapter Two ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL BENEFITS OF INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION 2.0 Introduction producing a healthy and 2.1 Economic Benefits of 2.1 Investment in education prosperous society. The Investment in Education: has played a central role in Sri economic and development External Efficiency Lankan government policy for policy literature identifies two Social and private rates of several generations. Key aims of important streams of social return to education public education policy have benefits that flow from included: (i) enhancing investment in education, 2.2. The external efficiency of economic equity; (ii) promoting efficiency gains and equity human capital investment is inter-generational social improvements. This chapter substantial. The three main mobility; (iii) increasing labor analyzes the performance of the education levels, compulsory productivity and earnings Sri Lankan education system in schooling, senior secondary through human capital terms of both these streams of schooling and university accumulation; and (iv) benefits, efficiency and equity. education, yield generous Table 2.1. Social and Private Rates of Return to Education, 2002 Education Level Social Rates of Private Rates of Return to Education Return to Education Men % Women % Men % Women % Compulsory Education 15 20 19 25 Senior Secondary 20 18 25 22 University 11 10 26 24 Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Labor Force Survey 2002. Social and private rates of return to education have been computed by the elaborate method, where earnings streams are simulated for individuals at different levels of education. The public cost of education is included in the computation of social returns. Regression equations underlying the simulations are controlled for other factors affecting earnings, such as experience, technical training, labor supply, employment sector and economic sector. The life-cycle earnings streams for the various education levels were set to commence after the average job search duration for each level of education. Values in the table have been rounded to the nearest integer. 13 economic benefits [see Table 2.3. The estimated levels and and women, over a large range of 2.1]. Among men, social rates of pattern of social rates of return the education system [see Table return to education are highest at to education produce three 2.2]. Among men, all levels of the senior secondary schooling important policy conclusions. education are significantly and level, 20%, followed by First, education is clearly an positively associated with compulsory schooling, 15%, and economically profitable earnings. In addition, the university education, 11%. investment, with a high social relationship between education Among women, social rates of rate of return.6 In consequence, and male earnings increases as return to education are highest at there is a strong case for the level of education rises, the compulsory schooling level, increasing investment in implying positive incremental 20%, followed by senior education. Second, the social private returns to education over secondary schooling, 18%, and benefits of education are highest all education grade cycles. university education, 10%. at the senior secondary and Among women, too, all Private rates of return to compulsory education levels. education levels are significantly education are also considerable. Hence, when extra public and positively related to Among men, the private rate of resources become available for earnings, provided the individual return is largest for university education, these funds should be has at least completed primary education, 26%, followed by allocated to expand enrolment education. Further, the senior secondary education, and completion, and increase the association between education 25%, and compulsory schooling, quality of education, at the and female earnings rises as the 19%. Among women, the compulsory basic schooling education level increases from private rate of return is highest level and the senior secondary primary schooling upwards, at the compulsory schooling education level. Third, at the indicating favorable private level, 25%, followed by university level, as well-known marginal returns to education. university education, 24% and in the economic literature, the Overall, the findings strongly senior secondary schooling, major portion of benefits accrue support the notion that education 22%. The difference between as private gains to university is a profitable investment, for private and social rates of return graduates. Further, these private both men and women, in terms to education at the compulsory benefits to university education of increasing earnings. These schooling and senior secondary are substantial. In consequence, findings are consistent with the schooling levels is modest, from a policy perspective, idea that education enables mainly due to the low unit costs further expansion of university individuals to accumulate human of education at these schooling education should be left mainly capital, increase labor levels. In contrast, the difference to private investment. productivity and improve between private and social rates earnings. The findings are also of return to education at the Education and earnings consistent with the notion that university level is considerable, 2.4. The relationship between education enables individuals to chiefly due to the high unit cost education and earnings is signal innate abilities to potential of university education, which statistically significant and employers during job search. lowers the social return. strongly positive, for both men 6. Research studies have shown that the returns to education, measured in terms of education attainment, also contains a return to education achievement, if education quality indicators are not explicitly incorporated into the regression equations [see Glewwe (2002)]. The Sri Lankan labor force data sets from which returns to education have been measured do not contain education quality measures. Hence, the estimated rates of return above combine returns to education attainment and education achievement. This implies that the country can benefit from both expanding education access and increasing education quality, especially at compulsory basic and senior secondary education levels, where the social returns are high. 14 Table 2.2. Earnings Functions Corrected for Selection Effects, 2002. Two Stage Least Squares Estimates. Variable Men Women Coefficient 'T' statistic Coefficient 'T' statistic Constant 8.576 63.47 8.517 40.94 Primary education incomplete 0.093 3.00 -0.008 -0.23 Primary education 0.225 7.28 0.128 3.48 Junior secondary education 0.354 11.00 0.379 9.54 GCE O/L 0.497 15.20 0.621 15.78 GCE A/L 0.739 21.36 0.765 18.70 Graduate 1.156 26.05 1.146 23.00 Postgraduate 1.287 17.86 1.158 16.28 Experience 0.027 14.46 0.021 9.33 Experience squared -0.0001 -12.58 -0.0001 -8.21 Training 0.198 12.84 0.157 7.26 Log of weeks worked 0.460 13.76 0.428 8.16 Private sector employee -0.123 -9.12 -0.164 -7.73 Urban sector employee 0.145 10.74 0.167 8.55 Estate sector employee -0.271 -13.01 -0.016 -0.60 Selection effect 0.052 2.53 0.069 4.80 Adjusted R squared 0.409 0.523 F 357.49 254.87 [15, 7,702] [15, 3,454] Sample size 7,718 3,470 Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Labor Force Survey 2002. Private marginal rates of return are largest for junior secondary contrast, entered the labor to various education levels educated women, 13%, followed market relatively recently, and 2.5. The private marginal rates by GCE O/L qualified women, benefit from junior secondary of return to various levels of 11%, and university graduates, education and GCE O/L, which education, derived from the 10%. The pattern of marginal provide opportunities to work in earnings functions above, are returns across education levels technical jobs. Women also shown in Figure 2.1. below. suggests that men benefit more benefit from university Among men, private returns are from the higher levels of the education, which enables them highest for university graduates, school system and university to enter professional and 13%, followed by GCE A/L education, which provide access managerial occupations. qualified individuals, 12%.7 to lucrative professional and Among women, private returns managerial careers.8 Women, in 7. The earnings function method normally produces lower estimates of private returns to education than the alternative elaborate method, mainly due to the larger number of educational levels defined, which increase the opportunity costs of schooling between successive education levels. This difference between the elaborate method and earnings function method is seen in the estimates for Sri Lanka, too. 8. One reason for lower private returns to female employees is that they tend to have interrupted careers, with a dip in female labor force participation in the age range 30-34 [see Appendix Table A1] when small children are being brought up. Labor market interruptions constrain promotions and career progress, and reduce private returns to education. 15 Figure 2.1. Private Marginal Rates of Return to Education, and assessed in the labor market, Men and Women, 2002 and the certification effects of education. Percent 14 Education and occupational attainment 12 13 13 2.7. The impact of education 10 11 12 on an individual's occupational 10 8 Women attainment can be an important Men source of economic benefit, as it 6 7 7 7 facilitates inter-generational 6 6 4 social mobility. The impact of education on occupational 2 2 attainment, controlling for 0 0 family background factors such Primary Primary Junior GCE O/L GCE A/L Graduate as parental earnings, education Incomplete Schooling Secondary and occupational attainment, is Source: World Bank estimates, derived from Selectivity Corrected Earnings Functions, shown in Table 2.3. Education Two-Stage Least Squares Estimates. The regression equations underlying the computations are controlled for other factors affecting earnings, such as clearly has a strong and positive experience, technical training, labor supply, employment sector and economic effect on occupational sector. Controls for innate ability were not available in the data. Hence, the estimated returns to education may be slightly upward biased, including ability attainment. Among men, the components. Note: Values have been rounded to the nearest integer. probability of working in a high 2.6. Overall, the private multiple causal channels, level occupation, such as a marginal rates of return to including human capital managerial, senior education show that both men production and accumulation, administrative or professional and women enjoy substantial the role of education as a position, is positively and economic benefits from signaling-screening mechanism significantly affected by senior investing in education. This is through which ability levels of secondary and tertiary education likely to be the outcome of job seekers are communicated attainment. Among women, too, Table 2.3. The Impact of Education on the Occupational Attainment of Men and Women, 2002. Marginal Effects Derived from a Multinomial Logit Model, Maximum-Likelihood Estimates. Occupational group Men Women Compulsory Senior secondary Tertiary Compulsory Senior secondary Tertiary education education education education education education Legislators, senior officials and managerial occupations 0.01 0.76* 0.91* 0.11 0.77* 0.89* Professionals 0.01 0.79* 0.95* 0.07 0.82* 0.97* Technicians, clerical, sales and service workers 0.34* 0.57* 0.01 0.31* 0.52* 0.12 Skilled workers, crafts persons and artisans 0.56* 0.24* 0.01 0.72* 0.21* na Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Labor Force Survey. The base occupation category, against which the log-odds ratios of the multinomial logit model have been calculated, is elementary occupations. Values have been rounded to the nearest second decimal. The marginal effects marked with an * are statistically significant at the 5% level. 16 the likelihood of reaching a high participation constitutes an statistically insignificant effect level occupation is positively important element of economic [see Glewwe (1985), Sahn and and significantly influenced by modernization and gender Alderman (1987), Aturupane tertiary and senior secondary empowerment. The impact of (1993)]. There are two sets of education. The probability of education on female labor force reasons for the higher labor holding a middle-class participation is shown in Table force participation probabilities occupation, such as a technical, 2.4. below. Education exerts a of women with GCE A/L or clerical, sales or service job, and positive and statistically above. First, there are self- the likelihood of being in a significant effect on female selection effects, as women who working class-occupation, such labor force participation among study to these levels are likely to as a skilled craft or artisan job, women with GCE A/L possess greater ability and are also positively and qualifications, graduates and motivation to work. Second, significantly affected by postgraduates. The incremental highly educated women enjoy compulsory basic education and impact of these education levels higher life-cycle earnings senior secondary education, for on the likelihood of labor force prospects. Hence, the both men and women. Overall, participation increases from opportunity cost of non- education has a strong positive slightly over 1% among GCE participation is greater for such impact on the occupational A/L qualified women to about women. attainment of men and women. 6% for postgraduate qualified This favorable relationship women. Among women with Unemployed educated young between education attainment GCE O/L qualifications or less, people and occupation class represents the impact of education on labor 2.9. The central challenge the central avenue of social force participation is statistically faced by Sri Lankan policy mobility for individuals from insignificant, although makers since the late 1950s has disadvantaged and low status negatively signed. Past studies been the absorption of an household backgrounds. of female labor force increasingly educated young participation in Sri Lanka have labor force into productive Education and female labor shown a similar pattern, with the employment [see Rodrigo et al force participation higher education levels exerting 1987, Alailima (1997), 2.8. The role of education in a positive effect and the lower Aturupane (1997) and World promoting female labor force education levels a negative or Bank (2000)]. The pattern of Table 2.4. The Impact of Education on Female Labor Force Participation, Marginal Effects Derived from a Probit Model, Maximum-Likelihood Estimates (2002) Education level Marginal Effect % T Statistic Primary education incomplete -0.3 -0.93 Primary complete -0.7 -1.63 Junior Secondary -0.9 -1.75 GCE O/L qualified -0.2 -0.60 GCE A/L qualified 1.4 3.80 Graduate 5.2 3.09 Postgraduate 6.1 3.45 Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Labor Force Survey. The probit model is controlled for other factors affecting female labor force participation, such as age, technical training, demographic composition of household, family socio-economic conditions and marital status. 17 Table 2.5. Unemployment Rates by Education Level, Men and Women Education level Age 19-60 Age 19-29 Male % Female % Total % Male % Female % Total % No schooling 2 1 1 6 1 4 Primary education 2 3 2 6 10 7 Junior secondary education 4 7 5 11 15 12 Secondary education 9 13 10 18 21 19 GCE O/L qualified 8 17 11 21 36 27 GCE A/L qualified 10 21 15 27 40 34 Graduates 6 12 9 21 30 26 Postgraduates 3 2 3 na na na All education groups 6 11 8 17 27 20 Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Labor Force Survey (2002). Note: The unemployment rates for postgraduate educated individuals in the age range 19-29 were not calculated due to the small sample of observations available. unemployment across education and university qualified women, especially university graduates, levels is given in Table 2.5. The where unemployment rates are into public employment to unemployment rate for the full as high as 30%-40%. Economic forestall political discontent and labor force aged 19-60 is clearly analysis of the factors associated social unrest.9 The large gender lower, at 6% for men and 11% with unemployment rates have differential in unemployment for women, than for young also shown that the upper levels can be attributed mainly to people aged 19-29, where male of education are positively higher reservation wages among unemployment is 17% and related to unemployment. women and the narrower band female unemployment 27%. The of occupations within which main source of unemployment 2.10. The economic literature female job seekers receive and among young people is the has advanced many reasons for accept employment offers [see transition from school or the phenomenon of unemployed Aturupane (1997), Jayaweera university to work, with the educated young people, and Sanmugam (2002)]. The average length of job search including skills mismatch and main government strategies to around one year. Unemployment job queuing for public sector increase employment, especially rates of young people are employment [see World Bank among educated young people, especially high among educated (2000)]. The principal reason, have been to promote skills groups, such as GCE O/L and however, has been structural development and to increase GCE A/L qualified individuals unemployment caused by the labor market flexibility. The and university graduates, with slow pace of economic growth, former strategy, developing unemployment ranging from which prevented the creation of vocational training and technical 26%-34% for both sexes adequate jobs to match the education, is a supply side combined. Within gender supply of educated youth. In measure and, while important, groups, unemployment is consequence, the government cannot fully combat structural especially high among women, has stepped in regularly over the unemployment caused by especially GCE O/L, GCE A/L past three decades to absorb sluggish economic growth, educated young people, 9. Educated unemployed young people played a leading role in the civil disturbances of 1971 and 1987-89 and in the separatist movement in the northern parts of the country from the 1970s onwards. 18 which results in insufficient nutrition. The probability of a water-borne diseases more demand for educated labor. The child being severely or frequently and effectively [see latter strategy, improving labor moderately underweight de Silva (2003a), Rajapaksa market flexibility, is a promising decreases progressively and (2003)]. For instance, mothers demand side measure. However, significantly as maternal with primary and secondary it is also a measure that has been education rises from middle education were more likely to introduced very recently, secondary (grades 6-10) level seek treatment from medical January 2004, and has not yet through GCE O/L and GCE A/L facilities and to use medicines had time to affect the labor and higher. Similarly, the over the prescribed cycle of market fully. likelihood of a child being treatment than uneducated severely or moderately stunted mothers. Similarly, secondary 2.2 Social Benefits of declines continuously and educated mothers had a higher significantly as the mother's propensity to use necessary Investment in Education: education increases from nutrition supplementation in Externality Effects primary (grade 5) through GCE infancy [see Table 2.7] and to Impact on nutrition and family A/L and above. The positive adopt appropriate weaning health outcomes relationship between maternal practices. This externality effect 2.11. The externality effects of education and child nutrition is of education did not seem to maternal education on child the result of superior nutrition carry through to tertiary nutrition and family health are knowledge and greater ability to educated mothers, however, among the key social benefits of implement favorable nutrition supporting the view that the investing in education. The practices among educated gains of tertiary education are relationship between mother's women. Studies have shown that mainly appropriated by education and child nutrition in educated mothers adopt better graduates as private benefits. Sri Lanka is presented in Table pre-natal and neo-natal One important reason for the 2.6. below. Maternal education practices, obtain and respond absence of a significant clearly plays a strong and faster to new information on relationship between tertiary significant role in reducing the child nutrition, and utilize health education attainment of mothers likelihood of child under- care services for respiratory and and family health may be that Table 2.6. The Impact of Maternal Education on Child Nutrition, 2000. Regression Coefficients from Probit Models, Maximum-Likelihood Estimates Education level of mother Probability of being Probability of being severely or moderately severely or moderately underweight stunted Primary educated mother -0.082 -0.470 (grade 5 completed) (-0.49) (-2.55) Middle secondary educated mother -0.311 -0.757 (grade 6-10) (-1.93) (-3.92) GCE O/L completed -0.397 -0.920 (-2.29) (-4.36) GCE A/L completed or higher -0.920 -1.101 (-4.69) (-4.58) Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Demographic and Health Surveys 1993 and 2000. Values within brackets are 't' statistics. A "child" is defined as children under 5 years. The probit regressions are controlled for household consumption, age of child, gender of child and local public and community facilities. 19 Table 2.7. Proportion of Babies given Colostrum at Birth by Mother's Education Level, 1993 and 2002 Education 1993 2000 % % No schooling 34 65 Primary 45 66 Junior Secondary 54 74 GCE O/L 69 83 GCE A/L na 92 Source: Department of Census and Statistics, Demographic and Health Surveys, 1993 and 2000. women educated to these levels of free government primary and scheme through which on-site normally go to work, so that secondary schools; incentive factory and firm placements can their time at home is too limited schemes such as free textbooks, be received for skills to help improve health and free uniforms and transport development through on-the- nutrition outcomes. subsidies to promote school job training. attendance, especially among Education and deprivation: 2.3 Social Benefits of low-income families; tuition free public universities with poverty rates by education Investment in Education: admission quotas for students attainment of household heads Equity and Distributive from disadvantaged districts; a 2.13. The development Justice regionally widespread system experience of many countries 2.12. A cardinal principle of Sri of vocational training centers, has amply demonstrated the Lankan public policy, ranging many of which offer tuition free power of human capital to over several generations and instruction; and a publicly expand economic opportunities successive governments, has funded apprenticeship training and reduce poverty. In Sri been the promotion of equity and distributive justice through Figure 2.2. Poverty Incidence by Education Level of Household Head (1985/86 and 1995/96) investment in education. Important education legislation, Percent such as the Education 45 44 45 Ordinances of (1939) and 40 38 (1947), stressed the central role 40 of education in achieving 35 33 economic and social equity. 31 30 Recent policy statements, such 24 as NEC (1997) and NEC 25 22 (2003), have restated that 20 advancing equity through education is a fundamental 15 11 10 principle of national policy. In 10 6 support of this principle, GOSL 5 5 maintains and financially 1 1 supports several policy 0 No Primary Lower Upper GCEO/L GCEA/L Graduate initiatives and measures. These Schooling Secondary Secondary and Above include the island-wide network Source: Gunewardena, 2000. 20 Lanka, too, education attainment 1985/86 and 38% in 1995/96. As from junior secondary through is strongly correlated with lower the education level of the to GCE O/L and GCE A/L. This poverty rates [see Figure 2.2]. household head increases pattern of declining poverty as The incidence of poverty is household poverty rates the education level of the highest among households with decrease continually, falling to household head increases is also uneducated heads, 45% in just 1% among households with supported by studies which 1985/86 and 40% in 1995/96. a tertiary educated head. Poverty show the same decreasing Poverty rates are marginally rates fall most sharply when pattern between poverty rates lower among households with household heads move through and education levels of principal primary educated heads, 44% in the secondary education cycle, income earners of households Table 2.8. Multiple Regression Analysis of Economic Welfare, Generalized Least Squares Estimates Dependant Variable is the Logarithm of per capita Consumption Expenditures Variable Female Headed Households Male Headed Households Coefficient T Ratio Coefficient T Ratio Constant 6.38 134.95 6.54 85.56 Variables related to the head of household Age 41-50 years 0.03 0.89 0.04 1.04 Age 51-60 years 0.06 1.61 0.08 1.72 Age 61-70 years 0.11 2.71 0.20 2.82 Age71-80 years 0.09 1.78 0.11 1.46 Primary education (grade 1-5) 0.08 2.63 0.18 3.18 Junior secondary education (grade 6-9) 0.24 7.12 0.20 3.50 Secondary education (grade 10) 0.28 6.51 0.37 5.88 GCE O/L 0.54 12.45 0.59 8.91 GCE A/L 0.45 7.18 0.88 11.34 Unemployed 0.19 3.49 -0.12 -1.66 Homemaker 0.10 3.36 0.13 1.01 Unable to work 0.10 2.97 -0.04 -0.80 Widow/Widower 0.09 3.96 0.09 -0.36 Separated/ Divorced -0.09 -2.18 -0.08 0.44 Unmarried 0.10 1.72 0.04 2.20 Household Variables Household size -0.09 -8.23 -0.11 -6.40 Number of primary earners 0.10 5.39 0.08 2.20 Number of secondary earners 0.09 4.41 0.11 3.96 Number of dependants -0.01 -0.57 -0.09 -1.08 Urban sector 0.29 11.86 0.38 10.97 Estate sector -0.06 -1.36 -0.05 -1.19 Test Statistics Adjusted R2 0.22 0.32 F 38.22 30.88 [21,2801] [21,1337] X2 158.41 89.64 [21] [21] Sample Size 2823 1359 Source: Aturupane, Harsha (1998). Note: F is a Wald test for joint significance of regression coefficients. X2 is the Breusch-Pagan Test for heteroscedasticity. All 't' values have been estimated using heteroscedasticity consistent standard errors. 21 [see Gunewardena (2000)]. The [see Table 2.8]. All education 72% greater. These findings higher earnings received by regression coefficients from show that poor households enjoy educated household heads or primary education upwards are strong welfare gains from principal income earners clearly positively signed and education. help to lift households above the statistically significant at poverty thresholds. Other conventional levels of Education enrolment across factors are also likely to confidence. Further, the economic groups contribute, such as better coefficients generally increase 2.15. Enrolment rates of fertility control and smaller as the education level rises. The children across economic groups family size, more regular regression coefficients suggest show that in the primary employment, and informed that, among male headed education cycle there is a high consumption choices, among households in poor regions, degree of equity between educated households. families with primary educated families from various economic heads consume 20% more than levels [see Table 2.9]. Net Education and economic households with uneducated primary enrolment among poor welfare of poor households heads. This consumption households is 95% and net 2.14. The economic welfare differential rises continuously, primary enrolment among the levels of poor families are with households containing richest quintile 97%.10 At the closely related to the education heads educated up to GCE A/L junior secondary and senior attainment of the household enjoying consumption levels secondary levels, too, the head. A study of household 142% higher. Among female distribution of net enrolment is expenditures among households headed households, families fairly equitable, with enrolment in the poorest regions of Sri with primary educated heads rates ranging from 63%-71% Lanka showed that consumption consume 8% more than and 32%-47% between poor and increased sharply as the households with uneducated non-poor households. These education level of the household heads. Among households with values imply that net enrolment head rose, among both female heads educated up to GCE O/L, among non-poor households is and male headed households this difference in consumption is only 8% higher for junior Table 2.9. Net Enrolment Rates in Major Education Cycles by Economic Groups Consumption quintiles Net primary Net junior Net enrolment Net tertiary enrolment secondary enrolment (grades 10-13) % enrolment % (grades 1-5) % (grades 6-9) % Lowest 1-20 95 61 31 2 Quintile 21-40 96 66 35 2 Quintile 41-60 95 67 41 4 Quintile 61-80 96 77 47 5 Highest 81-100 97 76 60 13 Poor 95 63 32 2 Non-Poor 96 71 47 6 Sri Lanka 96 68 42 5 Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Household Income and Expenditure Survey, Department of Census and Statistics, 1995/96. 10. The quality of education in public schools attended by rich children and poor children can, of course, vary. However, the volume of public investment in schools attended by poor children may well be higher than in schools attended by rich children. The former tend to be disproportionately small schools, with high student teacher ratios, and are more expensive to operate and maintain in per student terms. 22 secondary education and 15% poor households do not survive countries such as the U.K., higher for senior secondary through the secondary education Australia and Singapore. education in comparison to poor system to reach the tertiary households. Further, these education cycle. The disparity in 2.4 Equity of Public enrolment rates by economic tertiary education enrolment quintile are calculated from between poorer households and Education Expenditure 1995/96 data, as this is the most wealthier households is likely to Public education spending recent household income and have remained constant or even across economic groups expenditure survey available. widened since 1995/96, as 2.17. Public expenditure on Evidence from other sources, enrolment expansion in tuition primary and secondary such as school censuses, show free public universities has been education is distributed among that secondary enrolment rates moderate. The main increase in different economic classes with among poorer households have tertiary education enrolment a high degree of equity [see risen considerably since then, so over the past 8 years or so has Figure 2.3]. The Lorenz curves that the school enrolment gap been in fee levying private for primary education and junior between low income and high degree awarding institutions and secondary education, which income households is likely to professional courses and denote the degree of equality of have narrowed further. Overall, programs. These private tertiary public education spending GOSL policy to provide education programs and courses across consumption quintiles, lie universal access to free public are likely to be too expensive for close to the 45% degree line of primary and secondary lower income households, perfect equality. The Lorenz education, reinforced by especially as many of these curve for senior secondary incentives to enroll in school, programs are examined and education lies somewhat further appears to have benefited certified from overseas from the 45% degree line, but is children from poor households institutions in developed nonetheless fairly close to it. substantially. 2.16. Enrolment in tertiary Figure 2.3. Lorenz Curves of Shares of Public Education Expenditure among Economic Groups education, however, reveals sharp disparities between poor 100 and non-poor households. The 90 tertiary enrolment rate among non-poor households is about 80 of three times higher than among 70 poor households. Further, the spending 60 most affluent consumption percentage Junior Secondary Education 50 group accounts for about half of Primary Education education all enrolment. These findings 40 Tertiary education suggest that the benefits of Cumulative public 30 tertiary education accrue mainly 20 to prosperous households. This 10 is plausible, as overall tertiary Senior Secondary Education enrolment levels in Sri Lanka 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 were about 5% in 1995/96 and Cumulative percentage of individuals ordered are currently about 11%. The by per capita consumptions vast majority of students from Source: World Bank estimates. 23 Table 2.10. Inequality Measures of Public Education Expenditure Public education Gini Coefficient of Inequality Coefficient of Variation spending by level % % Primary 0.4 0.1 Junior Secondary 5.1 0.3 Senior Secondary 16.5 3.1 Tertiary 48.4 44.0 Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Household Income and Expenditure Survey, Department of Census and Statistics, 1995/96. This implies that public The Gini coefficient of equality over the primary investment in education over the inequality for primary education education cycle (grades 1-5) primary and secondary is less than 1%, and for junior [see Figure 2.4]. Primary education cycles are shared secondary education about 5%, participation ranges between fairly evenly between affluent, implying a very high degree of 98% in provinces such as middle class, working class and equality of spending across Western, Central, Southern and poor households. This is economic classes at these Uva to 92% in the conflict especially the case for primary education levels. The Gini affected North-East. The schooling and junior secondary coefficient of inequality for average primary participation schooling.11 Public expenditure senior secondary education is rate for the country as a whole is on tertiary education, in about 17%, which again implies 97%. Participation rates in the contrast, is distributed considerable equity of public junior secondary education inequitably across economic expenditure. These findings are cycle (grades 6-9), however, groups, with increasing shares supported by the coefficient of display considerably greater of expenditure accruing to variation of public education variation than at the primary prosperous households. The spending, which ranges from level. The Western and Southern Lorenz curve of tertiary 0.1% for primary schooling to Provinces attain the highest education spending deviates 3% for senior secondary levels of junior secondary substantially from the 45% education. At the tertiary participation, 87%, but degree line of equality. This education level, however, there participation in the North- implies that the incidence of is a high degree of inequality of Western Province is only 78% public tertiary education public education spending, with and the North-Eastern Province spending is quite unequally a Gini coefficient of 48% and a just 73%. There are also distributed. Further, the largest coefficient of variation of 44%. substantial intra-province share of tertiary education variations in junior secondary spending benefits only the 2.5 Regional Dimensions participation. The Vavuniya and richest 20% of households. Batticaloa districts of the North- of Equity: Geographical Eastern Province, for instance, 2.18. These findings are Variations in Equitable attain participation rates of just confirmed by two other Access to Education 55% and 65% respectively. The inequality measures, the Gini Puttalam District of the North- coefficient and the coefficient of The compulsory education cycle Western Province and Nuwara variation, of public education 2.19. School participation rates Eliya District of the Central expenditure [see Table 2.10]. reveal a high degree of regional 11. The quality of public schools attended by poor and affluent students can, of course, vary in favor of the rich. However, the government has several policy measures in place to allocate public resources across schools equitably. Additional resources received by wealthier schools tend to be from private sources, such as past students' association, parents' associations and local philanthropists. 24 Figure 2.4. Participation Rates in the Compulsory Education Cycle Western Province. Similarly, (Grades 1-9), 2001 (Two bars: Grades 1-5 & Grades 6-9). mastery of primary mathematics ranges from 25% in the North- 100 Eastern Province to 52% in the 98 90 98 98 97 97 97 98 97 Western Province, and mastery 92 80 87 87 85 of English language 82 81 81 83 70 78 competencies varies from 5% in 73 the North-Eastern Province to 60 20% in the Western Province. 50 The Central, Uva and North- 40 Central Provinces, too, tend to 30 perform poorly on language and 20 mathematics scores. Intra- 10 regional variations within 0 provinces are also high. In the North-Eastern Province, for Uva Western Central Lanka Southern instance, mastery of first Sri North-Eastern North-WesternNorth-Central Sabaragamuva language ranges from 11% in the Kilinochchi District to 26%- Source: World Bank estimates, based on Ministry of Education, School Census, 2001. 27% in the Vavuniya, Amparai, Province, too, reach 2.20. Average learning achieve- Jaffna and Trincomalee participation rates of only 69% ments in the primary education Districts. Within the Central and 73% respectively. In cycle also show high regional Province, mastery of contrast, the Colombo District variations [see Table 2.11]. The mathematics varies from 22% in of the Western Province and the proportion of primary students the Nuwara Eliya District to Jaffna District of the North- attaining mastery of their first 41% in the Kandy District. Eastern Province achieve very language, Sinhalese or Tamil, Overall, Kilinochchi and high participation rates of 93% varies from 23% in the North- Mullaitivu, the two districts and 92% respectively. Eastern Province to 51% in the most severely affected by the Table 2.11. Primary Education Learning Outcomes by Province, 2003 Province Proportion of students Proportion of students Proportion of achieving mastery of achieving mastery of students achieving their first language mathematics mastery of the (Sinhalese or Tamil) % % English language % Western 51 52 20 Central 34 33 8 Southern 43 44 13 North-Eastern 23 25 5 North Western 42 43 9 North Central 36 41 8 Uva 34 35 8 Sabaragamuva 40 43 10 Sri Lanka 37 38 10 Source: National Assessment of Grade 4 Cognitive Achievement, National Education Research and Evaluation Center, University of Colombo. 25 Table 2.12. Net Enrolment in Senior Secondary Education and GCE O/L and GCE A/L Examination Pass Rates, 2002 Province Senior secondary Proportion of students Proportion of students (grades 10-13) successfully completing the successfully completing the net enrolment rate % GCE O/L examination % GCE A/L examination % Western 52 48 54 Central 51 32 55 Southern 50 37 57 North-Eastern na 32 58 North Western 49 38 58 North Central 46 31 53 Uva 46 31 52 Sabaragamuva 47 34 57 Sri Lanka 50 37 56 Source: Net enrolment rates calculated from the Labor Force Survey 2002, Department of Census and Statistics, and examination rates obtained from the Department of Examinations, Ministry of Education. secessionist conflict, perform conflict, which disrupted the information suggests that the worst in the country, while the education system in the North- overall level of enrolment is Colombo District performs best. Eastern Province and the likely to be slightly less than in surrounding regions of the Uva and North-Central 2.21. The comparatively high neighboring provinces. Provinces. The relatively even regional variations in distribution of senior secondary participation rates within the Senior secondary education enrolment across provinces can junior secondary education 2.22. The pattern of net be attributed to several factors: cycle and the substantial enrolment across the senior (i) widespread access to senior geographical disparities in secondary education cycle secondary education, with about learning achievements can be (grades 10-13) shows only 6,600 government schools (67% attributed to several factors, modest regional variation, of all public schools) offering such as: (i) variations in the ranging from 46%-52% [see classes at least up to GCE O/L; quality of education across Table 2.12]. The highest (ii) the policy of automatic regions, including teacher enrolment is in the Western promotion up to grade 11, which capabilities, availability and Province, with 52% of children facilitates enrolment; and (iii) attendance, classroom practices, in the age-group 15-18 enrolled the provision of incentives for school leadership, physical in senior secondary education, school attendance, such as free facilities and quality inputs; (ii) followed by the Central textbooks and uniforms, and variations in social and Province 51% and Southern subsidized transport. economic conditions of Province 50%. Net enrolment is households and students, with lowest in the North-Central and 2.23. Pass rates at the GCE O/L lower education participation Uva Provinces, with 46% of examination show sharp and achievement in poorer children aged 15-18 enrolled in variations in achievement districts and provinces, and senior secondary schools. While between the Western Province higher education participation household survey data for the and the rest of the country. In the and achievement in wealthier North-Eastern Province is not Western Province, about one out districts and provinces; and (iii) yet available to estimate net of every two students passes the the impact of the secessionist enrolment rates, school census GCE O/L; however, in the other 26 provinces only one out of every brightest and best motivated in favorable treatment for poor three students passes the GCE their age cohort and belong to provinces and regions; and (ii) O/L examination. Pass rates are about the top 25% of the ability special policy measures to lowest in the North-Central and distribution; (ii) GCE A/L promote equity of education Uva Provinces, with only 31% classes are chiefly offered in access, quality and opportunity, of candidates passing the GCE schools located in cities and especially: (a) a norm-based unit O/L examination. There are two towns, where differences in cost resource allocation main reasons for the steep school facilities and the mechanism to distribute public difference between the Western availability of educational resources to schools equitably; Province and the rest of the resources are modest; and (iii) (b) a scholarship examination at country. First, the Western households incur substantial grade 5 to provide poor but Province has some of the best private expenses to support GCE talented children access to educational facilities in the A/L students, especially through higher quality schools; and (c) country, and is a popular private tuition. The main district and special quotas for location with principals, regional inequality in the GCE students from disadvantaged teachers and education A/L cycle is in access to science regions to attend universities. administrators. In consequence, subjects and mathematics [see the education system in the NEC (2003)]. Only 600 schools Progressive government Western Province is superior, in the country offer GCE A/L financing both in terms of human science classes. Further, 2.26. One of the cardinal resources and the stock of effective GCE A/L science policies guiding government physical capital, to the rest of the teaching is confined to about education expenditure is the country. Second, the Western 200 urban schools. In development of education Province is considerably consequence, access to GCE systems in the poorer provinces; wealthier and better developed A/L education in science especially those, such as the than the rest of the country, and subjects is tightly constrained. North-Eastern, Uva and North- students come from more In the distribution of such Central Provinces, whose educated families and invest schools, the North-Central, Uva provincial revenue raising greater private resources in and North-Eastern Provinces are capabilities are either low or education. Hence, household particularly disadvantaged. non-existent. In contrast, and student specific affluent areas of the country determinants of education 2.6 Regional Dimensions such as the Western Province are outcomes are more favorable in awarded considerably lower the Western Province. of Equity: Government resources for education by the Policies to Overcome central government. For 2.24. GCE A/L examination Regional Variations in instance, the share of central pass rates are fairly even across Education Access, Quality government financing of provinces, ranging from 52% in and Opportunity provincial education Uva to 58% in the North- expenditure ranges from about Western and North-Eastern 2.25. Government policy to 45%-50% in the Western Provinces. The low regional reduce regional disparities and Province to 100% in the North- variation in GCE A/L pass rates increase education access and Eastern Province. The pattern of across provinces can be quality in disadvantaged areas public primary and secondary attributed to several factors: (i) contains two main components: education expenditure per students who appear for this (i) progressive central student as a proportion of examination are among the government financing, with provincial per capita income, is 27 clearly progressive [see Figure student on education. The as a proportion of provincial 2.5 and Figure 2.6]. richest province with the highest income per capita is about 300% education outcomes, Western, greater in the North-Eastern 2.27. The poorest province experiences the lowest Province than in the Western containing the lowest education proportionate government Province. Other poor provinces outcomes, North-Eastern, expenditure per student on or provinces containing very enjoys the highest proportionate education. Also, public poor areas, such as Uva, North- government expenditure per education spending per student Central, Central and Southern, also receive generous central Figure 2.5. Progressive Government Financing of Provinces government grants for education with Low Average Primary Education Achievement Levels which enable them to invest considerably higher resources in (%) 60 human capital accumulation 2003 55 Western than can be financed through 50 provincial resources alone. Southern 45 Central government spending on North-Western Sabaragamuwa Achievement, 40 education, health and other North-Central 35 Uva social services constitutes one of Sri Lanka Central Language the chief income re-distribution 30 First North-Eastern mechanisms in the country. 25 About 75%-80% of government 20 Primary 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18revenue is generated in the Public Primary Education Spending Across Provinces Western Province, the most as a Proportion of GDP per Capita (%) affluent region of the country, Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Government of Sri Lanka Budget Estimates, and re-distributed through the Finance Commission and Provincial Councils' Financial Statistics and Central central government to the other Bank of Sri Lanka National Income Accounts. provinces. The education system, which accounts for Figure 2.6. Progressive Central Government Financing of about half or more of provincial Provinces with Low GCE O/L Pass Rates spending, is one of the chief 50 beneficiaries of progressive Western public investment. 45 Special policy measures to (%) promote equity of access, quality 2002 40 North-Western and opportunity Rates Sri Lanka Southern The norm-based unit cost 35 Pass Sabaragamuwa resource allocation mechanism O/L Central Uva for schools. GCE 30 North-Central North-Eastern 2.28. The allocation of resources to schools, up to the 25 - 5 10 15 20 25mid-1990s, was chiefly based on Government Secondary Education Spending historical budgeting and the as a Proportion of GDP per capita (%) initiative and dynamism of Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Government of Sri Lanka Budget Estimates, individual principals. This Finance Commission and Provincial Councils' Financial Statistics and Central Bank of Sri Lanka National Income Accounts. resulted, over time, in large 28 budgetary disparities between 1996 to about 1:15 by 2002 [see schools for their secondary schools, with funding variations Finance Commission (2002)]. education. The Grade 5 between schools of similar Poor schools have enjoyed large scholarship scheme has been characteristics as large as 1:300 inflows of quality inputs and extremely popular among in 1996 [see GOSL-ADB (1996), central government and parents and families, and Aturupane and provincial council education government policy is to continue Abeygunawardena (2000)]. To staff members have welcomed this scheme, with periodic fine address this issue, the the increased equity of resource tuning [see NEC (2003)]. government adopted a policy of allocation to schools. Education funding schools based on a policy makers have affirmed the University quotas to provide norm-based, unit cost resource use of the norm-based unit cost preferential access to students allocation formula [see resource allocation mechanism from poor districts Aturupane and Abeyguna- as the basis on which public 2.30. The government allocates wardena (2000)]. This formula resources should be distributed a proportion of university places is built on five criteria: (i) to schools in the future [see NEC on the basis of district quotas, to quality input norms produced by (2003)]. compensate for educational curriculum developers, teacher disadvantages to students from educators and master teachers; Grade 5 scholarship for poor poorer districts. For subjects (ii) a central equation to allocate but talented pupils such as Medicine, Engineering, resources for recurrent 2.29. The variations in Science, Agriculture, Law and expenditures to schools on a per education quality, obviously, Commerce only 40% of student basis; (iii) fine tuning of reach deeper than the university places are allocated the central equation to geographical boundaries of purely on GCE A/L marks. A accommodate economies of provincial councils. The quality further 55% of places are scale enjoyed by large schools of education varies among awarded on a district quota and diseconomies of scale schools within provincial system, with each district experienced by small schools; boundaries as much as across receiving a quota proportional to (iv) variations across grade provinces. Students from poor its population. Within the cycles, based on quality input rural homes tend to be district quotas, allocation of norms; and (v) the application of disadvantaged, in particular, as university positions is again on a stock adjustment principle for schools located in cities and the basis of GCE A/L marks. capital investments, where towns are on average of higher The final 5% of university schools are allocated resources quality than schools in rural places are reserved for students to enable gradual development areas. The government has a from educationally from their existing capital stock special policy measure, the disadvantaged districts. At to the desired capital stock Grade 5 scholarship scheme, to present, the disadvantaged implied by the quality input increase educational districts, which receive norms. This resource allocation opportunities for talented preferential treatment in the formula was pilot tested in a few children from poor households allocation of university quotas, provinces during 1999, and and schools. Students upon are: (i) seven of the eight introduced island-wide from reaching grade 5 are allowed to districts of the North-Eastern 2000 onwards. The formula has sit a national scholarship Province, Jaffna, Kilinochchi, proved highly successful, examination, and successful Mullativu, Vavuniya, Mannar, reducing disparities between pupils from disadvantaged Trincomalee and Amparai; (ii) schools with similar schools are entitled to transfer, the two districts of the Uva characteristics from 1:300 in with state assistance, to better Province, Moneragala and 29 Badulla; (iii) the two districts of smaller than for compulsory policy measures to promote the North-Central Province, basic and secondary education, enrolment, attendance and Anuradhapura and Pollonaruwa; suggesting that the benefits of school completion, especially at and (iv) one district each from tertiary education accrue chiefly primary and compulsory basic the Southern and Central to individuals as private gains. education levels, have enjoyed a Provinces, Hambantota and high measure of success. And Nuwara Eliya, respectively. 2.32. The potential benefits of successful and popular policies, However, university admission investment in education have such as the norm-based unit cost is based purely on marks at the not been fully utilized, as slow resource allocation mechanism, GCE A/L for arts subjects, as economic growth has resulted in have greatly enhanced the equity educational opportunities are poor expansion of the demand of resource distribution among considered fairly even across for educated labor, resulting in schools. The allocation of public districts for arts subjects. several episodes of social unrest education spending across and political instability led by economic groups is progressive frustrated, unemployed educated 2.7 Conclusions and at the primary and secondary young people. The main causes education levels, with benefits Options for the Future of slow growth were economic relatively evenly distributed 2.31. The preceding analysis policies that, over a long period among all economic groups. shows that investment in of time from the 1950s to the However, at tertiary education education produces a wide array 1970s, stifled markets and level the pattern of public of economic and social benefits, reduced incentives, and the education spending is ranging from increased labor secessionist conflict in the regressive, with benefits productivity, occupational North-Eastern area from the accruing disproportionately to attainment and earnings to 1980s onwards. Currently, the the highest economic class. superior family health and child pro-market policies of the major nutrition outcomes. The social political parties and the ceasefire 2.34. These findings, especially rate of return to education is in the North-Eastern region offer the pattern of social and private high, especially at the promise of faster economic rates of return to education, the compulsory basic and senior growth and higher demand for externality benefits of secondary education grade educated labor. Peace would schooling, and the equity of cycles, and suggests that Sri especially benefit households government education Lanka under-invests in and students in the North- expenditure among economic education at these levels. Eastern province, which is now classes, suggest four important Externality effects, such as the least developed region in the policy directions for future health and nutrition benefits, are country. public investment in education. also strong among primary and 2.33. Education exerts a a. Expansion of public secondary educated mothers. powerful effect on poverty investment in primary and Tertiary education generates reduction and the economic secondary education, high private returns to welfare of the poor. There is also while controlling individuals, through such a high degree of equity of expenditure on tertiary outcomes as higher female labor government education education, especially force participation, superior investment across provinces, costly university occupational attainment and with progressively higher per education. This can be increased earnings. However, student allocations for accomplished by social returns to tertiary educationally disadvantaged allocating the largest share education are considerably regions. The wide range of of any increase in 30 budgetary resources for resources, equipment and private degree awarding education to primary and technology, and quality institutions, under suitable secondary education. In processes, such as quality assurance criteria addition, resources professional development and measures. generated within the of teachers, training of d. Expansion of tertiary education system through principals to provide education, especially the cost saving measures can effective school expensive university also be channeled towards leadership, and on-site system, could be left the school system. academic and managerial chiefly to the private b. Increased resources for support to schools. sector. To further primary and secondary c. Creating a favorable encourage private schooling could be environment for private investment in tertiary allocated to meet the extra investment in education. education the government cost of achieving The private sector can needs to advance policy universal enrolment and contribute considerable measures to counter the completion in the resources to the education present negative political compulsory schooling system. However, the economy environment cycle, grades 1-9, and to legal restriction on surrounding the tertiary raise the quality of establishing private system. Currently, several primary and secondary schools over the grade 1-9 promising policy actions education. Policy cycle needs to be lifted to have been initiated, measures to attract the last exploit this potential including reform of the 18% of the population source of additional legislative framework aged 6-14 into the investment into the governing the university education system can education sector. In system to provide greater include expanding and addition, the government autonomy to individual developing the special needs to take steps to institutions, financial education and non-formal lighten the limitations on stipends for tertiary level education programs, private investment skills development reconstructing and imposed by the political activities, and the creation rehabilitating the economy environment, of an accreditation damaged schools in the which is highly negative framework to cover both conflict affected regions, toward private private degree awarding improving facilities for investment. Removing the institutions and public disabled children, and legal barrier to private universities. Further increasing the coverage of investment in the basic measures could include basic services in schools education cycle would be developing a student loan located in disadvantaged one important step. A scheme, especially for areas, such as water further key step would be poor but talented students, supply and sanitation. an official public and introducing a voucher Increasing the quality of endorsement of the system that tertiary level education can include recommendations made students can use in either investing greater by the NEC (2003) to private or public tertiary resources in quality allow the establishment of education institutions. inputs, such as teaching private schools, material, learning international schools and 31 Appendix Table A1. Male and Female Labor Force Participation Rates, 2002 Age Men Women % % 19-24 years 74 44 25-29 years 92 45 30-34 years 96 41 35-39 years 95 46 40-44 years 94 46 45-49 years 92 44 50-54 years 88 39 55-59 years 77 27 60-70 years 50 12 Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Labor Force Survey, 2002. 32 Chapter Three INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION: RESOURCES AND SERVICE DELIVERY 3.0 Introduction special focus on public country standards [see Table 3.1. Investment in education is investment, internal efficiency 3.2]. Sri Lanka devotes the one of the central pillars of and the quality of service lowest share of the public government policy in Sri Lanka. delivery. The magnitude and budget to education of the entire The objectives of investing pattern of private investment in set of countries, shown in Table public resources in education areeducation is also examined. 3.2, mostly high performing to promote equity and social East Asian countries or mobility, contribute to high and 3.1 Public Investment in neighboring South Asian sustained economic growth, and nations. The group of lower Education enhance human development. In middle-income countries, to Public education expenditure in addition, private households which Sri Lanka is expected to international perspective invest resources in education to belong in the near future, improve employment prospects, 3.2. Government education allocate about 4% of their earnings and social status. Threeexpenditure in Sri Lanka national income to public key factors determining the currently amounts to about LKR education. Countries such as quantity and quality of40,000 million (USD 415 South Korea, Malaysia, education outputs are the level, million) annually [see Table Thailand and Singapore, which composition and distribution of 3.1]. In recent years, the act as models for Sri Lankan education expenditures, the education budget has accounted policy makers, devote 18%-31% internal efficiency of the for approximately 3% of of government expenditures to education system and the national income and 7%-9% of education. South Asian effectiveness of education government spending. This countries and low income service delivery mechanisms. represents a comparatively nations allocate, on average, This chapter analyzes education modest level of public education about 3.2% of national income investment in Sri Lanka, with a investment by developing and 11% of government 33 Table 3.1. Public Investment in Education as a Proportion of National Income and Government Expenditure, 1998-2002 Year Public education Education Education Education recurrent Education capital expenditure expenditure as a expenditure as a expenditure as a expenditure as a (nominal prices) percentage of percentage of percentage of percentage of GDP government government government expenditure recurrent capital (rupees million) % % expenditure % expenditure % 1998 28,689 3.1 8.4 11.5 4.1 1999 29,368 2.9 8.9 11.2 5.0 2000 35,348 3.1 7.8 11.4 3.5 2001 39,995 3.2 8.2 11.7 3.3 2002 40,017 2.9 6.8 10.3 2.5 Source: Calculated from Revenue and Expenditure Statements and Budget Estimates, Government of Sri Lanka and Provincial Councils, and Annual Reports, Central Bank of Sri Lanka. expenditures to education. a lower proportion of national the relatively modest level of Further, in South Asia, only income on public education. public education investment in Pakistan and Bangladesh spend There are five main reasons for Sri Lanka: (i) the broad range of Table 3.2. Education Expenditure as a Share of National Income and Government Expenditures, Sri Lanka and Selected Other Countries Country Education Education Education Recurrent Average Expenditure as a Expenditure as a Expenditure per Teacher Salaries Proportion of Proportion of Student as a as a Proportion of National Income Government Proportion of National Income Expenditure National Income per capita % % per capita % % Sri Lanka 2.9 6.8 9.7 1.5 India 4.1 12.7 16.3 3.0 Bangladesh 2.5 15.7 3.3 Pakistan 1.8 7.8 Nepal 3.7 14.1 14.5 Malaysia 6.2 26.7 20.7 2.9 Maldives 3.9 11.2 Bhutan 5.2 12.9 Thailand 5.4 31.0 25.3 3.1 South Korea 3.8 17.4 4.1 Singapore 3.7 23.6 Phillipines 4.2 20.6 Costa Rica 4.4 22.8 South Asia 3.2 11.2 14.5 2.8 Low Income Countries 3.2 16.3 Lower Middle Income Countries 4.1 18.5 Upper Middle Income Countries 5.0 23.0 Source: Sri Lanka, calculations from Government of Sri Lanka Budget Estimates, Central Bank of Ceylon Annual Reports, various issues; Other Countries, World Development Indicators (World Bank) and UNESCO Statistics, various issues. The information above for Sri Lanka is computed from 2002 data. Other countries and regions are from the closest available year in the late 1990s and early 2000s. 34 public services, such as Figure 3.1. Shares of Public Capital and universal free health care and Recurrent Education Spending, 1998-2002. wide-ranging access to poverty oriented safety nets, such as the 100 Samurdhi program, which are 90 19 21 20 16 16 generally not available in most 80 other developing countries, and 70 compete for government 60 resources; (ii) high defense 50 expenditure, which absorbs over Percent 40 81 79 80 84 84 5% of GDP and crowds out 30 other investments; (iii) low 20 public revenue, which has 10 contributed to large budget - deficits and constrained 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Years government expenditures; (iv) Share of the Recurrent Education Budget Share of the Capital Education Budget comparatively low teacher salaries, with Sri Lankan Source: World Bank estimates, calculated from UNDP (2003). teachers receiving salaries about half or less, as a proportion of development of the education The trend and composition of national income per capita, than system. In particular, it restricted public education expenditure teachers in countries such as investment in physical facilities 3.4. The recent trend of public India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, to expand and increase urban education expenditure shows Thailand and South Korea; and schools; supply basic services, considerable fluctuation in real (v) the fact that Sri Lanka builtsuch as water supply and spending [see Table 3.3]. up its capital stock of schools sanitation, to rural schools; and Overall, public education during the 1950s-1970s, so that invest in quality inputs, such as spending per student declined in there is now no need for major IT centers, science laboratories, 2002 by about 4 percent in investment in the construction oflibraries, activity rooms and comparison to the level in 2001. classrooms and new school multi-purpose rooms. As a result Further, both recurrent and buildings. of the decline in government capital spending per student capital resources to education, a decreased between 2001 and 3.3. The tight budget high proportion of investment 2002. However, education constraint in recent years has expenditure has been financed expenditure per student fallen especially heavily on the through donor funded projects. increased sharply in 2000 and capital budget. The education For instance, in 2002, the 2001 in relation to the levels in capital budget declined steeply contribution of donor assistance 1998 and 1999, mainly due to from 5% of government capital to the Ministry of Human investment in new public spending in 1999 to 2.5% in Resources, Education and universities. As such, the level 2002. In terms of shares of the Cultural affairs was equal to of expenditure in 2002 was education budget, the capital approximately 68% of the above the spending levels in budget decreased from about capital budget. When 1998-99, despite the decline 20% in 1998-2000 to 16% in government counterpart funding relative to 2001. The decline in 2001-02 [see Figure 3.1]. This to donor projects is included, per student public education fall in capital investment this share rises to about 81%. spending in 2002 can partly be constrained expansion and attributed to the fiscal 35 Table 3.3. Time Trend of Public Education Expenditure per Student in Real Terms, 1998-2002 Year Real Public Real Public Real Public Education Recurrent Education Capital Education Expenditure Expenditure Expenditure per Student per Student per Student (1996 = 100) (1996 = 100) (1996 = 100) 1998 5,747 4,631 1,116 1999 5,626 4,467 1,159 2000 6,241 4,963 1,277 2001 6,286 5,284 1,002 2002 6,032 5,046 987 Source: Calculated from Revenue and Expenditure Statements and Budget Estimates, Government of Sri Lanka, Central Bank Reports, School Census Statistics and UGC Statistical Handbook, various issues. difficulties of the period, which recurrent education budget. The classroom construction forced a tight budgetary policy. balance funds are mainly used activities in the school system Such major fluctuations within a for administrative and operating also appear ad hoc, without short span of time make it costs such as electricity, sound forward planning based difficult for education policy communications, water and on enrolment needs. In makers, managers and postal charges, and staff travel. consequence, many rural administrators to develop long- The main challenge faced by the schools carry excess capacity term investment decisions and recurrent education budget is to with empty classrooms, while plans. allocate sufficient funds, once urban schools are heavily salaries and administrative costs congested and over-crowded. 3.5. The recurrent education have been met, to support Construction activities in the budget accounts for about 79%- education quality processes, university system, too, appear 84% of public education such as professional uncoordinated, with heavy expenditure. The chief development of teachers and expenditure on buildings component of recurrent principals and delivery of on- without a clear plan based on education expenditure, site academic and administrative needs assessments of accounting for about 85%-90% support to schools, and meet the universities. As a result of the of the combined central and operating costs of capital low investment in quality inputs, provincial recurrent education education investment. such as equipment and budgets, is salaries and wages. technology, the country could The major share of the salary 3.6. The main share of capital find itself on the wrong side of bill is on teacher salaries, or investment expenditure in the the digital divide and be followed by the salaries of school system, accounting for seriously constrained in principals, education over 80% of capital education equipping future generations administrators and other grades. investment, is on construction with the knowledge, skills and After salaries, the next highest activities, mainly building of competencies required in the shares of recurrent education class room blocks. Only a modern global knowledge spending are on textbooks, relatively small proportion of economy. The main challenges which receive about 3% of the resources, less than 20%, are facing the education capital total recurrent budget, and invested in quality inputs, such budget are to rationalize school uniforms, which account as equipment, technology, construction activities in the for about 2% of the total furniture and tools. The 36 school system and universities, approximately 7,500 rupees per University education is normally allocate greater resources to student. Technical education, at the most expensive level of expanding and increasing urban 15,000 rupees per student, is education, requiring highly schools, and devote more funds more expensive than primary qualified staff, sophisticated to high level quality inputs, such and secondary education. technology and advanced as IT centers, science equipment and material, laboratories, libraries, activity Unit recurrent costs are highest, resulting in higher human rooms, equipment and by a long way, for university capital and physical resource technology. education, costing around costs. Technical education also 66,000 rupees per student. As a tends to be expensive, as it Distribution of public education proportion of GDP per capita, requires highly specialized expenditure by education level primary and secondary equipment and staff resources. and international comparisons schooling cost 8% - 9% per Primary and secondary 3.7. Total public education student and technical education education are less expensive spending is about LKR 40,000 about double that at 18% per than university or technical million. Out of this sum, student. University education is education as they afford greater approximately 32% (13,000 considerably more expensive, scope for economies of scale million rupees) is spent on costing 79% of national income and require less sophisticated primary education, 50% (20,000 per capita per student. technology and capital inputs. million rupees) on secondary 3.9. This pattern of costs is However, secondary education education, 14% (5,600 million fairly typical for education is normally more expensive than rupees) on tertiary education, systems, with primary education primary education, as secondary and 3% (1,400 million rupees) being the least costly and teachers tend to be better on technical education [see university education the most qualified and paid, and the Table 3.4]. expensive. These expenditure production technology is more capital intensive, especially at 3.8. Unit recurrent costs per levels, unit costs and the senior secondary level. student are lowest for primary proportions reflect enrolment schooling, about 6,500 rupees numbers and shares, and 3.10. By international per student, followed by variations in production costs standards, average recurrent secondary schooling, across education cycles. education expenditures per Table 3.4. Education Investment by Education Level, 2002 Education Total Recurrent Capital Share of Unit Unit Level Expenditure Expenditure Expenditure Education Recurrent Recurrent Expenditure Costs Costs as a by Level Proportion of (Rupees (Rupees (Rupees GDP per capita million) million) million) % (Rupees) % Primary 12,904 11,001 1,903 32 6,471 8 Secondary 20,184 17,207 2,977 50 7,481 9 University 5,577 4,416 1,161 14 65,697 79 Technical 1,352 848 503 3 14,834 18 Total 40,016 33,472 6,545 100 8,064 10 Source: Calculated from Government of Sri Lanka, Revenues and Expenditure Statements, Statistics of the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Higher Education, Provincial Councils and University Grants Commission. Note: Numbers may not add up precisely due to rounding. 37 Table 3.5. Unit Recurrent Expenditure on Major Education Cycles: Sri Lanka and Selected Countries Country Primary education Secondary education Tertiary education expenditure per expenditure per expenditure per student as a student as a student as a proportion of proportion of proportion of national income national income national income per capita % per capita % per capita % Sri Lanka 9 11 100 India 8 16 93 Bangladesh - - - Pakistan - - - Nepal 9 12 111 Malaysia 11 17 54 Maldives - - - Bhutan - - - Thailand 12 11 25 South Korea 17 12 6 Hong Kong 8 13 - Singapore - - 34 Indonesia - - 12 Phillipines 9 10 15 Costa Rica - 18 - South Asia - - 84 Low Income Countries - - - Lower Middle Income Countries - - - Upper Middle Income Countries - - - Source: Sri Lanka, calculations from Government of Sri Lanka, Revenue and Expenditure Statements and Budget Estimates, Central Bank of Ceylon Annual Reports, various issues; other Countries, World Development Indicators (World Bank), UNDP Human Development Reports, and UNESCO Statistics, various issues. The information above for Sri Lanka is computed from 2002 data. Other countries and regions are from the closest available year in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Note: Numbers may not add up precisely due to rounding. student in Sri Lanka are modest higher than India, and resources in Sri Lanka may be at primary and secondary substantially above the level in tilted unduly in favor of tertiary education levels, but high at the East Asian countries such as education, at the expense of tertiary education level [see South Korea, Singapore, primary and secondary Table 3.5]. Average recurrent Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia schooling. education expenditure per and the Philippines. The main student as a share of national reason for the high share of 3.2 Private Investment in income per capita on primary public recurrent spending on and secondary education, at tertiary education is the large Education about 9% and 11% respectively, unit cost of government 3.11. Households invest are among the lowest in South universities. Overall, the pattern considerable resources on Asia and East Asia. In contrast, of average recurrent expenditure education. In 1995/96, the most average tertiary education across education levels suggests recent date for which expenditure per student as a that, in contrast to high information on household share of national income per performing East Asian education expenditure is capita, at 100%, is slightly countries, the balance of public currently available, private 38 Table 3.6. Household Education Expenditure, 1995/96 Consumption Annual Household Share of Expenditures Quintile Expenditures Across Economic Groups (Rupees '000) % Quintile 1-20 290,400 6 Quintile 21-40 400,800 9 Quintile 41-60 602,400 13 Quintile 61-80 925,200 20 Quintile 81-100 2,448,000 52 Poor 331,200 7 Non-poor 4,344,000 93 Sri Lanka 4,668,000 100 Source: World Bank estimates, calculated from the Department of Census and Statistics Household Income and Expenditure Survey, 1995/96. Note: Figures may not add up due to rounding. expenditure in seven provinces12 1995/96, account for 7% of expenditure, about 590 rupees was about 4,688 million rupees household education spending, per student (45% of total unit [see Table 3.6]. At 1995/96 while the non-poor spend the private education expenditure), public education investment balance 93%. These findings can is on tuition fees [see Figure levels, this was equal to about be attributed to several factors, 3.2]. This is followed by 23% of government education including: (i) the higher equipment and stationary, 360 expenditure. It was also greater discretionary income available rupees per student (28%) and than public capital education to prosperous households to school fees, 103 rupees per expenditure by about 13%. 13 invest in child quality through student (8%). Other types of education; (ii) the survival of expenditure, such as textbooks, 3.12. The major proportion of students from wealthy homes to boarding fees, facility fees, household education spending is higher levels of the education donations and miscellaneous by the richest consumption system, which require greater expenses, account for about 246 quintile, which accounts for expenditure and, at the tertiary rupees per student or 19% of about 52% of total household level, is comparatively open to total private education spending. education expenditure. The private investment, especially The dominance of tuition in share of private education outside the university system; private household education investment then progressively and (iii) the normally higher spending is the outcome of declines as the consumption education levels of affluent several factors, such as: (i) quintiles become less affluent, parents, which induces them to extreme competition to enter with the poorest quintile invest more heavily in the university; (ii) the high stakes accounting for only about 6% of education of their children. grade 5 scholarship total private education examination; (iii) perceived expenditure. The poor, who 3.13. The largest component of inadequacies in teaching and were 25% of the population in annual private education 12. Information for the conflict affected North-Eastern Province was not collected in the 1995/96 household income and expenditure survey, due to the armed secessionist conflict in the area. 13. Note that these estimates underestimate total private education spending, as information for the North-Eastern Province is not available. This is the poorest province, with about 72% of the per capita income of the next poorest province, North- Central. On the assumption that household education spending in the North-Eastern Province is equal to 72% of the North- Central Province, private education expenditure in the former would be about 162 million rupees. This would have raised total household education expenditure to 4,830 million rupees in 1995/96. 39 Figure 3. 2. Shares of Private Education Expenditure Eastern Province spend 72% of per Student by Spending Category. the level in the North-Central Province14, total private Other School fees Donations 4% 8% household education 4% Facilities fees expenditure in 2002 can be 3% estimated to be about 10,600 million rupees in 2002 prices. Stationary, This would be equal to about equipment 26% of total public education 28% expenditure, and is 62% higher than the public capital education budget. In fact, private household education spending is likely to be greater than this Tution fees Texbooks 45% conservative estimate, as the 4% income elasticity of demand for Boarding fees education is typically higher 4% than unitary. Hence, at present, Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, it is likely that private household Household Income and Expenditure Survey 1995/96. education spending may be examination preparation by per student increases at the same nearer 30%-35% of public schools, especially for major rate as per capita consumption. education spending and about public examinations such as the Based on this assumption, and double the government capital GCE O/L and GCE A/L; and (iv) that households in the North- budget for education. This level a culture of attending tuition classes, which has now become Figure 3.3. Shares of Education Financing by Source, 2002. virtually institutionalized [see Provincial NEC (2003)]. The problem of Councils 8% low teacher salaries, too, has Households 21% forced many teachers to search for secondary income sources, and private tuition is an obvious second job for school teachers. Current Levels of Private Donors 6% Education Expenditure 3.14. The present level of household education Central investment can be estimated Government 65% based on certain assumptions about the income elasticity of demand for education. A conservative assumption is that Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Government of Sri Lanka Budget Estimates, household education spending and estimated private education expenditure. 14. The North-Central Province is the poorest province, next to the North-Eastern Province. The per capita income of the North- Eastern Province was about 72% of the per capita income of the North-Central Province in 2002. 40 of private investment could be funds, 6%. Credits from the policy measures: (i) the supply increased if the NEC (2003) World Bank and the Asian of sufficient school places, proposals are implemented and Development Bank constitute through the island-wide network the legal restriction on private the main sources of donor funds. of primary and secondary schools is lifted. JICA is the chief source of grant schools, to meet the demand for aid, followed by UN institutions education from parents and 3.3 Sources of Education such as UNICEF, and countries students; (ii) incentive schemes, such as the U.K., Germany and such as free textbooks, school Financing Sweden. uniforms and subsidized 3.15. The central government transport, to enroll and continue finances the major share of through the school system; and education expenditure in the 3.4 Internal Efficiency of (iii) automatic promotion from country, accounting for about Investment in Education grades 1-11, with no formal 65% of total public and private Internal efficiency of student mechanisms to fail pupils, education investment [see flows through the primary and unless students voluntarily Figure 3.3]. Slightly more than secondary education cycles repeat grades. In addition to half these resources, about 53%, 3.16. The internal efficiency of public policy measures, the are spent directly by central primary schooling (grades 1-5) demand for education from government education and junior secondary schooling parents is also strong, and makes institutions. The balance, about (grades 6-9), measured in terms an important contribution to the 47%, is awarded as grants to the of flow rates, are high [see Tablehigh student flow rates through provincial councils. After the 3.7]. Repetition rates and drop the compulsory education cycle. central government, households out rates range from 2%-7%, The marginally higher repetition finance the second highest share with slightly higher repetition and drop out rates among boys of education investment, about and drop out among boys than compared to girls, observed 21%. This is followed by girls. The high student flow ratesmainly at grades 8-9, can be provincial councils through their can be attributed to several attributed chiefly to the higher own revenues, 8%, and donor opportunity cost of schooling for Table 3.7. Compulsory Education Cycle: Repetition Rates and Drop Out Rates, by Gender, 2001 Boys Girls Both Sexes Boys Girls Both Sexes Repetition Repetition Repetition Drop Drop Drop Rate Rate Rate Out Rate Out Rate Out Rate % % % % % Grade 1 2.2 1.6 1.9 -0.7 -0.7 -0.8 Grade 2 4.5 3.7 3.9 0.01 0.01 0.07 Grade 3 4.8 3.2 4.0 -0.01 0.01 0.01 Grade 4 4.3 2.9 3.6 1.1 0.6 0.9 Grade 5 3.7 2.5 3.2 1.8 0.9 1.4 Grade 6 5.5 5.2 5.4 3.2 2.1 2.7 Grade 7 3.1 2.0 2.6 3.9 2.5 3.2 Grade 8 2.6 1.8 2.2 6.0 3.8 4.9 Grade 9 1.8 1.5 1.6 7.1 4.9 6.0 Source: School Census, Ministry of Education. 41 Table 3.8. Proportion of Repeaters in the GCE O/L and GCE A/L Grades, 2002 Grade Cycle Proportion of Proportion of Proportion of Students Boys Girls Repeating Repeating Repeating % % % GCE O/L 27 27 26 GCE A/L Science 35 34 36 GCE A/L Arts 37 37 36 GCE A/L Commerce 35 34 34 Source: School Census, Ministry of Education. teen-aged boys, who are able to inefficiencies in the education large and geographically widely obtain jobs as unskilled workers system at these levels. The main dispersed network of public in the informal labor market. reason for these high repetition schools. This school network rates at grade 11 and grade 13 was established, over successive 3.17. Repetition rates at the key are the low learning levels of past generations, to serve a examination grades in the senior students through the primary population residing largely in secondary education cycle, and secondary cycle up to grade rural areas. However, with grades 11 and 13, however, are 11, which is exposed at the economic development and high [see Table 3.8]. In grade 11, public examinations. expansion of the service and about 27% of students are industrial sectors, the proportion repeaters, with the proportion of Size and distribution of schools of population living in cities and repeating boys and girls close to 3.18. Sri Lanka maintains a towns has been increasing in even. This is a high percentage, as it implies that about one in Figure 3.4. Cumulative Number of Schools by four students in grade 11 is in Student Teacher Ratio the class for the second time. In 10000 grade 13, the proportion of students repeating rises further. 9000 Among GCE A/L science 8000 students, 35% of students are repeaters, among GCE A/L arts 7000 students, 37% of students take the class for the second time; 6000 and among GCE A/L commerce Schools of students, 35% of students are 5000 repeaters. The repetition rates 4000 Number of boys and girls are very similar across grades 11 and 13, 3000 and among types of subjects. The GCE A/L repetition rates 2000 show that about 1 in 3 students 1000 in grade 13 is taking the class for the second time. The high 0 repetition rates at grade 11 and - 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 grade 13 suggest the existence Student Teacher Ratio Source: World Bank estimates, based on the School Census, Ministry of Education. of considerable cost 42 recent years. In addition, better Figure 3.5. Unit Recurrent Cost of a Teacher by School Type transport and communications 350 networks have placed rural villages in touch with schools Small primary schools in urban centers. In 300 consequence, there has been Schools up to GCE O/L sharply increasing demand for 250 popular, prestigious urban schools and decreasing demand Rupees for rural and less prestigious 200 GCE A/L Arts and Commerce semi-urban schools. This shift in demand has led to the 150 GCE A/L All Subject Streams existence of a large number of very small schools. About 100 5,900 schools (60% of schools) School Type 3 School Type 2 School Type 1C School Type 1AB have less than 300 students. Type of School Further, about 2,700 schools Source: World Bank estimates, based on Ministry of Education, School Census, 2002. (27% of schools) have under 100 students, and 1,360 schools (14% of schools) have less than expensive to maintain [see countervailing power. In 50 students. This network of Figure 3.5]. The annual unit cost addition, small rural small schools is expensive to per teacher ranges from about schools do not have maintain and operate. In295 rupees in small primary reputations that can match particular, student-teacher ratiosschools and 290 rupees in small schools in cities and in small schools tend to be low, schools with GCE O/L classes to towns, and the provision resulting in high unit recurrent about 150 rupees in larger of facilities and costs. About 1,000 schools (10% schools with high enrolment equipment alone is not of schools) have student-teacher numbers. adequate to stem the flow ratios as low as 7:1 or less [see of students to prestigious Government strategy to increase Figure 3.4]. Around 1,700 schools. However, this cost efficiency schools (17%) have student- strategy remains popular teacher ratios less than 10:1, and3.21. Government strategy to with many educationists about 6,000 schools (60%) have enhance the cost effectiveness of [see NEC (2003)]. student-teacher ratios of 15:1 or the school system contains two b. Efforts to limit the growth less. principal components. of schools in cities and towns by imposing 3.19. Schools with such small a. Attempts to provide constraints on enrolment student-teacher ratios are far facilities and equipment to numbers, combined with more expensive to operate [see small schools to make very slow establishment Figure 3.5], and typically have them sufficiently of new urban schools. unit recurrent costs about 100% attractive to prevent This strategy to force greater than large schools with students from leaving for students to attend less student-teacher ratios of about other, more popular prestigious schools 25:1. schools. This strategy has been largely ineffective, through administrative 3.20. Schools with such small as urbanization has fiat has also largely been unit recurrent costs are generated strong ineffective, and existing 43 urban schools have Figure 3.6. Unit Recurrent Cost of Public Universities increased to the extent that as a Function of Students on Roll they now suffer 120,000 diseconomies of scale, with over-crowded and (Rupees) 100,000 congested class rooms. Some schools in 2002 80,000 Colombo, for instance, exceed 5,000 students, Student, 60,000 and the largest school has per about 8,000 students. Cost 40,000 3.22. The government had a third strategy to address the 20,000 Recurrent problem of high cost small schools which was effective, but 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 has recently been suspended due to social pressure. This was a Students on Roll in Public Universities school rationalization strategy, Source: World Bank estimates, based on University Grants Commission statistics. where small schools were pressure groups. Care should larger universities, which can amalgamated and consolidated also be taken to ensure that the reap economies of scale, with larger schools in their school rationalization process enjoying low unit costs. The neighborhoods. This strategy does not damage access to most expensive universities tend worked well in all parts of the education to any students. In to be small, new institutions country except the North- addition, new schools need to be such as the Wayamba, Eastern Eastern Province, where it was established in urban areas, to and South-Eastern Universities. hardly tried. However, the absorb student demand as Larger, older universities such benefits of this strategy, both in population migrates from as Kelaniya, Sri terms of providing students from villages to towns and cities. Jayewardenapura, Colombo and small schools with a superior Jaffna have the lowest unit costs, learning environment in larger Internal efficiency and unit costs apart from the special case of the schools and increasing the cost- of university education Open University, which only efficiency of the system was not 3.23. Public university offers distance education widely understood by local education in Sri Lanka is courses and has high enrolment communities. In consequence, it expensive, with high unit numbers and very low unit drew widespread criticism, operating costs in comparison to costs. The exception to the compelling the government to other developing countries. In general rule above of an inverse suspend the process. However, it addition, there are wide relationship between unit costs is an important education differences in unit costs among and enrolment size is Peradeniya strategy which needs to be public universities, ranging from University, which is the second reintroduced, in combination about 40,000-120,000 rupees largest university in terms of with an effective media per student per year [see Figure student numbers, but has unit campaign to explain the 3.6]. Generally, unit costs are costs comparable to the small objectives and benefits of the related to student enrolment South-Eastern University. The school rationalization program size, with smaller universities main reason for the high unit to local communities and experiencing high costs and operating cost of Peradeniya 44 University appears to be its Figure 3.7. Unit Reccurent Cost of Public Universities small student-teacher ratio (9:1) Related to Student-Teacher Ratios, 2002. and student-employee ratio 120,000 140 (6:1), and the high maintenance 120 cost of its spacious, widely 100,000 spread campus and large 100 (Rupees) 80,000 residential facilities. Ratios 80 Costs 60,000 3.24. The principal component 60 of university average recurrent 40,000 40 expenditure is the student- Recurrent Student-Teacher 20,000 20 teacher ratio [see Figure 3.7]. Unit Universities such as Wayamba, - - a o Eastern, South-Eastern and wa Jaffna Open Peradeniya, which have low Eastern Rajarata RuhunaKelaniyaColomb Wayamb Moratu Peradeniya ewardenapura student-teacher ratios, have high South-Eastern Sabaragamuwa Unit Recurrent Costs Jay unit costs; while universities Sri Student-Teacher Ratio such as Kelaniya, Source: World Bank estimates, based on University Grants Commission statistics. Jayewardenapura, Colombo and from 3:1 in universities such as constructed. However, the Jaffna which have high student- Wayamba, Eastern, South- investment in construction for teacher ratios have low unit Eastern and Peradeniya to 8:1 in the new universities has diverted costs. Overall, the negative Sri Jaywardenapura. The resources away from quality relationship between student- average for student-non- inputs, such as equipment, teacher ratios and unit recurrent academic staff ratio for the 12 technology and tools, for the costs is strong through the entire public universities which offer university system as a whole. As university system. This on-site degree courses is only the basic construction activities relationship is the result of 4:1. In terms of academic staff to diminish, resources need to be university salary costs, which non-academic staff, too, the invested in quality inputs and are largely dependant on the ratio is 1:4. This suggests a cost quality processes. level of academic salaries. inefficient system, with an Universities with high student unduly large proportion of Government strategy to enhance teacher ratios have resources devoted to non- budget management of the comparatively lower average academic staff salaries. education sector salary expenditure, and hence 3.26. The government has smaller unit recurrent costs, than 3.25. Capital investment in the commenced a medium-term universities with low student public university sector is also budget framework to increase teacher ratios. The second most heavily weighted, in per student predictability of resource flows important determinant of unit terms, towards the new, small and enable education planning recurrent costs is the ratio of universities such as Wayamba, over a longer horizon than is students to non-academic staff, Rajarata, Eastern, South-Eastern possible with annual budgeting. as the latter strongly affects the and Sabaragamuwa. This is In the first stage, the medium university wage bill and hence necessary as the basic term budget framework will recurrent expenditures. The infrastructure of these largely focus on implementing public universities have universities, such as lecture policies to increase the internal extremely low student-non- theatres, libraries, laboratories efficiency of public education academic staff ratios: ranging and offices, needs to be spending, reallocate resources 45 from low priority to higher teachers, and university Schools in congenial locations priority investments within the academics; and conduct tend to be overstaffed and existing resource envelope, and examinations and provide schools in uncongenial locations increase transparency and certification that enjoys public understaffed. Education accountability of financial confidence. Legally defined administrators complain that processes. Additional resources cadres exist for important teacher transfers from surplus for education will mainly be services, such as the teachers' schools to deficit schools are possible only if private service, teacher educators' hindered by political investment can be encouraged. service and education interference, with widespread This first budget stage is administrators' service. The political intervention to designed over a three year government also has reasonable countermand transfer orders. planning horizon. The second financial management Weak teacher deployment stage, over a further three year procedures, with double entry chiefly hurts poor children, as cycle, can also focus on bookkeeping and cash the highest rates of teacher increasing public resources for accounting, although not yet understaffing occur in education, as the overall accrual accounting. Further, economically disadvantaged macroeconomic balances there is both a supreme audit rural communities. However, stabilize and greater resources institution, the Auditor General's such communities typically have become available for public Department and an internal audit less voice and power, and are spending. within the education system. unable to act as a countervailing Hence, the service delivery force to teacher deployment 3.5 Education Service network of the education system patterns which place them at a is built on a strong foundation. disadvantage. Delivery: Organizational and Operational Challenges 3.28. However, Sri Lanka also 3.30. High teacher absenteeism. 3.27. The quantity and pattern faces a set of important policy Teacher absenteeism poses a of public expenditure on challenges as its education major problem, especially in education is an extremely system seeks to take off beyond schools located in difficult areas. important determinant of the first stage of development, Administrative records show education attainment and providing universal access to that teachers take about 7 learning in a country. Equally basic education to a largely rural million days of legitimate leave important, however, is the population, to the second stage per year. The average leave quality and effectiveness of of development, establishing a taken per teacher in an academic service delivery. In this context,high quality education system in year ranges from 33 days in the Sri Lanka enjoys important the context of a rapidly growing North-Western Province to 42 positive features. A network of urban population. In this days and 43 days in the Uva and education institutions already context, the education service North-Central Provinces, exists to formulate policy; staff,delivery network faces a set of respectively [see Figure 3.8]. As plan and administer the school major structural challenges that a proportion of the school year, and university system; develop it needs to overcome. the incidence of teacher curricula and syllabi for schools absenteeism varies from 15% in 3.29. Weak teacher deployment. and degree programs in the North-Western Province to Teachers prefer to reside in universities; provide 20% in the North-Central and cities, towns and prosperous professional development Uva Provinces. This amounts, rural areas, while avoiding opportunities for school across the 192,000 strong disadvantaged rural areas. principals, section heads and teaching force, to around 18% of 46 Figure 3.8. Teacher Absenteeism, by Province, 2002. Teacher salaries have been declining in real terms over the 50 40 past 25 years [see Figure 3.9], 45 43 42 35 40 which supports the notion that 40 38 37 35 teacher status has been falling. 35 30 34 35 33 Absent Teachers in 2002 earned only Absent 25 30 Year about 85% of the salary, in real 20 terms, that teachers received in Days 25 19 20 17 20 of 17 18 18 School 1978. Other government 20 15 16 15 of servants currently earn 15 Number 10 somewhat more, in real terms, 10 than in 1978, although real 5 Percentage 5 wage increases have not kept - 0 pace with economic growth. rn ern Uva But teachers have not shared in Western Central Lanka Southern Sri the fruits of economic growth at North-EasteNorth-West North-Central Sabaragamuwa all over the past generation or Average Number of Days of Leave per Teacher so. On the positive side, low Proportion of the School Year on Leave per Teacher teacher salaries have enabled Source: : World Bank estimates, based on the School Census, Ministry of Education. the Sri Lankan education system to deliver basic the academic year for the appointments in disadvantaged education services at a fairly low country as a whole. Further, areas; (b) allowing teachers to cost to the government budget. these are absenteeism rates encash unutilized leave; and (c) On the negative side, however, based on leave days taken. recruiting teachers directly to low teacher salaries is likely to Anecdotal evidence and casual schools, rather than a have hurt teacher morale and empiricism suggest that leave centralized, transferable service. performance, and weakened the regulations are not strictly The first two measures have not quality of new entrants into the enforced, and that de facto been implemented effectively in teaching service. teacher absenteeism may the past due to a shortage of actually be higher. finances. The last measure 3.33. Inadequate managerial requires amendments to the and academic empowerment of Government policy to improve legislation governing teacher key education service delivery teacher deployment and reduce recruitment, and needs to be institutions, such as schools, teacher absenteeism considered by parliament. National Colleges of Education 3.31. Recent government (NCOEs) and Teacher Centers thinking to improve teacher 3.32. Low teacher salaries and (TCs). Schools, NCOEs and deployment and reduce teacher poor teacher motivation. TCs, which are the key absenteeism contains three Education policy makers have education service delivery policy measures: (a) providing argued that teacher status, institutions within the school incentives, such as extra salary motivation and work attitudes system, have limited managerial increments, swifter promotion, have been deteriorating over the and academic responsibilities. In preferential access to popular years and stressed the particular, managerial functions schools for children and importance of re-motivating and such as staff recruitment, construction of teachers' improving the attitudes of financing and resource quarters, to teachers taking up teachers [see NEC (2003)]. utilization, and administration, 47 Figure 3.9. Real Value of Salaries of Teachers in Relation to government proposes to Other Government Servants (1978 = 100) establish school boards, 130 encourage community Government minor employees participation in school affairs, 120 raise school quality input purchase thresholds even higher, and eventually allow school 110 All central government officials based recruitment of teachers. These measures are intended to 100 improve the quality of service Percent Government non-executive officers delivery at the school level by 90 providing greater scope for dynamic school leadership, 80 Teacher salaries better community support, and higher proximity and 70 accountability of service 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 providers to beneficiaries. The Year last measure is also intended to Source: Central Bank of Sri Lanka, Annual Reports. solve the problem of teacher tend to be concentrated at managerial restrictions on deployment in disadvantaged central or intermediate schools. schools, as teachers would not government levels. For instance, belong to a centralized employment of teachers and Government policy to devolve transferable service but be teacher educators are to management and empower appointed directly to schools. centralized, transferable education institutions services. Similarly, purchases of 3.34. Government policy 3.35. Policy interest in equipment, material and thinking for the future is to decentralizing management to consumables for schools were devolve greater managerial teacher education institutions, highly centralized until recently. powers and responsibilities to such as NCOEs and TCs, have TCs do not have accounts and schools and teacher education not yet evolved into concrete TC managers lack authority to institutions. As a first step, plans. The long-term objective is purchase equipment or material schools have been empowered to develop NCOEs to a level for their centers. Academic to purchase quality inputs, such where they prepare teachers for functions of NCOEs and TCs, as equipment, books, tools and degree level teacher education too, are heavily centralized. The consumables, through capital programs. However, the changes curricula for teacher education and recurrent education budgets, required to the managerial and courses, examinations and up to fairly generous thresholds. academic roles and certification for the 17 NCOEs This measure has been highly responsibilities of key agents in are all provided by the center. As popular, with quality input the system, such as the Office of such, the NCOEs and TCs purchases becoming more the Chief Commissioner for the possess limited scope for sensitive to local school needs, Colleges of Education, the academic and managerial and purchased more swiftly and National Institute of Education, leadership, and institutional efficiently than through and the Presidents of the growth and development. centralized methods of National Colleges of Education, Similarly, school leadership and procurement. As further steps to and the new structure of dynamism are inhibited by the devolve school management, the responsibility and 48 accountability, need to be major impediment to efficient value, too, can take well in studied further to advance the service delivery [see NEC excess of a year. policy agenda in this area. (2003)]. Further, this interference can arise even in Specific factors constraining 3.36. Administrative capacity simple, basic administrative service delivery in public constraints. The education functions, such as school universities administrative system as a admissions, the appointment of 3.39. The public universities whole experiences technical and minor staff to universities and enjoy a high degree of academic operational capacity constraints.teacher transfers. This hinders autonomy. Curriculum In consequence, even routine service delivery by weakening development, standards setting, and day-to-day administrative rule compliance. Further, it examinations, certification, and functions can take considerable hampers decision making, employment and promotion of time. For instance, recruitment which becomes vulnerable to academic staff, are within the of teachers to fill vacancies in forces outside the formal discretion of each university. conflict affected areas take executive framework of Central government functions, about 2 years from government. exercised chiefly through the advertisement to appointment. University Grants Commission, The administrative processes for 3.38. Procurement weaknesses. are overall policy formulation, the promotion of university An important area where rationalization of universities academics can take considerable government technical capacity is and degree programs, financing, periods of time, sometimes one severely limited is procurement. student admissions and year from application to Procurement implementation is recruitment of non-academic appointment. Claims for loans weak for several reasons, such staff. In principle, the academic by teachers and principals, too, as: (i) difficulties in drawing up autonomy enjoyed by can take years before they are technical specifications; (ii) universities should ease granted. Similarly, activities problems in preparing tender problems of service delivery and such as processing teacher and bidding documents; (iii) enable the production of high transfers, and delivering slow execution of technical quality teaching and research. textbooks and school uniforms, evaluations; and (iv) weaknesses However, service delivery have sometimes been delayed in producing clear and accurate within the university system is over the past few years. Three technical evaluation and tender constrained by several factors. key problems hampering board reports and minutes. efficient administration are: (i) Further, these weaknesses apply 3.40. Low academic salaries, excessive reliance on manual at all levels of the education leading to staffing difficulties. A operations instead of automated system, including universities Ph.D qualified senior lecturer or and computerized systems; (ii) and central government professor earns in the range of the absence of basic internal education agencies. For about USD 200-350 per month. mechanisms, such as organized instance, procurement of This is a competitive salary in filing systems and inventory university wide tenders for the public sector, although control methods; and (iii) computers are known to have modest by private sector insufficient forward planning. taken up to two years. Similarly, standards. However, the tenders for school computer competition for highly qualified 3.37. External interference in equipment have sometimes human capital, such as Ph.D administration. Education taken more than a year in recent qualified individuals, is mainly policy makers highlight times. Other major civil works from overseas universities and interference by external forces and equipment tenders of high research institutions. Such in education administration as a 49 individuals, if employed in a arrangements of universities virulent opposition from certain developed country university, reflect this focus. However, student groups, who perceive can earn more in a month than modern universities produce a these as efforts to privatize he/she could earn in a year in Sri range of outputs in addition to university education. Lanka. This salary differential undergraduate teaching, such as has made it difficult to attract research, postgraduate teaching, 3.43. Government strategy to and retain highly qualified consultancy services and increase internal efficiency and academic staff in Sri Lankan community activities. The raise the quality of service universities. The problem has administrative and managerial delivery in the university system been compounded, in the case of procedures and practices in contains four major strands. universities located outside the universities have not evolved to a. Controlling expansion of principal urban centers of support the production of this the public university Colombo and Kandy, by the full range of outputs, although system and encouraging difficulty of attracting qualified some universities have advanced private degree awarding individuals to reside in further than others. One of the institutions, professional subsidiary towns or semi-urban consequences is that about 95% associations and overseas locations. Hence, while in of university income comes tertiary education Colombo or Kandy based from the central government, institutions, including universities, such as Moratuwa, with only 5% of income coming distance mode Colombo, Kelaniya, from other sources. An institutions, to meet the Jayewardenapura and important structural feature demand for tertiary Peradeniya, the ratio of hindering entrepreneurial education. This is a academic staff with income generating activity in rational strategy which postgraduate qualifications universities, for instance, is that increases resources for the (such as Professors and Senior money earned by a public tertiary sector and also Lecturers) to academic staff university legally belongs to the directs its focus towards without postgraduate Ministry of Finance, and there is employment oriented qualifications (such as no guarantee that this money courses. Further, as Lecturers) averages about 1.5 to will be reinvested in the private degree awarding 1, in the universities located in university. institutions charge fees, subsidiary towns or semi-urban student unrest hardly locations such as Rajarata, 3.42. Student unrest. The public exists. Eastern, South Eastern, university system is vulnerable b. Further devolving Wayamba and Sabaragamuwa, to periodic bouts of student administrative and this ratio is only about 0.25 to 1.unrest, with certain universities managerial power to The inability of the latter set of worse affected than others. universities. In particular, universities to attract highly During periods of student unrest the government envisages qualified staff clearly hampers universities can even be closed granting powers to set their quality of research and down, disrupting academic work academic salaries, admit teaching. and delaying course completion durations. In addition, the extent students and recruit non- 3.41. Rigid administrative and of violence has sometimes been academic staff to management structures. The so severe that there have been universities. These public university system was episodes of physical violence. measure could improve largely laid to provide Attempts to introduce fee paying the ability of universities undergraduate teaching, and the courses in public universities to attract and retain high administrative and management have met with particularly quality academic staff, 50 compete to obtain good 3.6 Conclusions and Second, since the students students and develop Options for the Future attending private schools and institutional loyalty education institutions are likely 3.45. The government faces among non-academic to be drawn from upper income several key challenges to staff. Also, if a gradual families, it would release more increase the quality of reduction of the quantity public resources, on a per education, enhance equity of of non-academic staff student basis, for students from public spending, strengthen could be introduced, more poorer families. Third, it would service delivery within the resources would become stimulate economic activity in a system, and improve the available for investment sector where investment has economic and social relevance in measures to enhance been artificially restricted and of schools, universities and academic quality. contribute to higher growth. technical education institutions. c. Building institutional Fourth, it would provide an These challenges exist at a time capacity by strengthening alternative mode of service when public investment in national planning, delivery, with considerable education is low by developing monitoring and evaluation power and responsibility at the country standards, government capacity in the university level of the individual education education spending has been system and establishing a institutions, such as private declining in real terms and the Board of Quality schools and institutes. These state experiences a heavy fiscal Assurance to take private education institutions deficit which compels it to adopt responsibility for policy would be compelled to offer a conservative fiscal policy. In development and high quality services to remain this context, the government can monitoring on quality viable in an economic context consider four sets of measures to criteria. where they are in competition increase education investment d. Introducing performance with free public education and enhance the efficiency and based funding into the institutions. equity of public education public university system. spending. 3.47. The National Education Linking financing to Commission has recognized the performance is expected Options for education importance of creating a to provide incentives for investment favorable environment for quality enhancement of Increase private sector private investment in education degree programs. Ininvestment and participation in and recommends three types of addition, it is expected to education private schools (NEC 2003): (i) increase the labor market fee-levying private schools, relevance of university 3.46. Promoting private sector which finance their entire courses. participation in education, especially at tertiary level. expenses, teach the national 3.44. Overall, these are useful Relaxing legal obstacles and curriculum and prepare students measures. In particular, the rapid introducing strategic initiativesfor national examinations; (ii) growth of enrolment in private to counter the adverse political fee-levying international tertiary level institutions is a economy environment to private schools, which finance all their favorable trend. In addition, the sector participation in educationexpenses, teach foreign devolution of greater autonomy could produce several benefits. curricula and prepare students to universities is a promising First, it would increase the for overseas examinations, but initiative. overall volume of resources within an accreditation invested in the education sector.framework set by the education 51 authorities; and (iii) non-fee technical fields where the senior secondary education levying assisted schools, which demand for labor, both within cycles, as the tight overall fiscal teach the national curriculum and outside the country, is constraint eases over the years. and prepare students for national strong. examinations, but where there is Enhance the equity of public cost-sharing between the state Protect and gradually increase education spending and the schools, with the public investment in education 3.50. The pattern of student government typically paying 3.49. Government policy to enrolment over major grade teacher salaries and the schools improve education quality cycles, and the unit costs of bearing capital expenditures and envisages important measures to education by grade level, show recurrent costs net of teacher modernize curricula; expand that investment in primary salaries. Creating a favorable child-friendly, activity based education and secondary environment for private education; promote child- education are relatively investment in school education centered pedagogical methods; progressive and benefit students requires developing a new strengthen school leadership by from low and middle income education act and repealing the principals; enhance the households, while investment in legislation, passed in the early professional development of tertiary education tends to 1960s, which acts as a major teachers; and increase the use of benefit students from upper- barrier to the establishment of equipment and technology in income households. In private schools. schools and other education consequence, there is a strong institutions. These policy case for allocating the major 3.48. The establishment of initiatives to improve the quality share of any increase in public private universities has been an of education would require resources for the education extremely contentious issue, considerable investment of sector to primary and secondary with several past attempts resources in the education schooling, while carefully resulting in student violence and system. Given the low level and controlling the expansion of the social unrest. Hence, it is highlydecreasing trend of real public public university system and unlikely that private universitieseducation spending, and the allowing enrolment expansion in can be established in Sri Lanka major challenges Sri Lanka tertiary education take place in the medium-term. GOSL has faces in improving the quality mainly in the private sector. responded to the opposition to and economic and social Opportunities for poorer private universities by relevance of the education students to access tertiary encouraging the private sector to system, it is important that the education could be expanded participate in non-contentious government preserve the current through schemes such as student areas. These have mainly been level of real expenditure in the vouchers and student loans, the establishment of private short-term and increase public rather than through direct degree awarding institutions, investment in education provision. usually linked to foreign gradually over the medium- universities, and investment in term. The government needs to Increase cost-effectiveness of tertiary level programs such as consider the possibility of at the education system professional and technical least maintaining the real value 3.51. The tight resource courses. GOSL needs to explore of the education budget from constraint faced by the options to expand private 2005 onwards, and gradually government makes it extremely participation in tertiary level raising public education important that the education non-university education, investment, especially in the system generates internal especially in professional and compulsory basic education and savings to reduce costs. In this 52 context, three important policy Countries with the various education measures are available. outstanding education ministries, provincial systems and far higher councils, zonal education a. School rationalization. income levels, such as offices, division education The cost-effectiveness of South Korea, Singapore offices and tertiary operating the school and Hong Kong, have education institutions is system can be enhanced higher student-teacher likely to identify both by consolidating and ratios and more cost- duplication of roles and amalgamating small, effective systems. The functions, and gaps and uneconomical schools, current teacher shortages of staff. Overall, where this can be employment and there may be an excess of accomplished without deployment policy is staff, which a carefully reducing access to based on a target student- designed voluntary schooling and damaging teacher ratio of 22:1 for retirement scheme could enrolment and attendance. secondary grades and 26:1 decrease, reducing The public school for primary grades. The pressure on the budget and network is such that a government could releasing more resources sizable proportion of consider increasing the for investment. A study of small schools are located target student-teacher roles, functions and close to other, larger ratio to about 23:1 for responsibilities of staff government schools. secondary grades and 28:1 within the education MHRECA and the for primary grades in the system, as first step, provincial councils medium term. In addition, would be extremely designed and the student-teacher ratio useful. implemented a successful in the public university school rationalization system tends to be very 3.52. In order to increase program, during 1998- low, at 14:1. The resources for quality enhancing 2002, which consolidated government could education policy initiatives and amalgamated small, consider increasing this through the implementation of unviable schools. This student-teacher ratio to cost saving measures within the program was temporarily about 18:1, so that cost education system, it is vitally suspended due to intense savings can be generated important that the Ministry of political pressure. within the system. Finance permits funds saved to However, the government be channeled back into the could consider re-opening c. Rationalization of education system for this school rationalization administrative staffing. investment. If the funds saved program, but with careful The roles, functions and through cost-reducing measures safeguards to protect responsibilities of staff are not re-invested in the access for poor and within the complex, multi- education system the objective vulnerable groups. tiered education of enhancing education quality administrative system b. Increasing the student- would be defeated. Further, the tend to be rather unclear. teacher ratio in schools education system would lose the A careful analysis of work and tertiary education incentive to implement difficult loads, and de jure and de institutions. Currently, the measures such as school facto roles, functions and student teacher ratio in rationalization and higher responsibilities of staff in schools, at 21:1, is low. student-teacher ratios. 53 Shift resource allocation in strengthening the efficiency and further powers to recruit favor of equipment and quality of service delivery in the administrative staff, tailor technology education system. Several academic salaries to individual 3.53. Over time, the balance of important initiatives are staff members, and decide on capital and recurrent spending available to the government to student admissions, could within the education budget improve and strengthen the increase the motivation, needs to shift to allocate a delivery of education services. responsibility and accountability greater share of resources to of university staff and Empowering frontline service capital expenditure. Within the authorities. These measures, delivery institutions, such as capital budget, a higher however, may be controversial schools and universities proportion of resources needs to from a political economy be invested in quality inputs 3.55. A key government policy perspective. For instance, such as IT centers, science initiative under consideration is providing universities freedom laboratories, libraries, activityto devolve managerial power to to tailor academic salaries to rooms, multi-purpose rooms, frontline service delivery individual staff members can be equipment, technology and institutions, such as schools and highly controversial in a context tools. The construction and universities. In the school where academics are expansion of buildings, which system, the aim of devolving accustomed to a uniform salary absorbs the highest share of the managerial authority is to scale. Similarly, devolving capital budget, needs to be empower principals,responsibility for student rationalized, prioritizing the headmasters and admissions to individual urban school system which is headmistresses, and teachers; universities has to be made experiencing rising demand. enable schools to forge links consistent with the policy of Within the recurrent budget, too,with local communities to allocating student quotas to resources need to be reallocated improve resource mobilization disadvantaged districts. from salaries and administrative and public accountability; and 3.57. The government could expenses to quality processes, improve the speed and also consider applying the such as teacher education and sensitivity of decision making principle of devolving training, management and by decreasing administrative governance to other education academic training of school layers. In devolving managerial institutions, such as National principals, and the purchase of autonomy to schools, it is Colleges of Education (NCOEs) teaching material and learning important that different models and Teacher Centers (TCs). resources. of school development boards be pilot tested, as the Currently, the NCOEs have little Options to Improve the Quality governance capacity of schools managerial responsibility and and Efficiency of Education varies significantly, depending autonomy. Curriculum design, Service Delivery on such factors as location, size assessment and certification of teacher education courses 3.54. Development initiatives and history. For instance, the offered by NCOEs are and strategies to widen main public schools in cities and undertaken by the National education access to the poorest towns are likely to possess Institute of Education (NIE). and most disadvantaged vastly greater managerial economic groups, improve capabilities and sophisticated Recruitment of academic staff is to a centralized teacher education quality and learning community support than small educators' service, and NCOEs outcomes, and orient the rural schools in remote villages. rarely have a voice in the choice education system to the world of 3.56. Universities already enjoy of academic staff allocated to work, also requires considerable autonomy, but them. TCs operate in an 54 inefficient administrative delivery and reward good and attendance, the government structure. The NIE designs the performance, rather than could implement the NEC curricula of continuing teacher as punitive measures for (2003) proposals to offer education programs offered by poor performance, needs financial incentives to teachers TCs. The NCOEs act as to be communicated to locating in schools in difficult academic advisors to TCs. For stakeholders, especially areas. In addition, to reduce administrative purposes, education unions; teacher absenteeism, teachers including finances, the TCs b. performance appraisal could be entitled to encash come under the zonal education systems need to be unutilized leave. The main offices. This complex designed for the various constraint to introducing fiscal administrative and academic education services, such incentives for performance is the structure has badly hampered as the teachers' service, tight budget situation, which the development of TCs. education administrators' precludes expensive new policy Devolving a greater degree of service, principals' service measures. However, if cost managerial autonomy and and the teacher educators' savings could be generated responsibility to NCOEs and service, in close within the education system, TCs could increase the consultation with some of the resources obtained operational efficiency of the stakeholders, including could be allocated to introduce institutions and enhance the the relevant unions; and such performance incentives quality of service delivery. c. the technical capacity of measures. Developing performance education institutions and Streamlining roles, appraisal systems and education administrators responsibilities and introducing fiscal incentives for to manage and utilize accountability within the performance performance appraisal education system systems needs to be 3.58. The strengthening of strengthened. 3.60. Many of the measures performance appraisal systems suggested to improve education could contribute strongly to 3.59. Introducing financial service delivery would require higher quality service delivery. incentives for performance, government officials in the Within the university system, especially for key services, can central ministry, provincial performance appraisal has be a promising initiative. For councils and zonal offices to commenced, especially for instance, poor teacher assume new and additional roles academic staff. However, deployment and high teacher and responsibilities, while measures to introduce absenteeism in difficult areas is devolving some of their current performance appraisal to the a key constraint on effective powers to frontline service school system have proved service delivery within the delivery institutions, such as controversial, and left education system. Further, the schools, national colleges of undeveloped. Three key impact of weak teacher education and teacher centers. initiatives are required to deployment falls During this process of develop performance appraisal disproportionately on poor decentralization and within the school system: students, as the most unpopular empowerment of local regions, where teacher institutions, the current pattern a. the value of performance absenteeism is highest, are of responsibility and appraisal systems as typically remote, economically accountability and the future feedback mechanisms to disadvantaged, rural locations. models required need to be strengthen service To improve teacher deployment analyzed carefully. 55 Human resource development of suggest some key areas where important policy measures to central, provincial and zonal institutional strengthening is stakeholders and beneficiaries education authorities urgently required. and building stakeholder 3.61. The complex system of participation in reforms is an Administrative processing education governance, with important area where multiple tiers of administration 3.63. The administrative government capacity is weak. at the central, provincial and processes in central, provincial For instance, the government zonal levels, requires a wide and zonal offices tend to be longimplemented a school range of administrative, and cumbersome, resulting in rationalization program over technical and operations skills considerable delays in1998-2002, which achieved over and competencies from staff operational activities. One major75% of its target. In numerical working at each tier. An overall reason for these delays are the terms, this was a successful human resource strategy needs use of outdated manual systems rationalization program. to be developed and for important administrative However, it generated intense implemented, across the tasks, including correspondence, controversy, central and different tiers of the education filing, record keeping andprovincial education authorities system, to equip central,inventory control. Developing were unable to explain the provincial and zonal education computerized operating systems rationale for the program clearly staff with the necessary for normal and routineto local communities, resulting administrative, technical and administrative tasks would in its temporary suspension in operations skills and substantially increase the2003. Similarly, the government competencies. In addition, this efficiency of government commenced a multiple textbook strategy needs to provide for operations. policy, to widen choice and regular and continuous updating improve quality, which Strengthening procurement of skills and competencies as generated intense controversy capabilities technical and operations skills and delayed implementation for advance and develop. 3.64 The ability of government several years. Again, central and officials to draft bidding provincial education authorities Institutional strengthening of documents, prepare technical lacked the capability to central, provincial and zonal specifications, appraisecommunicate the policy education authorities proposals, and draw up technical effectively. The country also 3.62. Strengthening the evaluation reports and tender has, in the aggregate, a surplus operational procedures, board recommendations toof school teachers, although capabilities and performance of international standards isthere are deficiencies in certain central, provincial and zonal limited, resulting in lengthy subjects, especially English, and education authorities can procurement processes.in the Tamil medium. However, contribute significantly to the Strengthening the procurement there is intense pressure to quality and efficiency of capabilities of government employ more teachers, inter alia education planning, officials, hence, is an importantto reduce the pressure of administration and service area for future institutional unemployed educated young delivery in the future. Lessons development. people. Again, government from recent policy measures and Addressing political economy agencies have often found it development initiatives,constraints nearly impossible to withstand including reforms supported by this pressure. Hence, donors such as the World Bank 3.65 Communicating thestrengthening the ability of and Asian Development Bank, rationale for controversial but government education agencies, 56 at each level of the Public expenditure tracking and the NEREC qualitative administrative tier, to 3.68. A public expenditure study of education management communicate the rationale for tracking system would practices, that provide a basis for potentially controversial policy constitute an important a rich and informative measures and build stakeholder management tool for education monitoring and evaluation support is a vitally important policy makers and finance framework. This education area for future institutional officials and complement the monitoring and evaluation strengthening. medium-term budgeting system. system could be developed with special emphasis on the analysis Capacity development to It would provide the central of education performance and undertake education research government and the provinces causal factors useful for policy and analysis, policy formulation information on the flow of funds making. Education monitoring and planning through the education system and the actual level of resources and evaluation activities can be 3.66 There are three key reaching various service encouraged to utilize both initiatives that would contributedelivery points, such as schools, quantitative and qualitative to the development of a high universities, national colleges ofmethods, and use modern performing education system, education and teacher centers. It research techniques such as especially at the level of would also increase the experimental designs, analysis, policy formulation and transparency of resource flows randomized trials and planning. through the system. Such longitudinal surveys. Medium-term budgeting and a information could then feed multi-year planning horizon back into policy formulation and resource allocation as education 3.67. A priority initiative to development needs evolve, and improve education planning and central government and resource management is the provincial plans are refined. development of a medium-term budget framework to facilitate Promoting education research, multi-year planning. The monitoring and evaluation medium term budget could 3.69. Sound research, cover a period of about three monitoring and evaluation, years, with provision for annual based on statistically valid updating to take into account procedures and measurable fresh information and needs. indicators, is extremely valuable The medium-term budget could for policy makers. In advanced also be embedded in a long-term education systems analytically rolling plan for education rigorous education research and development. It would facilitate evaluation constitutes the education planning and foundation for policy management by improving the formulation. The Sri Lankan predictability of resources and education system currently has providing a longer-term several promising initiatives, development horizon than is such as the annual school permitted by the current annual census, the assessment of grade budgets. 4 learning outcomes by NEREC, 57 Chapter Four DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION QUALITY: STATUS, CHALLENGES AND POLICY RESPONSES 4.0 Introduction first case study examines Cognitive achievement levels of 4.1. The quality of education, education management practices students in the primary broadly defined to cover in schools, an issue that is at the education cycle cognitive achievement as well as heart of the school effectiveness 4.2. Education policy makers other dimensions of learning, and school performance express concern at the such as good team work, a literature. The second case study unsatisfactory state of learning disciplined and industrious work covers an area of increasing levels in the country [see NEC ethic, effective communication, policy interest and concern in (1997), (2003)]. Cognitive visionary leadership, and good Sri Lanka, early childhood achievement tests among civic attitudes and practices, is atdevelopment. The third case primary school children show the core of the Sri Lankan study focuses on the substantial shortfalls in mastery education policy agenda [see reconstruction of the education of fundamental language and NEC (2003)]. This chapter system in the least developed numeracy skills towards the end analyzes several important area of the country, the conflict of the primary cycle [see Table dimensions of education quality. affected region. The final case 4.1 and Table 4.2]. In first First, an analysis of the level and study examines an important language (Sinhalese and Tamil), determinants of cognitive element of the relationship average mastery is only 37%. achievement is undertaken. This between education and social This implies that two out of is followed by a discussion of cohesion, the civic attitudes and every three children have not the government strategy to understanding of students. achieved the targeted level of improve education quality and first language mastery through link education to the world of 4.1 Dimensions of Edu- grades 1-4. Writing (28%) and work. Next, a set of four case cation Quality: Levels and syntax (30%) are the weakest studies undertaken specially for Determinants of Cognitive mother tongue skills. this report, are presented. The Comprehension (45%), too, is Achievement 58 Table 4.1. Proportion of Children Achieving Mastery of Language Skills at Grade 4, 2003 Skill First Language (Sinhala or Tamil) English Language Sri Lanka Urban Rural Sri Lanka Urban Rural % Sector % Sector % % Sector % Sector % Vocabulary 70 81 68 35 48 30 Comprehension 45 56 43 16 33 13 Syntax 30 44 27 20 34 17 Writing 28 40 25 1 4 1 Total 37 51 34 10 23 7 Source: National Assessment of Grade 4 Learning Achievement: National Education Research and Evaluation Center, University of Colombo. Note: Numbers have been rounded to the nearest integer. poor. Vocabulary skills (70%) mastery is only 38%. Mastery of between urban and rural areas. are better, but even here one in mathematical concepts is 45%, First language (Sinhalese or three children has an inadequate procedures 51% and problem Tamil) mastery in urban areas is command of the language. solving only 34%. The low level 51%, but falls to 34% in rural English language skills are of cognitive achievement among areas. In English language skills, extremely low. Only 10% of primary students is especially 23% of urban children achieve primary children achieve the worrying, from a policy mastery, but in rural areas only targeted level of mastery. perspective, as primary 7% of children reach mastery. In English language writing skills education forms the foundation mathematics, 52% of urban are virtually non-existent, with upon which secondary and children attain mastery, while just 1% of children exhibiting tertiary education and various just 35% of rural children the required skill level. English types of skills training are built. achieve the required level of language comprehension (16%) Hence, the quality and competence. These urban-rural and syntax (20%) are also very performance of the entire differences can be attributed to a poor. English language education system is constrained combination of factors, such as vocabulary skills are higher by the low achievement levels in the lower quality of education (35%), but show that two out of the primary grades. services in rural areas, poorer three children lack even this parental capability and support, basic skill. 4.4. In addition to these low and weaker opportunities for overall achievement levels, child activities that promote 4.3. In mathematics there are also significant learning. achievement, too, overall disparities in achievement Table 4.2. Proportion of Primary Children Achieving Mastery of Numeracy Skills at Grade 4, 2003 Skill Sri Lanka Urban Sector Rural Sector % % % Concepts 45 58 42 Procedures 51 56 40 Problem Solving 34 39 26 Total 38 52 35 Source: National Assessment of Grade 4 Learning Achievement: National Education Research and Evaluation Center, University of Colombo. Note: Numbers have been rounded to the nearest integer. 59 Analysis of factors associated 4.6. The adoption of a child while relying on private sector with grade 4 cognitive centered learning approach publication of competing achievement contributes positively to textbooks to increase quality and 4.5. The results of anlearning outcomes in all three reduce cost. econometric analysis of the subject areas, first language, 4.8. Students attending schools factors associated with grade 4 English and mathematics. This with electricity perform better cognitive achievement arefinding provides important presented, in terms of school, econometric support to findings than students in schools without electricity. Schools with household and child specific from qualitative studies that electricity are likely to be better variables, in Table 4.3. Among parents and teachers perceive endowed, in terms of facilities education variables, teacher child centered learning as and services, so that this is a performance plays an important improving student performance. plausible finding. Children in role in determining the learning The use of oral English in schools in municipal areas outcomes of students. Students teaching contributes favorably perform better than children in perform better in classes where not only to English language urban council or rural areas. teachers use child centered scores, but also to first language learning methods, prepare learning and mathematics However, the difference between children in urban lessons daily, employ desk work achievement. This can be council and rural areas is as part of classroom practice, attributed to the ability of insignificant. This may be due to use oral English in theirteachers conversant in English the intense attention given by teaching, and evaluate student to access ideas and general government to improve the exercises. These are plausible information better than teachers quality of rural schools. findings, as teachers set the tonelacking English language and content of the classroom competency. Improving the 4.9. The analysis also throws experience of students. InEnglish language capabilities of up a number of anomalous addition, within schools, teachers, hence, could yield findings. For instance, teachers determine the level and broad benefits to students. observations on the enthusiasm extent of student exposure to 4.7. The timely possession of of teachers, the pleasantness of first language and English textbooks has a positive and learning activities and the ability language skills such assignificant impact on learning of teachers to cope with learning vocabulary, comprehension, achievement. This finding disabilities, are all negatively syntax and writing, and illustrates the importance of associated with cognitive scores. mathematical skills such as textbooks as a key teaching and These findings may partly conceptual understanding, learning resource to improve reflect the difficulty of knowledge of procedures and cognitive achievement. measuring such variables, which application to problem solving. Government policy is to provide are based on third party From a policy perspective, these schools with a choice of free observations, accurately. findings emphasize thetextbooks for children in grades Children in schools with importance of teacher 1-11, purchasing the selected classroom cupboards perform performance. Hence, initiatives titles from private textbook worse than other children, which to improve the capabilities, publishers. This policy, referred is again an anomalous result. It motivation and classroom to as the multiple textbook may indicate the difficulty of practice of teachers needs to be aoption (MBO), is intended to directly relating such inputs as core element of education promote learning by ensuring classroom cupboards to final development strategy. that all students have textbooks, learning outcomes in a production function framework. 60 Table 4.3. Regression Analysis of Student, Household and School Characteristics Affecting Learning Achievement in Grade 4 in 2003 Explanatory Variables Mathematics English language First language learning levels learning levels (Sinhalese or Tamil) learning levels Male child -0.185*** -0.254*** -0.298*** (0.039) (0.037) (0.038) Age of child -0.018 -0.075 -0.065 (0.048) (0.046) (0.051) Mother's education 0.016** 0.019*** 0.019*** (0.007) (0.007) (0.007) Father's education 0.041*** 0.056*** 0.045*** (0.007) (0.007) (0.007) Log of household 0.166*** 0.231*** 0.169*** spending per capita (0.037) (0.039) (0.037) Parental aspirations 0.049*** 0.049*** 0.047*** for child's education (0.010) (0.009) (0.010) Schools located in 0.174** 0.396*** 0.332*** a municipal council (0.088) (0.085) (0.082) Schools located in -0.079 0.116 0.057 an urban council (0.080) (0.078) (0.075) Child's height 0.103*** 0.120*** 0.119*** (0.020) (0.020) (0.020) Child missed school -0.144** -0.166*** -0.143*** frequently due to illness (0.057) (0.051) (0.055) Child has hearing difficulty -0.723*** -0.365** -0.433** (0.187) (0.148) (0.180) Child suffers from -0.052 -0.033 -0.072 worm infections (0.072) (0.068) (0.074) Schools with grades up to GCE A/L -0.124 -0.181** -0.259*** (Arts, Commerce & Science) (0.095) (0.090) (0.091) Schools with grades up to GCE A/L 0.031 -0.289*** -0.073 (Arts & Commerce only) (0.089) (0.085) (0.087) Schools with grades up to GCE O/L 0.077 -0.090 -0.086 (0.088) (0.085) (0.086) Private schools -1.141*** -1.454*** -1.378*** (0.208) (0.213) (0.188) School has a walled compound 0.138* 0.122 0.117 (0.082) (0.082) (0.080) Electricity available in school 0.261*** 0.249*** 0.221*** (0.072) (0.065) (0.070) School principal male -0.149** -0.081 -0.076 (0.060) (0.062) (0.060) Availability of textbooks by the 0.603*** 0.432*** 0.620*** beginning of the second term (0.089) (0.092) (0.088) Teacher prepares daily lesson plans 0.149*** 0.151*** 0.113** (0.057) (0.051) (0.053) 61 Table 4.3. Regression Analysis of Student, Household and School Characteristics Affecting Learning Achievement in Grade 4 in 2003 contd., Explanatory Variables Mathematics English language First language learning levels learning levels (Sinhalese or Tamil) learning levels Teacher prepares visual aids -0.035 -0.039 -0.063 (0.058) (0.055) (0.053) Teacher uses student centered 0.288*** 0.179*** 0.272*** teaching methods (0.059) (0.055) (0.056) Teacher uses deskwork 0.100** 0.102** 0.064 (0.041) (0.041) (0.041) School has book cupboards -0.120*** -0.172*** -0.167*** (0.043) (0.042) (0.041) School has playgrounds -0.011 0.050 -0.068 (0.054) (0.052) (0.050) Teacher uses textbooks 0.018 0.101** 0.054 (0.049) (0.047) (0.047) Teacher evaluates students' exercises 0.099 0.113* 0.152** (0.065) (0.059) (0.066) Pleasantness of learning activities -0.141** -0.146** -0.228*** (0.060) (0.057) (0.057) Teacher's ability to cope with children -0.282*** -0.240*** -0.235*** having learning disabilities (0.056) (0.050) (0.055) Teacher uses oral English 0.075** 0.099*** 0.138*** (0.037) (0.036) (0.034) Enthusiasm of the teacher -0.218*** -0.156** -0.134** (0.068) (0.070) (0.067) Constant -2.262*** -2.207*** -1.813*** (0.579) (0.562) (0.608) Number of observations 2,177 2,220 2,205 R-squared 0.34 0.43 0.39 Source: World Bank estimates, based on the NEREC study of learning assessments, 2003 and National Education Commission education, health and household survey data, 2003. Note: Standard errors in parentheses. * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%. All regressions were estimated using ordinary least squares (OLS) methods. Some regressions also added community fixed effects, which in effect add a dummy variable for each community. These fixed effects regressions control for all observed and unobserved community characteristics and thus are useful for reducing bias in the estimated impacts of household and school characteristics. For example, it is possible in a regression without such fixed effects that an observed school characteristic is correlated with some unobserved community characteristic that raises educational achievement, such as the prevalence of tutoring services in the local community (wealthy communities may have better schools and also more tutoring services). This correlation would lead to overestimation of the causal impact of school characteristics on test scores, but adding community fixed effects removes this potential source of bias. Household variables and and mothers exert a positive associated with learning learning outcomes effect on learning levels in all outcomes in all three subjects. 4.10. Household variables play three dependent variables, These are plausible findings, as an extremely important role in mathematics, English language educated parents with high determining cognitive and first language achievement. educational goals for their achievement levels. The Parental educational aspirations children are more likely and able education attainment of fathers for children are also favorably to provide an encouraging and 62 supportive learning environment children appear to perform in England, with three key at home. The econometric worse than female children, with stages, grades 1-2, grades 3-4 analysis also shows that children significantly lower test scores. and grade 5. Essential learning from affluent households have This finding needs to be competencies have been set for higher learning outcomes. investigated further, as it may each key stage, so that mastery Again, this is an intuitively indicate school and classroom of these competencies can be reasonable finding, as wealthy practices that place primary assessed. families are better able to invest aged boys at a disadvantage. in the education of their 4.14. The junior secondary children. education curriculum has been 4.2 Enhancing Education organized to emphasize activity Child specific variables and Quality: Government based learning, practical cognitive achievement Policies and Strategy projects and subject content 4.11. The health and nutrition 4.12. The unsatisfactory state of knowledge, with greater status of children areeducation quality has led to emphasis on practical work at significantly related to student intense public debate and the earlier levels of secondary achievement. Height isinterest in developing education schooling. The senior secondary positively related to learning policies to improve learning education curriculum awards levels, suggesting that stunted outcomes. Government policy to importance to subject content children perform worse than improve education quality depth, broad general knowledge normal children. This iscontains seven interacting and awareness, problem solving intuitively plausible, as stuntingcomponents, drawn from the skills, strong reasoning ability is an indication of low nutrition,education performance of and accurate comprehension. and under-nutrition impairs countries with more advanced 4.15. Two sets of key policy learning ability and attention in education systems and the changes were introduced into classrooms. Children with literature on school the university system at the hearing impediments and sickly effectiveness and performance. undergraduate level during the students perform poorly on all 1990s: (i) new universities were three dimensions of learning, 4.13.Curriculum modernization. established, such as Rajarata, mathematics, English and first The primary education Sabaragamuwa and Wayamba, language. These findings curriculum has been reformed to to offer non-standard degree suggest that attention needs to implement the policy framework courses; and (ii) the course unit be given to factors outside the proposed by the NEC (1997). system was introduced, to offer education system too, such as Three key components of these greater flexibility in course child health conditions and policies are: design, enable wider student nutrition levels, when seeking to (i) integration of the primary choice and a broader improve education quality.curriculum around the subject undergraduate education than Strengthening the school health areas of first language, the older, highly specialized program and special education mathematics, religion and academic system. The new program for children with environmental studies; (ii) system sacrifices subject content learning disabilities, such as introduction of oral English depth at the undergraduate level, hearing impediments, could from grade 1 onwards and however, which is a problem for contribute to improved formal English from grade 3 hierarchically ordered subjects. education outcomes among onwards; and (iii) organization Further, the absence of a well- some of the most disadvantaged of the primary education cycle developed postgraduate and vulnerable children. Male along the key stage model used education program constrains 63 the ability of the tertiary implementation of the reforms at especially principals and section education system to compensate both the primary and senior heads. The cardinal importance for this loss of subject content secondary education stages were of good leadership in developing depth at the undergraduate level. generally considered sound and and maintaining high well prepared, and were strongly performing education 4.16. Introducing modern, supported by the central and institutions has been stressed by student-friendly teaching provincial education systems. policy makers in recent years. A approaches and learning Inevitably, in a wide-ranging formal Principals' Service was methods. The primary and reform process, there were also established in 1997. In addition, secondary education system teething problems, especially a Principals' Training Center is seeks to adopt a student- given the tight fiscal constraints being developed at Meepe by centered approach to learning. and limited administrative the National Institute of This includes, over the key capacity of the system. Education (NIE), and offers a stages of the primary However, these were not serious wide range of education curriculum, guided play, activity problems, and the NEC management programs, from and desk work. In the secondary proposes continuing these short thematic courses to education curriculum, the policies, with some fine tuning postgraduate Diplomas and emphasis is on projects, self- at the senior secondary level Masters degrees. As with new learning, hands-on experiences [see NEC (2003)]. initiatives, considerable further and learning by doing. The development is needed. recent implementation 4.17. Policy measures and Currently, school principals are experience of these curriculum implementation at the junior appointed from both the approaches and teaching- secondary education level have Principals' Service and the older learning models have been been less successful [see (1971) Sri Lanka Education intensively assessed at the Mettananda (2002), Administrators' Service, with primary and secondary Gunewardena and Lekamge little synchronization between education levels. Several (2003), Perera, Gunewardena the two. Further, principals and evaluations of the primary and Wijetunge (2003)]. The school section heads (head education system [see SLAAED main reasons for the weaker masters and head mistresses) lack (2000) and NEREC (2002)] performance of education policy incentives to engage in found that the approach was measures at this level appear to professional development and highly popular among be: (i) policy inconsistency, training activities. Also, suitable stakeholders and beneficiaries, especially on the grade span and performance appraisal systems such as children, parents, curriculum organization; (ii) the have not yet been established. teachers, principals and failure to establish a high level The NEC (2003) recommends education administrators. technical committee to oversee developing a national policy for Evaluations of key recent policy and support implementation, as school principals, outlining measures in the senior at the primary level; and (iii) qualifications, appointment and secondary education system, inadequate resources to support promotion criteria, relationship to too, found favorable responses the ambitious reforms proposed other education services, from stakeholders and [see NEC (2003)]. professional and career beneficiaries [see Wijetunge and development incentives and Rupasinghe (2003), Perera, 4.18. Developing effective opportunities, and performance Gunewardena and Wijetunge leadership and management appraisal and rewards. Such a (2003) and Karunaratne capabilities among heads of national policy can be extremely (2003)]. The design and education institutions, useful. Further, government 64 needs to consider extending the assurance of the teacher have been introduced in policy to cover school section education system; and (iii) universities and are in the heads, such as headmasters and ensuring teachers acquire process of being introduced headmistresses, as well. competency in English, within the school system. The computer literacy, counseling objective of continuous 4.19. Increasing the quality of and guidance, and the teaching assessment methods are to the teaching force. Sri Lankan of Sinhalese or Tamil as third strengthen the project and education policy makers languages, in addition to activity based approach to emphasize the crucial role of pedagogy and subject expertise. pedagogy and learning, improve teachers in delivering education The findings from the the work ethics and discipline of services [see NEC (1997), econometric analysis of the students by compelling them to (2003)]. Over the past seven relationship between learning prepare throughout the year, and years the country has established outcomes and teacher variables provide students with a better 17 National Colleges of in the preceding section opportunity to perform at their Education (NCOEs) to ensure highlight the importance of normal level than can be that all individuals joining the these policy measures to observed through single year- teachers' service successfully improve the motivation and end examinations. In the school complete a three year pre- performance of teachers. system, school based continuous service teacher education assessment has been introduced program and receive due 4.20. Providing on-site as part of the GCE O/L and GCE certification, or are university academic support to schools and A/L examination cycles. Policy graduates. The number of education institutions. Schools makers plan to review the untrained teaches in the system are supported through a system implementation experience of has been reduced from about of in-service advisors who are school based assessment over a 45,000 in 1997 to around 2,000 expected to visit schools and three year cycle and develop in 2003. In addition, 94 Teacher provide advice, guidance and further refinements to the model Centers (TCs) have been technical support to principals [see NEC (2003)]. In the established, one in each zone, to and teachers. This system university system, continuous facilitate continuing functioned well in earlier assessment was introduced in professional development generations, but recently the the late 1990s to complement opportunities for teachers, system appears to have the course unit model. The especially to widen and upgrade weakened, especially at the level university assessment methods subject content knowledge, and of Divisional Education Offices. include examinations at the end refresh pedagogical skills Current policy thinking is to of semesters, and classroom through continuing teacher absorb the Divisional Education tests and take home assignments education. A national Teacher Offices into the Zonal Education during the semester. In addition, Educators' Service has also been Offices, and strengthen the some degree programs also offer established to provide an capabilities and performance of mid-semester tests. academic cadre for the NCOEs this important administrative and TCs. Key proposals to tier. This is an area where further 4.22. Strengthening education develop teacher quality in the policy development and research, monitoring and future include: (i) developing an capacity building would be evaluation. This is an important all graduate teacher cadre; (ii) extremely useful. policy measure, introduced to establishing a Teacher obtain regular and systematic Education Board for planning, 4.21. Reforming examinations feedback on the performance of coordinating and quality and assessment systems. various aspects of the education Continuous assessment methods 65 system and design policies teachers to translate these initiatives that can be considered based on objective and rigorous primary school achievement by government to strengthen evidence. A key initiative to levels into effective teaching secondary education in the develop education research and strategies in schools and future are to: evaluation capacity has been the classrooms are weak. The establishment of a National government could consider two a. clarify and organize the Education Research and key initiatives to combat this secondary school Evaluation Center (NEREC). problem: curriculum, specifying the This center has commenced competencies, skills and conducting statistically rigorous a. ensure widespread expected learning tests of learning achievement in dissemination and outcomes in each grade the country. understanding of the and subject; and competencies, skills and b. ensure widespread expected learning dissemination and 4.3 Pursuing Excellence in outcomes of the primary understanding of these Education Quality school curriculum among achievement levels among 4.23 The development principals and teachers, principals and teachers, measures above provide a including making printed including making relevant promising foundation upon versions of these printed material available which Sri Lanka can build a achievement levels to schools. high quality education system. available to schools; and The education development b. strengthen the capacity of Strengthening professional literature, the education reform teachers to equip students competencies and skills of experience of other countries, up to the achievement teachers and the education experience of levels specified in the 4.26. The quality of the Sri Lanka itself, suggest several curriculum. teaching force is of cardinal further development initiatives importance in any education Clarifying and detailing the that are urgently needed to system. Sri Lanka invested secondary school curriculum improve the quality of education heavily, over the past five years and establish high performing 4.25. Unlike in the primary or so, to construct, staff and schools in the country. school curriculum, the equip a complete network of competencies, skills and national colleges of education Improving understanding, at expected learning outcomes of (NCOEs) to provide pre-service school level, of targeted the secondary school curriculum teacher education and teacher competencies in the primary are not clearly specified. In centers (TCs) to deliver education curriculum consequence, the secondary continuing teacher education. 4.24. Currently, thecurriculum is disorganized, with Virtually all school teachers are competencies, skills and poor sequencing across grade now trained, and enjoy expected learning outcomes of levels and cycles. In addition, opportunities for professional the primary school curriculum schools are unable to set goals development during their career. are clearly specified. However, and targets for achievement The government can build on understanding of theselevels in each grade, or organize this institutional foundation to achievement levels among their teaching methods and develop the professional principals and teachers is limitedlearning strategies around a capabilities and skills of and inadequate. Further, the clearly articulated curriculum. teachers. Key actions that would capabilities of principals and Hence, two core development help achieve this objective are: 66 a. introducing continuing assume responsibility, goals of schools; teacher training programs under the leadership of b. organize schools to aimed at transforming and principals, to set and implement the curriculum developing entire schools achieve high school effectively; through on-site training, performance standards; c. match the pedagogical to complement the off-site and competencies of teachers training activities f. strengthening the to the classroom and co- currently offered through professional knowledge curricular needs of teacher centers to enable and understanding of schools; individual teachers to subject areas and the d. appraise staff, especially upgrade their skills; pedagogical skills of teachers, and b. modernizing the curricula teachers on a regular, progressively improve and instructional practices continuing cycle over their competencies and of pre-service and their teaching careers. skills; continuing teacher e. motivate staff and training programs to equip Strengthening the leadership students towards high teachers to utilize and management capabilities of performance; equipment and technology principals, headmasters and in teaching activities, such headmistresses f. deploy and utilize as course planning and 4.27. The central importance of physical resources to organization, classroom high quality school leadership is promote school goals; practice, student appreciated by Sri Lankan g. develop close ties with assignments and education policy makers. A community organizations, homework, and principals' training center is including parent-teacher assessment of student being developed to provide associations and past knowledge and skills; leadership and management pupils associations; and c. developing the curricula training to principals and school h. maintain high visibility and instructional practices section heads such as and accessibility to pupils, of pre-service and headmasters and teachers, parents and other continuing teacher headmistresses. Further, policy community members. education programs to measures are being introduced Developing academic and equip teachers with the to empower principals and administrative support systems pedagogical skills needed devolve considerable for schools to promote child-centered managerial power to schools. and activity based Strengthening the leadership 4.28. Support networks that t e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n gskills and managerial provide academic and approaches in the primary competencies of school administrative assistance and and secondary grade principals, headmasters and guidance to schools are at a cycles; headmistresses is a key area for rudimentary stage in Sri Lanka. d. endowing teachers with development. Important The existing system of in- the skills to forge leadership and management service advisors to provide partnerships with local skills required in the future support to schools is poorly communities to improve include the abilities to: developed. Strengthening this school quality; system is of strategic importance a. clearly articulate the for future education e. equipping teachers to vision and educational development. Priority areas for 67 future development include: system. The education capital the choice of textbooks available stock of IT centers and to schools by dismantling a state a. clearly articulating the equipment, science laboratories, monopoly and opening textbook roles and responsibilities libraries, activity rooms, publication to competitive of in-service advisors; instruments and tools, needs to private firms. Future b. selecting and appointing be increased in stages. development of private sector in-service advisors on the Concurrently, equipment and textbook publication could basis of proven technology have to be awarded a include the following key steps: professional competence prominent role in teaching and performance; methods, learning approaches a. enhancing the technical c. equipping in-service and examinations. For instance, capacity of textbook advisors to provide instructional time in science can writers, illustrators and services, including be weighted more in favor of editors in the country; information and training laboratory work, and lab-based b. strengthening quality regarding good assignments used as part of the control of manuscripts instructional practices, toassessment mechanism. and drafts, including schools to raiseSimilarly, teaching methods in checking factual accuracy performance; subjects such as mathematics and eliminating material d. utilizing in-service and physics can include the use that hurts different advisors effectively to of educational software to religious and ethnic evaluate and provide enable, inter alia, self-paced groups; constructive feedback on learning among children. Audio c. speeding up contracting the academic performance equipment can be utilized in and delivery to ensure and efforts of school language instruction, especially timely distribution to principals and teachers; English, to develop vocabulary, schools prior to the and pronunciation and oral fluency. commencement of the e. incorporating on-site And increasing use of libraries academic year; and support to schools into theand reading material provide an d. developing technical regular development extremely effective method of capacity among writers to activities of provincial enhancing learning outcomes. produce supplementary education authorities and reading material, Improving the quality of zonal education offices. workbooks and textbook textbooks guides. Expanding the education capital 4.30. Textbooks constitute the stock and increasing the use of main learning resource in the Reconstructing damaged equipment and technology in education system. Further, for a education institutions in conflict teaching and learning developing country such as Sri affected areas 4.29 As Sri Lanka stands Lanka, it is likely to remain the 4.31. Enrolment and learning poised on the threshold of the chief quality input for many levels are lowest in the conflict second stage of education years into the future. As such, affected areas, which experience development, the school system ensuring high quality textbooks special challenges caused by the needs to advance from a low- is vitally important. In recent destruction of education technology environment heavily years, the government has infrastructure. Government dependent on "chalk and talk" to implemented an important education institutions in the a modern, equipment and policy initiative to increase the conflict affected areas, technology intensive education quality of textbooks and widen especially schools, suffered 68 damage during the conflict groups can study together and 4.4 Orienting the period. An assessment of the promoting the use of English as Education System to the reconstruction, rehabilitation a link language. These are useful World of Work and developmental needs of the measures, although their impact region [see UNICEF-World clearly depends on the 4.34. The Sri Lankan education Bank (2003)] estimated that cooperation of different social policy framework stresses the about USD140 million is groups. In particular, the importance of orienting the required to restore the education cooperation of dominant groups education system to the world of capital stock in the region. in the conflict affected areas is work [see NEC (2003)]. Policy Technical capacity, however, is a needed to promote these makers are aware that the best major challenge in activities effectively. foundation for the world of work implementing education is a high quality school system reconstruction and rehabilitation Improving the quality of which can supply the labor work in the conflict affected university education market with trainable regions. In particular, there are 4.33. The university system has individuals and provide a strong shortages of material and skilled not experienced the same spring board for technical, labor. Also, as funds have intensive process of consultative professional and university poured into the region for policy development as the education. The school system reconstruction work, prices of school system. However, the plays a pivotal role in producing goods and wages have risen. UGC and individual universities knowledge and generic skills, Long-term support to restore the have developed several such as team work, decision education system in the conflict initiatives to enhance quality. making, initiative, problem affected areas requires These include reforming solving, responsibility, considerable capacity building curricula and examination leadership and communication, activity. systems, especially organizing which are important in the world degree programs around course of work. The school system also Promoting social cohesion unit systems and introducing constitutes the basic curriculum through education continuous assessment systems, framework for the acquisition of 4.32. Enhancing civic developing corporate plans for knowledge and specific knowledge and understanding universities, introducing capabilities in demand in the among students is an important performance appraisal systems labor market. Plans to improve measure to promote respect for for staff, setting up an the orientation of the Sri Lankan diversity, democratic accreditation process under an education system to the world of governance and civil liberties in independent board, and work needs priority the backdrop of the 20 year long introducing an element of development initiatives in secessionist conflict in the performance based funding. curricula, use of IT and country. Additional measures to These initiatives have yet to be technology in education, promote social cohesion through tested, and good evaluations, language skills and fluency, and education include producing especially of the older initiatives career guidance and counseling. textbooks that are sensitive to such as the introduction of Developing and implementing the cultures of different social course unit systems and an activity based curriculum groups, using the curriculum continuous assessment and co-curricular activities to mechanisms, could be helpful to 4.35. The activity based promote respect for diversity, policy makers and academics. curriculum approach advocated introducing schools where by Sri Lankan policy makers for children from different ethnic secondary education is explicitly 69 designed to develop a sound implement IT based teaching upwards; work ethic among school and learning include: b. introducing English as a children [see NEC (2003)]. As medium of instruction in such, it can play a key role in a. equipping schools with IT government schools in orienting the education system facilities and connectivity stages, as and when to the world of work. The future in stages; adequate teachers become development and b. establishing a national available; implementation of the activity education network to training teachers, based curriculum approach maximize access to IT c. including re-training depends on key initiatives to: based education material; "excess teachers" in the c. training teachers in IT a. train teachers in activity system, to teach English equipment, educational based pedagogy; as a subject; software and on-line b. train principals to education resources; d. training teachers, organize schools for an including re-training d. creating awareness among activity based curriculum; "excess teachers" in the school principals on the c. provide sufficient system, to teach in use of IT in education; and classroom space and English as a medium of e. making provision for IT activity rooms to instruction; and equipment and IT based implement activity based e. utilizing audio-visual educational resources in learning; and educational resources and school quality input d. make adequate IT based education allocations. equipment, technology material widely for and reading material Improving English language English language teaching available in schools to skills and learning. support activity based 4.37. English language skills Strengthening skills teaching and learning. and fluency enjoy strong development and training demand in the national labor Increasing IT literacy and skills 4.38. Skills development market. In addition, English and introducing IT based constitutes the chief active labor language competency opens job teaching and learning market strategy of the prospects in the global economy. 4.36. IT literacy and skills are government to promote the job In consequence, developing fundamental in the modern prospects and labor productivity English language skills world, and vastly increase the of school leavers. Several constitutes a central element of national and global labor market promising development the education policy framework prospects of school completers initiatives and policy measures to improve the labor market and university graduates. have been proposed by policy orientation of the school system. Education policy makers are makers, including: Important development aware of the cardinal importance initiatives for the future include: a. strengthening the of IT, and advocate expanding Technical and Vocational and deepening the use of IT in a. allowing private schools Education Commission the education system. This is an to provide students a (TVEC) as the apex body extremely important, high choice of English as a for TEVT; priority policy measure. Key medium of instruction, b. developing the role of initiatives to develop the use of along with Sinhalese and government to function as IT in the school system and Tamil, from grade 1 a facilitator, standard 70 setter and regulator of 4.39. An important government report, which analyze key training; recommendation to link elements of education quality: c. fostering private sector education to the world of work (i) education management participation in training; is the development of effective practices and the interaction of d. promoting government- career guidance and counseling. inputs and processes at school industry partnerships in Universities have commenced level; (ii) Early Childhood skills development; career guidance and counseling Development; (iii) e. accrediting and activities. However, in the reconstruction of the education monitoring the quality of school system, career guidance system in conflict affected areas; public and private training and counseling is virtually non- and (iv) the promotion of social institutions; existent. Developing career cohesion through the school guidance and counseling in system. f. rationalizing the public schools is an important initiative sector TEVT system; for future implementation. Key g. improving the linkages of actions to promote this initiative the TEVT system with the could include: school and university systems; including a. training a core cadre of establishing career school staff in career guidance and counseling guidance and counseling; in schools and b. prioritizing schools in universities; poor regions in the h. promoting vocational development of guidance training for the informal and counseling, as sector; and students in such areas i. providing financial have less access to labor incentives for training market information; and targeting the corporate c. developing information sector. networks between vocational training and These are rational and technical education potentially productive ideas, institutions and guidance reflecting international thinking counselors in schools. and practice. The actual stage of development of these various policy initiatives is modest, with4.5 Case Studies of many ideas still at the level of Selected Dimensions of blue prints. Translating these Education Quality policy ideas into development 4.40. The preceding analysis strategies and implementing examined important dimensions them constitute the next major of learning outcomes and challenges faced by the TEVT government education strategy sector. at the broad level of national Developing career guidance and policy. The current section counseling presents four case studies, specially commissioned for this 71 Case Study I Developing Responsive 4.1.3. The study particularly · Order and discipline Schools for Quality focused on key interacting · Sequenced curriculum Learning school-related factors and their articulation and relationships with the larger 4.1.1. Analyzing the qualitative organization education system and local dynamics of the interaction · School-wide recognition communities. These factors among the conditions within of academic success and were based on those identified schools in Sri Lanka is incentives from international experience important for education policy · Maximized learning time which improve student learning making, as general in the classroom environments [see ANTRIEP recommendations about (2000), Heneveld and Craig · Variety in teaching program design based on (1996), Lockheed and Verspoor strategies quantitative assessments need to (1991)]. These include: · Well supervised be supplemented by qualitative homework appropriate to information. For example, there · Strong parent and the age level of students is strong research evidence that community support · Frequent constructive the presence of textbooks affects· Effective support from the student assessment and school achievement positively. larger education system, feedback However, the dynamics and including clearly defined efficacy of book use in schools student outcomes; 4.1.4. Based on the information is not well understood. For transparent and merit- currently available from this educational reform and program based career opportunities qualitative analysis, seven key design to be successful, these for staff, and frequent andareas that appear to warrant quantitative analyses need to be appropriate teacherstrong consideration in Sri enriched by systematic development activities Lanka, especially as school- qualitative information on the · Adequate materialbased management is dynamics within schools. support; i.e., sufficient developed, are: (i) clearly defining student outcomes and 4.1.2. As part of a process to instructional materials, high expectations that are then take a fresh look at the guiding adequate facilities effectively translated into parameters which should be in · Effective leadership classroom learning practice; (ii) place for learning environments · A capable teaching force modernizing the curriculum to in Sri Lankan schools, a · Flexibility and autonomy better match the expected qualitative study was undertaken to organize schoolstudent learning outcomes and by the National Education priorities and activities to develop more child-friendly Research and Evaluation Center · Sufficient days spent in classroom practice; (iii) (NEREC) for this report. The school during the school strengthening the instructional study focused on 100 schools year and managerial leadership (92 public and 8 private) across · Clear goals and high within schools, most typically as all provinces in Sri Lanka and expectations of students provided by the school represents all school types. and staff principal, headmasters and More in-depth case studies are headmistresses; (iv) developing also underway in eight schools, · Positive teacher attitudes, more capable and motivated including two private schools. collaborative planning and collegial relationshipsteachers with positive teacher 72 attitudes; (v) maximizing the reinforced by giving them their specific students' support and participation from many opportunities to needs. the local community; (vi) take responsibility for c. Strong school leadership. developing alternative methods school activities. These School principals play a to corporal punishment to expectations tend to key role in the school to: motivate children to undertake translate into more (i) see that the resources the needed learning tasks, and to positive self-concepts and are available to provide, be excited about their own great self-reliance among adequate support to ongoing learning; and (vii) students. teachers, sufficient specifying more clearly the b. Curriculum relevant learning materials, and an power, authority and school activities. Based on adequate and well- responsibilities at each level of the expected student maintained learning the education system. competencies, schools facility; (ii) pursue high a. Clearly defined student need to develop a instructional standards outcomes and high comprehensive written through written policies, expectations. In the scheme of work that high expectations and qualitative analysis, it is identifies learning management of the striking that of the 100 objectives and learning process; (iii) schools studied, the realistically available communicate regularly majority of them had materials, and all teachers and effectively with difficulty in translating the can explain what they teachers, with parents and expected learning teach in terms of this others in the community; competencies of students scheme. Materials, both and (iv) maintain high (i.e. cognitive, affective provided and locally- visibility and accessibility and psycho-motor) into prepared, identified in this to pupils, teachers, parents school objectives and scheme of work should be and others in the classroom practice. It is available and used by community. Teachers also imperative that teachers teachers. In the primary have a responsibility to know what students need school, all teachers should work with and share to learn. Based on be able to identify basic accountability with the international research, skills in each subject and principal for the ongoing effective schools tend to demonstrate how they improvement of their be places of commitment ensure mastery of these instructional practice and to learning. This is clearly skills by students. Subject school quality. communicated by the content across grade d. Capable and motivated principal and the teachers. levels needs to be relevant teachers: Characteristics Student performance is for current and future of teachers in effective monitored regularly. Also learning needs, respectful schools tend to fall into student assignments are of diverse cultural and two categories. There are sufficiently frequent and religious backgrounds, conditions that it appears difficult so as to convey and be presented in an makes teachers in a school this high expectation and integrated sequence more capable of being teachers' confidence in across grade levels. There effective, and there are the students' abilities and should also be some attitudes and behaviors confidence in students is flexibility for teachers to they exhibit in their work. adapt the curriculum to Among the conditions that 73 define the capability of a skills. (e.g., parents support the school's teaching force e. Parent and community idea of homework and are: (i) the teachers' participation: From the monitor it, mastery of the material broader research parents/community serve they are supposed to literature, five categories as information sources teach; (ii) the amount of of parent and community and/or an audience for teaching experience they support that are relevant to student work). have; (iii) the length of the Sri Lankan context f. Order and discipline: time they have been in the are: (i) children come to Disciplinary matters can school; and (iv) the extent school prepared to learn be minimized in to which the teachers are (e.g., are healthy, and classrooms often by the full-time in the school. where possible have been way the classroom is Regarding behavior, involved with reading, organized as well as the teachers tend to be more conversations and interest level generated by effective when they have directed play at home); (ii) engaging, child-friendly confidence in their ability the community provides practices. For example, to teach, care about financial and material seating arrangements teaching and about their support to schools should be uncongested; students, and cooperate (monetary, or in-kind external noise levels and with each other. This is contributions, assistance lighting conducive to reflected in teachers' to build schools); (iii) learning; school rules and comfort in using learning communication between regulations clearly materials and in trying the school and community articulated, agreed upon new ideas, by low teacher is frequent (e.g., school- by teachers and students, absenteeism and tardiness, public events and parent- and equitably maintained; and in a high level of teacher conferences are learning centers of group involvement in frequent and meaningful); individual activities planning, teaching and in communications to available for students who resolving whole-school parents by school staff are may finish work early or issues. The lack of direct frequent and meaningful, need either remedial or pedagogical support to positive parent-initiated further engaging teachers in their contacts with school staff activities, and good work classrooms is problematic are frequent and rewarded publicly. in Sri Lankan schools. meaningful); (iv) the g. Effective support from the Teacher support networks community has a larger education system: that bring this support into meaningful role in school Support to individual classrooms, either from governance (e.g., the role, schools by the education h e a d m a s t e r s , functions and authority of system's management headmistresses, school the school board are clear structure is important to principals, other and agreed-upon; the enhance school quality. In experienced teachers, school board meet terms of demonstrating its learning advisors or other frequently and make support, the system needs resource persons, would meaningful decisions); to: (i) delegate authority provide an invaluable and (v) community and responsibility for service to teachers to both members and parents improvement to the motivate and increase assist with instruction schools themselves; (ii) 74 c o m m u n i c a t e 4.1.5. The move to develop practice and motivation are to be expectations and exert more school-based management developed. These networks and pressure where necessary in Sri Lanka has the potential to their associated activities can be for successful academic better address these differing varied in structure and results; (iii) provide needs and processes at each organization. As a general rule services to the schools to school, bringing more authority though, those that focus on help them succeed, and responsibility closer to the continuous development to including information and teaching-learning interaction guide, monitor, and support training regarding within schools. As the unit of necessary skills, knowledge and instructional practices and focus of greatest learning new ideas, tend to be more protection from political impact, schools are essential successful in bringing about turbulence; and (iv) players in the processes of change at the classroom level monitor and evaluate regulation, monitoring and self- than those which seek quick schools' academic renewal. fixes to fill up deficiencies, or performance and the programs that simply provide a efforts of school Teacher Support Networks qualification. Impact is even principals, particularly as further enhanced when the instructional managers. 4.1.6. The quality of a student's support (skill development and The system of a clearly- education depends largely on the resources) is brought directly defined policy for quality of teachers. This is into teachers' classrooms, in authority delegation and especially important in the contrast to support that is of expected student primary school level, when offered at a distance and competencies are children's learning is very requires time to travel. The necessary to promote high formative and not so school setting should be the academic standards. This independent. It is even more true prime focus of activity. will also mean that, in Sri of developing countries, where, Lanka, there is a need to especially in rural areas, other 4.1.8. A central principle of more clearly specify the factors involved with the support networks is that the power, authority and learning process, such as access professional development of responsibilities at each to appropriate textbooks is more teachers is a process, not an event. level of the education problematic [see Carron and It involves change over time and is system, especially as the Ngoc Chau (1996)]. If teachers achieved in stages during a system moves more are absent, discouraged, do not teacher's career as more towards school-based have the needed pedagogical experience is gained. The stages management. Areas of the expertise to maximize learning are impacted by: (i) the degree and system where there are time, do not believe in the accessibility of services and currently overlapping capability of students to learn, support that can be provided responsibilities will also and/or do not work in supportive within the education system; and need clarification so that teaching environments, student (ii) the willingness of teachers to school principals will learning suffers. Teachers are want to learn and apply new ideas. know clearly to whom also key agents for socialization 4.1.9. The following provides they are accountable. At in schools. So the role of information on some different present, as noted by NEC teachers is critical and warrants types of teacher networks that (2003), some schools are special attention. might be considered. A subject to multiple control 4.1.7. Teacher support networks combination of these is by different layers. are needed if sound pedagogical desirable: 75 4.1.10. S c h o o l - B a s e d of the teacher. This assistance educational resource centers Networks: The one model noted can also provide a valuable link developed and operated jointly for its effectiveness in changing with more formal in-service within the cluster. The Learning classroom practice is school- training that might have been Action Cells in the Philippines based support. This typically provided but which needs exist at the school, district and involves the direct participation classroom practice to ensure regional levels and are used for and joint control by teachers and implementation of the acquired school evaluation and staff school principals, along with learning. Similar support should development for both teachers other officials, usually also be organized for school and principals. Similar inspectors/supervisors. The principals so that they also organizational patterns operate support and participation of the might develop better leadership in many other countries. In school principal or other and pedagogical skills. reality, the activities undertaken "director-organizer" is essential. at the cluster level, tend to be Self-explanatory teacher guides 4.1.12. The school-based model more formal and related to and shared teacher idea booklets is very effective for long-term decentralized in-service training further strengthen this approach. guided learning, depending on programs [see Colombian the caliber of staff available in example, Box 4.2]. However, 4.1.11. In-school activities, the school or other staff who can there is the potential to also have held regularly, typically include: regularly visit the school. The activities more akin to the (i) individual consultations role of the principal as school-based networks. Clusters between the teacher and the instructional leader, and not just offer the added advantage of principal, supervisor or other administrative manager tends to having greater access to share experts, especially with be a feature. If a school does not staffing, material resources, and emphasis on classroom have competent staff to provide a range of ideas. supervision and use of appropriate advice and instructional materials; (ii) assistance, then the services of a 4.1.14. Resource Centers tend observation of excellent visiting resource teacher, or to be prominent within school teachers, discussion, peer other appropriate personnel who clusters, However, their coaching, and mentoring; (iii) might be found in a school- establishment is always visits to other classrooms and cluster network, or within other controversial. The concept is schools; and (iv) regular group teaching institutions/services simple, but clarity of purpose teacher meetings, either by from the larger education system and the implementation of the grade level or subject to discuss becomes a necessity for success support structure which is issues and share resource ideas. (see Egyptian example, Box needed for classroom practice Peer coaching, in which two 4.1). impact, tend to be problematic. teachers observe each other's classes with the objective of 4.1.13.School-Cluster Networks, 4.1.15. Based on international helping each other improve their Teacher Centers and Resource experience [see many studies instructional abilities, has Centers: School-cluster referred to in Bray (1987), Craig become increasingly popular networks (such as those et. al. (1997), Knamiller and along with mentoring programs. employed in Colombia, Fairhurst (1998)], instructional Activities tend to focus on Guatemala, Indonesia, Lesotho, support to teachers via concrete and specific training Nepal, the Philippines, Sri networks, i.e., regular meetings for instructional and Lanka, Thailand and Zambia) of teachers between and within management practice, and are are very helpful to share scarce schools to share resources and appropriate to the current needs material and human resources. ideas, team teaching with an Core schools tend to host experienced teacher, regular 76 visits and advice by learning if the establishment of a fixed school clusters, should be coordinators/ resource teachers, site center is being considered, thoroughly addressed. Because sharing useful classroom the following key issues which many of the following elements materials etc., tend to be more need to be addressed in the are difficult to achieve, the effective than the establishment affirmative for successful better advice is often to place of fixed site centers. However, operation of resource centers in effort and financial resources Box 4.1: School-Based Training/Support (SBT) in Egypt: Programs for English Teachers School-based training and support has been operating since 1994 in several areas of Egypt as pilot programs for English teachers at the preparatory level. The main goal is to provide in-service training and support to increase the effectiveness of teachers through training and mentoring at the school site. Targets of the programs include: · Teachers effectively using the instructional texts in the classroom. · Unifying the teachers in a school and actively encouraging them to work as a team. · Improving communication among Ministry of Education inspectors, senior teachers, school principals, school directors and parents. · Recognizing, acknowledging and rewarding individual creativity to create greater job satisfaction, enhanced self- worth, and professional pride in teaching. · Providing a model for the sharing of effective strategies for solving problems. · Identifying and actively encouraging those individuals who are models of excellence and potential leaders in their schools. · Providing a forum for participatory input that affects the sense of investment and consequent ownership that all participants develop toward their school. · Encouraging inspectors, teachers, and administrators to develop strategies for resolving conflict. · Encouraging more active and communicative pupil participation in the learning process. · Institutionalizing the model of using the school as a unit for ongoing professional development. Strengths of the program: · Preparatory school teachers receive materials on basic classroom teaching techniques. These materials are based on the instructional texts and can be used immediately by the teacher to make classroom teaching more interesting and effective. · Because the training and support takes place at the school site: - Teachers receive training without having to take time off work or travel long distances; - Teachers can practice new techniques and discuss the new material with colleagues and senior teachers on a daily basis; - The senior teacher (or any interested and motivated teacher) can give classroom demonstrations using SBT activities, or attend demonstrations given by other teachers in the school. · SBT activities increase communication and sharing of ideas among the English teaching staff. · Transferring the SBT activities and ideas to other English classes in a school gives the senior teacher increased responsibility for professional development, and increases the status of the senior teacher. · Teachers in participating schools develop a better rapport through working together to integrate SBT activities into their classes. · All teachers in the school receive new material and observe demonstrations (rather than one or two teachers being nominated to attend a local training session). · SBT provides a positive focus for inspectors' school visits, classroom observation, and meetings with teachers. · Senior teachers monitor teachers using SBT activities on a day-to-day basis and can thus better assist inspectors on their observation visits. · Among the most motivated teachers, SBT encourages creative thinking and problem solving. · SBT involves inspectors as demonstrators, trainers, observers and evaluators; and it strengthens the relationship between the supervising inspector, and the senior teacher in a participating school by focusing on professional development. · SBT can serve as a link between a centralized type of in-service training program and specific teacher needs. It includes schools identified by the inspector general and the inspectors for improvement. · Participating teachers and inspectors are encouraged to make suggestions and revisions, which are then incorporated into the SBT materials. 77 To ensure the success of the program: · The inspector-general or senior inspector must strongly support the introduction of the SBT into local schools, want to assist in its implementation, and keep pressure on inspectors and senior teachers to do the work. · The inspector-general or senior inspector must identify key schools with strong senior teachers (especially in the first year of implementation), and make sure that the supervising inspector actively participates in SBT. · The inspector-general or senior inspector and participating inspectors must be willing to implement procedures for quality control of SBT (e.g. attendance at demonstrations, following visits for instructional support, observations and constructive feedback to participating teachers, and encouragement and advice to senior teachers). · The inspector-general or senior inspector and participating inspectors must be willing to meet regularly to discuss SBT, or to include SBT implementation as a discussion item during regularly scheduled weekly meetings. · The format and advantages of using the school as a unit of ongoing professional development must be well understood by all participants. · This school-level support must be linked to the larger education in-service training system. · SBT must be viewed as a means of promoting community and organizational development, in addition to providing a forum for professional development, and improving teachers' use of the books and other classroom skills. Source: LeBlanc 1997 into a visiting "resource teacher" · Is there support and · Do the activities program [see Lesotho example, collaboration of undertaken at the resource Box 4.3] rather than a fixed site participants involved in center have a strong center: the cluster? application to classroom · Is there common · Is there participatory practice? agreement between the planning and · Are there outreach schools about clearly implementation by staff programs or personnel stated objectives? from the schools? that visit the other schools · Does the topography of · Is there support and in conjunction with the areas to be covered collaboration of education programs offered at the allow easy access to the officers higher up in the main resource center? centers - consider ease or education system? · Are the resources and difficulty of · Are the skills of the support in the center communication and people responsible for the appropriate to current staff transportation, time, teaching, training, needs? physical weariness and mentoring and support · Is there adequate cost? adequate? equipment and resources? Box 4.2: The Micro-centers (Teacher Centers) in the Escuela Nueva in Colombia According to Schiefelbein (1992:69-71), the teachers: .. learn by doing in three programmed one-week workshops organized by the decentralized regional unit in charge of training with intervening practice periods, and limited supervision. In the first workshop, each teacher visits a demonstration school, learns about the cooperation of the student council and the layout and organization of the learning activities areas, and participates in group discussion. The second workshop is held when the school has been adopted as the Nueva Escuela model: a student council is elected and the community informed usually two or three months after the first workshop. In that week, teachers learn to use the self-instructional textbooks correctly, practice the multi-grade approach, flexible promotion, and are encouraged to introduce innovations. In the third workshop, teachers learn to organize and use the class library, maps, posters, and reinforce their ability to work with several grades at the same time. This is also occasion for review, follow-up evaluation and problem solving. At the end of the third workshop, teachers receive a 100-book library. After each workshop, teachers are invited to meet once a month in a nearby school in what is known as a Micro-center. These micro-centers operate within demonstration schools to analyze problems and to discuss solutions. No hierarchical staff relationships are generated by microcenters, but supervisors do attend the meetings when feasible. 78 Box 4.3: Teacher Support Networks: The District Resource Teacher (DRT) Program in Lesotho Highlights : · One of the attributing factors for the success of the teacher education program is that it began as an idea from the Ministry of Education rather than by the project, thereby encouraging ownership and motivation. · The program particularly targets small schools in scattered and distant locations where teachers are often isolated. The schools tend to be multi-grade, and have fewer than five teachers. About 700 of the 1,200 schools in the country are covered, accounting for 2,000 of the country's 6,000 teachers. · Classroom environments are very conducive to learning, e.g., visual aids are used and displayed on walls, and learning centers are organized in classrooms. · The DRT's supportive role is coordinated with that of the Inspectorate, whose current role involves checking on whether the schools are doing their work properly. Observations: · Activities include individual consultations, group workshops for school clusters, and dissemination of new curricula produced by the National Curriculum Development Center. · DRTs sit down with teachers, discuss their perceived difficulties, and offer suggestions to deal with them. · Typical difficulties involve classroom organization and management of multi-grade schools, group work, learning centers, peer learning, and mobilizing community members to help with classroom activities such as reading to mothers. · DRTs team teach with local teachers and help develop teaching materials. · DRTs usually visit schools four times a year, which allows two to three visits a year for all the teachers in the schools under the DRT's care (typically between ten and fifteen schools). Workshops are often held on weekends. Selection of DRTs: · The first efforts were rather random - experienced teachers proposed by the district education officers were appointed. But this did not necessarily work very well. · The second group recruited at the end of the program needed to be qualified, experienced teachers, with head teacher or deputy-head teacher experience, willing to travel frequently and ride horseback where necessary. Efforts were made to try to have a gender balance as well as distributions by district and religion. · Potential participants needed to write about why they wanted to be DRTs, interviews were conducted, and were followed by training. Sustainabilty: When donor support ended, DRTs were given a teacher's salary on a special scale of a resource teacher or a senior resource teacher that was paid by the Ministry of Education. Over seventy DRTs were operating and some were promoted into the Inspectorate. The DRTs are within the teaching service and paid from the regular government budget. The extra expenditures of the DRT program, mainly travel costs and per diems of DRTs while they are in the schools, are paid through the Ministry of Education. Source: O'Grady 1996 · Is there sufficient release release time for teachers, of having an outreach program time for staff to attend the outreach program from directly to classrooms is center during school the center to the other supported in principle by many hours? schools, staffing? of the Directors of these centers, · Are there incentives in · Are the costs and benefits lack of appropriate staff and place to attract staff to use of resources shared - resources, logistical constraints, the center and financial and non- as well as lack of clear policy collaborate? financial? and authorization to undertake · Is additional staffing more direct classroom support is 4.1.16. Sri Lanka currently has needed for the center? Is preventing this development. 84 Teacher Centers. Their prime additional staffing feasible This will be an important area of function is to hold non- and affordable? focus for the Office of the Chief residential courses running from · What are the requirements Commissioner for Teacher one to three days. While the idea for financing: the center, Education (CCTE). 79 4.1.17. School, Institutional, programs; and (v) collaboration selecting appropriate web Teachers' Union, Business between schools and projects, facilitating links to Networks: Other collaborative businesses/industries. This can national and international efforts for professional support be particularly advantageous at networks of teachers and include: (i) institutional the secondary school level developing on-line discussions. twinning, where teacher where businesses and industries, The Canadian School Net educators in a teacher training as well as tertiary institutions, provides discussion groups, institution (or even secondary have an interest in students teacher-designed networking school) develop a partnership developing appropriate skills for projects, a virtual environment with another well established the workforce and for higher for situation-based learning, institution in either the same learning, and therefore take a interactive curriculum country, another developing more active role in supporting resources, on-line career nation or a more resource rich schools and the teaching materials and access to special nation to provide staff process. processes for hardware and exchanges, shared training, software companies. Nine ideas, curriculum and other 4.1.18. Unstructured and thousand schools and 900 ongoing support; (ii)resource-based networks: There libraries were connected by partnerships between local is a strong argument that, as 1997 to this network. Examples schools and the teacher training experienced or qualified can be found in other countries institutions to provide testing teachers will have demonstrated as well. grounds for new research a capacity to learn, there is no practices intended to maximize need to create a formal system 4.1.20. But resource-based student learning (university staff of training for their continuing approaches are not limited to the meet regularly in the schools to professional development. advanced technologies. For discuss practical concerns and Rather, provided educational example, Bhutan relies on radio, problems of the classroom, and resources are available to them, and India's "Hints to Teachers" a the schools provide places for they should be able to choose weekly 45 minute broadcast student teaching and what meets their needs and learn uses television. There is also an opportunities for research); (iii) without a formal structure. increasing network of partnerships between teachers' broadcasted programs that are 4.1.19. Both industrialized and unions and school designed to reach teachers developing countries have used clusters/districts/central levels internationally, e.g., BBC World resource-based approaches in to contribute as part of the Service. These learning support order to strengthen the teaching professional network to opportunities for teachers are force, using discussion forums, collaboratively provide less well documented than those general information and workshops, discussion forums, that are structured, and little networking opportunities, and a and training; (iv) individual evaluation of them is available. variety of different media. collaboration of teachers or But it seems likely that, just as Increasingly, and especially school districts with institutions many adult learners benefit within the industrialized world, of higher education to pursue more from unstructured than use is being made of the internet mutually-beneficial projects structured programs, so teachers as a means to network and such as science and technology are likely to be influenced by access resources. A British exchanges and in-service programs of this kind [see Craig program, TeacherNewsUK, for training for teachers related to and Perraton (2003)], the example, aims to support higher education institution exception being that new professional development by teachers who have had limited 80 teacher preparation tend to improved teaching practice is become better at their classroom benefit more from structured the key to help children learn, practice. Teacher support should learning support, at least to and the success of each school to also include a more thorough begin with. ensure this, is the key to overall consideration of schools as quality improvement in the social organizations, since this 4.1.21. In conclusion, teacher education system. Support to context influences teaching and support networks must be aimed teachers is not just about more learning [see Rosenholtz primarily at helping each teacher training. It is about a continuum (1991)]. facilitate change in the of opportunities for teachers to classroom. The success of Case Study II Early Childhood its full potential is considerably, secondary education learning Development in Sri Lanka and often irreversibly, reduced. levels are significantly This early childhood stage in life influenced by favorable early Early childhood development: is also important as a foundation childhood outcomes. Second, Importance and significance for social and personal habits health, nutrition and education- 4.2.1. The First Six Years of and values which last a lifetime. psychosocial development are Life: The first six or so years of Hence, investing in these early all synergistically related, so that a child's life, known as the early years in children is extremely addressing these needs in a childhood stage, is globally important for the quality of life combined, holistic framework acknowledged to be the most in a country. Formal early maximizes impact. Third, child critical years for life long childhood development (ECD) development is optimized when development, as the pace of programs, which have become the programs address not only growth in these years iscommon in developing the child, but also the child's extremely rapid. Recent countries, derive their overall growth context. research in the field of importance from this rationale. neuroscience has provided Early childhood education in Sri convincing evidence of the 4.2.2. Planning early childhood Lanka existence of critical periods programs needs to take into within the early years for the account three important 4.2.3. There are about 11,000- formation of synaptic principles of child development. 12,500 pre-schools, such as connections and the fullFirst, the child development nurseries, Montessories and development of the potential of process is continuous and kindergartens in the country. the brain. Research has also cumulative. In consequence, it is Enrolment in these institutions is indicated that if these early yearsimportant to address the entire estimated to cover about 60% of are not supported by, or childhood continuum, from children aged 3-5, [see embedded in, a stimulating and prenatal to the end of the Abhayadeva (2003), Wijetunge enriching physical and psycho- primary stage, as opposed to and Wickremaratne (2003)]. social environment, the chances intervening in any one sub-stage These pre-school institutions are of the child's brain developing to only. For example, primary and largely, over 80%, within the 81 private sector. As a result of the providing equal opportunities to naturally continue to be increasing recognition of the all children, including those important. While the importance of early childhood with special needs, for their interventions and outcomes of development by policy makers, survival, growth and the 0-3 age group also have a Sri Lanka drafted a National development. To implement this bearing on learning potential Policy on Early Childhood Care plan, the policy suggests a and achievements in later life, and Development (ECCD) in coordination system with the stage of pre-school 2003. This draft policy adopts a representation from across education directly precedes comprehensive definition of departments at the national and primary education and has a ECCD to address the needs of different sub-national levels, clear link with learning at the children from pre-natal to 5 and highlights the role of key primary stage. Hence, it is years. As defined in the draft stakeholders, particularly important to have continuity in policy document, parents, communities and the the curriculum between pre- "........programs for ECCD private sector. school and primary education. should ....take into The Sri Lankan ECCD and consideration the holistic nature Key issues in early education system have not yet of the process of development evolved to the point of and adopt an integrated childhood care and establishing this connection. approach giving attention to the development Given the crucial importance of child's health, nutrition, 4.2.4 The central ECCD issue in ECCD in determining learning cognitive and psychosocial Sri Lanka is the absence of ability and cognitive potential at needs" [see Ministry of Social clarity regarding the the primary education level, this Welfare (2003)]. The same draft responsibility for ECCD. The gap needs to be urgently filled. policy states, as its mission, the Ministry of Social Welfare has "....holistic growth and technical responsibility, without Shortfalls in access to early development of all children by any link to the Ministry of providing a safe, caring and Human Resource Development, childhood care and conducive environment in the Education and Cultural Affairs, development homes and other settings, well and the Ministry of School 4.2.5. Ensuring access to pre- supported by a comprehensive Education. This disregards the school education programs for and integrated system of early fact that the age range of 0-5/6 all children is an immediate childhood care and development years covered by ECCD challenge to fulfill the policy services." The plan of action to contains a range of sub-stage mission and to realize EFA realize this mission identifies specific developmental goals. The Sri Lankan Draft Plan four areas of intervention: (i) priorities which require holistic of Action for EFA sets a target of building knowledge and skills of nurture and development. This 80% coverage against a baseline care givers to promote optimal age range is conventionally sub- of 62% for the period 2004 to child survival, growth and divided into two sub-stages of 0- 2008. It mentions home based development; (ii) 3 years and 3-6 years. Health, provisions for the residual 20%. improving and expanding nutrition and psychosocial To achieve this targeted training opportunities for service stimulation constitute the chief expansion of enrolment, providers; (iii) transforming priorities for the younger age increasing pre-school facilities scholastically focused pre- range. Pre-school education constitutes an urgent need. A schools into community assumes priority importance in formal study of the network of managed, child-friendly the age range of 3-6 years, pre-schools and potential policy development centers; and (d) although health and nutrition initiatives to stimulate 82 investment in this sub-sector, primary curriculum in point training does not have especially from private preschools, rather than a sufficient sustained impact, providers, is a priority. One curriculum appropriate for pre- especially in the absence of any potential source of supply of primary aged children. The rapid follow up support. Setting up pre-school facilities could be the expansion of pre-schools, the decentralized training systems excess classroom buildings absence of sufficient trained pre- for pre-school teachers could be found in some areas of the school teachers and the scarcity a promising option to improve country, as population outflows of suitable play material the quality of professional staff. from rural to urban regions has contributed to this tendency to reduced enrolment in rural teach the primary curriculum. 4.2.8. The Open University schools. These buildings could This downward extension of the offers a one year pre-school be sold or leased to civil society primary curriculum, which teacher training diploma in organizations interested in implies introducing formal ECCD. The Open University is offering pre-school services. instruction in reading, writing considering preparation of a and arithmetic to children below multi-disciplinary degree program to prepare pre-school Quality of early childhood 5/6 years, results in mis- education at this stage and can teachers with multiple skills and care and development be detrimental to children's an adequate knowledge base to 4.2.6. Policy makers and education and development. work primarily in the NGO researchers argue that the Centers which follow the sector. This could be a useful quality of ECCD services is playway method advocated by course to equip workers to unsatisfactory [see UNICEF ECCD experts and address the multiple linkages (2003), NEC (2003)]. The developmentally appropriate within the area of child UNICEF (2003) study indicates curricula are small in number, development. However, it would that the majority of ECCD although the few that do exist be necessary to supplement this centers included in a sample appear considerably more with specific training for pre- survey lacked adequate physical effective than institutions school teachers in knowledge, facilities. Most centers did not following academic type skills and attitudes for Early have an appropriate building primary curricula [see UNICEF Childhood Education. The since they were run in homes or (2003)]. Ministry of Human Resource cramped spaces, there was a Development, Education and shortage of appropriate furniture Cultural Affairs has set up eight and play material. Arrangements Professional development of provincial centers under its Non- for children with disabilities pre-school teachers Formal Education Branch, five were also lacking. In terms of 4.2.7. The need for training of which conduct training in academic qualifications and teachers in pre-schools has been ECE. Clearly, it is important to teacher training, only about 29% highlighted by the Children's ensure that these centers of teachers had school leaving Secretariat through its themselves have a trained core qualifications, while just 17% of Divisional Centers and with the faculty to provide relevant and teachers had received any help of NGOs. With a large needs-based training to pre- systematic training in ECCD. number of untrained teachers in school teachers. Teachers' salaries ranged the system there is a need to: (i) 4.2.9. With the rapid expansion between Rs. 500-6,000 per provide different types and of pre-schools in the country, month. In terms of classroom levels of training in ECCD; and largely in civil society, issues of processes and curriculum, there (ii) institute a system of regulation, minimum was a tendency to teach the continuous training, since one specifications, quality standards 83 and training, assume great prepared a standard curriculum But for quality assurance significance. The Children's for pre-schools to standardize functionaries are required in the Secretariat has drawn up some quality. This is currently only field who have the training, minimum requirements for reference material, in the experience, authority and registration for pre-schools, but absence of provision for accountability to ensure quality these have not yet been supportive training or authority and promote it through pro- implemented. The main for supervision. However, it active and positive support constraints appear to be could form the basis for a formal programs and supervision. Clear insufficient public awareness curriculum if the necessary lines of authority and and the absence of an support structures could be implementation, from national appropriate advocated system in established. The Ministry of to the provincial and sub- the provincial councils to Social Welfare policy document provincial levels, are required to implement the regulations. The also suggests coordination establish this as a formal system. Children's Secretariat has also committees at various levels. Case Study III Rehabilitating and rehabilitation and development reconstruction, furniture and Reconstructing Education needs were estimated at about equipment, constituted the in the Conflict Affected US$164 million ($136 million largest segment (77%) [see Areas for the North-Eastern Province Figure 4.1]. In addition the and $28 million for four tertiary education sector needs Introduction and Background adjacent districts). Out of this were estimated at $26 million. 4.3.1. The 20 year secessionist total, the education capital stock, The tertiary education needs conflict in parts of North- such as school infrastructure covered reconstruction of Eastern Sri Lanka has resulted in Figure 4.1: Needs of the Education Reconstruction, considerable damage to Rehabilitation and Development Program education in that region. A comprehensive assessment of Other 4% NFE 2% education sector needs in the SpNeeds 4% conflict affected areas, CpcBuld 4% conducted in 2003, covered: (i) SchFed 4% the physical capital stock, such as school buildings and PreSch 5% facilities, furniture and equipment; (ii) teachers, principals and section heads; (iii) children with special needs; (iv) non-formal education; (v) peace education; (vi) school feeding programs; and (vii) pre- school education. The full Capital Stock 77% education sector reconstruction, 84 damaged infrastructure and cost Figure 4.2: The Financing Gap of Capital Stock Needs in the of staff training. Conflict Affected Areas The financing gap 4.3.2. The current donor programs consist mainly of the Current donors & gov prog World Bank's GEP2 project and $ 20m ADB's NECORD project for school infrastructure in the conflict affected areas. The total donor programs are estimated at remaining needs approximately US$15 million. $ 107m These cover about 12% of the capital stock needs in these areas. In addition to donor support, the government provides development grants to provincial schools through its Government support for existence of teacher shortages in Province Specific Development recurrent education expenditure some subjects, such as English, Grant (PSDG) program. This 4.3.3. The government currently science and mathematics, is to program is quite small compared covers the operational costs of be expected, given the difficulty to the level of need. The PSDG the education system in the of finding such teachers at the for the NEP was only one conflict affected areas, including national level. However, this million dollars in 2003 and paying salaries, textbooks, region also has potential to meet about $1.2 million in 2004. The teaching materials, transport teacher demand through greater small government contribution subsidies and student uniforms. use of multi-grade and multi- to capital expenditure is mainly These operating expenses subject teaching, teacher due to the tight fiscal condition consume a substantial volume of redeployment and school of public finances and its impact resources. For instance, the rationalization. on the education budget. Public government allocated over education sector expenditure US$13 million for salaries in the Capacity constraints declined in real terms during NEP districts in 2003. As is to be 2000-2002. If the Government Staff shortages and surpluses expected, districts with large continues its PSDG programs at student populations receive the 4.3.4. Detailed information on the same level, its contribution largest share of expenditure. The the shortages and surpluses in the coming five years will be four largest districts Jaffna, according to the approved cadre about US$5 million, which will Amparai, Batticaloa and and existing staff in the leave a financing gap of over Trincomalee receive over 80% provincial and zonal $107 million for school of total salaries. These large departments shows that the reconstruction, rehabilitation districts also have quite high situation is complicated, without and development in the conflict expenditures per student and a clear pattern of shortages and affected areas [see Figure 4.2]. fairly low student teacher ratios surpluses across the The government is expected to [see Figure 4.3]. These districts departments. Overall, zonal and rely heavily on donor support to often voice concerns over provincial departments show a finance this gap. shortages of teachers. The small net shortage while 85 Figure 4.3: Salaries per Student and Planning school facilities STR in NEP Districts 4.3.7. Currently the planning process combines subjective 3500 30 judgment and needs based on 3000 criteria such as the need per 25 student and number of Rs 2500 Sal per St classrooms per school. Usually 20 STR there is a lack of professional 2000 student 15 judgment with regard to per STR 1500 provision of new buildings or 10 furniture and the identification Salaries 1000 of buildings that can be 5 rehabilitated or repaired. The 500 school works departments as a 0 0 whole lack skilled human PA resources and transport facilities MANN BATT MULL KILIN VAVU TRINC AM JAFF to perform adequate supervision divisional offices show a net reflect the needs, especially in visits to schools. surplus of staff. As for the hard hit areas of the conflict occupations, directors, specialist zone. Extra care has to be taken Capacity for reconstruction staff and accountants are during such estimates. The surge and supervision generally in short supply, while in demand could be temporary 4.3.8. The capacity for clerks and unskilled workers are and loading the public sector reconstruction in the districts in excess supply. with more staff will strain the that are badly affected by the budget and could be cost conflict, like Jaffna, 4.3.5. Extra care has to be taken ineffective, as government Kilinochchi, Mulativu, Mannar when examining the shortages officials tend to stay in service and Vavuniya, are limited due to and surpluses according to the until retirement. The needs shortages of qualified cadre as in so many instances, should be assessed carefully in contractors and skilled workers. the cadre does not reflect the terms of their magnitude and In addition, there are scarcities actual needs. For example, expected duration. Also, of construction materials, such according to the cadre there are alternative ways to recruit as river sand and concrete enough engineers (5) and should be identified and applied, aggregates. So far these technical officers (48) in NEP such as recruiting specialists on shortages have not became districts. But there are no contracts. Furthermore, major obstacles and contractors engineers in the districts of investing in means to improve report the availability of labor Kilinochchi, Mannar and workers' productivity should be and materials. They also report Mulativu, where the needs are explored such as offering substantial increases in the high and demand is escalating specialized training, providing wages for skilled and unskilled with increased school IT and other essential office workers and high mobility of reconstruction activities. The equipment with associated workers with the end of the cadre also shows large surpluses training, and transport funds, conflict and the removal of road of in-service advisors. especially for remote areas, blocks and other barriers. 4.3.6. There is mounting where supervision and Furthermore, the existing short- pressure to revise the cadre to monitoring is logistically term skill development training difficult and time-consuming. 86 for youth has helped in meeting offices of the conflict affected The shortage of transport the demand for some skills. areas have enough staff structure facilities, office equipment such However, the situation could to supervise the construction of as computers and change if demand for labor and school facilities. However, staff telecommunication equipment, materials continues to escalate capacity needs to be has negatively affected the as a result of the expected strengthened by filling the capacity of the existing staff. increase in construction vacant positions of technical The provision of such facilities activities of other sectors. staff and training. Qualified to school works departments staff hired by donor projects could improve service delivery 4.3.9. The school works play a major role in meeting the capability. departments in the provincial demand for operational staff. Case Study IV Promoting Peace building, of 'civics / citizenship' in the systematically screened for bias; Civic Values and Social school curriculum; (ii) (vi) training teachers to handle Cohesion through strengthening the curriculum to sensitive issues of culture and Education promote civic values across ethnicity in the classroom, and subjects and grade levels; (iii) supporting multi-ethnic teacher Government policies and investing in the teaching of the training institutions, where strategies second national language and feasible; and (vii) supporting 4.4.1. The goals of peace the 'link language' English; (iv) school-based strategies to building, good citizenship and creating opportunities to break promote peacebuilding and civic social cohesion run as consistent down the language and ethnic- competencies through inclusive threads through the recent based segregation of schools school management practices, education policy and planning through the re-introduction of co-curricular activities, and documents [see NEC (2003)]. English-medium instruction; (v) school-community links. The Current and proposed policies providing schools a choice of implementation of these include the following measures: free textbooks, written by a measures has been mixed in its (i) the proposed re-introduction variety of authors and coverage and its impact. Table 4.4. `Civic Education Study' Student Questionnaire, Civic Knowledge Variable Categories Sample Civic Variable Categories Sample Civic knowledge knowledge % % % % Total 100 56 Province Western 22 53.9 Sex Male 45.7 58 Central 13.6 52.7 Female 52.1 54 Southern 14 55.3 Northern 5.5 46.5 Students' Sinhalese 72.7 56 Eastern 7.8 49.2 Ethnicity Sri Lankan Tamil 16.3 48 North-Western 11.8 56.4 Indian origin Tamil 3.0 54 North-Central 6.8 53.2 Muslim 6.9 60 Uva 7.5 55.9 Other 0.2 60 Sabaragamuwa 10.2 58.4 87 Figure 4.4. 'Civic Education Study' Student Questionnaire (Social Cohesion, Diversity, Peace) "I have had the opportunity to study (Sinhala / Tamil) as a second national language" Often Sinhala medium 54 35 7 4 Sometimes Rarely Tamil medium 23 43 10 24 Never 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Civic competencies among Sri 4.4.3. 'Civic Knowledge' test national language - a Lankan 14 year-olds - findings scores for Sri Lankan Tamil compulsory subject from Grades of a national research study students, and for the North- 3-9. Tamil-medium students 4.4.2 Three areas of a recent Eastern Province are lower than were particularly isolated, with study [see NEREC (2004)] on for the other ethnic groups and 34% of respondents 'never' or the civic competencies of provinces, probably due to the 'rarely' learning Sinhala. In the children are briefly reported on effects of the conflict. The Northern part of North-Eastern here: (i) 'Civic Knowledge' test relatively low test scores for Province, this figure rises to scores; (ii) opportunities to learn North-Eastern Province mirror 61%. When asked whether they the second national language; low levels of achievement in the should have opportunities for and (iii) findings from the national assessment of learning second national language special survey section on 'Social outcomes at primary level, when learning, 89% of all respondents Cohesion, Diversity and Peace'. compared to other provinces agreed. The low levels of second The study was based on a [see NEREC (2004)]. national language learning can nationally representative sample been attributed to demand-side 4.4.4. 18% of all respondents of 2660 students, taken from factors (the second national had 'never' or 'rarely' had the 133 schools in all 25 districts. language is not a compulsory opportunity to study the second subject in Grade 5 scholarship Figure 4.5. 'Civic Education Study' Student Questionnaire (Social Cohesion, Diversity, Peace) 100 88 91 90 I have had the 84 84 85 87 84 82 opportuntiy to 80 75 learn together 70 62 60 with children of 60 57 57 52 48 49 51 other ethnic 50 39 40 groups 40 (sometimes / often) 28 30 20 I should be given 10 the opportunity to 0 learn together with children of other Uva ethnic groups Western Central Lanka Eastern (agree / totally Southern Northern Sri agree) North-Western North-Central Sabaragamuwa 88 Figure 4.6. Integration of Peacebuilding & Civics in Schools (UNESCO, 2001, adapted) Curriculum: subject content Peacebuilding & Civics: concepts and practice Textbooks & materials Teaching methods Total Curriculum School management Co-curricular activities School-community links and O/L examinations, thereby respondents agreed. There is a cultural in nature; and (v) reducing the incentives to study clear disparity, in all Provinces, modest knowledge of current it; there is also a higher demand between actual and desired political processes [see NEREC for English, for socio-economic opportunities across these (2004)]. In a separate test item, reasons), and supply-side factors categories: children want more 90% of students felt that schools (e.g. a shortage of teachers). opportunities to learn the second should contribute to activities to national language, to learn bring about peace. 4.4.5. 51% of all respondents together, and to exchange ideas have 'sometimes' or 'often' had with other ethnic groups. Focus the opportunity to learn together The school curriculum and group discussions were also held with children of other ethnic broader instructional processes with students in seven zones in groups. The figure is lowest in the north and east. Students 4.4.6. A literature review reveals the Northern part of the North- displayed: (i) enthusiasm for that studies15 which address the Eastern Province, and in the cross-cultural activities; (ii) a instructional challenges of Southern Province. When asked strong appetite for peace; (iii) promoting peace building in Sri whether they should have the disillusionment with `politics'; Lankan schools show broad opportunity to learn together (iv) a notion of `citizenship' that consensus in two areas: (i) the with children of other ethnic is multi-cultural and not mono- education system needs to orient groups, 82% of all respondents agreed. 49% of all students also School-level pilots in civics & citizenship - an example from reported that they had no close Northern Ireland friends from other ethnic The two-year 'Social, Civic and Political Education Project' was a partnership groups. Answering a separate between the Council for Curriculum, Examinations & Assessment, and a test item, 61% of all respondents university. The project included the development and trialing of curriculum have `never' or `rarely' had the resources, teacher training modules, and models of cooperation between schools, curriculum developers, NGOs and community organizations. Through opportunity to discuss ethnic a process of piloting different approaches, the project arrived at a model of problems with children of other teaching and learning where 'citizenship' concepts were designed to be ethnic groups. When asked investigated, rather than taught didactically: "In the attempt to move beyond whether they should have these 'polite exchange' and to avoid a compliance model of citizenship we have arrived at an investigatory curriculum driven by questions rather than answers". opportunities, 77% of all 15. E.g. NEC, (2003), Perera et. al., (2003); NEREC, (2004). 89 itself further to address primary schools, there exist a integrate appropriately into adequately the challenges of wide range of resources syllabi" [see NEC (2003)]. peace building, pluralism and including teachers' guides, These strategies can be pursued civic education; and (ii) schemes of work, guides for together, combined with educational strategies to address managers, and `whole-school approaches piloted at the school these issues should adopt a planning' frameworks.16 A level. `systemic' or `integrative' `peace curriculum' has been approach, which will involve a piloted in Sierra Leone, with 4.4.10. Selecting from a choice range of institutions and curriculum units, cross- of items listed, teachers listed interventions at different levels, curricular units and `whole- the following items as their with particular emphasis on the school and community greatest needs in terms of school. Figure 4.6 provides a activities' from Grade 1. The improving civic education: (i) useful conceptual framework. NEC recommendations propose additional training in subject a continuation of the primary matter knowledge; (ii) additional training in teaching Curriculum and assessment reforms, with renewed attention in areas including "the methods; (iii) better materials 4.4.7. The school curriculum is development of values and and text books; (iv) more structured around 5 broad attitudes", and "the teaching of opportunities for special competencies: communication, languages", [see NEC (2003), projects; and (v) more resources the environment, ethics and pp. 156-158, emphasis added]. for extra-curricular activities religion, play and leisure, Three approaches might be [see NEREC (2004)]. 70% of learning to learn. Within this adopted: (i) develop resources teachers agreed that they should framework, specific `Essential and programs of work to support negotiate with students what is Learning Competencies' are primary teachers in theto be studied in civic education, defined for the different Key promotion of peace building and while 88% of students replying Stages at primary level. They are civics; (ii) strengthen theto the Student Questionnaire felt currently being developed for teaching of languages; and (iii) that their active participation the secondary level. reinforce measures to promote should be obtained for civic Consideration might be given to multi-culturalism and social education activities. These defining broad competencies inclusion within the core NIE responses seem to allow for a relating to civic values, and functions of curriculum and high degree of interaction in the establishing a clear and materials development, and teaching / learning of civics, manageable link established teacher training. supporting the NEC's between these competencies, recommendations for an issue curriculum and syllabus 4.4.9. At the secondary level, based and activity based specification, teacher guides and there is a particular opportunity approach [see NEC (2003)]. In textbooks, teacher training and arising with the reintroduction Focus Group discussions in the assessment (both school-based of civics / citizenship into the North-Eastern Province, assessment and examinations). secondary curriculum, starting emphasis was placed on the from 2005. The recent NEC contested and political nature of 4.4.8. Many countries are analysis also concludes that `citizenship' and `civics'. It was investing in `citizenship', even competencies relating to social suggested that an approach to at the primary level. In the UK, harmony and citizenship are citizenship based on co- while citizenship education is "crosscutting issues that each existence would be preferable to not a statutory requirement for curriculum developer has to an assimilationist approach, 16. See e.g. (http://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/ks1-2citizenship) 90 Dharmadutha College, Badulla resources and system-wide In Dharmadutha College, Badulla, which is 85% Sinhalese, the Principal has support [see Perera et. al., worked with his prefects and students to initiate activities with neighbouring 2003]. Tamil and Muslim schools. The school has established the 'Uva Students Peace Foundation', which organises inter-school activities, and prints a newsletter. The Principal has promoted Tamil-medium instruction, and English-medium at Textbooks junior and senior secondary levels. Sinhalese students say that activities with 4.4.14. Textbook writing and neighbouring Tamil and Muslim students have increased levels of trust between the groups and resulted in strong friendships. production processes have at times resulted in textbook which might be perceived as a 4.4.12. The potential of content which is error-ridden threat to cultural and ethnic languages to promote inter- and insensitive to various social identity.17 cultural understanding lies groups. In recent years, perhaps in three areas: (i) however, the government has 4.4.11. Perera et. al. (2003) improving the language embarked upon a series of highlight similar concerns for competencies of children will reforms, including: (i) history: "...reaching consensus increase the opportunities for introducing the 'Multiple on some of the fundamental and children to communicate across Textbook Option', moving from most sensitive issues such as language divides; (ii) expanding a state monopoly single 'whose history, selected by English-medium instruction will textbook policy to private sector whom, and for what purpose', create opportunities to break production of three titles per seem well nigh impossible". down the language-based subject per grade; (ii) a focus on They conclude that "Creative segregation of schools; and (iii) inclusion and equity in material solutions may need to be sought, the teaching of languages can be production processes at the NIE, allowing for the flexibility used as a vehicle to promote particularly at the primary level; already existing in the system multi-culturalism. There is also (iii) developing 'sensitivity' for regional variations, the strong potential to promote guidelines for Subject Specialist multiple book option, etc." [see peace building / civics in Teams in textbook selection Perera et. al., 2003, emphasis subjects such as Religion, procedures; and (iv) constituting added]. Both areas seem to Aesthetics, and IT. a specialist 'Diversity Review indicate potential to advance a Panel' - representing different model of history teaching that 4.4.13. The subject Life ethnic groups and religions, and can encourage critical thinking Competencies was introduced in diverse academic disciplines - to based on evidence, and Grades 7-9 in the current cycle review materials for bias. It will accommodate alternative of reforms, to address a range of be necessary to strengthen these perspectives. First, the scope for areas including civics and inter- measures and monitor their accommodating regional cultural understanding. Small- outcomes. variations in the history scale surveys and focus group curriculum - as the Uva discussions with teachers Province has commenced - indicate the following needs to Teacher education should be explored. Second, the strengthen this program: (i) 4.4.15. Initiatives to promote Multiple Textbook Option offers increase clarity over objectives multiculturalism in teacher the possibility of providing and curriculum content; (ii) education have been limited in different perspectives, within a greater teacher and staff their coverage, and require national curriculum framework. development; and (iii) increased stronger links to the curriculum. 17. In Northern Ireland, neither the British nor Irish national identity provides the basis for a 'patriotic' model of 'citizenship' that can be accepted in all schools. Smith (2003) concludes that citizenship education should be based on concepts of rights and responsibilities, rather than national unity. 91 Perera notes: "Educating School management, co- activity based learning teachers for a pluralist society, to curricular activities & school- and links to the broader manage curriculum related community links world outside the school; teaching, learning and adopting 4.4.16. The school `culture' or c. strengthening the capacity a multi-cultural perspective `hidden curriculum' is key to the of curriculum developers, would require more concerted development of values, attitudes teachers and managers to and systematic orientation of and behaviours in students. incorporate civic values as teachers" [see Perera et. al., a cross-cutting concern 2003, emphasis added]. The 4.4.17. Research currently across subjects, grade challenge, it seems, is mainly in being conducted by the NIE, levels, and school two areas: (i) strengthen the with UNICEF support, will practices; NCOE pre-service curriculum to document examples of good d. strengthening the teaching enable teachers to handle peace practice to promote social of the second national building and civics at primary cohesion in schools. This languages and English; and secondary level; and (ii) research could be used to inform invest in continuing teacher Principals training, and to e. continuing an equitable development programs. Such support school-based strategies phased expansion of programs should be in step with for peace building and civics, E n g l i s h - m e d i u m curriculum reforms, and should appropriate for each school's instruction; build upon work supported by particular instructional and f. providing a choice of UNICEF and GTZ. Tennekoon social context. This is textbooks and materials, (2001) shows through action particularly relevant given inclusive and screened for research conducted at the proposals to develop School- bias; Pasdunrata NCOE that Based Management through g. investing in pre-service structured opportunities for School Development Boards. and continuing teacher inter-cultural collaboration can Different approaches might be development; and help reduce ethnocentric investigated through a pilot h. incentivising and attitudes in student teachers, and phase. supporting school-based also help them to handle strategies for peace effectively the concept of social 4.4.18. The following measures building and civics, cohesion in the classroom - therefore emerge as promising through school-based evidence of the value of areas for strengthening, planning and breaking down institutional consistent with current and management. segregation in teacher training. proposed policy: Consideration may also be given a. specifying broad learning to a more formal qualification competencies, and relating to civics / citizenship. supporting teachers to South Africa, for example, has develop and assess these introduced an 'Advanced competencies in schools; Certificate in Citizenship b. introducing an inclusive Education'. ` c i v i c s / c i t i z e n s h i p ' curriculum that emphasize 92 Chapter Five TRAINING AND LINKS TO THE LABOR MARKET 5.0 Introduction However, the information base and their regional coverage; (iii) 5.1. High unemployment rates on the technical education and the environment for private among educated young people vocational training (TEVT) sector participation in training; and their low skill levels are system is weak, with no major and (iv) the evolution of issues of critical policy concernreviews of this sector in recent thinking about TEVT and its for GOSL. Youth times. This chapter seeks to fill role in the economy, and unemployment, resulting mainly this important information gap formulation and implementation from prolonged job search, is of by undertaking an analysis of of training policies. Second, the particular concern given the TEVT to complement the chapter uses time-series data history of social unrest over analysis of the general education from the Labor Force Survey youth joblessness. This is system. (LFS) to investigate the linkages combined with another policy between technical education and 5.2. The chapter focuses on concern that school-leavers - vocational training on one hand, two principal areas. First, it grade 9, GCE O and A-levels, and labor market outcomes on provides an overview of the and university graduates are the other hand. This analysis overall policy framework for the entering the labor market ill- will focus on (i) the demand for TEVT sector. It examines: (i) prepared for the world of work. post-school technical and the governance and financing of An important response from vocational training, especially public sector training among school completers at the GOSL has been to develop institutions; (ii) the supply of key exit points of the school technical education and public sector vocational training system and between gender vocational training to facilitateand technical education groups; (ii) how the demand for the school to work transition andopportunities, the range of training varies over the work- to reduce skills gaps and skill training programs and courses life; and (iii) the labor market mismatches in the labor market. available, enrollments over time, outcomes of investments in 93 different types of training, Lanka used to function under comprising of 556 institutions in especially their impacts on different ministries up to the the public sector, 252 in the unemployment, job search mid-1990s. In 1994 however, private sector and 112 in the duration, and earnings. The the TEVT sector was elevated to NGO sector. In addition, a chapter concludes with a a ministerial function and the sizable number of private sector summary of findings and key TEVT providers placed providers operate in the market implications. under the supervision of one without registering with the ministry, the Ministry of Tertiary TEVC.19 The broad institutional 5.1 TVET Institutional Education and Vocational framework of the TEVT system Training (MTEVT).18 As part of in Sri Lanka is presented in Framework and Policies this reorganization, the Tertiary Figure 5.1. Institutional Framework and Vocational Education 5.4. Among public sector 5.3. The Technical Education Commission (TVEC) was institutions, the key providers and Vocational Training (TEVT) established and now functions as include the Department of sector in Sri Lanka is currently the apex body for setting policy Technical Education and made up of an extensive system and regulating TEVT sector Training (DTET), National of public, private and NGO activities. In 2001, there were Apprenticeship and Industrial sector training providers. Public about 920 training institutes Training Authority (NAITA), Sri sector TEVT providers in Sri registered with the TEVC Figure 5.1. Institutional Framework of the TVET Sector GOVERNMENT Ministry of Tertiary Education & Ministry of Youth Affairs & Other Ministries Vocational Training. Sports engaged in TEVT TVEC Sector Bodies NGOs DTET NAITA VTA & SLIATE NYSC Private Government Departments Statutory 18. Prior to that, under the Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training and the Ministry of Vocational Training and Rural Industries. 19. According to the Ministry of Tertiary Education and Training (MTET), there were around 1,000 unregistered vocational and technical institutions operating throughout the country in 2003. 94 Lanka Institute of Advanced network in 9 Provinces. It 3 Advanced Technical Technical Education (SLIATE), offers four major Centers, and conducts Vocational Training Authority of vocational training some higher level Sri Lanka (VTA), and National programs: technical courses in 10 Youth Services Council a. enterprise - based Technical Colleges that (NYSC). In addition, several apprenticeships; were previously run by other Ministries, government b. institution-based dual DTET. departments and semi- training; · NYSC is another major government institutions also c. in-plant training for public TEVT provider but conduct sector specific skill other tertiary level under the supervision of development programs relating courses; and the Ministry of Youth to fisheries, agriculture, Affairs and Sports textiles/garments, transport, d. training of trainers. (MYAS). The courses at c o n s t r u c t i o n , Together, they account for about NYSC are offered at two telecommunication and various 140 courses representing 20 levels: Level 1 (basic other manufacturing fields. The different trade groups. courses) and Level 2 major public TEVT providers (semi-skilled craftsman account for nearly 85 percent of · VTA began vocational courses). In addition, training provided by the state training in 1995 as the NYSC also provides job sector: successor to the training market information and arm of the Department of · DTET delivers formal career guidance services Labor which pioneered institution-based training to rural youth through its vocational training for at 37 technical colleges Rural Centers. out-of school, and affiliated institutions unemployed youth. It 5.5. The non-state TEVT in major provincial and caters primarily to rural sector, while quite small district capitals. Using this unemployed youth, initially, has grown and regional net work, DTET providing employment- expanded into many areas offers about 60 courses on oriented short courses at during the post-liberalization a full-time and part-time 207 Rural Vocational period. Private training institutes basis in four areas: a) Training Centers (RVTC) are now well established in technicians studies, b) craft which work closely with occupational areas such as studies, c) business studies rural committees and local machining, welding, radio and, d) general studies. organizations. In addition, repair, motor repair, electrical The majority of programs 14 District Vocational wiring, refrigeration and air are in the management and Training Centers (DVTC), conditioning, television, commerce (32.5%), 4 National Institutes and 9 computer and communications building and construction Special Centers offer technology, tourism and hotel (29.7%) and electrical and certificated courses of industry. Many private providers electronics (17.9%) sub- longer duration. operate on a fee basis, especially sectors. · SLIATE, established in in urban centers for book- · NAITA, the successor to 1995, caters to A-level keeping and accountancy, the National qualified students computer technology and office Apprenticeship Board, has interested in TEVT. It management. The NGO training island-wide coverage oversees 6 Advanced sector covers many religious and through a delivery Technical Institutions and voluntary organizations that 95 Figure 5.2 TEVT Enrollments 1990-2002 DTET share appears to have stabilized after a significant drop 80000 SLIATE in 1996 with the takeover of 70000 NYSC some of its training programs by 60000 VTA SLIATE. Though not shown 50000 NAITA here, in terms of gender, the 40000 DTET proportion of female Enrolments30000 enrollments in TEVT courses 20000 has remained relatively constant at about 40 percent, clustered in 10000 several traditionally female 0 occupations (e.g. dressmaking, 00 01 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 20 20 2002 ISM operator, beauty culture, Source: Technical and Vocational Education Commission. secretarial jobs); recently, offer craft-level training, fee- Trainee Enrollments however, female participation free or on a nominal fee basis, has increased as new courses 5.6. Figure 5.2 presents targeting unemployed youth, were offered in English for information on training output rural women, school leavers, commerce, industry and further of the major public TEVT and semi- or unskilled workers. education (69%), accounting providers from 1990 to 2002. The information base on private technicians (65%), computer Student intake grew from 32,612 and NGO sector TEVT applications (73%) and to 67,612 between 1990 and providers - their enrollments, computer programmer and 2002 representing an annual regional distribution, course operator (57%).20 In general, growth of 8.9 percent. The offerings, and operations - is female participation in TEVT is figure shows the growing limited and coverage relatively low relative to their participation dominance over time of VTA as incomplete. rates in school and higher against the declining share of education. NAITA in the TEVT sector. The Table 5.1 TEVT Enrollments by Province - 1990 to 2002 Province 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 Western 29.23 30.54 30.07 29.86 28.60 Southern 16.03 15.82 16.38 8.77 16.71 Sabaragamuwa 12.44 11.15 11.65 16.62 11.63 North-Western 11.64 10.53 9.66 2.32 9.93 Central 11.52 12.06 9.35 8.95 9.31 Eastern 9.29 8.91 8.92 9.93 9.16 Uva 5.60 6.17 6.87 4.41 7.46 North Central 3.96 4.35 4.53 7.55 4.49 Northern 0.30 0.48 2.56 11.58 2.71 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Source: Technical and Vocational Education Commission. 20. Based on DTET data for 2002. 96 Table 5.2 Total Expenditures by Major TEVT Institutions (Rs. Millions) Institution 1983 1993 2002 Recurr. Capital Recurr. Capital Recurr. Capital DTET 43.6 37.7 130.7 262.3 319.0 125.0 Department of Labor 21.4 7.1 61.0 16.5 - - NAITA 57.4 55.5 152.3 33.7 217.0 20.0 VTA - - - - 208.0 16.0 NYSC 4.1 3.6 22.5 - 214.0 4.0 TVEC - - 7.0 - 21.0 5.5 SLIATE - - - - 101.5 19.3 SDP Skills 136.0* 121.0* Total 126.5 103.9 373.5 312.5 1216.5 310.8 Sources: Annual Government Budget Estimates and Final Accounts of Statutory Bodies Notes: Recurr. = Recurrent budget ; Capital = Capital budget; SDP = Skills Development Project; * Apportioned based on ADB project documents 5.7. Table 5.1 reports total one third of all enrollment by Table 5.2, namely that student enrollments across major public TEVT providers. allocations for capital provinces by the major public investments have declined sector TEVT providers. The 5.8. Table 5.2 presents the steadily over this period, from table reveals a regional recurrent and capital 45 to 20 percent. Given the concentration of TEVT expenditures by the major public relatively high cost of activities in the Western, TEVT institutions in 1983, 1993 specialized buildings, workshop Southern, Sabaragamuwa, and 2002. Between 1983 and and equipment required for North-Western and Central 2002, total expenditures by TEVT, this declining share of Provinces. The Western major public sector TEVT capital budgets has adverse Province alone accounts for providers increased from Rs. implications of delayed about 30 percent of enrollments 230.4 million to Rs. 1527.3 replacement and growing while the other four provinces million, representing an average obsolescence of training together account for more than annual growth of 35 percent in equipment. 45 percent of total enrollments. nominal terms. At constant This closely follows the heavy prices, however, this reflects Evolution of TEVT Institutions concentration of regional gross only a marginal increase of 1.3 and Training Policies domestic product (RGDP) in the percent per annum. Even this 5.9. The TEVT institutional Western Province (47 percent) increase is mainly due to framework and training policies and in the other four provinces additional investments provided have evolved over the past three (37 percent). Among the major by the Asian Development Bank decades. One policy objective, public sector providers, VTA (ADB) through the Skills however, has remained constant leads in serving rural youth Development Project (SDP). In - government provision of pre- because of its regional network terms of total government employment technical and of RVTCs supported by District expenditure, the share of major vocational training to address and National Training Centers. public TEVT providers was the problem of high youth In 2002, these RVTCs (19,351 around 0.31 and 0.36 percent in unemployment. Over time, trainees) and DVTCs (3,157 1983 and 2002, respectively. however, other policy trainees) accounted for about Another point emerges from considerations have emerged 97 with changes in the of the Ministry of Industrial programs and the general macroeconomic environment, Development (MID). To education system are essentially including meeting the skill develop specific skills and supply-driven and therefore needs of industrial restructuring expertise required by an outward have a poor record of providing and competitiveness in a global looking industrial sector, MID industry-relevant skills. The economy. This section describes made upgrading of technical vocational training system will these major changes in thinking training institutes and be extensively restructured so as about the roles and objectives of establishment of a Vocational to be demand-driven, in TEVT and the institutional and Tertiary Education cooperation with the private reform that accompanied these Commission (VTEC) priorities sector who will be the eventual policy changes, drawing upon a for immediate action. It also employers." Echoing this, the number of key policy statements stressed the need to expand the 1995 Budget Speech and documents, as well as role of private industry and emphasized the importance of interviews with responsible NGOs in TEVT development, "consolidating the variety of government agencies. with industry providing more dispersed and uncoordinated training facilities at lower levels facilities for vocational training 5.10. Demand side and voluntary organizations and directing them to create considerations in promoting offering training in technology skills which are sorely needed TEVT began with the post-1977 and management skills. Fiscal by the growing economy". To pro-market reforms and incentives (for example, double this end, the New continued through the 1980s. deduction of training Industrialization Strategy of The 1977 policy reforms of expenditures from income tax) MID (1995) identified three trade and industry, and adoption were also considered as possible major areas for TEVT reform: of export-led growth strategies policy initiatives to promote (i) restructuring tertiary led to expansion of the industry's participation in education and the vocational secondary and tertiary sectors of training provision.21 training system; (ii) setting up a the economy, creating additional Skills Development Fund; and demand for skilled, semi-skilled 5.11. The new government that (iii) reorienting public sector and unskilled labor. The state was formed in 1994 continued technical institutes to meet TEVT sector did not have the this policy in developing the market needs. In October, 1997 resources or the institutional TEVT sector. The Policy a special Task Force was flexibility to respond, which Statement issued by the established to study inter- created opportunities for private President in January 1995 is ministerial barriers and to come sector providers to enter and fill instructive; it stated that up with policy recommendations this unsatisfied demand for "despite its high levels of for TEVT sector development training. The private sector literacy, the Sri Lankan involving both the public and training role was explicitly workforce lacks the requisite private sectors. Its findings led recognized as part of a larger skills that are essential for to major changes in the TEVT strategy of promoting TVET for industrial upgrading and sector in terms of national competitiveness in the diversification. The numerous rationalization, recognition of 1989 Industrialization Strategy short-run skill development vocational training as a 21. References to double deduction tax incentives for training (DDIT) have appeared periodically in Budget speeches over the years, but it remains unclear whether this fiscal incentive has ever been implemented, and if so, how wide-spread its use is, or whether it has had the desired impact of fostering training in industry. In Malaysia, an assessment of its DDIT indicated that the incentive was used principally by large companies and multi-national corporations who were already training; it was not widely used among local small and medium-size enterprises (SMEs), most of whom provide little in-service training. As such, the GOM eliminated DDIT in 1993 and, in its place, introduced the Human Resource Development Fund. 98 Ministerial Function, and co- institutions with increased (2002), put out by the ordination of TEVT activities at autonomy; (iv) foster Ministry of Employment the national level. more skilled training and Labor, recommended through a system of skill six major policy reforms 5.12. Since 2001, a large accreditation; (v) provide for the TEVT sector: (i) number of policy documents skills to compete in global training systems have been published, labor markets; and (vi) restructured to meet future highlighting the challenges train to match industry's demands; (ii) promotion facing the TEVT sector, skill needs. of vocational training for proposing further reforms to and the informal sector; (iii) rationalization of public training · "Regaining Sri Lanka" fostering government- institutions, introducing (2001), published by the industry partnerships in competency standards and new government, noted accreditation, and offering new that, "post secondary training; (iv) the government to function as financial incentives and policy skills training institutes a facilitator, standard instruments for fostering suffer from a mismatch demand-led training: between the training setter and regulator of offered and the skills training; (v) financial · "Vision 2010" (2001) required in a modern, incentives for training identified three major market economy. targeting the corporate challenges facing the Management deficiencies, sector; and (vi) provision TEVT sector - qualitative outdated equipment and to disadvantaged groups and quantitative curricula and shortage of of financial assistance for mismatches in certain capable trainers lead to training. The Budget areas of skills demand; high drop out rates and Speech for 2003 and 2004 external and internal low returns to training." It elaborated on the inefficiencies in the sector proposed that (i) operational details of with duplication of performance standards for these recommendations, courses, outdated vocational training be including the equipment and curricula, revised along the lines of establishment of a Human shortage of good trainers c o m p e t e n c y - b a s e d Resources Endowment and high dropout rates; training, based on Fund (HREF) that would and sub-optimal use of standards derived from provide training vouchers public sector workshops industry; and (ii) a Higher for unemployed youth and and laboratories. In Institute of Applied skills upgrading for response to these Technology be established employees, as well as soft challenges, policies in the to lead the vocational loans to upgrade training TEVT sector should: (i) training process, and facilities for providers.22 promote private sector-led provide a recognized · The "National Policy and skills training; (ii) target system of professional Action Plan for the youth with an certification in the Development of Technical entrepreneurial mind-set; vocational trades. Education" (2002) (iii) link performance and · The "Draft National published by the National budgets and provide Employment Policy" Education Council (NEC) 22. The proposed Human Resources Endowment Fund (HREF) is to be funded from dormant social security accounts. The 2004 Budget Speech proposed that funds from the ADB Skills Development Fund also be used to finance HREF. The fund remains to be implemented as the proposed new training initiative has yet to be presented to, and discussed by, parliament. 99 called for the simplify applications for current availability in hard-copy reorganization and training-a single application for only; it remains to be made upgrading of the TEVT all TEVT institutions-and to available electronically to sector. Seven major coordinate and rationalize policymakers and the public. elements are to be course offerings from different The TVEC data base's coverage considered in formulating TEVT institutions in the same of training opportunities in the the national policy local area; (ii) development of private sector is also limited- framework for the TEVT concrete action plans in the registration with TEVC is sector: (i) skills laddering TVEC to implement broad mandatory but an unknown to facilitate upward policy directives, especially in number of private training mobility of skills the area of competency based institutions have reportedly yet acquisition; (ii) better training and skills laddering; to do so. Those that do register linkages of TEVT with the (iii) course offerings on a fee provide limited information on school and university paying basis for selected high- their course offerings, but systems; (iii) private demand courses as a way to almost no hard data on sector participation in partially recover costs; and (iv) enrollments and their training; (iv) improved increased collaboration across operations. As such, monitoring functioning of the TEVT institutions, especially of training incidence and trends Technical and Vocational with NAITA which has strong is necessarily limited to the Education Commission links with employers, to solicit technical and vocational training (TVEC) as the apex body opportunities for practical provided by the public sector; for TEVT; (v) training from private sector virtually nothing is known about accreditation of and employers to enhance the how widespread training is in quality monitoring of industrial relevance of training. the private sector, either that public and private training provided by private and NGO institutions; (vi) Monitoring and Evaluation sector training providers, or by rationalization of the employers themselves in the public sector TEVT of Training form of in-service training. system; and (vii) setting 5.14. TVEC is charged with This paucity of training data up a degree awarding overall implementation of limits the ability of TVEC and institution for TEVT. technical and vocational training policymakers to make informed policies, and coordination of evidence-based policy 5.13. The TEVT sector's training in the public and private judgments about the adequacy restructuring, rationalization and sectors. As part of this mandate, of training provided by the reform process to implement the it assembles and publishes public and private TEVT many proposals introduced since statistics on training, a directory sectors, or by employers. the mid-1990s is still a work-in- of public and private sector progress. Interviews with training providers, as well as 5.15. Compounding data MTEVT, TEVC and individual selected labor market data on constraints is weak public sector TEVT institutions indicated that job vacancies and job seekers.23 capacity in impact evaluations, a number of initiatives are This labor market information so that training (and other labor underway. A partial list includes system (LMIS) is valuable but market) interventions to address (i) pilots in several provinces to its usefulness is limited by its problems of youth 23. Until recently, the main source of information was job vacancies culled from newspaper advertisements. JobsNet - set up within the past year to receive job applications from job seekers and job vacancies listed by employers, and provide a web-based job matching clearing house - is a promising new source of labor market information. 100 Table 5.3 Principal Outcomes of Tracer Studies of TEVT Graduates DTET NAITA VTA Employment Status Wage employment 49.3 62.2 14.3 Self employment 6.1 9.6 14.3 Employed in other categories of work 10.7 - - Unemployed 33.9 28.2 62.7 Not seeking a job - - 8.7 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Relevance of Training to the Job Very relevant 39.8 72.7 65.4 Relevant 30.4 15.8 8.9 Not relevant at all 29.8 11.5 25.7 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Sources: DTET(2002), NAITA (2001) and VTA (2001) unemployment are rarely respectively. Employability of compared to 25-30 percent evaluated. The exceptions are VTA graduates was especially negative responses for the other three recent tracer studies of low. In other results not reported two TEVT providers. graduates from DTET, NAITA in the table, duration of job and VTA conducted with search also varied greatly 5.17. These tracer studies technical assistance and funding between TEVT providers. In the provide useful insights but are from GTZ.24 All three tracer case of NAITA, for example, 30 nonetheless limited. First, as studies used a unified approach- percent were able to find one-off evaluations, tracer following graduates 1-3 years employment immediately upon studies are of limited use unless after training and administering training completion while they are repeated periodically a common (and thus another 54 percent found jobs and used to continuously comparable) retrospective within six months. In contrast, monitor whether progress is survey. The broad outcome only 2.7 per cent of VTA being made to improve training criteria used to assess the graduates and 37.6 per cent of outcomes and remedy identified external efficiency of these DTET graduates were able to deficiencies in training TEVT programs included find some employment within relevance. A second, and more employability after training, and the first six months. Second, for serious limitation is the absence relevance of training received as those finding jobs, graduates of a control group against which per industry's requirements. rated highly the relevance of performance of graduates can be training provided by NAITA (73 compared. A control group- 5.16. The two outcome percent "very relevant"), and by comprising individuals with measures are summarized in VTA (65 percent), as compared identical characteristics as Table 5.3 for each program. to 40 percent for DTET. At the TEVT trainees but not First, at the time of the survey, other extreme, focusing on "Not participating in training employment rates for graduates relevant at all" responses, programs-is needed to address were 71.8, 66.6 and 28.6 percent NAITA fared best with just 11 the counterfactual question of for NAITA, DTET and VTA, percent negative responses as how trainees would have fared 24. The DTET study (1999/2000) was based on a sample of 2,732 graduates taking DTET courses in 1995 and 1996, and drawn from across the country except for the Northern Province. The NAITA study (2000) was based on a sample of 706 apprentices graduating between 1996 and 1999, drawn from the Western, Central, Southern and North Western Provinces. Similarly, the VTA (2001) study was made up of a sample of 973 trainees in 48 trades drawn from the Central, Uva and Southern Provinces. 101 had they not participated in as revealed in a time-series of training (months)? The training, and to measure the net the Sri Lanka Labor Force availability of training data contribution of training to the Survey (LFS). It addresses the covering a 11-year period outcomes observed. For following questions: who gets between 1992-2002 is unique, example, if 40 percent of the training, what types of training, especially coupled with the rich control group of unemployed are there wide regional information on other individual found jobs within 12 months as differences in training receipt, and household variables, and on compared to 55 percent of does training substitute for labor force status, employment, DTET graduates, then just 15 formal education or does it tend unemployment, job search, percent (55 minus 40 percent), to complement (go together hours and weeks of work, and the observed difference in with) education. It exploits the monthly earnings for wage and employment rates, can be availability of a long time-series salary workers. attributed to the training of LFS to explore how training provided in DTET. The net varies over the work life for 5.21. While invaluable for the impact of training is the relevant different cohorts of individuals, proposed analysis, nonetheless outcome to consider in judging focusing on training-experience the training data have several the efficacy and cost-efficiency profiles rather than training-age limitations. The LFS does not of training (and other labor profiles as is more common in ask when the training was market) interventions to address the extant Sri Lanka literature, received - for some individuals, youth unemployment.25 and on the potentially important it may be recent; for others link between training and (older individuals) it could have 5.2 Overview of TVET unemployment. been many years ago.26 The Trends from Labour Force training question implicitly Surveys The Labor Force Surveys assumes just one training event, while some individuals may 5.18. With this overview of 5.20. The LFS has elicited actually have received multiple TEVT institutions and policies information on training training events.27 Neither does it as background, the focus of the consistently since 1992. identify which training chapter turns next to an analysis Following the questions on institution provided the training, of training trends and their educational attainment, whether or not it was a public or effects on labor market respondents are asked about private provider, nor whether the outcomes, especially as they training: (1) Did he/she have training was taken while pertain to unemployed youth. vocational / technical training? (2) What type of training? (not unemployed or as part of 5.19. This section paints a broad coded in several years), (3) Was employer-provided or financed brush overview of trends in training formal (providing a in-service training. This data set post-school vocational and diploma or certificate) or thus precludes an assessment of technical training (henceforth informal (not certificated)? and the quality of public sector referred to simply as "training") (4) What was the duration of versus private sector training, as 25. A good review of rigorous evaluations of active labor market programs, including training, in industrialized and developing countries may be found in Betcherman, Olivas and Dar (2004), "Impacts of Active Labor Market Programs: New Evidence from Evaluations with Particular Attention to Developing and Transition Countries". 26. This is important since training is an investment, and the payoffs to training may occur with a lag and diminish over time. Thus, for recent trainees, the outcomes from training may not be manifested yet, while the depreciation of training taken a long time ago may yield few measurable labor market benefits. 27. For example, see Lillard and Tan (1991), who find multiple training events common in their study of private sector training in the U.S. using longitudinal surveys of youth, adults and women. Data from a Sri Lanka sample of TEVT trainees in 2001/2002 in the Colombo area also revealed that a quarter of them had received some form of training prior to enrolling in the current public TEVT program. 102 Figure 5.3 Proportion of Working Age Population technical and vocational with Technical and Vocational Training: 1992-2002 training, an increased derived demand for skills from .14 Youth 15-29 employers, or some combination Any training Training All ages of the two factors. .12 Who Gets Training? Snapshots Adults 30-65 Proportion .1 Formal training from 1992, 1997 and 2002 LFS 5.24. Table 5.4 provides a .08 profile of who gets training using three years of LFS data, at .06 the beginning, middle and end 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 of the 1992-2002 period. The year trn_all trn-y top panels of the table report the trn-a ftrn_all incidence of any training and ftrn-y ftrn-a formal training by level of Source: World Bank estimates, based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Labor educational attainment and Force Surveys 1992-2002. might be done by comparing the stagnation and marked decline gender. Several points are returns to training from these in 2001 with negative economic immediately apparent. First, two sources, or an evaluation of growth, and recovery in training educational attainment and the potentially important incidence by 2002. training are complements-the productivity and wage impacts incidence of training generally of employer-sponsored in- 5.23. Second, training received rises with education, from 0-2 service training reported by a is increasingly more formal over percent for those without growing body of studies.28 time. The proportion of the schooling, to 20-40 percent for working-age population those with a university degree. 5.22. What do the LFS time- receiving any training rises from Second, females are less likely series data say about training 11 to 13 percent over this 1992- to get training as compared to trends? Figure 5.3 shows the 2002 period; the proportion males at all levels of education, weighted proportions of the getting formal (i.e., certificated) a point raised in the previous working age population that training rises even more section. The gender gap in reported having received dramatically from 7 to 10 training is least pronounced at vocational or technical training, percent. Finally, in each year a higher levels of education separately for any training in the higher proportion of youth aged beginning with GCE O-levels. top panel and for formal 15-29 years reported training Third, there is a rising trend (certificated) training in the than did adults aged 30-65 between 1992 and 2002 in the bottom panel, and within each years, and over time, these age- incidence of training among category of training by age related differences in training GCE A/L qualified individuals group - youth aged 15-29 years, widened. Recent entrants into and graduates, for both males and adults aged 30-65 years. the labor market are more likely and females. Fourth, among the First, what is readily apparent to get training as compared to trained, the less educated from these data is the secularly entrants from years past, which receive training that is primarily rising trend in training incidence may either reflect an increased informal (non-certificated) between 1992 and 1999, a supply of training seats for while the more educated tend to 28. See, for example, Tan and Batra (1997), Tan (2002). Such an analysis is possible using the forthcoming Sri Lanka Investment Climate Survey which elicited information on in-service training. 103 Table 5.4 Overview of Training in Sri Lanka - 1992, 1997, 2002 Percent Getting Training by Type of Training, Education, Sex and Province Education / Province Males Females 1992 1997 2002 1992 1997 2002 Education Completed Percent Getting Any Training No schooling 2.6 3.7 2.4 1.2 0.7 0.7 Primary 8.0 6.2 5.5 2.0 1.2 1.5 Lower secondary 11.5 10.5 9.9 3.5 2.7 2.3 Upper secondary 15.9 14.8 15.8 8.7 6.8 6.8 GCE O level 21.0 22.7 21.2 15.9 16.3 13.6 GCE A level 29.0 34.0 37.3 27.8 29.3 32.6 Graduate 29.9 33.0 39.6 21.9 24.1 31.4 Post-graduate 57.5 53.3 46.9 41.8 48.9 46.7 Education Completed Percent Training That is Formal No schooling 4.2 29.4 27.5 12.2 23.9 13.4 Primary 23.7 26.9 24.6 43.7 45.4 33.6 Lower secondary 35.7 37.2 46.8 47.1 54.3 38.8 Upper secondary 52.0 62.8 68.7 72.6 67.7 72.2 GCE O level 78.6 83.7 84.6 84.4 81.1 87.4 GCE A level 88.6 91.5 92.2 94.2 93.4 94.7 Graduate 97.9 94.8 96.3 95.6 100.0 93.1 Post-graduate 97.9 100.0 100.0 100.0 98.1 100.0 Province Percent Getting Any Training Western 17.9 19.7 22.1 9.1 12.1 14.1 Central 12.5 14.3 12.4 7.5 8.3 6.8 Southern 15.4 14.5 14.1 10.8 7.8 8.6 North-West 13.4 11.8 12.6 7.3 5.8 6.2 North-Central 9.2 11.3 13.6 4.2 4.5 7.4 Uva 12.3 10.6 13.2 7.3 6.9 9.1 Sabaragamuwa 13.7 12.8 13.6 8.6 7.9 9.7 Sources: World Bank estimates. Calculated from the Labor Force Surveys 1992, 1997 and 2002. Figures are for the population aged 15 to 65 years, weighted using Department of Census and Statistics sampling weights. Training incidence in the North-Eastern Province is unavailable as the LFS could not cover the area. get formal training. Finally, in 1992, and in the Southern 1992. This finding appears to be echoing Figure 5.3, it appears Province at 15 percent, and consistent with the point made that the trend over time is lowest in the North-Central in Chapter Two about the towards formal training, Province at 9 percent and in Uva Central Government's especially for males starting Province at 12 percent. By progressive financing of with lower secondary education 2002, the Western Province education and training, targeting and above, but not for females at continued to enjoy the highest resources disproportionately all levels of education. incidence of training. This towards provinces with lower training gap between high and per capita income. 5.25. The bottom panel of Table low training provinces reduced 5.4 reports the regional for men but widened for women Who Enrolls in Public Sector incidence of vocational and between 1992-2002. Also TVET and When? A Case Study technical training. Among noteworthy is the rise in training of Colombo Trainees provinces, the incidence of any incidence in the North-Central 5.26. The LFS does not training is highest in the Western Province, the province with the distinguish training by public or Province, at 18 percent for males lowest training incidence in private sector providers. This 104 raises the following questions: O/A-level examinations, stream seeking A-level Who are public TVET studied in (science, arts or qualifications when A- institutions serving? Are youth commerce), year of school level failures are included. proceeding directly to TVET completion, prior training if any The implication is that after schooling completion, or is and whether provided by public repeated exam taking to it more typical for youth to first or non-state providers, and qualify for admission to test the labor market, that is, current course of study. university is delaying engage in job search or labor market entry for employment, before enrolling in 5.28. Tabulations of enrollment many youth. TVET? To gain insights into the records suggest the following · Over a quarter (28 attributes of the youth highlights about the attributes of percent) of the sample population undertaking trainees in Colombo-based have had some form of technical and vocational training TVET institutions: training prior to current in public TVET institutions, the · The majority (96 percent) enrollment in the public application forms of a sample of of trainees are youth less TVET institution.31 Also 846 trainees enrolled in the than 30 years old, and significant, given the Colombo-area TVET institutes they are predominantly policy focus on public were computerized and analyzed male (80 percent). TEVT, is that 55 percent as a case study.29 · Their educational of those with prior 5.27. The sample of 846 qualifications have the training got their training trainees was drawn from three following distribution - 21 from private sector TVET institutions - the percent with grade 10 or providers, 36 percent from Technical College at Maradana less, 45 percent with GCE public institutions, and 9 (235), NAITA Regional Office O-level, 14 percent that percent from unknown in Colombo (500), and VTA failed A-levels, and the sources. District Office in Colombo (111) remaining 20 percent with · Most enrollments (58 - and together they covered a GCE A-level percent) occur within the broad range of training - 52 qualifications. Among the first 1-4 years after programs in total, 14 from A-level qualified, trainees schooling completion, 18 DTET, 28 from NAITA, and 10 coming from Commerce percent after 5-6 years, 19 from VTA. The programs from and Arts streams were percent after 7-9 years, DTET and VTA represent most common (9 and 8 and just 5 percent after 10 institution-based training while percent, respectively) and or more years in the labor those from NAITA focus on then Sciences (2 percent). market. enterprise-based apprenticeship · The number of repeat Training Over the Work Life programs.30 Consistent GCE exam takers (up to 3 information was collected on tries) is high - 7 percent 5.29. What do training profiles gender, age, district of origin, among the O-level look like as individuals educational attainment, number qualified, and a very high complete formal schooling and of attempts at national GCE 44 percent among those acquire work experience in the 29. None of the training institutions had computerized individual records for their trainees; when they were computerized, it was only in the form of aggregated totals. 30. Within the 52 training programs selected for study, information on all student enrollments is included to preclude any potential selection biases (whether by age, sex, education, or work experience) in the choice of the trainee sample. 31. This further reinforces the point that the LFS is too restrictive in eliciting information on just one episode of training, when multiple training events-even among youth-are relatively common. 105 Table 5.5. Percent Getting Training by Age Group and Education - 1992, 1997, 2002 Education level Youth Age 15-29 Adults Age 30-65 1992 1997 2002 1992 1997 2002 Education Completed Percent Getting Any Training No schooling 1.2 3.5 1.4 1.7 1.1 1.2 Primary 5.1 4.2 4.0 5.1 3.7 3.4 Lower secondary 6.8 5.9 5.7 8.2 7.3 6.6 Upper secondary 11.7 10.5 10.7 13.6 11.1 11.8 GCE O level 16.8 17.1 15.1 20.0 21.3 19.1 GCE A level 24.9 30.0 35.8 33.1 32.9 33.4 Graduate 27.4 24.0 28.7 26.0 30.4 37.5 Post-graduate 41.6 40.4 53.9 54.6 52.4 46.2 Sources: World Bank estimates. Calculated from the Labor Force Surveys 1992, 1997 and 2002. Figures are for the population aged 15 to 65 years, weighted using Department of Census and Statistics sampling weights. labor market? The sample of level of education, a roughly education groups. This exercise, public TEVT trainees suggests equal or higher proportion of however, is potentially that this profile is steeply rising adults report having training as misleading if cohort effects are initially and then flattening out compared to similarly educated important. Essentially, these are with age. Table 5.5 reports youth among GCE A/L qualified effects associated with when training data from the LFS by individuals and graduates. This individuals entered the labor educational attainment is consistent with the market. For example, youth separately for two broad age probabilistic interpretation that today face different training groups-youth aged 15-29 years, people tend to acquire training opportunities as compared to and adults aged 30 years and as they become older (though at similarly educated youth above-for insights into these a slower pace), and that (today's adults) who entered the training-age profiles. educated individuals are more labor market decades earlier likely to get training as they age, when post-school training 5.30. Two points stand out. compared to the less educated.32 infrastructure was less First, among youth, there is an However, this pattern does not developed. The two increase in the incidence of appear among postgraduate demographic groups would also training for those with GCE A- educated individuals. have been exposed to different levels and above, but not for sets of macroeconomic those with GCE O-levels and 5.31. From this intuition, one conditions and policies that below. For adults aged 30-65 might contemplate using cross- influence both the incentives as years, the only group to show a sectional information on well as the opportunities to get rising trend in training are individuals varying in age or training. Training-experience university graduates. Similar years of potential work profiles estimated from cross- age-related differences in experience (defined as age sectional surveys potentially training - but across all minus age at schooling confound the life-cycle profiles education groups - were shown completion) to estimate training of interest with year-of-entry in Figure 5.3. Second, at each experience profiles for different cohort effects.33 32. These training-age profiles can also be given a human capital interpretation. With a finite work-life, human capital theory would predict that individuals would concentrate their training (and education) investments early in their lives so as to maximize the present value of the future stream of returns to their investments, reducing (the probability of) investments in training later in their work-life as the period to recoup returns shortens. 33. Indeed, given the rising training trend among higher educated youth in the 1990s, training-experience profiles computed from cross-sectional surveys (i.e. from different year entry cohorts) would be downward sloping instead of flat or upward sloping as required in a cumulative function. 106 5.32. An alternative approach is percent for those with 5.33. These grouped cohort data to estimate training-experience primary education, rising can also be used to describe the profiles from pseudo-cohorts to 41 percent for lower relationship between training constructed from the time-series secondary, and then and a number of labor market of LFS spanning the 1992-2002 declining to 30, 20 and 4 outcomes. One outcome of period. The intuition of the percent for grades 9-10, particular policy interest is pseudo-cohort approach is O-levels and A-levels, youth unemployment, straightforward. Consider a before widening again to specifically the issue of whether group of individuals aged 18-19 10 percent for university receipt of technical and years with a GCE O-level graduates. vocational training facilitates education in the 1992 LFS; on · Training-experience youth transition from school to average, they might be expected profiles vary dramatically work, and from unemployment to have 2 years of potential work by level of educational to productive work. Just as experience. In the 1994 LFS, attainment.35 For those pseudo-cohorts can be tracked this cohort would be age 20-21 with primary education, over time to look at training- with 4 years of potential there are no discernible experience profiles, so too can experience, age 22-23 years in effects of increased time their unemployment the 1996 LFS with 6 years of in the labor market on the probabilities with years of potential experience, and so on.34 probability of getting potential work experience be By grouping individuals and training, that is, training- analyzed, free of the tracking similar groups of experience profiles are confounding year-of-entry individuals over time using the flat. For lower secondary, cohort effects. time-series LFS, data on these training profiles rise (but pseudo-cohorts can be used to 5.34. Table 5.6 reports the at a diminishing rate) with estimate the probability of regression estimates for the years of potential training with potential work probability of being unemployed experience, becoming experience, controlling for last week, and its relationship to increasingly steeper at gender, level of educational years of potential work higher levels of attainment, and year-of-entry experience, separately for those education-about 13-15 cohort effects. The regression with and without training. In percent greater probability estimates suggest the following addition to experience, the of training per year of main findings: regression model included potential work experience control variables for gender, · On average, males have a for grades 9-10, GCE O level of education, and different higher probability of and A levels, and 10 year-of-entry cohorts. Several getting training over their percent for university findings emerge: work life as compared to graduates. similarly educated · Males are significantly females. This greater Probability of less likely to experience a likelihood varies by level Unemployment, Potential spell of unemployment of educational attainment- last week as compared to Experience and Training a gender gap of about 17 females with similar 34. In essence, this pseudo-cohort approach involves collapsing the 1992-2002 LFS survey data into cells cross-classified by year, sex, level of educational attainment, 2-year age intervals, and training receipt, with information on the weighted count of individuals in each cell. 35. This finding is based on training probability models estimated on the grouped data separately by level of education. The regression results are not reported here but are available from the World Bank. 107 Table 5.6 Training and Probability of Unemployment Last Week Using Pseudo-Cohort Data LFS 1992-2002 Dependent variable: Training Status Unemployed last week (1,0) With training No training Coef. t-stat Coef. t-stat Male -0.4415 -17.22 -0.3728 -27.17 Level of education Primary 0.1124 0.16 -0.1113 -1.73 Lower secondary -0.2166 -0.32 0.0760 1.20 Upper secondary -0.1498 -0.22 0.3526 5.68 GCE O-Level -0.0904 -0.13 0.4440 7.09 GCE A-Level -0.1443 -0.21 0.4665 7.28 Degree -0.1434 -0.21 0.2852 3.11 Post-graduate 0.0979 0.10 0.8098 1.41 Potential experience (pexp) -0.1935 -12.06 -0.1489 -21.31 Pexp-2 0.0050 4.75 0.0019 4.45 Pexp-3 -0.00004 -2.15 0.000003 0.40 Year of entry cohort 1950s -0.6845 -1.19 0.0532 0.33 1960s -0.9704 -1.51 -0.1919 -1.03 1970s -1.1874 -1.79 -0.4279 -2.17 1980s -1.5056 -2.28 -0.7637 -3.86 1990-94 -1.7345 -2.63 -0.9784 -4.92 1995-99 -1.7564 -2.64 -1.1836 -5.91 2000-02 -1.8134 -2.66 -1.3189 -6.25 Constant 2.6137 2.73 1.0518 5.04 Number of observations 1081 2009 Adjusted R-squared 0.5963 0.8007 Source: World Bank estimates. Calculated from the Labor Force Surveys 1992, 1997 and 2002. Figures are for the population aged 15 to 65 years, weighted using Department of Census and Statistics sampling weights. educational, experience between training and declines (at a decreasing and year-of-entry cohort education (one rate) with years of attributes. This gender determinant of training), potential experience. gap in unemployment an issue analyzed in Especially significant is probability is 44 percent greater depth in the next the markedly steeper for the group with section. In contrast, for unemployment - training, and about 37 the group without experience profile of the percent for those without training, level of group with training - each training. education matters and the additional year of · For the group with probability of potential experience training, the level of unemployment rises with reduces their probability educational attainment is education level to a peak of an unemployment spell not significantly related to for those with GCE by over 19 percent as unemployment, a A-levels. compared to just under 15 surprising finding but one · The probability of percent for the group that may be attributed to experiencing an without training. the strong association unemployment spell · This steeper decline in 108 u n e m p l o y m e n t - in the LFS to gain insight into they may affect training experience profiles for the the important individual, decisions too either group with training as household and aggregate factors through sociological compared to the non- that shape decisions of influences (taste for training group continues individuals to invest in post- education), or through to hold within education school training, and their labor income effects associated groups. This comparison market outcomes. with higher educational is confirmed by regression attainment; models estimated 5.36. The individual decision to e. location - provinces differ separately by level of invest in training is modeled in their levels of per capita education (not reported within a human capital incomes and employment here but available from framework and is thought to opportunities, and these the author). depend on several factors: factors can shape · Year-of-entry cohort a. level of schooling individual training effects are negative and attainment - training and decisions; increasingly more education are either f. access to training - negative for recent entry substitutes for each other training may also depend cohorts, which is (because training on the supply of TVET consistent with the compensates for opportunities, and this interpretation that 1990s inadequate quantity or varies across provinces entry cohorts experienced quality of schooling), or and over time; a proxy for a more favorable set of are complements (the training supply is the macroeconomic factors more educated train more number of public TVET and policies than their because they are also enrollments per 1,000 of peers in the entry cohorts more efficient learners the provincial youth of the 1960s and 1970s. and gain more than the population.36 less educated from 5.3 Determinants of investing in training); 5.37. Table 5.7 reports the results of estimating the Training b. age - individuals are more likely to invest early in probability of training - any 5.35. With this broad overview training, rather than later training, and formal of training trends and the in the life-cycle, so that (certificated) training - on this training-unemployment nexus the returns to training can set of individual, household, as background, this section turns be realized over a longer location and training supply first to a microeconomic period of time; variables. Probit models are analysis of the determinants of estimated separately for the c. marital status - familial training, with subsequent sample of males (about 190,000) responsibilities reflected sections focusing on the labor and females (197,000). The in an individual's marital market outcomes of training. regression results are not status may influence The analysis - based on pooled surprising, and are broadly training decisions; cross-section time-series LFS consistent with the tabular data - does not account for d. household factors - just as information presented earlier in cohort effects, but makes up for parental education affects Section 5.1 of this chapter. it by exploiting rich information schooling of children, 36. Training seats by province and year are calculated from TEVT enrollments in Table 5.1 and from counts of youth aged 15- 29 years by province computed from the time-series of LFS surveys. 109 Table 5.7 Probability of any Training and Formal Training: 1992-2002 Dependent variable: Males Females Training Any training Formal training Any training Formal training Coef. z-stat Coef. z-stat Coef. z-stat Coef. z-stat Marital status -0.0364 -3.8 -0.0810 -7.1 -0.1019 -10.9 -0.1331 -12.4 Education level Primary 0.3664 10.7 0.3019 5.5 0.1825 4.8 0.5813 7.1 Lower secondary 0.6921 20.6 0.7598 14.2 0.5000 13.7 0.9364 11.7 Upper secondary 0.8990 27.0 1.1264 21.3 0.9527 27.2 1.5026 19.2 GCE O-Level 1.0903 32.6 1.4598 27.5 1.3191 37.7 1.9384 24.7 GCE A-Level 1.3315 38.6 1.7597 32.8 1.7365 48.5 2.4000 30.5 Degree 1.3265 31.4 1.8274 31.0 1.6091 35.9 2.3059 27.7 Post-graduate 1.8490 31.4 2.3629 32.9 2.0228 29.4 2.7207 27.7 Age 0.0909 46.5 0.0865 37.5 0.0703 30.2 0.0678 26.2 Age-squared -0.0011 -46.6 -0.0011 -37.3 -0.0009 -28.9 -0.0008 -24.4 Province Central -0.1328 -8.1 -0.0812 -4.3 -0.0358 -1.9 0.0298 1.4 South -0.0231 -1.6 -0.0615 -3.6 0.0180 1.1 -0.0030 -0.2 North-West -0.1703 -11.9 -0.1786 -10.7 -0.1816 -10.3 -0.1419 -7.4 North-Central -0.2499 -11.9 -0.2946 -11.8 -0.2096 -8.1 -0.1794 -6.3 Uva -0.1116 -7.0 -0.0737 -4.0 0.0970 5.3 0.1110 5.4 Sabaragamuwa -0.0832 -6.4 -0.0640 -4.3 0.0235 1.5 0.0574 3.4 Training seats [1] -0.0175 -5.5 -0.0157 -4.3 -0.0148 -3.9 -0.0143 -3.5 Household [2] Father's schooling 0.0185 8.8 0.0199 8.5 0.0112 4.4 0.0128 4.7 Mother's schooling 0.0281 10.1 0.0300 9.4 0.0110 3.3 0.0139 3.8 Year (linear) 0.0060 2.7 0.0133 5.2 -0.0038 -1.4 -0.0011 -0.4 Constant -15.1954 -3.5 -30.3148 -6.0 4.6327 0.9 -1.3909 -0.2 Number of observations 190,148 190,148 197,541 197,541 Pseudo R-square 0.0737 0.1284 0.1548 0.1905 Notes: [1] Training supply proxy = total number of TVET graduates by province divided by total youth population (x1000) aged 15-29 years. [2] Household variables: dummy variables included for missing father's and mother's years of schooling. Source: World Bank estimates. Calculated from the Labor Force Surveys 1992, 1997 and 2002. Figures are for the population aged 15 to 65 years, weighted using Department of Census and Statistics sampling weights. 5.38. First, the probability of education. Second, the "training seats" are available in any training, and especially of probability of getting training in the province. One possible formal training, is strongly the Western Province (the explanation is that this result correlated with level of omitted category) is higher than may simply reflect the central schooling attainment. Together in all other provinces, with the government's targeting of TEVT with the effects of age, this North-Central Province having resources at provinces with low education - training the lowest probability of training training incidence. Fourth, complementarity would explain once all other control variables parental schooling positively why training-profiles tend to be are included. Third, the effects influences children's training more steeply inclined upwards of training supply are negative, decisions; interestingly, for the more educated which suggests counter- compared to father's education, individuals and relatively flat for intuitively that the probability of mother's education is more those with little formal training is lower the more strongly associated with training 110 Table 5.8 Probability of Unemployment Last Week and Usually Unemployed Last Year, 1992-2002 Dependent variable : Unemployed Last Week Usually Unemployed Past Year Prob(Unemployment) Coef. z Coef. z Coef. Z Coef. Z 1992 2002 1992 2002 Male -0.366 -33.0 -0.365 -32.9 -0.379 -34.1 -0.378 -34.0 Education level Primary 0.137 2.5 0.138 2.6 0.036 0.8 0.038 0.9 Lower secondary 0.246 4.6 0.253 4.8 0.038 0.9 0.043 1.0 Upper secondary 0.328 6.2 0.346 6.6 0.105 2.5 0.118 2.8 GCE O-Level 0.463 8.7 0.495 9.4 0.187 4.3 0.213 4.9 GCE A-Level 0.470 8.8 0.518 9.7 0.208 4.7 0.250 5.7 Degree 0.186 2.9 0.223 3.5 -0.124 -2.1 -0.084 -1.5 Post-graduate -0.453 -3.3 -0.396 -2.9 -0.844 -5.8 -0.785 -5.4 Potential experience -0.116 -33.9 -0.113 -33.3 -0.136 -39.8 -0.134 -39.3 Potexp-squared 0.003 13.7 0.002 13.2 0.003 19.3 0.003 18.8 Potexp-cubed 0.000 -7.2 0.000 -6.8 0.000 -11.7 0.000 -11.3 Formal training 0.146 10.0 0.091 6.0 Informal training -0.012 -0.4 -0.060 -2.2 For. training duration 0.007 0.9 -0.020 -2.2 Infor. training duration -0.040 -1.8 -0.061 -2.8 Urban -0.024 -1.4 -0.024 -1.5 -0.021 -1.2 -0.020 -1.2 Province Central 0.161 9.0 0.159 8.9 0.115 6.4 0.114 6.3 Southern 0.293 16.6 0.287 16.2 0.273 15.3 0.268 15.0 North-West -0.034 -1.6 -0.042 -2.0 -0.004 -0.2 -0.010 -0.5 North-Central -0.112 -4.4 -0.120 -4.7 0.043 1.8 0.035 1.5 Uva -0.108 -3.9 -0.109 -4.0 -0.116 -4.2 -0.117 -4.3 Sabaragamuwa 0.156 7.3 0.152 7.2 0.126 5.9 0.123 5.7 Share of public jobs 0.990 5.6 0.997 5.6 0.780 4.4 0.785 4.5 Constant -0.011 -0.2 -0.012 -0.2 0.406 6.9 0.401 6.8 Sample size 151,763 151,763 145,110 145,110 Pseudo R-squared 0.2623 0.2613 0.257 0.256 Source: World Bank estimates. Calculated from the Labor Force Surveys 1992, 1997 and 2002. Note: Model estimated by probit regressions, including dummy variables for LFS years. of sons, but neutral with respect 5.4 Training and Labor policymakers are keenly to the training of daughters.37 Market Outcomes interested in the effects of Finally, consistent with the training on (i) the probability of 5.39. What are the labor market trends noted earlier, there is a experiencing an unemployment outcomes of these investments secularly rising trend over time spell last week; (ii) length of in post-school training? Chief in the training of males, time spent in job search, or the among the labor market especially formal training, but school-to-work transition; and outcomes of policy interest are no apparent time trend in (iii) monthly earnings, and how unemployment, job search and training for females. the returns to training compare earnings. Specifically, to those for formal schooling. 37. To see this, note that the marginal impact of mother's education on training of males (sons) is 0.028 while that of father's education is 0.018; for females (daughters) , the corresponding marginal impact is 0.011, identical for mother's and father's education. For some individuals-renters, relatives, households without parents-education of parents is not known, and missing value indicators are included to take this into account. 111 Also of interest in each of these attainment, a flexible (cubic) unemployment decline (at a areas is whether the labor measure of years of potential decreasing rate) with years of market effects of training vary work experience since schooling potential work experience, by type of training-formal or completion, receipt of training which might be expected if informal-and duration of measured either by formal and longer search time yields better training. informal training indicator information about job variables or by training duration, opportunities and an exit from Impact of Training on location in an urban area and by unemployment. Fourth, urban Probability of Unemployment province, and year dummy location is not statistically 5.40. The analysis of the variables to capture secular important but there are large probability of unemployment trends in unemployment levels. differences across provinces. uses two alternative measures of In addition, the model includes a Compared to the Western unemployment defined by the variable representing the Province, unemployment LFS. The first one-termed proportion of all jobs that are in probabilities are higher in the "unemployed"-is based on the public sector, which varies Central, Sabaragamuwa and whether individuals are both across provinces and over Southern provinces, and lower available and/or actively looking time.38 This measure allows us to in the North-Central, North- for work, and who did no work address the hypothesis that Western and Uva Provinces. during the past week. The unemployment rates are high Finally, there is a strong positive second measure-termed "usually because individuals queue up for association between unemployed"-refers to a person public sector employment which unemployment probabilities and who was looking or available for pays not only higher wages but the share of public sector jobs in work for the major part of the also better benefits. The the province. It is unclear, past year. An enumeration of regression results are reported in however, which way the work and availability for Table 5.8 above, separately for causality runs. work/job search for each of the each of the two measures of past 12 months is used to unemployment. 5.43. The effects of post-school classify individuals as usually training on unemployment employed, usually unemployed 5.42. The results are broadly probabilities are mixed. When or usually not economically similar irrespective of whether (0,1) indicator variables for active. The second measure-by the reference period is last week training are included, the effects averaging over a 12 month or last year. First, males are of formal training on period-may provide a more significantly less likely (by unemployment are invariably robust characterization of work about 37 percent) to experience positive and statistically status as compared to the unemployment as compared to significant, while those for conventional unemployment females. Second, compared to informal training are negative, measure, which is a snapshot in those without schooling (the though significant only in the time. omitted group), the probability "usually unemployed" of unemployment appears to rise regressions. When training is 5.41. A probit model is used to with level of schooling measured using duration of relate unemployment attainment, peaking at GCE A- training, which distinguishes probability to a set of individual levels, and falling for degree between incidental and and location attributes, graduates and post-graduates. substantive kinds of training, including level of educational Third, probabilities of both formal and informal 38. The LFS identifies jobs as being public or private sector. The share of public sector jobs can thus be computed by dividing public sector jobs by job totals, separately by province and year. 112 training are negative and almost 95 percent for university been on their current job, so the statistically significant in the graduates. While these figures start date of that job can be "usually unemployed" highlight the seriousness of this ascertained.40 For the regressions. These mixed results issue, they can be misleading: unemployed, the LFS asked may arise because the model they mix more and less educated whether they have ever had a job constrains the unemployment- youth with different years of and, if so, how long it had been experience profiles to be the potential work experience and since the previous job.41 If the same for everyone, so that thus time spent in job search, prior job is assumed to be of training can only affect overall and they ignore the fact that similar duration as those held by levels of unemployment but not other youth are employed, and their currently employed peers unemployment experience may have found employment (about 2 years), then this profiles. This is clearly not the soon after schooling completion. information and the intervening case, as was suggested by the unemployment spell can be used earlier analysis using pseudo- 5.45. In this section, to determine the start date of the cohort data. There, Table 5.6 information from different previous job. For those who showed that training is questions in the LFS are have never had a job, the associated with steeper assembled, and the pooled LFS duration of search for a first job unemployment-experience data from 1996-2002 reshaped, is still ongoing (or censored). profiles, implying that to provide more balanced Finally, an adjustment is made to unemployment probabilities fall insights into the school-to-work search time for those with more rapidly with potential transitions of youth with technical and vocational experience for individuals with different levels of schooling training-time spent in training is training than for those without attainment, and to address the subtracted to reflect their training. question of whether technical withdrawal from active job and vocational training search while undergoing Impact of Training on School to facilitates this transition. The training. Work Transition LFS, in its current form, is not 5.44. A second area of policy well designed to study school to 5.46. These calculation were concern is the long time many work transitions. So the done for a sample of 39,000 youth spend in job search challenge here is to determine individuals from the 1996- between leaving school and the date of first recorded 2002 LFS, restricted to those finding employment. For employment39 for each with some schooling up to example, according to the 2002 individual with a given level of university graduates, and with LFS, almost 85 percent of youth education, from which the time 0-10 years of potential work aged 15-29 years that are taken from schooling experience so as to keep the currently unemployed report not completion to first employment focus on youth. Figure 5.4 ever having a job. This figure can be calculated. Beginning in presents graphically the rises from about 75 percent for 1996, the LFS asked the resulting distributions of time- lower secondary passes to employed how long they have to-employment for different 39. We caution that the first "recorded" employment is not necessarily the first job; some individuals may have had several jobs prior to the recorded job, so time-to-first "recorded" job may overstate duration of job search. But it is the only employment spell for which information is available. It may be desirable to revise the LFS to elicit explicitly year of labor market entry and year of first job. 40. The 1996 LFS also started eliciting detailed information on years of schooling from which more precise schooling completion dates can be calculated. 41. The intervening unemployment spell is reported in several intervals, ranging from several months to an open ended 5 or more years. Some assumptions are needed to impute duration (in years) of unemployment to these categories. 113 Figure 5.4 Time-To-First-Job by Level of Schooling school technical and vocational training. The joint effects of Primary LowerSec UpperSec schooling attainment and these 20 other factors on time-to- 15 employment can be studied 10 within a regression framework Job 5 that accounts explicitly for the First 0 fact that one part of the sample GCE O/L GCE A/L Degree 20 is still actively searching for the Finding 15 first job, that is, with incomplete (censored) time-to- Percent 10 employment.44 Table 5.9 reports 5 the results of estimating this 0 regression model for the sample 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 Years to First Job of youth as a whole, and Graph by Edlvl separately by training status, so levels of schooling.42 Several tapering off with time in the as to investigate how receipt of points emerge from this figure. labor market. Finally, the technical and vocational training First, those with the lowest school-to-work transition of affects school-to-work levels of schooling attainment- degree graduates appears to transitions. primary and lower secondary resemble more that of youth 5.48. Table 5.9 makes the passes-are more likely to face with lower secondary schooling following points. Compared to protracted job search before than that of the GCE A-level youth with primary schooling, securing their first employment. qualified. The distribution of more educated groups find Their distributions of time-to- time-to-employment is bi-modal employment after school first-employment are - some find a job within the first completion much faster though, concentrated around 4-7 years year, while many others appear as suggested by Figure 5.4, after schooling completion. to take longer, about 3-5 years degree graduates are more like Second, most of those with after graduation from those with lower secondary than upper secondary schooling and university.43 (say) those with GCE O or A- with GCE O-level or A-level qualifications find their first job 5.47. These figures do not level qualifications. Gender differences are important, and fairly soon after schooling control for other factors that males find employment faster completion. Their distributions may also shape school-to-work than females; a contributing of time-to-first-job are transitions, such as gender, factor to this gender gap may be concentrated around 0-4 years, household characteristics, location and receipt of post- marital status, since marriage is 42. Note that these graphs understate time-to-first-job because they include ongoing (censored) job search for the sample of unemployed youth that have still not found employment at the time of LFS enumeration. 43. These distributions of time-to-employment appear to tell a consistent story about how low levels of schooling attainment disadvantage youth in their job search while higher level school qualifications facilitate the school-to-work transition. But the job search of degree graduates stands apart - many experience fairly long job search before finding employment. Are the durations of job search reasonable? The mean time-to-employment is fairly long, and may suggest that individuals are not reporting prior employment accurately, for example, ignoring casual work and reporting only formal jobs; another contributing factor is the assumption that the first "recorded" employment is also the first job, which would tend to overstate time-to-first job. 44. Survival models are ideally suited for studying the determinants of time to a failure event, in this case time taken to find a job after schooling completion, and accommodating censored spells of job search. Such models may be fit using alternative distributional assumptions about the underlying process, but the one used here is the lognormal distribution. 114 Table 5.9 School to Work Transitions with and without Training Dependent variable: All Youth Without Training With Training Time-to-Employment Coefficient z-stat Coefficient z-stat Coefficient z-stat Lower secondary -0.329 -15.6 -0.340 -15.8 -0.166 -1.7 Upper secondary -0.471 -24.2 -0.492 -24.7 -0.294 -3.1 GCE O-Level -0.434 -21.0 -0.448 -20.9 -0.284 -3.0 GCE A-Level -0.454 -20.8 -0.445 -19.4 -0.350 -3.6 Degree -0.340 -10.8 -0.276 -8.1 -0.459 -4.2 Formal training -0.069 -6.0 Informal training -0.106 -5.2 Male -0.070 -8.1 -0.069 -7.3 -0.077 -4.0 Married 0.113 9.6 0.136 10.4 0.028 1.0 Urban 0.030 2.9 0.049 4.1 -0.040 -1.8 Province Central 0.027 2.1 0.017 1.2 0.059 2.1 South 0.177 13.1 0.169 11.1 0.190 6.5 North-West -0.029 -2.0 -0.032 -2.1 -0.036 -1.0 North-Central -0.072 -4.4 -0.098 -5.5 0.026 0.7 Uva -0.048 -2.9 -0.086 -4.6 0.111 3.0 Sabaragamuwa 0.114 7.9 0.099 6.1 0.161 5.1 Constant 1.964 54.0 1.979 50.2 1.771 14.7 Sample size 33,206 26,274 6,932 Number finding jobs 24,605 19,678 4,927 Source: World Bank estimates. Based on the Department of Census and Statistics, Labor Force Survey. Notes : The regressions are estimated by maximum likelihood using a parametric survival-time model fit with a lognormal distribution. About one-quarter of the sample were censored. The regression model included control variables for parental education and for LFS years. associated with delayed time-to- search time, with informal contrast, in the group with employment. Location also training appearing to have a training the contribution rises matters: job search is longer in larger impact (-0.10) than formal linearly with level of education urban areas, and relative to the or certificated training (-0.07). to a peak at degree level. In Western Province, also longer in The second and third columns, other words, education and the Central, South and reporting results estimated training interact positively to Sabaragamuwa Provinces. separately by training status, reduce time spent in job search. Finally, year dummy variables make the additional point that (not reported here) indicate that while having more education Impact of Training on Monthly overall length of job search has reduces time to employment for Wages declined over time in parallel both groups, the impact of 5.50. The final outcome with falling unemployment education is more pronounced considered is the impact of rates. for the group with training. To technical and vocational training see this, compare the relative on monthly wages and salaries. 5.49. What about the effects of contributions of different levels The LFS only elicits income training? The first column of of education to shortening time- information for the sample of Table 5.9 indicates that formal to-employment - in the group individuals in wage and salary and informal training are both without training, this peaks with employment, so this analysis is associated with shorter job the upper secondary group; in restricted to the sample of about 115 29,000 employees in the pooled 5.52. Table 5.10 reports the while the more educated 1992-2002 LFS time-series.45 results of wage regressions tend to favor formal Monthly wages are deflated by including control variables for training. the consumer price index into gender, a quadratic measure of · However, the rewards to 2002 real wages, and expressed years of potential work formal and informal in logarithmic terms as is experience, principal industry of training varies common in the earnings employment, public sector job dramatically across function literature.46 (in some specifications), urban sectors. In public sector location, province, and year 5.51. The wage analysis employment, formal dummy variables to capture time addresses several questions: training is highly valued trends in overall real wage What are the returns to technical (returns of 7.6 percent) increases. and vocational training, and how but informal training is do they compare to the returns to The results in Table 5.10 suggest actually penalized (-38 general education? For this the following findings: percent), perhaps because comparison, training duration in it is associated with months is converted into year- · The returns to an menial jobs by those with equivalents like years of additional year of general low levels of education. schooling.47 Are the returns to schooling (9.0 percent) In contrast, the private formal certificated training are higher than a year of sector appears to value similar to or greater than those any technical or formal and informal to informal training? This vocational training (6.6 training equally. question is particularly pertinent percent). One caveat is Comparing returns, given the trend towards more that participation in informal kinds of training formalized forms of training in training programs may actually have the recent years. And finally, how (especially informal edge (7.1 percent) over are the different kinds of training) may not be on a formal training (6.7 training rewarded in the public full-time basis, which percent), though the sector versus the private sector? would tend to under-state differences may not be The private sector may demand the returns to training. statistically significant. (reward more highly) different · Overall, the returns to · Several other findings are kinds of technical and formal certificated noteworthy. First, there vocational skills, including training (7.0 percent) are are wage premiums specific skills, that may not usually higher than those associated with necessarily be certificated, at to informal training (4.4 employment in urban least by public sector providers. percent). This may areas (15 percent) and in To address this latter question, partially reflect the fact the public sector (9 wage regressions are estimated that most informal percent). Second, wage separately for public and private training is taken by those levels are higher in the sector employees. with the lowest levels of Western Province (the schooling attainment, omitted category) than in 45. The wage and salary information used in this analysis is not adjusted for weeks or hours worked, and does not include small payments in kind. 46. Within a human capital model framework, the log (wage) specification allows the coefficient estimates of years of education and training to be interpreted as the rate of return to investments. 47. Unlike general education, which is full-time, some training programs may be taken on a part-time basis, which would tend to overstate the time spent in training and thus under-estimate the returns to training. 116 Table 5.10 Returns to Training For Wage and Salary Employees by Sector Dependent variable: All Sectors Public Sector Private Sector Log(monthly wage) Coef. t-stat Coef. t-stat Coef. t-stat Coef. t-stat Training Years-Any training 0.0664 6.8 n.a. n.a. n.a. Years-Formal training 0.0704 6.7 0.0766 4.7 0.0668 5.0 Years-Informal training 0.0444 1.9 -0.3770 -3.6 0.0707 2.9 Other attributes Years of schooling 0.0904 26.4 0.0901 26.2 0.0832 11.4 0.0923 23.4 Male 0.0993 6.3 0.1000 6.3 0.1983 6.1 0.0610 3.3 Potential Experience 0.1059 9.5 0.1058 9.5 0.1597 5.4 0.1027 8.4 Experience-squared -0.0043 -4.6 -0.0043 -4.6 -0.0075 -3.3 -0.0042 -4.0 Province Central -0.1367 -6.1 -0.1365 -6.1 -0.1264 -2.8 -0.1317 -5.2 South -0.1826 -7.6 -0.1821 -7.6 -0.1125 -2.3 -0.1972 -7.1 North-West -0.0656 -3.0 -0.0652 -2.9 0.0226 0.5 -0.0886 -3.5 North-Central -0.0816 -2.4 -0.0806 -2.4 0.0322 0.6 -0.1378 -3.2 Uva -0.2079 -6.1 -0.2073 -6.0 -0.2006 -3.2 -0.2135 -5.2 Sabaragamuwa -0.2487 -10.1 -0.2482 -10.1 -0.1286 -2.5 -0.2833 -10.1 Urban location 0.1515 8.0 0.1513 8.0 0.0509 1.3 0.1768 8.3 Public sector job 0.0909 3.2 0.0903 3.2 n.a. n.a. Constant 6.3251 110.1 6.3275 110.1 6.1459 41.9 6.3439 98.3 Number observations 29102 29102 6,742 2,360 Adjusted R-square 0.1001 0.1001 0.0755 0.0910 Note: Regression models are estimated by ordinary least squares (OLS) methods. They include dummy variables for principal industry groups, and year dummy variables. The full set of coefficient estimates are available from the author. the rest of the country. and the skills that the labor and evaluation of training Finally, though not market demands, providing institutions and their course reported in the table, there technical and vocational training offerings is nascent, and limited is a secular rise in real as needed to facilitate the school by incomplete and poor data, wages over time between to work transition for youth. As especially about training by 1992 and 1998, with some the preceding analysis showed, private sector training providers slippage in real wage the TEVT sector has not always and employers, and by the gains thereafter. addressed this skills demand- absence of an evaluation culture. supply gap well or in a The sector's limited interactions 5.5 Conclusions and coordinated fashion. But with the general education policymakers have recognized sector also precludes it from Implications for the Future the problem, and have over time having a more active role in 5.53. The general education and proposed numerous initiatives to providing schools and guidance TEVT sectors are intimately rationalize the TEVT sector, counselors with information linked with respect to the labor address regional inequities in about training and labor market market. The TEVT sector training, and better coordinate employment opportunities. intermediates between the skills the TEVT policy framework; that the general educational this reform process is still a 5.54. The preceding analysis sector provides school leavers work-in-progress. Monitoring also highlighted the potential of the Sri Lanka Labor Force 117 Survey to provide policy- · Computerize all student entry and key events relevant insights into training enrollment and program would greatly improve trends, and the links between records for all TEVT analysis of school-to- general education, post-school institutions to facilitate work transitions. training, and labor market tracking and evaluating · Employ a rotating panel outcomes. It showed that the performance of sampling approach in the schooling and training are trainees, for use in tracer LFS so individuals can be complements, namely, that more studies as part of a tracked over 12 months to educated school leavers receive continuous M&E system. study how behavior and more technical and vocational · Enforce the mandatory outcomes change over training. It highlighted the reporting requirements of time. This approach is significant impact of training on all private sector and increasingly being used in reducing the probability of NGO training providers to both industrialized and unemployment, and in give the TVEC and developing countries, and facilitating the school-to-work policymakers a more can readily be transition. And it demonstrated complete view of the total accommodated within the that investments in both TEVT sector. existing LFS sampling education and training yield · Include questions on framework. This would relatively high returns in the employer-provided or facilitate study of school- form of higher earnings. But organized training in the to-work transitions and many issues of policy interest information to be training outcomes. could not be addressed, or enumerated in all Furthermore, the rotating addressed well, with the existing establishment surveys and panel feature will allow LFS, including the relative census conducted by the researchers and benefits of training by public Department of Census and policymakers to create versus private sector providers, Statistics, as many other comparison groups for use the adequacy of in-service skills industrialized and as control groups in the development by employers, or developing country evaluation of training rigorous panel analysis of labor statistical agencies have programs and other labor market behavior around youth done. market interventions. unemployment. · Improve the training · Improve LFS survey & 5.55. 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